Computer network Systems The transfer speed of firewire is faster than that of a

USB
Computer Network- an interconnection of two or more
computers. This interconnection gives these computers Ethernet Cable
cpaabiliy to share information and resources
Transmits signals between a computer to network
There are several types of networks, mostly depending devices such as a router, switch or other computers.
on the number of computers in it
HDMI High definition multimedia interface

A connector for transmitting audio/video data which is

Types of Computer Network Systems
Personal Area Network PAN
A type of connection which Is often limited to an
individual person and his or her personal devices
Normally, These devices must be within the range of 10
meters with each other.
Local Area Network (LAN
Aconnection in which a group of computers and other
devices such as network printers, share acommon
communications line within a certain area like a building
or small campus.
compatible to computers, projectors and digital
televisions
Video Graphics Array (VGA)
The 15-pin VGA was provided on many video cards,
computersmonitors, laptop computers and projectors.
It is now slowly being phased out in favor of the faster
compact HDMI connector
Serials
An RS-232 serials connection was once a standard
feature of a personal computers used for connections to
modems, printers

LANs are often found in schools and offices to secure

organization information. This is done through computer
server in which user access may be restricted to avoid
unwanted users.

Wide area Network

May be less restrictive than LAN as rules and policies

Methods of Communication

Wired Communication

Wired connections use different types of cables for their

connections in a given network.

Popular wired connections nowadays include ff:

Universal Serial Bus

A connectionor interface that allows the computer to

communicate with system peripherals such keybou

Firewire

A type of connector that can transmit data to and from

devices which have typical high data rates, such as
external hard drives.
 NSTP
SERVICE-LEARNING
• Service-learning was first introduced during
1970.
• According to John Dewey, service-learning is the
interaction of knowledge and skills with
experience.
• Dewey believed that human beings learn
through a 'hands-on' approach, or known as
learning by doing.
Service-learning theory is based on the idea that
experience is the foundation for learning
Service-learning is a form of project based learning in
which academic goals are accomplished through
community service.
-It provides students the opportunity to work with
others, gain valuable insights, and acquire different
skills.
LEGAL BASES OF SERVICE-LEARNING
Service-learning is based on RA 8292 also known as the
Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997.
“policy of the state is to establish, maintain, and support
a complete adequate, and integrated system of
education relevant to the needs of the people and the
society.”
As NSTP CWTS 2 student, you may become bona fide
members of their assigned communities as they render
service and perform acts like:
• Analyze the effect of natural disasters and
educate the members of the community to
manage some risk and to reduce the possible
damage.
• Monitor the effects of poor nutrition and lack of
exercise by organizing health related activities
like cooking activities, vegetable gardening,
discussions about proper healthy diet and
exercise to the members of the community.
• Provide varied public relations services with
community partners and engage livelihood
programs.
• Conduct teaching-learning programs for primary
grades students.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SERVICE-LEARNING
• It brings good, substantial, and practical results
for the participants.
• It promotes cooperation rather than
competition where the skills associated with
teamwork and active community involvement
are developed.
• It gives appropriate rather than simplified
solutions to problems that seriously affect the
community
• It provides real-life experiences
• It gives students a deeper understanding of
concepts and real-life situations in the
community
• Through an immediate understanding of
situation in the community, service-learning
becomes a more significant experience for
students, leading to their emotional and social
development and cognitive learning.
SERVICE-LEARNING IS NOT:
• An episodic volunteer program
• An add-on course to an existing school or
college curriculum
• Logging a set number of community service
hours in order to graduate
• Compensatory service assigned as a form of
punishment by the courts or by school
administrators
• Only for high school or college students
BENEFITS OF SERVICE-LEARNING
• Increase their understanding of the class topic
• Gain firsthand experience
• Question or defend values and beliefs
• Have the opportunity to act on values and
beliefs
• Develop critical thinking and problem-solving
skills
• Increase their knowledge of diverse cultures
and communities
• Learn more about social issues and their causes
• Improve their ability to handle difficult
situations
• Be open to change and become more flexible
• Develop or enhance their skills, especially in the
areas of communication, collaboration and
leadership
Types of Service-Learning
Indirect Service-Learning
 working on broad issues, environmental
projects, or community development
 projects that have clear benefits to the
community or environment, but not necessarily
to individually identified people with whom the
students are working.
Example: Collecting trash from the riverbank or coastal
clean-up
Research-Based Service-Learning
 gathering and presenting information on areas
of interests and needs
 projects that find, gather, and report on
information that is needed.
Example: Gathering information and creating brochures
or videos for non-profit or government agencies
Advocacy Service-Learning
• educating others about topics of public interests
• projects that aim to create awareness and
action on some issue that impacts the
community.
Example: Educating and promoting 3R’s among local
schools, daycares, and churches (GKK or day-care
centers)
DIGITAL SERVICE-LEARNING (DSL)
“An ideal education in 2020 will give students the tools
-- both physical and digital -- to work with their
neighbors to improve the lived circumstances in their
communities,”
- Laken Brooks from her article Reimagining Service
Learning in the Digital Age.
Digital Service-Learning (DSL) bridges the lessons on
your screens and the reality on our streets.
DSL is an integration of digital technology into the
performance and delivery of service-learning.
Significant and helpful steps in effectively
implementing service-learning
Assess the community resources
 This includes looking into opportunities
to establish partnerships with the local
leaders, out-of-school youth,
businessmen, women leaders, and
youth leaders regarding community
issues and problems
Establish partnerships and linkages.
 Establishing partnerships with different
service-oriented organizations
 Maintaining and improving existing
affiliations and developing potential
partnerships
Initially plan on the chosen program
 The initial stage of planning is of utmost
importance
 Plan according to expected goals.
 Find out your human, financial, physical,
and intellectual resources including the
additional student leaders who can
assist your group in executing and
coordinating the different activities
Plan the details of the program
 Prepare all the important things in mind
like the rationale, timeline, budget, and
list of assignments.
 Partners must be involved in the
process
Look for funds
 Tie-ups with local businessmen,
national corporations, faith-based or
religious organizations, NGO’s,
government agencies or LGU and other
local organizations.
Implement and manage the program
 Plan of action must be properly
implemented
 The right intervals for assessment must
be set and partners must be involved in
the process
Organize reflection activities
 Carefully design activities that give
students the chance to better
understand community service.
 Students must be permitted to record
all their experiences, including their
assignments in a journal.
Assess and evaluate the program
 Include the active involvement of the
community or institution in assessing
community service outcomes
 Document active participation of
individual students and organizations
Celebrate the achievement
 Student names can be posted in bulletin
boards
 Presence or attendance of community
leaders in recognition programs is
necessary for inspiring students and
other active participants in community
projects
GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES
Preparatory Stage
 The students and faculty members are both
responsible for the selection of the community
or institution.
  The students who will join the SLP must secure
a waiver from the OSA to be signed by their
parents or guardians.

IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
 This is the actual or performing your service-
learning program. Implementation stage must
be done after you prepare or design your SLP.
Post-Activity Evaluation Stage
 An evaluation must be done after the
implementation stage. It is important to record,
analyze and assess the result of the SLP

IN YOUR COMMUNITY PART 1

CREATE A SAMPLE OF SLP
1. All members will share the occurring problems
or issues in their community.
2. After the sharing, the group will select a
particular community to give SLP
3. Plan the SLP
a. Assessment
b. Title of the program/project
c. Objectives
d. Rationale
e. Proponents (including the address of the
community and partners)
f. Budget plan
g. Time frame
h. Implementation
 ETHICS MIDTERM
NATURAL LAW ETHICS
WHAT IS NATURAL LAW ETHICS?
-Natural Law refers to the general view that moral rules
are objective, absolute and universal truths can be
discovered in the nature of things through the use of
our reason.
-This law should not be confused with the scientific
natural law; since moral law is just accessible through
human reason (natural reflection).
-Natural law refers to the laws that are built into the
nature of life itself
THE STOIC’S INTERPRETATION OF THE NATURAL LAW
-The stoics believe that human beings possess a “divine
spark” [logos spermatikos – rational seed].
-They equated nature with law and reason and taught
that what was important was to live a life according to
nature.
-Moreover, the Stoics conceived the whole of the
universe as governed by a certain immutable law that
exhibit rationality.
ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPTION OF NATURAL LAW
-Aristotle believes that everything that exists has a
purpose and that we can never fully understand a thing
unless we know what it is for.
- The whole process of how a thing develops from
potentiality to actuality is possible because of the
thing’s very nature.
-For Aristotle, every individual substance has an intrinsic
nature which is dynamic. The essence of a thing is an
activity.
-The activities that human being can do [thinking] which
made them different from other beings make them
human
ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPTION OF NATURAL LAW
THE MORAL LAW
-Law in a broader sense refers to standards/directives
which beings are supposed to constantly follow.
- In relation to ethics, law is the “rule of conduct which
governs, directs, or regulates the free acts of men”
(Montemayor, 1994, pg. 79)
THOMISTIC INFLUENCE ON NATURAL LAW
-Law as Defined by St. Thomas Aquinas
 He defines it as “the ordinance of reason for
the common good, promulgated by one who
has the care of the community” (as cited in
Fagothey, 1967, pg 106).
 Thus it is binding the subjects to obey; since it
is a kind of imposition, apart from being a plea.
 For something to be a law, it must be grounded
on reason.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR A LAW TO BE REASONABLE
-It must be Just
-It must be honest
-It must be possible of fulfilment
-It must be relatively permanent
-It must be promulgated
-It must be directed to the common good
-It must be promulgated by one who has the care of the
community
ATTRIBUTES OF THE NATURAL LAW
1. The natural law is obligatory
2. The natural law is universal
3. The natural law has its proper sanctions
4. The natural law is knowable or recognizable
5. The natural law is immutable or unchangeable.
CONTENTS OF NATURAL LAW
-It is distinguished between: formal and material norms
Formal Norms – relate to our character that makes us
what we ought to be; unchangeable, not relative to the
subject.
Material Norms – actions that we ought to do; it is the
application of formal norms to concrete action
KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL LAW
-No person “would ever think that evil should be done
and good should be forbidden. That seems unthinkable
and [simply] against human nature… No person … can
be invincibly ignorant as to the substance of the Ten
Commandments …”(Panizo, 1964, 59).
-The general principles of the natural law can never be
forgotten in the mind.
-The basic human inclinations are precisely to put into
human nature by an all knowing and wise Creator to aid
humans in the attainment of their final end

