Mycelium (pl.

: mycelia)[a] is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching,

thread-like hyphae.[1] Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline
threads.[2] Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other
substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium,[1] which cannot
reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic
mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms.[3] A mycelium may be
minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in
Armillaria.

Through the mycelium, a fungus absorbs nutrients from its environment. It does this in a two-stage
process. First, the hyphae secrete enzymes onto or into the food source, which break down biological
polymers into smaller units such as monomers. These monomers are then absorbed into the
mycelium by facilitated diffusion and active transport.

Mycelia are vital in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems for their role in the decomposition of plant
material. They contribute to the organic fraction of soil, and their growth releases carbon dioxide
back into the atmosphere (see carbon cycle). Ectomycorrhizal extramatrical mycelium, as well as the
mycelium of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, increase the efficiency of water and nutrient absorption of
most plants and confers resistance to some plant pathogens. Mycelium is an important food source
for many soil invertebrates. They are vital to agriculture and are important to almost all species of
plants, many species co-evolving with the fungi. Mycelium is a primary factor in some plants’ health,
nutrient intake and growth, with mycelium being a major factor to plant fitness.

Networks of mycelia can transport water[4] and spikes of electrical potential.[5]

Sclerotia are compact or hard masses of mycelium.

Uses

Agriculture

One of the primary roles of fungi in an ecosystem is to decompose organic compounds. Petroleum
products and some pesticides (typical soil contaminants) are organic molecules (i.e., they are built on
a carbon structure), and thereby show a potential carbon source for fungi. Hence, fungi have the
potential to eradicate such pollutants from their environment unless the chemicals prove toxic to the
fungus. This biological degradation is a process known as bioremediation.

Mycelial mats have been suggested as having potential as biological filters, removing chemicals and
microorganisms from soil and water. The use of fungal mycelium to accomplish this has been termed
mycofiltration.
Knowledge of the relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plants suggests new ways to improve
crop yields.[6]

When spread on logging roads, mycelium can act as a binder, holding disturbed new soil in place
preventing washouts until woody plants can establish roots.

Fungi are essential for converting biomass into compost, as they decompose feedstock components
such as lignin, which many other composting microorganisms cannot.[7] Turning a backyard compost
pile will commonly expose visible networks of mycelia that have formed on the decaying organic
material within. Compost is an essential soil amendment and fertilizer for organic farming and
gardening. Composting can divert a substantial fraction of municipal solid waste from landfills.[8]

Commercial

Alternatives to polystyrene and plastic packaging can be produced by growing mycelium in

agricultural waste.[9]

Mycelium has also been used as a material in furniture, and artificial leather.[10]

One of the main commercial uses of mycelium is its use to create artificial leather. Animal leather
contributes to a significant environmental footprint, as livestock farming is associated with
deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and grazing. In addition, the production of synthetic
leathers from polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane require the use of hazardous chemicals and fossil
fuels, and they are not biodegradable (like plastic). Fungal-based artificial leather is cheaper to
produce, has less of an environmental footprint, and is biodegradable. It costs between 18 and 28
cents to produce a square meter of raw mycelium, while it costs between $5.81 and $6.24 to
produce a square meter of raw animal hide. Fungal growth is carbon neutral and pure mycelium is
94% biodegradable. However, the use of polymeric materials such as polyester or polylactic acid to
improve artificial leather’s properties can negatively affect the biodegradability of the material.[11]

To create leather, fungal mycelium is grown either using liquid-state or solid-state fermentation. In
liquid-state fermentation, companies typically use laboratory media or agricultural byproducts to
grow fungal biomass. The fungal biomass is then separated into fibers and processed using fiber
suspension, filtration, pressing, and drying. These techniques are also commonly utilized in
traditional papermaking processes. In solid-state fermentation, mycelium is grown on forestry
bioproducts, like sawdust, in an environment with high carbon dioxide concentrations and controlled
humidity and temperature. The mycelium mat formed on top of the particle bed is dehydrated,
chemically treated, and then compressed to a desired thickness and engraved with a pattern.[11]

Construction material
Mycelium is a strong candidate for sustainable construction primarily due to its lightweight
biodegradable structure and its capacity to be grown from waste sources. In addition to this,
mycelium has a relatively high strength-to-weight ratio and a much lower embodied energy
compared to traditional building materials. Because mycelium takes the form of any mold it's grown
in, it can also be advantageous for customization purposes, especially if it's employed as an
architectural or aesthetic feature. Current research has also indicated that mycelium does not release
toxic resins in the event of a fire because it has a charring effect similar to mass timber. Mycelium
plays an interesting role in acoustic insulation, boasting of an absorbance of 70–75% for frequencies
of 1500 Hz or less.[12]

