BGCSE PROGRAMME

GEOGRAPHY REVISION NOTES

BOOK 2

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Acknowledgements

This revision booklet is a product of many people who worked hard to see it ready for use by
Botswana Open University (BOU) Open Schooling learners. BOU wishes to acknowledge
contributions from the following:

Subject Specialist Programme Developer

Jane Dikinya

Writers

J.N Henguva

A.P. Johannes

U. Tafa

Editor

U. Tomeletso

Graphics Designer

G. Masire

Botswana Open University

Private Bag BO 187

Tel: 3181470/3646000

Gaborone, Botswana

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Introduction
Welcome to the second revision booklet of the BGCSE Geography programme. In this booklet
you will learn about the importance, utilisation and conservation of natural resources of
Botswana. Natural resources are things from the environment that people can use for their own
benefit. Resources need to be conserved for people to benefit from them. These resources include
water, forests, rangelands, veld products, minerals, sunshine and wild animals.
Through this revision booklet you will develop an appreciation for sustainable utilisation and
management of natural resources. The concept of sustainable development came about as a tool
for the wise use of resources globally. Sustainable development is defined as the wise use of
resources by the present generation without jeopardising the changes of the future generations to
use the same resources.

Exam hints
Final Exam questions on the topic “Utilisation and management of resources” mostly appear in
section B of Paper 2 BGCSE Geography. This section has two questions. Candidates are required
to choose one question from this section.

Contents List
Lesson 1: Utilisation and Management of Water Resources

Lesson 2: Utilisation and Management of Wild Animals in Botswana

Lesson 3: Utilisation and Management of Forests and Veld Products

Lesson 4: Utilisation and Management of Rangelands

Lesson 5: Utilisation and Management of Water, Coal and Sun as Sources of Energy

Resources and Learning Approaches

In order to promote active learning, we engage you in several activities and ask you questions to
share your own experiences. This is meant to give you a chance to demonstrate and enhance your
critical thinking skills. The notes are in point form and you may consult further to seek for clarity
in cases you do not understand. You are also guided on useful resources for learning. Most
libraries in your country do have some information on natural resources such as water.

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Assessment
As you work through the revision booklet, you will come across some activities in some lessons.
These activities are meant to help you interact with your study material, reinforce what you have
learnt and also to reflect and apply your experiences. It is therefore very important for you to do
all these activities. On completion of each topic, you are advised to go to the assignment section
found at the end of each unit. You will find a self-assessment exercise for each topic. Do the
exercise for the topic you have completed. This will help cement your learning or understanding
of the whole lesson or topic. Feedback for all the self-assessment exercises is provided at the end
of the booklet. If you score lower marks you must not be discouraged, appreciate the marks and
try again by going over the topic and the exercise.

The self-assessment exercises are followed by a tutor-marked assessment. This should be done
after you have satisfactorily completed and marked the assignment. Submit or post your
assessment, to be marked by your tutor. You are advised to take note of and act on your tutor’s
comments. You may ask your tutor for more information or look at other resources to correct
your work. If you are satisfied with the feedback received from the tutor, you can then go on to
the next booklet.

Glossary
A glossary of words that have been used in the booklet is given where necessary. These are
words that might be difficult for you to understand. The words are explained in simple ways or
terms. You are also encouraged to refer to dictionaries available in the local libraries and study
centers.

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 Lesson 1
Utilisation and Management of Water Resources

Introduction
There are two main water sources. These are surface and ground water. This lesson deals with
water as an important natural resource. Water is used in agriculture, mining, manufacturing,
wildlife, energy as well as for domestic purposes. Note that one of its uses is providing energy.

Learning Objectives
On completion of this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the process of the hydrological cycle or water cycle.
• identify the sources of water in Botswana.
• explain the significance of water resources to human activities.
• discuss the factors that make water a scarce resource while the demand is high in
Botswana.
• assess the negative impact of human beings on water resources.
• discuss water management strategies adopted in Botswana to ensure water conservation
in the country.
• discuss the role of Environmental Impact Assessment in environmental conservation
especially in relation to water conservation.

1.0 The Hydrological Cycle / Water Cycle

The water cycle otherwise called the hydrological cycle is the continuous recycling of water
between the sea, air and land. The following diagram (Figure 1) shows the water cycle.

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Figure 1: Water cycle

1.1 Definitions of important concepts in the water cycle

Evaporation: Change of water from a liquid to a gaseous state due to high temperature.
Evapo-transpiration: This is a process whereby plants loose water through their leaves.
Condensation: The process whereby water changes from a gaseous state to liquid due to a fall
in temperature.
Infiltration: A process whereby water seeps / sink into the ground.
Percolation: The flow of water underground filling the spaces between the rocks. Percolation
forms underground water.
Through flow: The movement of water sideways. It normally forms a spring on a valley side.
Precipitation: Forms of water droplets such as fog, hail, snow, rain

1.2 How does the water cycle work?

• Water in the atmosphere reaches the earth mainly in the form of precipitation, which
could either be rain, snow, fog, mist or hail.
• Some of the water flows across the earth’s surface through rivers and streams and empty
into lakes or the sea in a process called surface run-off.
• Some of the water sinks into the ground through infiltration.
• Water is lost from plants through transpiration.
• Water then returns to the atmosphere as water vapour i.e. evaporation.
• Upon reaching dew point, the water vapour condenses into water droplets i.e.
condensation.
• The amount of water in the cycle always stays the same, neither increasing nor
decreasing.

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2.0 Sources of Water
There are two main sources of water. These are:

• Surface water
• Ground water

2.1 Surface water

This is water that settles on the surface of the earth e.g. dams, rivers, oceans, lakes and streams.
Study the map on Figure 2 showing sources of surface water in Botswana.

Figure 2: Surface Water

a) Perennial Rivers
These are rivers that contain water all year round. In Botswana there are few perennial rivers.
These are the Chobe, Okavango and Boteti rivers. This means that for most of the time the
country depends on underground water that is obtained by sinking or drilling boreholes. This
makes water a scarce resource in Botswana that needs to be used sustainably.
b) Seasonal Rivers
These are rivers that contain water for a short period of time especially after heavy rainfalls e.g.
Tati, Motloutse, Lotsane, Notwane and many more in Botswana.

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c) Dams and lakes
Apart from rivers there are also dams, which provide surface water. Figure 3 shows water level
of Botswana dams in 2019.
Name of Dam Water Level

Dikgathong Dam 71%

Molatedi Dam 15%
Gaborone Dam 57.2%
Letsibogo Dam 71.2%
Thune Dam 46.1%
Shashe Dam 72.2%
Ntimbale Dam 81.5%
Lotsane Dam 47.5%
Bokaa Dam 74.9%
Nnywane Dam 90.9%

Figure 3: Water level of Botswana Dams

Source: Botswana Water Utilities Cooperation

2.2 Underground water

• This is water that comes from infiltration and percolation.
• It is water found underground in rocks called aquifers (rocks that contain water).
• It is retrieved from wells and boreholes, which are scattered all over Botswana.

3.0 Authorities that Supply Water in Botswana

• Water Utilities.
• Department of Water Affairs (Provide technical support).

3.1 Ways in which the government encourages water conservation

• They encourage people to re-use water.
• They have introduced pre-paid meters.
• They undertake public awareness on water conservation/public education.
• They encourage people to recycle water.
• They encourage people to reduce the consumption of water/water rationing.
• Use of tariffs.

3.2 Demand for water

There are many different types of water consumers in Botswana. For this reason, water as an
important resource is used for some of the following purposes:

• Construction
• Industries

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 • Irrigation
• Watering livestock
• Domestic use

3.3 Reasons for increasing water demand in Botswana

• Increasing population
• Growth of industries
• Mining
• Increase in livestock population
• Growth of farms which need irrigation
• Improved lifestyles e.g. use of Jacuzzi and construction of swimming pools
• Urban growth / expansion of towns and cities
• Increase in the construction of infrastructure e.g. roads, schools etc.

4.0 Reasons for Water Scarcity in Botswana

Despite an increase in water demand in Botswana, there is a problem of water scarcity due to the
following reasons:

• Semi-arid conditions of the country/rainfall in Botswana is unreliable/low leading to little

surface water.
• There is a low level of underground water recharge due to high temperatures.
• There are high temperatures leading to high evaporation.
• Topography of the country is flat making dam construction difficult and expensive.
• Many rivers are shared with other countries, so it is not easy to draw water from them as
water is an internationally shared resource e.g., Okavango, Chobe etc.
• Soils in Botswana are porous and sandy leading to high infiltration.
• Most underground water is saline rendering most of borehole water not usable.
• Deep water tables, which makes it difficult/expensive to explore or abstract underground
water.