NATURAL LAW AND CHURCH’S TEACHING
-“anything that deliberately or wilfully frustrates the
natural outcome (of the act) must be viewed as ethically
wrong. Every sexual act should at least be open to the
possibility of conceiving a child. Anything outside of it is
always morally unjustified” (Thompson, 2003, 251)
-Every genital act should be geared towards procreation.
SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES UNDER NATURAL LAW THEORY
-Principle of Double Effect
--This is a moral principle that “provides a neat
algorithm for solving all moral problems in which an act
will have two effects, one good and the other bad.”
(Pojman, 2002, p. 45)
--Conditions for an act to be justified:
1. The action must be intended for the good/ morally
indifferent/neutral.
2. No intention that leads to an evil effect (side effects
are exempted)
3. Evil effect must not be the means by which good
effect is achieved
4. The good effect must outweigh the evil effect or
proportional
SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES UNDER NATURAL LAW THEORY
-The Principle of the Inviolability of Life
o LIFE is of infinite value as it is a gift from the
Almighty Creator
-The Principle of Forfeiture
o It is morally permissible to preserve your own
well-being, even if it leads to the point of taking
another life since the assailant forfeited his/her
innocence by threatening yours.
-The Principle of Totality
o This principle refers to the view that a part (of a
human body) exists for the good of the whole.
-The Principle of Stewardship
o Has its beliefs that all life comes from God, the
supreme creator and maker of all, thus no one
can claim that he/she is the owner of anything
in the world; we are only keepers/caretakers.
JUST WAR THEORY
1. Lawful Authority
2. Just Cause
3. Last Resort
4. Good Intention
5. Reasonable Chance of Success
6. Right Use of Means
7. Proportional Response
JUSTIFIED REBELLION OR REVOLUTION
-Rebellion is going against the constituted authority.
-Conditions must be met in order for a revolution [Coup
d’ etat]
1. When there is a clear and manifest long-
standing tyranny and oppression.
2. When all peaceful and legal means to resolve
the conflict have been expended.
3. When there is a reasonable probability that
the revolt will be a success
4. When the good to be achieved is the same
weight to the damage that would be inflicted.
5. The decision to wage a violent revolt against
the government should come from the majority
and not just from a few private individuals
STRENGTHS OF NATURAL LAW THEORY
1. Natural law theory affirms our basic belief in the
infinite and inherent worth and value of human life.
2. It gives purposive direction and coherent explanation
to all realities in the cosmos.
3. It offers a clear and comprehensive guideline as to
what are the things that we ought to do and not to do
4. It grounds morality in human nature that is
discoverable by reason
5. It gives emphasis on the various human inclinations
as something good and thus should be promoted and
enhanced.
6. It grounds morality on certain universal human
values such as the value of life, truth and goodness.
7. It coherently integrates the significant role of
conscience in knowing what is right and wrong.
8. It explains in a systematic manner why things
(nature) are the way they are and their implications to
human moral action.
9. It provides a religious dimension to morality
10.It categorically rejects relativism
11.It provides reasoned justification on why some things
are good or bad.
12.It offers a clear and logical guidelines in complex
situations.
13.It gives a definite assessment as to morality of
certain actions
14.It offers a more philosophical alternative to the
Divine Command Theory of ethics.
15.It is deeply consistent with our own intuition
concerning the objectivity of morality.