Strengths and weaknesses

Mycelium bio-composites have shown strong potential for structural applications, with much higher
strength-to-weight ratios than that of conventional materials due primarily to its low density.
Compared to conventional building materials, mycelium also has a number of desirable properties
that make it an attractive alternative. For example, it has low thermal conductivity and can provide
high acoustic insulation. It is biodegradable, has much lower embodied energy, and can serve as a
carbon sink, which makes mycelium bio-composites a possible solution to the emissions, energy, and
waste associated with building construction.

While mycelium proposes interesting implications as a structural material, there are several
significant disadvantages that make it difficult to be practically implemented in large-scale projects.
For one, mycelium does not have particularly high compressive strength on its own, ranging from
0.1-0.2 MPa.[13] This is in stark comparison to traditional concrete, which typically has a compressive
strength of 17-28 MPa. Even more, because mycelium is considered a living material, it holds specific
requirements that make it susceptible to environmental conditions. For instance, it requires a
constant source of air in order to stay alive, needs a relatively humid habitat to grow, and cannot be
exposed to large amounts of water for fear of contamination and decay.

Mechanical properties

3 separate fungi species (Colorius versicolor, Trametes ochracea, and Ganoderma sessile) were mixed
independently with 2 substrates (apple and vine) and tested under separate incubation conditions in
order to quantify certain mechanical properties of mycelium. In order to do this, samples were
grown in molds, incubated, and dried over the course of 12 days. Samples were tested for water
absorption using ASTM C272 guidelines and compared against an EPS material. Tiles of uniform size
were cut from the fabricated mold and put under an Instron 3345 machine going at 1 mm/min, up
until 20% deformation.[14]

Throughout a 4 stage process, the impact of various substrate and fungal mixes was investigated
along with properties of mycelium such as density, water absorption, and compressive strength.
Samples were separated into two separate incubation methods and inspected for differences in
color, texture, and growth. For the same fungi within each incubation method, minimal differences
were recorded. However, across disparate substrate mixtures within the same fungi, colorization and
external growth varied between the test samples. While loss of organic matter was calculated, no
uniform correlation was found between substrate used and chemical properties of the material. For
each of the substrate-fungi mixtures, average densities ranged from 174.1 kg/m3 to 244.9 kg/m3,
with the Ganoderma sessile fungi and apple substrate combination being the most dense.
Compression tests revealed the Ganoderma sessile fungi and vine substrate to have the highest
strength of the samples tested, but no numerical value was provided.[14] For reference, surrounding
literature has provided a ballpark estimate of 1-72 kPa. Beyond this, mycelium has a thermal
conductivity of 0.05–0.07W/m·K which is less than that of typical concrete.[15]

Construction

The construction of mycelium structures is primarily categorized into three approaches. These
include growing blocks in molds, growing in place monolithic structures, and bio-welded units. The
first approach cultivates mycelium and its substrate in forms, after which it is dried in ovens and then
transported and assembled on site. The second approach uses existing formwork and adapts cast-in-
place concrete techniques to grow monolithic mycelium structures in place. The third approach is a
hybrid of the previous two referred to as myco-welding, where individual pre-grown units are grown
together into a larger monolithic structure.[13]

Studies using grow-in-place methods and myco-welding have explored how to cultivate mycelium
and re-use formwork in construction and investigated post-tensioning and friction connections.
Research in fabrication has revealed some common challenges faced in construction of mycelium
structures, mostly related to the growth of the fungi. It can be difficult to cultivate living material into
formwork and it is susceptible to contamination if not properly sterilized. The fungi needs to be kept
refrigerated to prevent hardening and properly manage growth and substrate consumption.
Additionally, the thickness of fungal growth is limited by the presence of oxygen; if there is no
oxygen, the center of the growth can die or be contaminated.[13]

Environmental impact

Researchers have performed life-cycle assessments to evaluate the environmental impact of

mycelium bio-composites. Life cycle analysis showed the viability of mycelium as a carbon sink
material and as a sustainable alternative to conventional building materials.[12] Use of mycelium as a
natural adhesive material may provide environmental benefits, as the fungal-based composites that
mycelium is used to create are low cost, low emission, and sustainable. These composites also have a
wide range of applications and uses, many of which are in industries responsible for significant
environmental pollution, like construction and packaging.[16]