4.1 Factors that can limit water supply to different areas

There are various factors that make it difficult for water to reach certain areas around the
country. These factors can either be physical / natural or man manmade / human.

Physical factors Human factors

Semi-arid conditions High drilling and installation costs of

boreholes

Low/unreliable rainfall Vandalising or theft of water pipes

Perennial rivers are internationally shared Bursting of pipes during road works

Porous nature of soils / sandy soils International conventions limiting water

usage as a shared resource

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 Salinity of underground water

Most rivers are seasonal rivers

Deep water table

4.2 Measures/strategies for improving water supply

• Increasing water supply from other areas e.g., North – South Water career project,
Molatedi dam, Ntimbale etc.
• Education on water conservation.
• Collecting and harvesting rain water e, g, water catchment tanks and wells.
• Desalinisation of salty water.
• Uses of water bowsers by local government to water villages.

4.3 National water master plan

North – South Water Master Plan (North South Water Carrier Project)

• The government of Botswana came up with a project that was to solve the problem of
water shortage.
• The project was started in 1990 and is to run until 2020.
• The estimated cost of the project was 1.3 billion pula.
• It had two phases, phase 1 and phase 2.
Phase 1

• The first phase of the project was to build Letsibogo dam on Motloutse river near
Mmadinare.
• Under this project water was to be piped from dams in the Northern part of the country
towards the Southern part of the country where there is large population and industries.
Phase 2

• It covers the construction of the second dam known as Dikgathong at Robelela village.
• The dam was completed in 2011 and it is the largest dam in Botswana with a capacity of
400 000 000 cubic metres.
The second phase ended in 2013 with the construction of the second pipeline (NSC 2) to double
the supply of water from the dams.
Advantages/benefits of the National Water Master Plan

• It provides water to the communities in the Southern part of the country.

• Created jobs during construction.
• Construction of dams resulted into development of infrastructure (roads, power grids).
• Water supply stimulated development of industries.

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5.0 Water Conservation
• Water resources in Botswana are limited and the cost of developing water resources is
high and will become even higher as the population grows and human activities increase.
• People must therefore start conserving water. Conserving means consuming a resource in
such a way that the level of the resource is not lowered or eventually diminished.
• To achieve this, the motto re-use, recycle and reduce is adopted in most countries
including Botswana.

5.1 Water conservation strategies are:

• Re-use waste water, households can use waste water to water their garden.
• Recycle water by harvesting effluents from sewage water works and treating them to be
used again.
• Installation of water catchment systems such as wells, basement water catchment system,
roof catchment tanks.
• Construction of dams.
• Public education on water conservation.
• Reduce leakages in the system by mending pipes.
• Introduce pre-paid meters.
• Growing drought resistant plants.
• Fencing/protecting surface water sources.
• Use of water tariffs.

6.0 Wetlands
Wetlands are all places in which water remains on the ground permanently or temporarily
thus affecting the physical characteristic of an area e.g Okavango delta see Figure 4,
Makgadikgadi pans, rivers, and dams.

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 Figure 4: Okavango Delta

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okavango_Delta#/media/File:Okavango_Delta_map.png

Importance/value of wetlands

• Source of water for irrigation and domestic use.

• Source of food e.g., fish, water lilies.
• Source of raw materials e.g., reeds and grass for building and for basket weaving.
• Attracts tourists.
• Used for recreational purposes e.g., fishing, swimming.
• They are habitat for animals e.g., fish, crocodiles, hippos.
• They are means for transport (boating, canoeing).
• They control floods.
• Source of medicinal plants.

6.1 Problems faced by local/communities living around wetlands are:

• Flooding
• Difficulties in transport
• Danger from wild animals
• Water borne diseases

6.2 Human activities and how they could lead to the destruction of wetlands
Human Activities Destructions

• Industrialisation Pollution

• Over-fishing Decline in fish species

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 • Agriculture Over abstraction of water/deforestation

• Overstocking Over grazing

• Basketry Over harvesting of reeds and thatch grass

• Construction Over abstraction of sand, water and wood

resources

• Damming of rivers Reduce water down stream, disturbs

movement of marine life and their
breeding, causes siltation.

6.3 The national wetland policy

It was developed to appreciate the value of wetlands and the threats facing wetlands. The aims of
the policy are as follows:

• Promote the conservation and use of Botswana’s wetlands.

• Sustain the social and economic value of Botswana’s wetlands.
• Maintain the ecological functions and benefits of Botswana’s wetlands
• Stopping the progressive loss of wetlands now and into the future.
• Recognise the ecological functions of wetlands.
• recognise the economic, cultural scientific and recreational value of wetlands.
• Encourages international cooperation.
• Encourages wise use of wetlands.
• Encourages research.
• Take all stake holders on board on all matters pertaining to conservation and sustainable
use of wetlands.

Advantages to Botswana as part of the Ramsar Convention

Botswana Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention, 1971)
The RAMSAR convention is concerned with the conservation and sustainable utilisation of
wetlands especially water flow habitat. The convention does not dictate policies on member
states but serves as a forum for fostering objective discussions in matters of bilateral and multi-
lateral benefits to the concerned member states on conservation and sustainable use of the source
base of wetlands. The advantages of the convention are as follows:

• Botswana has the privilege and opportunity of participating in global environmental

debates and the conservation and wise use of resources.
• Botswana has access to international research funding.
• Botswana will gain international expertise on wetland conservation.

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7.0 Water as an International Shared Resource
• From the water cycle and drainage patterns of rivers it is quite evident that rivers flow
across borders and this makes water an internationally shared resource.
• This calls for countries to cooperate in order to share these resources for the benefit of all.
• Rainfall patterns across the globe vary and this gives rise to rivers that transcends
boundaries depending on relief and altitude of the landscape.
• Damming or abstraction of water from internationally shared rivers need the consent of
the concerned countries.

8.0 Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment as a Tool for

Development
Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I.A) is a tool used for the prediction, assessment,
monitoring and evaluation of environmental impacts of a proposed development project. E.I.A is
done on projects such as: Dam construction, roads construction, mining, building bridges,
commercial farming projects, tourism development etc. The importance of conducting an E.I.A
is to:

• safeguard plant species.

• safeguard animal species.
• safeguard animal habitats.
• identify possible negative impacts of the proposed development project before and after it
is done.
• assess whether a project should be carried out, down scoped or stopped.
• identify possible mitigation measures.
• provide for monitoring and evaluation of the project.
• explain the benefits of a proposed project to the local community.
• act as consulting tool with communities.

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Self-assessment Exercise 1
Time: 1 hour Total: 60 Marks

Instructions
Answer all the questions on a lined paper.
1. The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ].

Section A
Study Figure 1, which is a photograph showing part of the ecology of the Okavango Delta,
in Northern Botswana.

Figure 1: Okavango Delta

Source: https://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/explore/okavango-delta

(a) State two natural factors that can cause the water level of the delta to drop [2]
(b) How do people who live around the delta benefit from the natural vegetation? [2]
(c) Describe three human activities that could lead to the deterioration of the delta. [3]

2. It is essential to conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before large projects are
developed.

(a) Why is it necessary to carry out an EIA? [2]

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3. Study Figure 2 which represents the water cycle and answer the questions that follow.

Figure 2: Water Cycle

(a) Write down A, B, C, D, E, F and G as a list and name each of the process represented by
the letters. [7]
(b) Give any three forms of precipitation. [3]

(c) Describe the problems associated with the use of groundwater in Botswana. [4]

(d) Describe five water conservation strategies used in Botswana? [5]

Section B

4. Wetlands are common features in some parts of Botswana.

(a) Define the term wetlands. [1]

(b) Name one wetland of international recognition. [1]

(c) Give five importance’s of wetlands to Botswana. [5]

(d) Describe three human activities that threaten the existence of wetlands in Botswana.
[3]
(e) State two objectives of Botswana’s wetlands policy. [2]

(f) Name any two international protocols that govern the use of shared water resources.
[2]

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 5. Study the map (Figure 3) of water sources in Botswana and answer the questions that
follow.