CRITICISMS AGAINST NATURAL LAW THEORY

1. Can the way things are by nature provide the basis for
knowing how they ought to be?
2. If natural law is discoverable by human reason, and
since reason is true to all men, then why is it so difficult
to know and be certain what it is?
3. In what sense is the “natural law” a law?
4. The popular scientific theory poses a serious
challenge to the traditional natural law thinking.
5. Is human nature fixed?
6. Is human nature inherently good or bad?
7. What about the negative human tendencies?
8. The idea of St. Thomas that human nature originally
comes from God as its author is problematic
9. What is natural for one may not be natural for
another.
10. Is conscience always right?
 English
Definition Denotative and Connotative
When we define words or unfamiliar words terms, we
give concise but exact meaning of unfamiliar words and
special meanings of familiar words.
For people of all ages, definition is a useful technique in
oral or written communication. It is particularly a must
for a technical writer to be able to define the terms with
multiple meanings and those are unfamiliar to the
reader.
Methods of defining terms
Pointers when Defining Terms
There are two methods of defining terms:
1. Never give definitions of a term that include any of
- Simple definition
its derivatives. Example: Definition is the act of defining.
- Informal definition
2. Do not use “is where” or “is when” to define a term.
Simple definition
Example: Don’t say “Christmas is when Jesus Christ was
- could be formulated by bearing in mind its three parts:
born” or “A classroom is where you will find students”
species, genus, differentia. This method of definition is
3. Use the simple present tense (active and passive
commonly used in technical writing whether formally,
voice) Example: Documentation is the process of
semi-formally, or non-formally.
acknowledging the source used in developing a research
paper (active) The process of acknowledging the source
Species (Term Genus (the class Differentia (a
used in developing a research paper is called
to be defined) where the term characteristic of
documention (passive)
belongs) the term)
4. Often, we use relative clause to give additional
Language is a form of information. Example: Documentation is the process of
communication. acknowledging the source used in developing a research
An architect is a professional who designs paper. This is also another way of helping researchers
buildings who may be later on reading your work to do further
Communication is a proces of giving and research themselves
receiving Exploring expository Technique
information. Expository Techniques
- a writing technique used by a writer when his intention
Expanded Definition is to explain something, to analyze an idea, to clarify a
This is another method of defining a term that is done thing, to give the correct definition of term, to make
by stipulation, operation, explication, cause and effect, others follow direction, to point out similarities or
classification, example, and other rhetorical functions. differences, to clarify causes and effects, to present
Sample: data, to interpret research work, and others.
Communication - species - is a systematic process - CLASSIFICATION
genus - in which people interact with and through Classification is dividing something into groups, classes,
symbols to create and interpret meaning. - differentia categories, etc. This is normally done in accordance with
(containing explication and example) several criteria. It is done by the writer when he believes
Informal definition that there are shared qualities or characteristics about a
does not follow a pattern. The only objective is to give subject matter.
meaning of a word that is unfamiliar or explain the How to classify
special meaning of a familiar word. One way of classifying objects or ideas is to look for
Denotative - is the basic literal meaning or dictionary relationships among them and to organize into groups.
meaning of a word. Try to find the similarities or differences of the words
Connotative - words imply aside from its dictionary listed below by classifying them into identifiable
meaning. The positive or negative associations a word categories.
naturally carries
Noun Benigno Philippines Conjunctio
Aquino, III n car. Imagine that you are starting your own automatic
Vietnam Wiring Rodrigo Cambodia
harness Duterte
Verb Fidel Singapore Car seat Break
system
Ramos Engine Oil Adjective Gloria
System Arroyo
Gendered power patterns
Research (Helgessen, 1990; in Wood, 2001) reveals
general differences in how women and men define and
use power. Men tend to see power as finite and as
something to guard closely. Women are more likely to
regard power as unlimited and to share it freely.
Another difference is how the sexes see the ends of
power. In general, men see power as something an
individual has and uses to enhance individual status.
The tendency among women is to perceive power as a
resource for empowering others and building strong
collaborative teams. Differences in orientations toward
power are consistent with gender communication
cultures and the divergent rules of communication they
teach men and women.
Let’s answer the following comprehension questions
What two classes are being compared/contrasted in the
passage?
How is gender classified?