Modern construction and packaging materials are industrially fabricated, non-recyclable, and
pollutive: wood products lead to severe deforestation and weather fluctuation; cement is
nonbiodegradable and causes high emissions both in production and demolition. Mycelium appears
to be cheaper and more sustainable than its counterparts.[16]
Mycelium’s adhesive properties are largely responsible for its diverse array of applications, as it
allows them to bind certain substances together. These properties are products of their biological
processes, as they secrete corrosive enzymes that allow them to degrade and colonize organic
substrates. During degradation, mycelium develops a dense network of thin strands that fuse
together within the organic substrate, creating solid material that can hold multiple substrates
together. This self-assembly property of mycelium is quite unique, and allows mycelium to grow on a
wide range of organic material, including organic waste.[16]

Potential ecological role

Plants appear to communicate within an ecosystem using mycelium, the fungal network produced by
mycorrhiza fungi.[17] Mycelial networks constitute 20-30% of soil biomass, though traditional
biomass measures fail to detect them. Some 83% of plants appear to exhibit mutualistic association
with mycelium as an extension of their root systems, with varying levels of reliance.[18] By some
estimates, mycelial networks receive up to 10% or more of the photosynthesis output of their host
plants.[citation needed]

This mutualism is initiated by hyphal connections in which mycelial strands infect and attach
themselves to plant hyphae, penetrating the cell wall but not entering through the membrane into
the plant cytoplasm. Mycelium interacts with the cell at the periarbuscular membrane, which
behaves as a sort of exchange medium for nutrients and can produce electrical gradients allowing for
electrophysiological signals to be sent and received.[17] In modeling studies, different fungi supply
different levels of nutrients and growth-promoting materials, with plants tending to root towards
(and thus being infected by) fungi supplying most mineral phosphorus and nitrogen (both essential
for plant growth).[19]

Mycorrhizal mycelial associations may intensify competition between individuals of the same
species, while alleviating competition between species, via the promotion of inferior competitors,
thus promoting plant diversity within its network.[17] In doing so, mycorrhizal fungi promote
community ecology, with an added complexity of niche differentiation of different networks and
types of mycorrhizal fungi that root at different depths, disperse different organic compounds and
nutrients, and have unique interactions with specific species of plants.[17]

Mycelial biology and memory

Several studies have documented the memory capacity of mycelial networks and their adaptability to
specific environmental conditions. Mycelia have been specialized for different functions in various
climates and develop symbiotic or pathogenic relationships with other organisms, such as the human
pathogen Candida auris, which has developed a unique approach of evading detection by human
neutrophils through adaptive selection–a process of fungal learning and memory.[20] Additionally,
these functions can change based on the scale of the mycelia and nature of the symbiotic
relationship; commensal and mutual relationships between fungi and plants form through a separate
process known as mycorrhizal association, which are called mycorrhiza. Additionally, hyphal
organization into mycelial networks can be deterministic for a variety of functions including biomass
retention, water recycling, expansion of future hyphae on a resource efficient approach towards
desired nutrient gradients, and the subsequent distribution of these resources across the hyphal
network.[21] On a macroscopic scale, many mycelia operate with a sort of hierarchy having a “trunk”
or main mycelium, with smaller “branches” branching off. Some saprotrophic basidiomycetes are
able to remember past decisions about directional nutrition gradients and will build future mycelium
in that direction.[22]

Mycelial memory and intelligence

Current research on collective mycelial intelligence is limited, and while many studies have observed
memory and the exchange of electric charge across mycelial networks, this is insufficient evidence to
make conclusions about how sensory data is processed in these networks. However, some examples
of increased thermal resistance in filamentous fungi suggest a power-law relationship for memory
and exposure to a stimulus.[23] Mycelia have also demonstrated the ability to edit their genetic
structures within a lifetime due to antibiotic or other extracellular stressors, which can cause rapid
acquisition of resistance genes, like those in C. auris.[20] Additionally, plasmodial slime molds
demonstrate a similar method of information sharing, as both mycelia and slime molds make use of
cAMP molecules for aggregation and signaling.[21]

Sclerotium

Sclerotium is a compact mass of hardened mycelium. For many years, sclerotia were mistaken for
individual organisms and described as separate species. However, in the mid 19th century, it was
proven that sclerotia was simply a stage in the life cycle of many fungi. Sclerotia are composed of
thick, dense shells with dark cells. They are rich in hyphae emergency supplies, such as oil, and they
contain small amounts of water. They can survive in dry environments for many years without losing
the ability to grow. The size of sclerotia can range from less than a millimeter to tens of centimeters
in diameter.[24]