Figure 3: Water Sources in Botswana

(a) Name the surface water storages labelled 1 and 3. [2]

(b) State the difference between perennial and seasonal rivers. [2]

(c) Give two examples of perennial rivers found in the Northern Botswana. [2]

6. Water is a scarce resource in most parts of Botswana.

(a) Give five reasons why water is a scarce resource in Botswana. [4]

(b) Name three sources of ground water in Botswana. [3]

7. The amount of water used in urban areas in Botswana has increased in recent years.

(a) Give five factors that have led to high water demand in urban areas [5]

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 Lesson 2
Utilisation and Management of Wild Animals
Introduction
Welcome to lesson 2 of the BGCSE Geography Revision booklet 2. In this lesson, you will learn
about the utilisation and conservation of wild animals. Animals play an important role in the
ecological and biological processes. Botswana is one of the famous African countries known for
its variety of wildlife. About 90% of the country is covered by the savannah type of vegetation
which supports a great variety of wild animals. In 2002, at least 164 species of mammals and 550
species of birds were recorded. Botswana has also recorded the highest number of elephants in
the world. The government has availed thousands of square kilometres of land for wildlife
protection. In this lesson we will discuss protection of wild animals in these areas. We will also
discuss the role of stakeholders in the sustainable utilisation and management of wild animals in
Botswana.

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, you will be able to:
• identify and locate on a map areas of wildlife management in Botswana
• discuss the importance of wild animals as a resource to Botswana’s economy
• discuss the impact of wild animals on the environment
• discuss the conflicts between the management of wild animals and other land use
activities
• evaluate the role of the stakeholders (Government, Non-Governmental Organisations
(NGO’s, Private sectors, Local authorities and Local communities)

1.0 Definition of Terms and Concepts

Wildlife: A country’s flora (plant life) and Fauna (Animal life).
National Park: Protected areas in which animals and plants are conserved.
Game reserve: A protected area in which only animals are conserved.
Endangered Species: Animals and plants that are on the brink of extinction.
Photographic Tourism: Tourist activities where tourists take pictures of animals after having
paid a fee.
Eco-tourism: Tourism that promotes conservation of the natural environment and directly
benefits the local community.

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Community Based Natural Resource Management Programmes: Projects set for local
communities and designed for proper management of wild life resources.

2.0 National Parks, Game Reserves and Hunting Areas in Botswana

As already mentioned in the introduction of this lesson, Botswana is one of the few countries in
the world which is still endowed with a variety of wild animals. Most of these animals are
protected by the laws of Botswana in areas called national parks or game reserves. Some of the
wild animals are found in areas called Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) and Controlled
Hunting Areas (CHAs).

The map provided (Figure 1) shows national parks, game reserves, Wildlife Management Area
and Controlled Hunting Areas in Botswana. Study the map carefully. Note that it is very
important to know the names and be able to locate all the wildlife conservation parks and
reserves in Botswana

Figure 1: Wildlife Management Areas of Botswana

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3.0 Importance of Wild Animals to Botswana
Benefits to the Economy/country
• Infrastructure in the country is
developed e.g. roads, hospitals, schools
etc
• There are tourist attractions because
people from all over the world come to
Botswana to see them.
• Source of government revenue through
tax from the tourist industry.
• Source of foreign exchange through
imports.
• It diversifies the economy as it attracts
other industries.
• •
4.0 Impacts of Wild Animals on the Environment
Positive
• Animal excretions add manure to the
soil.
• As animals forage and graze they
rejuvenate vegetation.
• Animals create a balance on the
ecosystem as part of the food chain.
• Contributes to breaking down of rocks
to form soil (biological weathering).
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Benefits to the local communities/people
• Source of food for local communities
(meat).
• Source of employment/income as
people can be hired in the national
parks and game reserves.
• Some animals are used as totems.
• Locals sell their crafts to tourist hence
improve their lively hoods.
• Some animals have medicinal value.
Provide raw materials for craft
industries.
Negative
• Animal waste pollutes water sources.
• Animals destroy vegetation especially
elephants/deforestation.
• Animals can cause soil erosion.
• They cause loss of soil structure by
compacting.
• Animals destroy the habitat for other
creatures.
5.0 Conflicts between Wildlife and other Land Users
Causes of conflict between humans and wild animals are:

• Some wild animals spread diseases like foot and mouth, rabies.
• Dangerous animals are a constant threat to people’s lives.
• Wild animals destroy people’s crops.
• Land that is reserved for wild animals is a loss for agricultural activities.
• Wild animals kill livestock and people.
• Lan
• d reserved for animals is a loss to settlement and rangeland expansion.

6.0 Role of Stakeholders in the Sustainable Use of Wild animals

a) Government Role

• Increasing education and participation by all members of the society in improving the
environment through the Community Based Natural Resource Management Projects
(CBNRMPs).
• Protecting endangered species in national parks and game reserves, sanctuaries.
• Conserving major ecosystems like the Okavango Delta.
• Promoting wildlife clubs in schools.
• To minimise conflicts between human and wildlife population through CBNRMPs,
compensation for animals killed by predators.
• Controlling the wildlife population (by culling, hunting licenses and quotas, seasonal
hunting).
b) Non-Governmental Organisations
NGO’s like Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS), Association of Wildlife Clubs of Botswana
and Somarelang Tikologo encourage conservation education through:

• Provision of funds/sponsorship for trips, research projects and environmental projects.

• Provision of expert personnel.
• Education to the locals on wildlife conservation.
• Promotion of policies for conservation of wildlife.
• Research on wildlife.
c) Local Community

• Directly get involved in the management and conservation of wildlife in their areas
(CBNRMPs).
• Educate each other about wildlife conservation.
• Taboos and totems preserve some animals.
• Local communities act as whistle blowers for government against poachers.

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d) Local Authority

• Allocate land for wildlife conversation e.g., land boards.

• Establish rules and regulations on access and control of resources e.g., rangelands.
• Provide facilities such as boreholes e.g., councils.
e) Private Sector

• Provides guidelines in proper hunting of animals by tourists e.g., safari hunters.

• Provides sponsorships for community projects.
• Provides training to the locals.

6.1 Ways/methods encouraging sustainable use of wildlife

• Introduce anti-poaching laws.
• Using hunting seasons.
• Issuing of hunting licenses.
• Use of conservation and national parks Act.
• Public education on the importance of wildlife conservation.
• Protection of endangered species.

7.0 Impact of Fences (Buffalo Fence and Cordon Fences) on Animals

and the Environment
• Cause restriction of movement.
• Affects the breeding of wild animals.
• Vegetation along the fence gets destroyed/overgrazing occurs.
• Animals may get caught by fence and some may die.
• It affects distribution of animal species.
• Controls the spread of animal diseases e.g., foot and mouth.

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Self-assessment Exercise 2
Time: 1 hour Total: 32 Marks

Instructions
1. Answer all the questions in each section on a lined paper.
2. The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ]
Section A
1. The map on figure 1 shows National Parks and Game reserves in Botswana

Figure 1: Botswana Game Parks and Reserves

1. What are the names of the game reserves numbered 3, 5 and 9? [3]
2. What are the names of National Parks numbered 1, 4 and 8? [3]
3. Name any two surface water sources in Botswana that can be used by wild animals. [2]
4. Describe the benefits of game reserves to the local communities. [5]
5. Suggest why conflicts might arise between local communities and wild life management. [3]
6. Discuss the negative impact of wildlife on the environment. [4]
7. Suggest any two positive impacts of wildlife on the environment. [2]
8. What is the role of government and local communities in the sustainable use of wild animals
in Botswana? [6]
9. Describe four factors that make wildlife important to the economy of Botswana. [4]

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 Lesson 3
Utilisation and Management of Forests and Veld
Products
Introduction
Forests and veld products are natural resources found in a particular area and can be harvested by
locals’ for consumption or commercial purposes. In this lesson you will learn about veld and
forest products that we use every day.

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the terms veld and forest
• locate areas of forests and veld products in Botswana
• identify veld and forest products
• locate where forests and veld products are concentrated in Botswana
• explain ways of commercialising veld and forest products
• explain the importance of the commercialisation of veld and forest products
• assess the environmental impact of the commercialisation of forests and veld products
• discuss the role stakeholders can play in the sustainable use of forests and veld products.

1.0 Map showing the vegetation types of Botswana

Study the map on figure 1 below showing main types of vegetation in Botswana.