What descriptions are based on the similarities and
differences?
Description of a process
In describing a process
a writer explains the arrangement of a sequence in
chronological order. As it is used in technical writing, the
process is akin to mechanism description. Process
description includes instructions, and procedures.
Two separate concepts In describing a process
1. How to do something (instruction or procedure)
2. How something occurs (sequence)
In like manner, process is also a description of
equipment, materials, and procedures
Graphic materials
- are used for detailed presentation of the process. The
writer makes use of sequence markers to follow the
natural or mechanical system.
Description of a process or procedure
when describing a process or procedure, we often use
the present passive tense: is/are + v + ed.
For example: manufactured, is controlled, etc.
When describing a process, we use sequence markers to
link sentences like first, second, then, next,
subsequently, finally, at last.
Reinforcement Below are steps in starting an automatic
car. Figure out the number of the sequence to this
process:
_____ Push the brake pedal and insert the key to the
ignition to turn it on.
_____ Gently shift the gear to the D.
_____ Then, release the pressure on the brake pedal
slowly.
_____ The vehicle will start slowly.
_____ And, if you want the car to move faster, press the
gas pedal.
_____ First, make sure that the lever should be at “P”
before starting the car.
Description of Mechanism
We may belong to different fields and disciplines but
there are certain machines or apparatuses that we use
to make our work easier
DESCRIPTION OF MECHANISM
Is an explanation of a system or parts of an apparatus.
This includes the characteristics and functions of a piece
of the device and the totality of the mechanism. It also
explains the arrangement and shape of an object in
space.
When writing a description of mechanism, the writer
may guided the following questions:
- What is it (equipment, machine, device, apparatus)? -
-- What is its function?
- What does it look like?
- How does it work?
- What are its principal parts?
Overall, when we employ techniques in expository
writing, we make use of discourse markers that identify
a particular technique. For the purpose of describing a
mechanism, the following discourse markers can be
used:
then, apart from, as soon as, as a result, where, at this
point, once more, and as.
How to Start a Manual Car Example:
_____ a driver gets into the car; he has to make sure
that the car is in neutral position. _____ the battery, a
car also includes accessories like gasoline, lights, oil,
water and air.
_____ the driver has started the engine, he puts the car
into first gear _____ he releases the clutch and changes
to second gear, then to third gear _____ of which the
car will glide on smoothly along the road. He presses the
clutch and moves on to fourth gear in order that the car
will become faster as it moves along the highway
Reflection 1.
In your field of specialization, what types of tasks would
entail the use of classification, definition, description of
a process, and description of mechanism?
2. Which of the expository techniques do you think are
less likely to be used? Why?
3. What do you need to strengthen as a future
professional in order to become a good or better
expository writer?
 Ethics
A Brief History of Relativism
▪ Began with the Stoics
▪ Plato criticized the Stoics with his theory of the forms
(and ethical absolutism)
▪ Aristotle disagreed with Plato
There are no universal forms beyond this world forms
are in the world and therefore not absolute. Moral
behavior should be a midway approach between two
extremes ; human circumstances are infinite and it is
not possible to have a general rule which will cover
every situation. Moral rules hold for the most part but
there are times when they won’t.
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics
▪ Ethics is not absolute, it should seek a midway
approach to behavior between two extremes.
▪ Virtue is the mean between two extremes
Example:
Cowardly Vice of Deficiency
Courageous Virtuous Mean
Rash Vice of Excess
Relativism in Modernity…
The Guardian
14th April 2007 Julian Baginni
▪ For millennia, most people believed that right is right
and wrong is wrong, and that was all there is to it.
▪ Now university lecturers report that their fresh-faced
new students take it as obvious that there is no such
thing as “the truth” and that morality is relative.
In educated circles at least, only the naïve believe in
objectivity
Ethical Relativism and the Ambivalence of Filipino
Cultural Values
Culture and Moral Behavior
▪ Culture plays an important roles in the development of
one’s moral character; at such point that some
philosophers consider culture as inseparable from
morality.
▪ To disregard culture is to have a groundless
metaphysical generalities.
▪ For some; Morality = result of Cultural Factors.
▪ Ethical Relativism – a framework where morality does
not rest on culture
Ethical Relativism Defined
It refers to a view or doctrine that ethical values and
beliefs are relative to the time, place, persons, situations
and societies that hold them.
Ethical Relativism
• A theory that holds that there are no universally valid
moral principles; all moral values are valid relative to
culture of individual choice – thus, subjective.
