Flux: Magnetic flux is produced due to the flow of current in a wire.

The wire or coil is

called an electromagnet.
Magnetic flux is denoted by ϕ and its unit is Weber(Wb). Magnetic flux is represented by
magnetic flux density and denoted by B. It is magnetic flux per unit area.

ϕ(𝑊𝑏)
𝐵 = 2 (Important)
𝐴(𝑚 )
Unit of magnetic flux density is Wb/m2.

Magneto-Motive Force (MMF): The mmf is the ability of a coil to produce magnetic
flux.
Mmf = NI (Important)
where, N - Number of turns of winding in a coil.
I - Electric current passing through the coil.
Mmf is denoted by . Unit of mmf is Ampere-Turns (A-T).

Magnetic Flux Intensity: The magnetic flux intensity is the mmf per unit length along
the path of the flux.

𝑚𝑚𝑓
𝑙
= 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
where, l = mean or average path length of the magnetic flux.
Magnetic flux is denoted by H.

𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼
𝐻 = 𝑙
= 𝑙
(Important)
Unit of H is A-T/m.

Reluctance: Opposition offered by magnetic material to the flow of magnetic flux.

Reluctance is denoted by .

𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓. = 𝑅ϕ
Reluctance is given by,

𝑙
𝑅 = µ𝐴
where, l = average length of magnetic core
A = Area of cross-section of the magnetic core
µ = The permeability of the magnetic material.
Permeability refers to how much flux can flow through the magnetic material. The
permeability is given by,
µ = µ𝑜 . µ𝑟

where,
µ𝑜 - permeability of air
µ𝑟 - Relative permeability
Magnetic flux density can also be written as,
𝐵 = µ . 𝐻 (Important)

B-H Curve

Magnetization Curve

B-H Curve is the property of magnetic material.

Relation between Electric and Magnetic Circuits:

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

e.m.f, E

Current, I ϕ
Resistance, R

Conductivity, σ µ

Magnetic circuit diagrams

Circuit with an air gap

Parallel Magnetic Circuit diagram

Fringing effect: It happens due to the presence of the air gap in a magnetic circuit.
Flux density of the air gap is different from the flux density of the core.
ϕ𝑐 = ϕ𝑔
Bc ≠ Bg
Air gap is introduced in order to linearize the B-H curve. Magnetic flux saturation is not
reached due to the air gap.

Leakage flux: Leakage flux is the magnetic flux in a device (like a transformer or motor)
that does not follow the intended path through the magnetic core and instead escapes
into the surrounding air. It represents a loss because it doesn't contribute to the device's
primary function. As a result, more m.m.f. is required to counter leakage flux.

Ideally, leakage flux and fringing effect are neglected in most magnetic circuits.

There are two types of core loss in a magnetic circuit.

1. Hysteresis loss: Since a transformer or rotating machine usually operates on

alternating current, the magnetic flux through the flux changes continuously in
magnitude and direction.This results in the formation of a B-H curve or hysteresis loop.
Due to AC current, magnetization and demagnetization happens. When magnetization
force is applied, flux increases, but when it is brought to zero, flux density does not go to
zero, instead it still has a positive value. So, magnetization force is applied on the
opposite side to bring flux density to zero. The area of the hysteresis loop shows the
energy required to complete a full cycle of magnetizing and demagnetizing, and the
area of the loop represents the energy lost during this process.

𝑛
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ𝑉𝑓𝐵𝑚
where,
𝑃ℎ = Hysteresis losses
𝐾ℎ = Hysteresis constant
𝑉 = Material volume
𝑓 = Supply frequency
𝐵𝑚 = Maximum flux density
n = Steinmetz exponent/ material constant (1.5-2.5)
Eddy-current loss: When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic
material, an emf is induced in the material itself according to Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic induction. Since the magnetic material is a conducting material, these
EMFs circulate current within the body of the material.These circulating currents are
called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing
magnetic field. As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it
produces a loss (I2R loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
Thin pieces of laminated sheets which are insulated from one another are added
together to make a core to reduce core losses.

2 2 2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒𝑓 𝐵𝑚τ 𝑉
where,
𝑃𝑒 = Eddy-current loss
𝐾𝑒 = Material dependent constant

𝑓 = Supply frequency
𝐵𝑚 = Maximum flux density

τ = Thickness of laminations
𝑉 = Volume of the core

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: Whenever a conductor is placed in a

varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is
closed, a current is induced, which is called induced current.
It basically means a change in magnetic field results in a change in magnetic flux which
gives rise to an induced e.m.f.
𝑑ϕ
ε = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
where,
ε = induced voltage
N = number of turns
dϕ = change in magnetic flux
dt = change in time
Lenz’s Law: The induced electromotive force with different polarities induces a current
whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux through the loop in order to
ensure that the original flux is maintained through the loop when current flows in it.

Imagine you have a coil of wire near a magnet. If you move the magnet closer to the
coil, Lenz's Law says a voltage will be generated in the coil. This voltage creates a
current that flows in such a way that it produces a magnetic field that opposes the
change in the original magnetic field caused by moving the magnet closer. It's like a kind
of "push back" against any changes in the magnetic field.

𝑑ϕ
ε = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
where,
ε = induced voltage
N = number of turns
dϕ = change in magnetic flux
dt = change in time