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Figure 1: Types of Vegetation in Botswana

Large forests occur in Chobe and some areas there have been declared forest reserves. There are
six forest reserves which are protected by law, namely:

• Chobe forest reserve

• Kasane forest reserve
• Kasane forest extension
• Maikaelelo forest reserve
• Sibuyu forest reserve
• Kazuma forest reserves
Forest products are mainly found in the North East (especially phane) and South East (especially
morula) because of higher rainfall in these areas, more trees grow here as compared to the rest of
the country.
Examples of forest and veld products and their uses
Veld/forest product Use Location
Phane (worm) Food, stock feed North East and Central District

Nato (worm) Food Kgatleng

Mosukujane Herbal tea, food All over the country

Moretlwa – wild berries Food, building materials All over

Mogwana - wild berries Food, building materials All over

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Mogwagwa Food Central District

Dikokobele - termites Food Everywhere

Mowana fruit Food Central district and Chobe

Tswii (water lilly) Food North West and Chobe

Reeds Building material, raw material North West and Chobe
Motshikiri Grass Thatching, raw material All over
Mukwa wood Building material Chobe

Sengaparile Traditional medicine Kgalagadi

2.0 Importance and Economic Benefits of the Commercialisation of

Forests and Veld Products to Stakeholders
Commercialisation refers to the use of veld and forest products for sale. The commercialisation
of such benefits various stake holders as outlined below:
a) Government

• Generate revenue through taxation

• Diversify the economy as an alternative source of income
• Foreign exchange as some are commercially exported
• Development of infrastructure (e.g. access roads)
b) Private Sector

• There is an organization that oversees the harvesting and the packaging of sengaparile as
it is bought from the locals and manufactured into tablets for export.
• Mophane is bought by a commercial company called Worldwide Commodities and
exported to Republic of South Africa.
c) Local Community

• It is a source of food
• Income/employment which boost standards of living
• Can be used for medicinal purposes
• Used as building materials
• Used as raw materials
• Religious/cultural purposes
d) Non-Governmental Organisations

• Council for scientific and industrial research of Republic of South Africa, which is trying
to help develop phane silk production.
• Thusano Lefatsheng, which employs extension workers to try to show people how to
harvest sengaparile without destroying the plant, so it remains sustainable.
• It also puts quotas on individual sellers to try to prevent overharvesting.

26
3.0 Environmental Impact of Commercialisation of Forests and Veld
Products
• Mophane trees are often destroyed by harvesters wishing to get all the worms from high
branches of trees; hence causing deforestation
• Extinction of some products in some areas caused by over harvesting.
• Poor harvesting methods leading to the destruction of plants and also to soil erosion.
• Over harvesting thatch grass leading to range land degradation.
• Veld fires caused by harvesters during the harvesting season destroys vegetation and
animal habitats.

4.0 Roles that Stakeholders can Play to Make Forests and Veld
Products Sustainable
a) Government

• Bring in legislation under the National Conservation Strategy that will make the
utilization of these resources sustainable (licensing, seasonal harvesting and quotas).
• Gatherers should be registered and monitored.
• Quotas should be set to restrict overharvesting.
• Develop commercial cultivation of these products.
• Carry scientific research into these products as they not well known.
• Government should give recognition to veld products as a distinct land use activity under
National Development Plans and so monitor their use more closely.
• Fencing of forest reserves.
b) Local Authorities

• encourage gatherers to practice selective harvesting.

• Educate the community about the importance, the correct harvesting methods,
harvesting quotas and the growing of forests and veld products.
• Set periods and quotas for harvesting and for the recuperation of forests and veld
products.
c) NGO’s

• Lead the way in research and development

• Provide funding geared towards the promotion of forests and veld products
• Support Community Based Natural Resources Management Projects (CBNRMPs)
Thusanyo Lefatsheng is an example of an NGO whose objectives entail the following:

• Develop methods of cultivation, processing and marketing of indigenous trees and

medicinal plants.
• Harvesting such plants in a sound and ecological manner.

27
 • The protection and cultivation of endangered plant species.
• The introduction of sustainable agricultural methods.
• The creation of rural employment.

5.0 Human Factors Leading to the Destruction of Forests

• Expansion of settlements leading to deforestation thus, a reduction in the size of range
lands.
• Overstocking leading to overgrazing
• Overharvesting of thatch grass
• Clearing of land for agriculture
• Occurrence of veld fires, which depletes vegetation
• Construction of infrastructure leading to deforestation
• Air pollution which leads to acid rain which can kill plants
• Mining / Industries cause pollution
• Lumbering causes deforestation

6.0 Solutions to Problems of Forests Destruction

• Afforestation/Reforestation – planting of trees in areas with few trees/growing trees
where forests have been cut.
• Public awareness on forests conservation
• Use of alternative sources of energy e.g. use of gas instead of firewood
• Use of government laws/ policies e.g. use of permits for firewood collection for
commercial purposes.
• The following are prohibited in Forest reserves:
- Unauthorized cutting of trees
- Burning of grass
- The grazing of livestock

28
7.0 Organisations Concerned with Conservation of Forests in
Botswana
Organisation Brief Objectives Programmes

Forest It is a non- - To promote public awareness 1. Community

Association governmental and education on the based woodland
of Botswana organization which importance of trees and natural management
(FAB) is non-profit resources 2. Home tree
making. It was - To assist in the protection of planting
formed in 1983 by forests, bush trees and shrubs 3. School
individuals - To promote forest industries programmes
concerned about and related employment 4. Agro forestry
the depletion of throughout the country
natural resources - To assist organisation involved
in tree planting and fencing
extension work
- To act as a focal point for all
NGO’s forestry activities
Thusano A non- - Processing and marketing of
Lefatsheng governmental indigenous trees and medical
organisation in the plants
field of forests and - Harvesting of medical and
veld products aromatic plants in a sustainable
manner
- Protection and cultivation of
endangered plants species
- Creation of rural employment

29
Self-assessment Exercise 3
Time: 1 hour Total: 40 Marks

Instructions
1. Answer all the questions on a lined paper.
2. The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ].

1 (a) In recent years Botswana has been experiencing a decline in the abundance and variety of
veld products
i) State two examples of veld products found in Botswana. [2]
ii) Account for the decline of veld products in Botswana. [4]
iii) Describe the challenges local communities are facing as the veld products decline. [3]
iv) Explain how veld products can be used in a sustainable way. [4]
v) Explain why commercialisation of veld products is important for local communities. [4]
vi) Suggest why commercialisation of veld products may be harmful to the environment. [3]
(b) The government of Botswana conserves resources such as Wildlife and forests in protected
areas.
i) Name and locate on a sketch map of Botswana two areas where wild animals are
protected. [4]
ii) Name any four forests reserves in Botswana. [4]
iii) Explain why forests reserves are mainly found in the Northern part of Botswana. [2]
iv) Describe how government protects forests and wildlife. [4]
v) Suggest why it is very important to conserve natural resources such as forests and
wildlife. [6]

30
 Lesson 4
Rangelands
Introduction
Rangelands are a very important natural resource because they provide grazing land for both
livestock and wild animals. Rangelands are found all over the world. In some countries they
cover large areas and are known by names such as the prairies, savannas, pampas, scrublands and
woodlands. We will discuss the uses of range resources and look at factors causing rangeland
degradation. We will also consider what the government, the private sector; non-governmental
organisations are doing to achieve sustainable uses of rangelands. Note that most examples will
be drawn from Botswana. Studying rangelands will help you gain insight into environmental
management and will develop your ability to think strategically. As a responsible citizen you will
be able to participate effectively in the conservation of such natural resources.

In this lesson you will be introduced to the terms rangeland and rangeland degradation. You will
also learn about the human and physical factors causing rangeland degradation. Finally, we will
discuss rangeland management and evaluate the role of stakeholders in the sustainable use of
rangelands.

Exam Hints
Utilisation and management of resources is examined in section B of Paper 2 BGCSE
Geography. This section has two questions and candidates are required to choose one question
from this section.

Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
• define rangeland and rangeland degradation.
• understand human and physical factors that cause rangeland degradation.
• know the effects of rangeland degradation.
• understand the role of government, private sector, NGOs, Local Authorities and Local
Communities in the sustainable use of rangelands.

31
1.0 Rangeland and Rangeland Degradation

Definition of terms
a) Rangeland

• The term rangeland means vegetation, that is, grasses, shrubs, forbs and trees growing
naturally in an area where domesticated and wild animals graze or browse.
• It is a stretch of grazing land where animals feed or a land that supplies forage/vegetation
for grazing animals. It is often not fenced.

b) Rangeland degradation/destruction

• It is the deterioration or reduction in the quality of grazing land for livestock.

• The permanent decline in the rate at which the rangeland yields grazing and browsing
products.

1.1 Types of rangelands

Communal – rangelands that are used by the community/general public
Commercial – rangelands that are privately owned. Divided into paddocks and the animals are
monitored.
Examples of rangelands

• Grassland
• Shrub lands
• Woodlands

1.2 Factors influencing rangelands

• Suitable climatic conditions.
• The available soil types.
• Duration of grazing in the area.