• Relativism does not try to tell us which acts and
practices are right and wrong; it says no matter how we
answer that question, we must acknowledge that a
conduct may be both right and wrong at the same time
[right in one culture, and wrong in another].
Arguments for Ethical Relativism
The Cultural Differences Argument
▪ There is an actual existence of moral diversity among
culture.
▪ There is no universal or transcultural consensus on
which actions are right and wrong, “even though there
is a considerable overlapping with regards to this.”
▪ However, “acquaintance with the wide diversity of
moral beliefs across societies” may lead us to deny that
there is really only one correct moral code
The Argument from Respect
▪ If moral codes differ from culture and there is no
objective basis, then there is no special status of any
culture.
▪ No culture has the right to impose its cultural values.
▪ Thus, the appropriate attitude would be to respect it.
▪ People should stop being too dogmatic on one’s
culture and claim themselves to be right, and thus just
respect other’s claims to be “different.
The Psychological Argument
▪ This argument rests on a conclusion that; “One’s
values are conditioned through parental rearing.”
▪ If we would be brought up differently, then our moral
principles would be different as well.
▪ There would be no such thing as objective truth in
ethics.
▪ Moral truth is relative to one’s own psychological
upbringing
The Conformity Argument
▪ Some people accept Ethical Relativism because they
think that people should conform with the ethical code
of their respective societies; some even think that it is
their duty.
▪ Through Cultural Relativism, people would come to be
more accepting of their own societal norms.
▪ Their belief gives a good basis for a common morality
within a culture.
▪ Diverse ideas and principles are pooled in.
The Provability Argument
▪ Each person is at lost in knowing the morally “RIGHT
THING” to do in a particular situation.
▪ This leads to an attitude of skepticism.
▪ Its main argument lies: if there is such a thing as
objective truth in ethics we should be able to prove that
some moral opinions are true and others false
Critical Evaluation of Ethical Relativism
On Cultural Diversity
▪ Cultural Relativism is indeed sociological and
anthropological fact; however, it does not establish the
truth of ethical relativism.
▪ The point is: “Does cultural relativism imply ethical
relativism?”
▪ Relativism self destructs.
▪ If “morality is relative to one’s culture” is followed, it is
in itself a contradiction – since, if everything is relative
then the very truth of relativism would also be relative
On the Argument from Respect
▪ This is the kind that render tolerance in face of
something unfamiliar and contradictory which seem to
be an attitude of mature and enlightened mind.
▪ If there is no way of criticizing other culture then we
might as well as accept it – INTERCULTURAL TOLERANCE
[by Herskovits]
▪ Contention: “If people believe that there is ethical
relativism, then they will be more tolerant of moral
differences.”
▪ The main question is: “How do we really know that
one would be tolerant and respectful?” There is no
empirical evidence.
▪ Another: “Acceptance of it involves one in some sort of
contradiction, while tolerance is a virtue, it could not be
practiced consistently
On the Psychological Argument
▪ In Moral Skepticism, Rachels points out a flaw in the
argument, he says, “even granting the truth of the
premise, that we do acquire our moral beliefs by a
process like the one psychologists described, the
conclusion that if we had been conditioned differently,
we would have different moral beliefs, thus there’s no
such thing as objective moral truth, does not follow,
hence unsound and invalid.”
▪ The conclusion does not follow from the premises.
▪ Commits the Genetic Fallacy and Fallacy of
Misrepresentation.
On the Conformity Argument
▪ Morality is dependent on the majority, which is
problematic for the argument
On the Provability Argument
▪ Normal Proof – can be proven.
▪ Standard Scientific Sense of Proof– cannot be proven.
▪ Human beings are in a constant disagreement.
▪ We are uncertain about the morality of some of our
actions and decisions, and cannot really prove them
beyond reasonable doubt.
▪ Even though there were no solid way to know moral
truths, it would not follow that there are no such
truths.
The Ambivalence of Filipino Values
The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values
▪ Filipinos are sometimes called “ambivalent,” as it is a
product of our complex history.
▪ According to Dr. Quito, we have a “weak character”
that is comprised as the “scapegoat of our failures.”
▪ Does these characters make up of our “being a
Filipino?”
The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values
1. Hiya(Shame)–Negative –arrests one’s actions
(“morality of the slave” by Nietzsche)–Positive –
contributes peace of mind by not doing anything
2. Ningas-cogon (Procrastination)–Negative – begins
ardently and dies down as soon as it begins.–Positive –
the person is non-chalant, detached and indifferent,
thus conducive to peace and tranquility.
3. Pakikisama (Group Loyalty)–Negative –because one
closes one’s eyes to evil like graft and corruption in
order to achieve peace and harmony.–Positive –
because one lives for others.
4. Patigasan (Test of Strength)–Negative –stubborn and