2.0 Rangeland Degradation

Rangeland degradation refers to the decrease in the quality of forage/grazing and browsing
resources. This is caused by both human and physical factors.

2.1 Human factors causing rangeland degradation

• Deforestation which causes soil erosion and leaves the land bare.
• Overstocking which leads to overgrazing.
• Over harvesting of thatch grass which reduces forage.
• Veld fires which destroy vegetation.
• Expansion of settlements due to population growth taking away pasture land.
• Lack of knowledge/education which leads to poor methods of farming.

32
2.2 Physical factors causing rangeland degradation
• Flooding due to heavy rains
• Drought/lack of rainfall
• Poor/less fertile soils
• Salinisation of the soils
• Hot/high temperatures
• Forest fires

2.3 Effects/results of rangeland degradation

• Soil erosion resulting in gullies and removal of top soil
• Desertification
• Loss of quality of soil
• Loss/low quality livestock
• Increased water run-off
• Poor pasture/lack of grass for livestock

2.4 How rangelands can be managed/sustainable use of rangelands

• Ranching/fencing/paddocking/ rotational grazing to control movement of livestock
• Controlled stocking of livestock/correct stocking rates
• Growing fodder crops/supplementary feeding
• Construction of fire breaks
• Controlled cutting of vegetation
• Public education
• Research on rangelands
• Zero grazing
• Afforestation
• Irrigation of fodder crops rather than relying on rainfall

3.0 Role of Government, Private Sector, NGOs, Local Authorities

and Local Communities in Sustainable use of Rangelands
a) Government efforts towards management of rangelands

• Introduction of clustered borehole drilling

• Cluster fencing/zoning of land
• Public education and training to farmers
• Establishment of ranches
• Subsidisation of stock feed
• Introduction of the Integrated Farming Policy

33
In 1975, the government introduced the Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) to prevent rangeland
degradation. The reasons/objectives of the TGLP were:

• To fence grazing areas to control movement of livestock

• To reduce overgrazing and soil erosion
• To divide land into communal, commercial and reserved farming areas
• To educate farmers on sustainable use of rangelands
However, the TGLP later failed and the government stopped its services. Though the TGLP
failed it had some successes.

Success Failures

It controlled overstocking / overgrazing in Poor management of ranches

communal areas

It encouraged use of commercial areas/ Unwillingness to limit / reduce their stock

ranching numbers by farmers

It encouraged growth and commercialisation of Lack of monitoring / supervision by relevant

livestock industry authorities / extension workers

It encouraged livestock owners to adopt better Lack of knowledge / education by farmers

methods of herd and range management

b) Private Sector/NGOs

• Support government initiatives through funding and training

• Start commercial farming businesses (feed lots)
• Sensitise the public through competitions for farming equipment.
c) Local Authorities

• VDCs and Dikgosi support conservation and management through formation of farmers’
and conservation committees.
• Public campaigns geared towards mismanagement.
d) Local Communities

• Selective/seasonal harvesting of grass

• Practicing sustainable methods of farming

34
Self-assessment Exercise 4
Time: 1 hour Total: 38 Marks

Instructions
1. Answer all the questions on a lined paper.
2. The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ].

1 (a) Rangelands are in a state of decline in Botswana. Define the following terms: [4]
i) Rangeland
ii) Rangeland degradation
iii) Rangeland productivity
iv) Livestock unit
2. State four human factors that cause rangeland degradation. [4]
3. Explain any four principles of good range management. [4]
4. State four things that can be done to improve a rangeland that has deteriorated in
condition. [4]

5. A large proportion of Botswana’s land is protected in National Parks and Game Reserves. The
pressure on these areas is increasing because of conflicting land uses

i) State four land uses other than National parks which are competing with rangelands [4]

ii) Explain how climate change and human activities cause rangeland degradation [6]

6. Explain the role of the government and local communities in the sustainable utilisation of
rangelands in Botswana [4]

7. Describe sustainable range management practices that will keep range in a good
condition. [4]

8. Suggest the roles of government, local authorities and NGOs in the sustainable use of
rangelands [4]

35
 Lesson 5
Utilisation and Management of Water, Coal and
Sun as Sources of Energy
Introduction

Energy can be produced from natural resources. Such natural resources are water, coal and the
sun. Energy produced from water is called hydroelectric power, from coal is thermal power and
from the sun is solar energy. This lesson will discuss the above-mentioned energy sources.

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

• discuss factors that influence the location and development of Hydro-Electric Power
(HEP) schemes and Thermal power stations in Africa
• describe the processes involved in generating electricity from water, coal and sun
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of generating power from water, coal and sun
• evaluate the importance of hydro-electric power schemes and thermal power stations to
the economy of a country where they are located
• evaluate the role of stakeholders such as Government and private sectors in the
sustainable use of coal
• explain the energy conservation strategies in Botswana.

1.0 Hydroelectric Power

Under this sub-topic, you will learn about:

• Factors that influence the location and development of Hydro-Electric Power (HEP)
schemes and thermal power stations in Africa
• The processes involved in generating electricity from water, coal and sun
• Advantages and disadvantages of generating power from water, coal and sun
• The importance of hydro-electric power schemes and thermal power stations to the
economy of a country where they are located
• The role of stakeholders such as Government and private sectors in the sustainable use of
coal
• Energy conservation strategies in Botswana.

36
1.1 The Definition of hydroelectric power
Turner (1994) defines hydroelectric power as the electricity produced by the force of
flowing water.
Examples of HEP schemes in Africa

• Kariba Dam between Zambia and Zimbabwe

• Owen falls in Uganda
• Lesotho Highland project in Lesotho
• Volta river project/Akosombo in Ghana
• Hendrik Vernwoerd in South Africa
• Caborra Bassa in Mozambique
• Popa Falls in Namibia

1.2 The factors influencing the location of hydroelectric power schemes

• A hard impermeable rock base.

• A deep narrow valley.
• Availability or close proximity to a perennial river.
• Presence of steep and upland relief or gradient.
• Availability of high amounts of rainfall.
• Availability of a large domestic and industrial market.

1.3 The process of generating power from running water in hydro-

electrical power stations
• A lake/reservoir is created by damming a river.
• Water flows downwards at high speeds through metal pipes known as penstocks.
• Water from the penstocks falls at high pressure onto turbines, which causes them to
rotate.
• A shaft connects the turbines to a generator.
• As the turbine spins, it rotates the shaft, which turns on the generator making it
produce electricity by converting kinetic energy to electrical energy.
• Power produced passes through the transformers for stepping up before being
transmitted by power lines in the national grid.
• After use, the water is discharged back to the river through a passage called a tailrace.

37
 Study the diagram on figure 1 showing the processing of Hydro Electric Power (HEP)

Figure 1: Hydro Electric Power Station

The advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric power schemes

i) Advantages

• Water is a renewable resource hence it can be used for a longer period.

• HEP schemes are cheaper to run
• HEP schemes are clean and have little pollution to the environment.
• They are of multipurpose use (fishing, transportation, sports and irrigation
opportunities)
• Scenic beauty provides the opportunity for tourism.
• Provide foreign exchange through exportation of power.
• They provide means of flood control.
• Lead to development of infrastructure such as roads.
• Attracts other industries diversifying the economy.
• Provide government revenue through taxation.
• Creation/development of settlements.

ii) Disadvantages

• It is expensive to construct the dams.

• Weight of massive lakes can trigger earth tremors, which damage infrastructure.
• Lakes become breeding places for mosquitoes or water borne diseases such as malaria
or bilharzia.
• Variations in rainfall/drought can affect the amount of electricity produced.
• Silt may collect in the dams and affect the ecosystems downstream.
• Mass vegetation is lost through flooding the lake and during land clearing.
• Loss of animal habitats/species migration/extinction

38
1.4 A case study of an HEP scheme in Africa – Kariba HEP scheme

i) Location factors:

• Located between the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe.

• There is availability of water from the perennial Zambezi River.
• The Kariba gorge is large enough to provide the required large head of water.
• The base rock in the area is strong and impermeable.
• The area around Kariba receives large amounts of rainfall.
• The Zambezi river does not experience any icing.

ii) Factors that led to the development of the Kariba HEP scheme.

• An increasing demand of electricity especially in the Copper belt of Zambia caused by

mining.
• Expanding manufacturing industries in the two countries.
• Increasing domestic demand due to an increase in the population.
• The need for a cheaper source of electricity other than coal.
• To reduce the growing demand from Hwange in Zimbabwe hence increasing its
lifespan.

iii) Importance of Kariba HEP scheme to Zambia and Zimbabwe:

• Power supply to the industries in Zimbabwe.

• Power supply to the copper belt of Zambia.
• Water transport along the lakes to Mlobizi.
• Flood control to ensure safety of settlements down the valley.
• Source of fish.
• Led to the development of Kariba Township.
• Source of tourism due to water sports and scenic views.

iv) Impact of Kariba Dam on the environment:

• Flooding displaced many people.

• Flooding may kill wild animals and destroy vegetation.
• Reduced volume of water downstream affects the ecosystem of the Zambezi flood
plains in Mozambique.
• Massive weight of the Kariba dam on local rocks triggers earth tremors that destroy
infrastructure.

39
2.0 Thermal Power Production

Under this sub-topic, you will learn;

• The definition of thermal power production.

• The factors influencing the location of a thermal power station.
• The location of Morupule power station on a sketch map of Botswana.
• The process of generating power from coal in the Morupule power station.
• The advantages and disadvantages of generating power from coal.
• The role of stakeholders (Government, NGOs, Private sector and local authorities and
communities) in the sustainable use of coal.

2.1 The definition of thermal power production

It is the production of electricity indirectly through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum or natural gas.

2.2 The factors influencing the location of a thermal power station

• Close proximity to coal supplies mainly a coal mine to reduce transportation costs.
• Close proximity to a large source of water for the condensers and power generation.
• Close proximity to a well-established transport routes and network by either rail or
road.
• Located near a large market or population to reduce transmission costs.
• Should have a large cheap flat land for expansion.
• Not very, close to human settlements to avoid pollution.
• Placed on solid rock that can withstand the heavy weight of machinery.

2.3 The process of power generation at a thermal power Station

• From the storage plant, coal is delivered to the handling station where it is crushed into
powder.
• The crushed coal is fed into a furnace using a conveyor belt.
• The coal is burnt, and in the boiler, the heat produced changes water into steam.
• The steam is fed into a steam turbine at high pressure and speed.
• The steam turns the turbine, which in turn turns the generator to generate electricity by
converting thermal energy into kinetic energy then into electrical energy.
• The exhausted steam is passed into the condenser or cooling tower where it is cooled
by the action of cold flowing water.
• Electrical output of the generator is passed to step up transformers before being
transmitted on the national grid.

40
 Study the diagram on figure 2 showing the process of generating thermal power.

Figure 2: Thermal power station

Advantages and disadvantages of thermal power stations

i) Advantages:

• Initial installation costs are lower compared to HEP schemes.

• The station can be located anywhere as the coal can be transported.
• Less land is required to set up the station as compared to HEP schemes.
• The station creates large employment opportunities.
• Mining of coal encourages the development of railway lines and roads.
• Attracts other industries thus diversifying the economy.
• Brings about self sufficiency in power production thereby reducing the import bill.

41
 ii) Disadvantages:

• Coal is bulky and dirty to handle.

• It produces more pollution compared to HEP schemes.
• Coal is a non-renewable fuel and will eventually run out.
• The stations create a waste disposal problem from the burnt coal ash.
• The stations are generally more expensive to run compared to HEP schemes.

2.4 A Case-study of Morupule thermal power station in Botswana

i) Location: Along Serowe-Palapye road/Near Palapye/Morupule.

ii) Location Factors influencing the position of Morupule Thermal Power station:

• Far from populated areas of Serowe and Palapye.

• Water is available from nearby Paje boreholes.
• Availability of coal from Morupule Colliery mine.
• Availability of large flat land for expansion West of Palapye.
• Large market available mainly from the mines and emerging industries in the country.
• Hard solid rock that can withstand the weight of machinery in Morupule.

iii) The benefits of Morupule power station

• Allows Botswana to be self-sufficient in power production.

• It stimulates the development of other industries.
• Reduced the importation of crude oil which was used for power production.
• Reduced the importation of electricity from South Africa hence saving Botswana’s
foreign exchange.
• It helps create employment for many Batswana.
• It provides a ready market for coal to the Morupule Colliery mine.

iv) The problems of Morupule power station

• The running costs are high resulting in the electricity cost being high for customers.
• Causes air pollution which results in acid rain in the surrounding areas.
• The coal used is a non-renewable fuel and so can get depleted.
• The coal ash poses a landscape problem as huge heaps on it tarnishes the beauty of the
landscape.

42
2.5 The role of stakeholders in the sustainable use of coal

The Government
• Formulates and implements policies on the sustainable use of coal resources.
Private Sector

• Suppliers of electricity ensure that environmental standards are met and observed in the
production of electricity from the mined coal.
Local Communities

• Local communities are encouraged to participate in the decision making on how the
coal resources in their areas will be utilised.
Local Authorities
• Local authorities that allocate land to companies for mining coal or thermal power
production should ensure that the land is used on a sustainable way with little
destruction to it.
NGOs
• NGOs carry out campaigns that ensure that coal resources are used sustainable,

3.0 Solar Power (Energy)

Under this topic, you will learn;

• The definition of solar energy.
• The process of generating power from the sun.
• The advantages and disadvantages of generating power from the sun.

3.1 The Definition of Solar energy

Solar energy refers to the electricity that is produced using energy from the sun by the action
of solar cells.

43
 3.2 The process of generating power from the sun using solar panel

Study the diagram on figure 3 showing the process of generating solar power.

Figure 3: Solar power

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Structure-of-solar-power-system- fig1_326504016

• The solar panels are exposed to sunlight during the day.

• The solar panels trap the sunlight energy.
• The solar panels contain PV cells which convert the light energy into electrical energy.
• The electrical energy may be stored in batteries or used immediately.

3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of solar energy

i) Advantages:

• It is relatively cheaper to run since it does not require many grid-lines.

• No fuel is required as the sun is freely available.
• It has a long lasting life.
• It is environmentally friendly with minimal pollution.
• Solar energy is a renewable energy source.
• It can be modified to meet any type of electrical demand.

44
4.0 Energy Conservation Strategies in Botswana

• Load shedding
• Use of energy saving bulbs
• Switching off appliances and lights which are not in use
• Use of prepaid meters
• Increasing of tariffs.
• Public Education
• Switching to alternative sources of energy
• Use of energy saving devices

5.0 Botswana Government’s Attempts to Conserve Energy

Botswana has recorded both success and failures in an effort to conserve various types of energy

resources.

5.1 Coal

Policies promote sustainable use of coal through the ‘Expanded Coal Utilisation Project.’

i) Successes:

• Led to the development of Morupule power station for generating electricity.

ii) Failures

• Coal is bulky and a dirty fuel to use.

• Coal burning releases poisonous gases into the atmosphere.
• Coal is a non-renewable energy source.

5.2 Firewood

Government policies aim to encourage the sustainable cutting down of trees for use as

firewood.

i) Successes:

• Rural Industries Innovative Centres have developed fuel efficient technology not
based on the use of firewood such as the Bread Oven powered by the sun.

45
 ii) Failures (Reasons):

• People cannot be easily deterred from using firewood because it is freely available,
cheap and also free mostly.

5.3 Biogas

Government policies aim to encourage the use of Biogas from cow dung as an
alternate cheaper energy source.
i) Successes:

• Rural Industries Innovative Centres have developed technology and equipment for
harvesting methane from cow dung to be used as a fuel.
ii) Failures (Reasons):

• People do not know about it.

• Training of potential use has not been extensive.
• Cow dung smells a lot, and is dirty to handle.
• Cow dung is not readily available to everyone.

5.4 Solar Energy

Government encourages the use of solar energy.

Successes:

• Those with money for purchasing and installing Solar panels enjoy an alternate
cheaper source of energy.
Failures (Reasons):

• Most people cannot afford the expensive and fragile equipment.

• There is limited usage due to the varying climatic conditions and cloud cover in the
country.

46
Self- assessment Exercise 5
Time: 1 hour Total: 73 Marks

Instructions
1. This exercise is divided into three sections.
2. Answer all the questions in each section on a lined paper.
3. The number of marks for each question is given in brackets [ ].