resists all efforts at reconciliation. This trait makes us
childish, vindictive, irresponsible and irrational.–Positive
– it is a sign that we know our rights and not easily
cowed into submission. (Nietzsche’s will-to-power)
5. BahalaNa (Resignation)–Negative –one leaves
everything to chance under the pretext of
understanding in Divine providence.–Positive – one
relies on superior power rather than one’s own.
Conducive to humility, modesty and lack of arrogance.
6. Kasi (Because, i.e. Scapegoat)–Negative –because
one disowns responsibility and makes scapegoat out of
someone or something; there is always an alibi.–Positive
– one sees both sides of the picture; knows where the
project failed; one will never suffer from guilt.
7. Saving Face–Negative –it enables a person to avoid
responsibility.–Positive – one’s psyche is saved from
undue embarrassment; will enable someone to make a
graceful exit.
8. Sakop(Inclusion)–Negative – one never learns to be
on one’s own but relies on one’s family and relatives.
Generates a life of parasitism.–Positive – shows concern
for the family where the agent belongs
9. Mañana or BukasNa/ MamayaNa (Procrastination)–
Negative –one constantly postpones action and
accomplishes nothing.–Positive – one is without stress
and tension; one learns to take what comes naturally.
10.Utang na Loob(Indebtedness)–Negative –one
overlooks moral principles when one is indebted.–
Positive – it is a recognition of one’s indebtedness.
11.Kanya-Kanya (Self-Centeredness)–Negative –one has
no regard for others.–Positive – one takes care of
oneself and one’s family. “Blood is thicker than water.
WHAT IS NATURAL LAW ETHICS?
- Natural Law refers to the general view that moral rules
are objective, absolute and universal truths can be
discovered in the nature of things through the use of
our reason.
- This law should not be confused with the scientific
natural law; since moral law is just accessible through
human reason (natural reflection).
- Natural law refers to the laws that are built into the
nature of life itself
THE STOIC’S INTERPRETATION OF THE NATURAL LAW
- The stoics believe that human beings possess a “divine
spark” [logos spermatikos– rational seed].
- They equated nature with law and reason and taught
that what was important was to live a life according to
nature.
- Moreover, the Stoics conceived the whole of the
universe as governed by a certain immutable laws that
exhibit rationality.
ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPTION OF NATURAL LAW
- Aristotle believes that everything that exists has a
purpose and that we can never fully understand a thing
unless we know what it is for.
- The whole process of how a thing develops from
potentiality to actuality is possible because of the
thing’s very nature.
- For Aristotle, every individual substance has an
intrinsic nature which is dynamic. The essence of a thing
is an activity.
- The activities that human being can do [thinking]
which made them different from other beings make
them human.
Aristotle's conception of natural law revolves around
four basic ideas. These are (Camp, Olen & Barry, 2015:
75):
1. Everything in nature has a purpose.
2. Everything in nature has an essential nature-certain
features that constitute its defining features.
3. Everything in nature has its proper good.
4. Something's natural purpose, its essential nature,
and its proper good are intimately related.
THE MORAL LAW
- Law in a broader sense refers to standards/directives
which beings are supposed to constantly follow.
- In relation to ethics, law is the “rule of conduct which
governs, directs, or regulates the free acts of men”
(Montemayor, 1994, pg. 79).
THOMISTIC INFLUENCE ON NATURAL LAW
- Law as Defined by St. Thomas Aquinas
- He defines it as “the ordinance of reason for the
common good, promulgated by one who has the care of
the community” (as cited in Fagothey, 1967, pg 106).
- Thus it is binding the subjects to obey; since it is a kind
of imposition, apart from being a plea.
- For something to be a law, it must be grounded on
reason.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS FOR A LAW TO BE REASONABLE
- It must be Just
- It must be honest
- It must be possible of fulfilment
- It must be relatively permanent
- It must be promulgated
- It must be directed to the common good
- It must be promulgated by one who has the care of the
community
ATTRIBUTES OF THE NATURAL LAW
1. The natural law is obligatory
2. The natural law is universal
3. The natural law has its proper sanctions
4. The natural law is knowable or recognizable
5. The natural law is immutable or unchangeable
CONTENTS OF NATURAL LAW
- It is distinguished between: formal and material norms
- Formal Norms – relate to our character that makes us
what we ought to be; unchangeable, not relative to the
subject.
- Material Norms – actions that we ought to do; it is the
application of formal norms to concrete action
KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL LAW
- No person “would ever think that evil should be done
and good should be forbidden. That seems unthinkable
and [simply] against human nature… No person … can
be invincibly ignorant as to the substance of the Ten
Commandments …”(Panizo, 1964, 59).
- The general principles of the natural law can never be
forgotten in the mind.
- The basic human inclinations are precisely to put into