Section A: Thermal Power

1. Name a thermal power station in Botswana [1]

2. Describe how the thermal power station works to produce electricity. [4]
3. State five factors that should be considered when locating a thermal power station. [5]
4. Describe problems associated with the production of thermal power. [4]
5. Describe the importance of Morupule power station to the economy of Botswana. [5]

Section B: Hydro Electric Power

6. Give three examples of HEP schemes in Africa [3]

7. Explain how electricity is produced in a hydro electrical power station. [4]
8. Explain the importance of HEP to the area in which it is found. [5]
9. Describe environmental problems that may be created by large hydro - electric power stations.
[5]
10. State physical factors that are necessary for the development of a hydroelectric power
scheme
[4]
11. Why would it be difficult to develop hydroelectric power in Botswana? [4]

Section C: Solar Energy

12. State two other types of energy that are used in Botswana apart from solar energy [2]
13. Describe how electricity is produced from the sun. [4]
14. Give the advantages of using solar energy. [3]
15. Explain the problems associated with the production of solar energy. [4]
16. Suggest Socio-economic problems that may result from shortage of power. [5]

47
17. Describe different ways in which energy might be conserved [5]
18. Explain what the government of Botswana is doing in an effort to address the problem of
power shortage in the country. [3]
19. Suggest how a power station such as Morupule may negatively affect people living near it.
[3]

48
Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 1
Section A

1. (a). -Evaporation

- Transpiration
- Infiltration [3]
(b). -source of foods

- -Source of reeds and grass

- -Balances the eco- system
- -Provides fuel wood [3]
(c). Human activities deteriorating the delta

- Pollution
- Over- extraction of water
- Over harvesting of the vegetation/ overgrazing
- Illegal hunting [3]

2. Importance of EIA

- It helps assess the possible impact on the environment that a project is likely to
have.
- It prevents environmental destruction of a project.
- It leads to sustainable development which minimizes negative environmental
impact of development.
[2]
3. (a) A- Infiltration
B- Rainfall
C- Overland flow
D- Evapotranspiration
E –Condensation
F- Ground water discharge
G- Evaporation [7]

b) Rain, Ice or sleet, Hail, Snow.

[3]

49
 c) - Salty/Saline
- Little recharge due to drought or unreliable rainfall
- Too deep to reach/ expensive to extract
- Underground water pollution
d) - reuse water

- Recycle waste
- Install water catchment system
- Construction of dams
- Public education
- Consumer pays the bills [5]
Section B

4. (a)Wetlands are all places in which water remains on the ground permanently or
temporarily thus affecting the physical characteristics of an area. [1]

(b) -The Okavango Delta [1]

- Makgadikgadi wetlands

(c) Tourist attraction

- Employment
- Recreation
- Source of food(fishing)
- Navigation/transport [5]
(d) - Pollution

- Overgrazing
- Overfishing
- Over abstraction of water
- Illegal hunting [3]
(e) - Education

- Conservation
- Rehabilitation of wetlands [3]
(f) -Helsinki Rules.

- Ramsar Convention.
- The Permanent Commission of the Okavango Basin.
- SADC Protocol. [3]

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5. (a) 1- Mopipi Dam

3- Gaborone dam [2]

(b)Perennial river is a river that has water flowing throughout the year while a
seasonal river is a river that flows only during the rainy season. [2]

(c)-Chobe river

- Okavango river [2]

6. (a)

- semi arid conditions

- unreliable rainfall
- drought
- underground water recharge
- high rate of evaporation
- flat topography makes the construction of dams difficult and costly.
Main water systems are shared with other countries thus it is not easy to interfere
with them. [5]

(b)- wells

- springs
- boreholes [3]
7. (a)

- rapid rate of urbanisation

- Industrialisation
- Increase in human population
- Development of the mining section
- High rate of rural to urban migration and
- The expansion of major villages

Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 2

1. (i) The name of the game reserve numbered 3, 5 and 5 [3]
- 3: Moremi Game Reserve
- 5: Central Kalahari Game Reserve
- 9: Mashathu Game Reserve
(ii) The names of National Parks numbered 1, 4 and 8 [3]
- 1: Chobe National Park
- 4: Makgadikgadi Pans National Park
- 8: Kalahari Trans frontier Park

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2. Two surface water sources that can be used by wild animals [2]
-Rivers and dams
3. Benefits of game reserves to the local communities [3]
- Creates employment
- Promotes/creation of local craft industries
- Source of income
-
4. Why conflicts might arise between local communities and wildlife management [3]

- Destruction of crop fields by wild animals – farmers consider compensation as low or

very little
- Attacks and killing of people and livestock by wild animals – Compensation is
considered low or very little
- Conflicts over land for grazing – or expansion of wildlife protected areas into
communal pastoral lands or land for settlements
- Expansion of human settlements into wildlife areas OR of wild life areas into
communal grazing areas

5. The negative impact of wildlife on the environment [4]

- Soil erosion
- Deforestation
- Pollution of water resources
- Desertification
- Land degradation

6. Two positive impact of wildlife on the environment [2]

- Animal excretion add manure to the soil
- As animals forage and graze they rejuvenate vegetation
- Animals create a balance on the ecosystem
- Contributes to breaking down of rocks to form soil (biological weathering)

7. The role of government and local communities in the sustainable use of wild animals in
Botswana [6]
Government

- Increasing education and participation by all members of the society in improving the
environment (through the Community Based Natural Resource Management)
- Protecting endangered species
- Conserving major ecosystems like the Okavango Delta
- Improving the distribution of income rewards from conservation (e.g. people whose
livestock are killed by wild animals are compensated)
- Established a balance between population growth and supply of natural resources

52
 - Sells and advertise the country’s tourism locally and abroad
- Promote wildlife clubs in schools
- To minimise conflicts between human and wildlife population
- Controlling the wildlife population
Local communities
- Directly get involved in the management and conservation of wildlife in their areas
- Promote wildlife based rural development e.g. resources based management
- Educate each other about wildlife conservation
- Establish Community-based Natural Resource Management Projects

8. Four factors that make wildlife important to the economy of Botswana [4]
- Employment creation – over 8000 people are employed in wildlife protected areas
and tourism related sectors
- Source of foreign exchange- from gate fees or takings, camping fees, vehicle fees
entering game parks or reserves
- Source of government revenues from visas, taxes, hunting licences
- Development of infrastructure- this includes building of roads, shopping malls and
hotels
- Promotion od local craft industry such as baskets, tapestry, pottery, sculpturing

Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 3

1 i) Two examples of veld products found in Botswana. [2]

• Devils claw (sengaparile)

• Mosithane
• Herbal trees
• Morula
• Berries
• Morotologa
• Phane worm
• Motshikiri
• Honey

ii) Account for the decline of veld products in Botswana. [4]

• Expansion of settlements leading to deforestation thus a reduction in the size of range

lands
• Overstocking leading to overgrazing
• Overharvesting of thatch grass
• Clearing of land for agriculture
• Occurrence of veld fires
• Construction of infrastructure
• Air pollution which leads to acid rain which can kill plants

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• Mining / Industries
• Lumbering

iii) Describe the challenges local communities are facing as the veld products decline.
[3]

• Shortage of their source of food

• Depletion of plants for medicinal purposes
• Declining or no supplement income

iv) How veld products can be used in a sustainable way. [4]

• Implement the National Conservation Strategy that will make the utilisation of these
resources sustainable
• Gatherers should be registered and monitored
• Quotas should be set to restrict overharvesting
• Develop commercial cultivation of these products
• Carry scientific research into these products as their not well known
• Practice selective harvesting
• Practice proper or sustainable ways of harvesting
• Education of local communities on the importance and conservation for locals,
• Decide on areas to be harvested and areas left for recuperation
• Using sustainable methods of cultivation, processing and marketing of indigenous trees
and medicinal plants
• Enforce laws on the protection and commercialisation of endangered plant species
• The introduction of sustainable agricultural methods

v) Why commercialisation of veld products is important for local communities

• Create employment
• Generate revenue which help to reduce rural- urban migration
• Diversify the economy
• Foreign exchange as some are commercially exported

vi) Why commercialization of veld products may be harmful to the environment

• Vegetation is destroyed
• Extinction of some products in some areas caused by a combination of over harvesting
and draught
• Depletion of products closer to the village
• Poor harvesting methods leading to the destruction of some plant and leaving deep holes
that can be further eroded destroying the local environment.

54
 • Over harvesting thatch grass leading to rangeland degradation
(b) The government of Botswana conserves resources such as Wildlife and forests in protected
areas.
vi) Four forests reserves in Botswana
• Chobe forest reserve
• Kasane forest reserve
• Kasane forest extension
• Maikaelelo forest reserve
• Sibuyu forest reserve
• Kazuma forest reserves

vii) Why forests reserves are mainly found in Northern part of Botswana
• Higher amount of rainfall

viii) How government protects forests and wildlife

• Afforestation – growing trees where forests have been cut
• Reforestation – planting of trees in areas with few trees
• Public campaigns or awareness on forests conservation
• Use of alternative sources of energy e.g. use of gas instead of firewood
• Use of government laws/ policies e.g. use of permits for firewood collection for
commercial purposes

ix) Why it is very important to conserve natural resources such as forests and wildlife
• Wildlife helps in maintaining the eco-logical balance of nature.
• Wildlife/forests provide food for both humans and animals
• Forests help to maintain or mitigate climate change
• Forests help in regulating the hydrological cycle
• Wildlife provides important resources such as wood, medicine
• Forests prevent soil erosion
• Forests provide habitat for animals
• Forests provide jobs for many people across the world
• Wildlife is a source of income from tourism and processing industries
• Forests store carbon and release oxygen

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Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 4

1 (a) Define the following terms: [4]

i) Rangeland: Rangelands are vast natural landscapes or natural open spaces in the form of
grasslands, woodlands, shrublands and desert vegetation.

ii) Rangeland degradation: It is the reduction of land productivity resulting from inappropriate
use of the land.

iii) Rangeland productivity: the amount of suitable natural vegetation produced for livestock.

iv) Livestock unit: Livestock Unit- Is the weight of an adult livestock equivalent to about 500kg
live weight

2. State four human factors that cause rangeland degradation. [4]

• Veld fires
• Overstocking
• Deforestation
• Pollution from mines and industries

3. Explain any four principles of good range management. [4]

• Balance the animal population with available forage.

• Use the kind of livestock most suited for the available forage.
• Practice rotational grazing.
• Distribute animals evenly over the entire rangeland.
• Control bush encroachment.
• Distribute watering points evenly over the rangeland.
• Conserve some forage for dry season feeding.
• Replace dead or old plants with new ones.
4. What four things that can be done to improve a rangeland that has deteriorated in condition.
[4]
• Practicing correct stocking
• Fencing grazing land
• Controlling the spread of trees and shrubs
• Controlling veld fires
• Providing enough water
• Controlling soil erosion
• Controlling weeds
• Controlling grazing.

56
5. A large proportion of Botswana’s wild animals are protected in National Parks and Game
Reserves. The pressure on these areas is increasing because of conflicting land uses

(i) State three land uses other than National parks which are competing with rangelands [3]

• Settlements expansion
• Arable farming
• Infrastructure developments such as roads
• Industrial and mining developments

(ii) Explain how climate change and human activities cause rangeland degradation [6]

Human causes are:

• Veld fires
• Land clearance for other activities
• Overstocking
• Deforestation
• Poor land management

Climate change factors are:

• Drought
• Bush encroachment
• Increased wildlife populations
• Veld fires

6. Explain the role of the government and local communities in the sustainable utilisation of
rangelands in Botswana [4]

Botswana Government ensures sustainable utilisation of rangelands through its

policies on land control and management policies like TGLP. The rangelands are
divided into three categories namely, commercial, communal and reserved.

Local Authorities
Local authorities in Botswana include, Land Boards, District Councils and District
Administration Officers. They are charged with the responsibility of land use
planning and management in rural areas. They also engage experts to determine
carrying capacities of their rangelands. They are responsible for ensuring that
members of their respective communities adhere to set stocking rates.

7. Describe sustainable range management practices that will keep range in a good condition.
• Fencing grazing land
• Controlling the spread of trees and shrubs
• Controlling veld fires
• Providing enough water
• Controlling soil erosion
• Controlling weeds
• Controlling grazing.

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8. Explain ways by which rangeland destruction can be prevented [4]
• Practicing correct stocking.
• Controlled grazing.
• Having enough watering points which are well distributed in the rangeland.
• Using the kind of animals suited for the available forage or vegetation.
• Distributing animals evenly in the rangeland.
• Protect range and rangeland from soil erosion.
• Avoid uncontrolled and indiscriminate burning of the rangeland.

Answers to Self-assessment Exercise 5

Section A: Thermal Power

1. Name of thermal power station in Botswana

– Morupule [1]

2. How the thermal power station works to produce electricity [4]

• Coal is burnt
• Water is heated into steam
• Steam turns turbines
• Generator produces electricity

3. Five factors that should be considered when locating a thermal power station. [5]

• Near a coal mine (Morupule).

• Near water sources for water supply (give names of those water sources) for example
with Morupule the water sources are Paje boreholes.
• Flat land
• Along road/railway line
• Large area of land
• Near large centre of population/market
• Near settlements with large labour supply.

4. Problems associated with the production of thermal power [4]

• Pollution
• Dirty
• Expensive to maintain e.g Transport
• Coal is bulky

58
 • Non-renewable
• Difficulty to dispose of waste

5. The importance of Morupule power station to the economy of Botswana. [5]

• Self sufficient in power production

• Promotion of industries
• Source of employment
• Promotes infrastructural development
• Cheaper local power
• Source of revenue
• Reduces reliance on imports
• Economic diversification.

Section B: Hydro Electric Power

6. Three examples of HEP schemes in Africa [3]

• Akosombo
• Bassa
• Kariba
• Cabora
• Aswan
• Lesotho highlands Water project
• Verwoerd

7. How electricity is produced in a hydro electrical power station. [4]

• Water held in reservoir/lake

• Forced through pipes/penstock
• Turns turbines
• Generator produces electricity

8. The importance of HEP to the area in which it is found. [5]

• Employment
• Tourism/recreation
• Water supply
• Fishing on the reservoir
• Export of electricity
• Cheap labour
• Development of industry
• Controls flooding

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 • Navigation

9. Environmental problems that may be created by large hydroelectric power stations. [5]

• Flooding due to wall breaking or overflow

• Deforestation during clearance for the dam/lake
• Species migration/destroys animal habitat
• Earth tremors due to huge volume of water
• Water borne diseases
• Silting/ silt accumulates behind dam wall and fertile soils trapped affecting
Agriculture
• Water flow disrupted by dam wall affecting areas downstream
• Displacement of people to give way for the development of the project.

10. Physical factors that are necessary for the development of a hydroelectric power scheme.[4]

• Narrow deep valley

• Hard rock
• Steep gradient/slope
• Large/constant water supply

11. Why it would be difficult to develop hydroelectric power in Botswana. [4]

• Low/ unreliable rainfall

• Flat terrain
• Lack of narrow deep gorges
• Small domestic market
• Few perennial rivers
• Expensive
• International shared rivers
• Porous rocks.

Section C: Solar Energy

12. Two other types of energy that are used in Botswana apart from solar energy [2]

• Thermal
• Fuel wood
• Bio gas
• Wind mills

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13. How electricity is produced from the sun. [4]

• Solar panel is exposed to the sun

• Rays from the sun are trapped in photovoltaic cells in the solar panel.
• Photovoltaic cells convert solar energy into electrical energy.
• Electricity is stored in a battery.

14. Advantages of using solar energy [3]

• Renewable
• Pollution free
• Readily available
• Cheaper to maintain
• Can be installed anywhere.

15. The problems associated with the production of solar energy [4]

• Expensive equipment/lack of capital

• Limited supply-cant run many appliances
• No production of electricity when cloudy
• Fragile equipment-easy to break/costly
• Lack of education/awareness-no exposure
• Theft/vandalism

16. Socio-economic problems that may result from shortage of power. [5]

• Loss of jobs
• Closure of some business
• Increase in crime
• Decline in service delivery
• Slow industrial development
• Interruptions of daily activities
• Decline in quality of life/standard of living

17. Different ways in which energy might be conserved [5]

• Education
• Load shedding
• Use of prepaid meters
• Switch off appliances that are not in use
• Increased tariffs
• Use of low voltage bulbs
• Use of renewable/alternative sources

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18. What the government of Botswana is doing in an effort to address the problem of power

shortage in the country. [3]

• Expansion of Morupule power station to increase power supply

• Education on conservation e.g. through media
• Importation of electricity e.g. HEP from Zambia supplies Kasane to increase supply
• Introduction of prepaid meters (to ensure users are more accountable)
• Power cuts or load shedding (to temporarily reduce usage)
• Encouraging the use of solar power.

19. How a power station such as Morupule may negatively affect people living near it. [3]

• Risk of respiratory diseases (asthma)

• Pollution (Noise, Air)
• Relocation for expansion/ competition for land
• Risk/danger of explosion.

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References

Leong, C. G. (1994). Certificate Physical and Human Geography. Oxford University press: New
York

Phillipson, O. & Milner, S. (2006). Longman Geography for IGCSE. Pearson Education Limited

Waugh, D. (1998). The new wider world. Oxford University Press

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