human nature by an all knowing and wise Creator to aid
humans in the attainment of their final end
Basic and Universal Natural Human Inclinations
There are basic and natural human tendencies or
inclinations that are present in all of us according to St.
Thomas Aquinas. These are:
1) Self Preservation or Survival that is, man has to
preserve himself in existence;
2) Propagation of our Species- that is, to unite sexually
to produce offspring for the continuance of the next
generation of the human race;
3) To Live in Peace and in Harmony, with Other Men that
is, just and fair dealings with others, and,
4) To Seek for Truth and Knowledge of the Good that is,
to use his will and intellect to know the truth and seek
the good, including his highest good, which is eternal
happiness with God..
NATURAL LAW AND CHURCH’S TEACHING
- “anything that deliberately or wilfully frustrates the
natural outcome (of the act) must be viewed as ethically
wrong. Every sexual act should at least be open to the
possibility of conceiving a child. Anything outside of it is
always morally unjustified” (Thompson, 2003, 251)
- Every genital act should be geared towards
procreation
SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES UNDER NATURAL LAW THEORY
- Principle of Double Effect
- This is a moral principle that “provides a neat
algorithm for solving all moral problems in which an act
will have two effects, one good and the other bad.”
(Pojman, 2002, p. 45)
- Conditions for an act to be justified:
1. The action must be intended for the good/ morally
indifferent/neutral.
2. No intention that leads to an evil effect (side effects
are exempted)
3. Evil effect must not be the means by which good
effect is achieved
4. The good effect must outweigh the evil effect or
proportional.
SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES UNDER NATURAL LAW THEORY
- The Principle of the Inviolability of Life
- LIFE is of infinite value as it is a gift from the Almighty
Creator
- The Principle of Forfeiture
- It is morally permissible to preserve your own well-
being, even if it leads to the point of taking another life
since the assailant forfeited his/her innocence by
threatening yours.
- The Principle of Totality
- This principle refers to the view that a part (of a human
body) exists for the good of the whole
- The Principle of Stewardship
- Has its beliefs that all life comes from God, the
supreme creator and maker of all, thus no one can claim
that he/she is the owner of anything in the world; we
are only keepers/caretakers
JUST WAR THEORY
1. Lawful Authority
2. Just Cause
3. Last Resort
4. Good Intention
5. Reasonable Chance of Success
6. Right Use of Means
7. Proportional Response
JUSTIFIED REBELLION OR REVOLUTION
- Rebellion is going against the constituted authority.
- Conditions must be met in order for a revolution [Coup
d’ etat] may be justified:
1. When there is a clear and manifest long-standing
tyranny and oppression.
2. When all peaceful and legal means to resolve the
conflict have been expended
3. When there is a reasonable probability that the revolt
will be a success
4. When the good to be achieved is the same weight to
the damage that would be inflicted.
5. The decision to wage a violent revolt against the
government should come from the majority and not just
from a few private individuals.
STRENGTHS OF NATURAL LAW THEORY
1. Natural law theory affirms our basic belief in the
infinite and inherent worth and value of human life.
2. It gives purposive direction and coherent explanation
to all realities in the cosmos.
3. It offers a clear and comprehensive guideline as to
what are the things that we ought to do and not to do
4. It grounds morality in human nature that is
discoverable by reason
5. It gives emphasis on the various human inclinations
as something good and thus should be promoted and
enhanced.
6. It grounds morality on certain universal human values
such as the value of life, truth and goodness.
7. It coherently integrates the significant role of
conscience in knowing what is right and wrong.
8. It explains in a systematic manner why things (nature)
are the way they are and their implications to human
moral action.
9. It provides a religious dimension to morality
10.It categorically rejects relativism
11.It provides reasoned justification on why some things
are good or bad.
12.It offers a clear and logical guidelines in complex
situations.
13.It gives a definite assessment as to morality of
certain actions
14.It offers a more philosophical alternative to the
Divine Command Theory of ethics.
15.It is deeply consistent with our own intuition
concerning the objectivity of morality.
CRITICISMS AGAINST NATURAL LAW THEORY
1. Can the way things are by nature provide the basis for
knowing how they ought to be?
2. If natural law is discoverable by human reason, and
since reason is true to all men, then why is it so difficult
to know and be certain what it is?
3. In what sense is the “natural law” a law?
4. The popular scientific theory poses a serious
challenge to the traditional natural law thinking
5. Is human nature fixed?
6. Is human nature inherently good or bad?
7. What about the negative human tendencies?
8. The idea of St. Thomas that human nature originally
comes from God as its author is problematic
9. What is natural for one may not be natural for
another.
10. Is conscience always right?