CHAPTER 1 SUBSTRUCTURE

1.1 Earthwork
INTRODUCTION
• Earthwork: the processes whereby the surface of the
earth is excavated and transported to and compacted
at another location.

• Earthworks are engineering works created through the

moving or processing of parts of the earth's surface involving
quantities of soil or unformed rock. The earth may be moved
to another location and formed into a desired shape for a
purpose.
• Much of earthworks involves machine excavation and fill or
backfill.

• Scale: ranges from small works (the excavation of ditches

and trenches for drainage and pits and trenches for
foundations) to the large earthworks (highways and dams).
INTRODUCTION
• carried out at an early stage in a construction project.

• completion of the earthworks within the scheduled time is

often the key to the completion on time of the whole project

• success often depends on:

o an adequate site investigation and preparing practical

and satisfactory designs of the earthworks.

o the choice and efficient use of the correct types and size
of plant to meet the particular requirements of the site.

o Weather condition
SCOPE OF EARTHWORKS
Site clearing
Parameters to be checked on before commencing the clearing works;
 marking of the respective area to be cleared and grubbed
 checked the cut-off elevations
 checked depth and size of trees to be removed
 identified clearly and verified the existing utilities and services
lines
 ensure that monuments, markers and special trees are
properly marked for protection.
 marks all trees and vegetations that are to be undisturbed
 potential hazard such as flammable area, slipping area, etc.
 terrain, soil condition and foliage
 ensure that sub contractor has proper controls of erosion and
drainage
 environment protection plan has been approved and the
contractor is familiar with the requirements
Site clearing
• Site Clearing Involves;
demolition of existing buildings,
the grubbing out bushes and trees,
disposal works and
the removal of top soil to reduce level.

• Clearing, grubbing, demolishing, breaking up and removing

all trees, shrubs, vegetation, butts, structures such as walls,
fences and other obstruction within the site which have been
designated to be demolished or removed.

• All spoils and debris shall be removed and disposed of off-

site at an approved certified construction landfill.
Site clearing
Transport and moving
• Earthwork transportation is something that projects
seldom avoid.

• Earthwork is expressed in units of volumes (cubic

meters in metric). Increases in such volumes require
additional trucks (or more runs of the same truck),
which cost money.

• It is important for designers to design the project

which require very little earthwork.

• Trucks or dump trucks are the most necessary

equipment to transport excavated material,
aggregates and construction material.
 Transport
and moving
Transport and moving
Compaction
Reasons:
• Increased bearing capacity
• Increased compressibility
• Reduce permeability
• Improve stability
• Heavy/highway vs. building foundation
compaction operations
Compaction
 All pronounced depressions left in the original
ground surface by removal of objectionable
material from within embankment limits are filled
with acceptable material and compacted to the
density required.

 The upper 6 in. of the original ground is

compacted weighing no less than 10 t, or with
other approval compacting equipment.
Compaction
 Compacting equipment requirements vary
from contract to contract.
 The types of compactors commonly used
are:
 Three wheel roller
Smooth drum vibrator roller
Vibratory tamping roller
Static tamping roller or sheepsfoot
Crawler-tread equipment or bulldozer
Mechanical tamps or vibrator.
Compaction
 The compactor to be used is determined by
the Contractor and is dependent upon
several factors:
Size of embankment
Type of materials being compacted
Conditions of materials being compacted
Availability of equipments
Contractor’s preference.
Compaction
Compactor type Material Lift Depth
3 wheel All soils 8 in. max
Smooth Drum All soils 8 in. max
Vibratory
Tamping-Foot Soil or shale Length of tamping
foot
Crawler-Tread rock Refer specifications
Crawler-Tread aggregates 6 in. max
Smooth drum aggregates 6 in. max
Vibratory
Mechanical Tamp or soils 6 in. max
Vibratory
Mechanical tamp or aggregates 4 in. max
Vibratory
Compaction
Sloping
• Function of the natural angle of repose, density,
surface and subsurface water flow.

• Early stabilization of surfaces is critical in construction.

• Eliminate points of concentrated flow using slope

drains as outlets.

• Difficult slopes may require riprap, gabions, or other

measures for permanent stabilization .
Sloping
Sloping
• Slope stabilization is important to ensure
that failure or landslides will not occur.
• Properly designed slope protection and
stabilization has to include two components:
- a vegetational-biological and
- a mechanical-structural component.
• For maximum effect, both components must
be integrally planned prior to construction.
Sloping
Sloping
KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
EARTHWORK OPERATIONS

1. Control surface and subsurface water

2. Maintain optimum moisture range by drying, mixing ,
or wetting
3. Identify and monitor cut & fill quantities
4. Good layout (horizontal & vertical control)
5. Minimize handling - minimize stockpiling
KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL
EARTHWORK OPERATIONS

6. Optimize haul lengths

7. Minimize cycle time
8. Proper selection and sizing of excavators and haul
units
9. Alternate haul unit wheel paths
10. Experienced personnel in the field

To be continue…..
Links to learning
materials
Site clearing:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f3XKGOaqYUU
Earthwork Cuts & Fills
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dZKzPIvR5Wc
Soil transportation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PY5z08F1_kk
Compaction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgvUDs5tcu0
Sloping
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBRI9QvWa4k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8X2q5DWLH4
CUTTING AND EXCAVATION
 Cutting and excavation
• Most construction projects require the movement of earthwork on site. This will
result in altering the existing elevation to a different or finish elevation.

• To determine the amount of soil to be moved, the estimator needs to have a plot
plan or topographic survey.

• This drawing is developed by plotting the readings (elevations) obtained from a

topographic field survey usually performed by a licensed land surveyor.
• Contour lines are lines drawn on a
map connecting points of equal
elevation.

• Contour lines show elevation and the

shape of the terrain.

• They illustrate the land’s topography

on the map
 Types of
Materials

Purposes

Cutting and excavation

Cutting and excavation
Classification of Excavation based on type of material:

 Topsoil excavation

 Earth excavation

 Rock excavation

 Muck excavation - this usually contains excess

water and unsuitable soil

 Unclassified excavation - this is any combination of

material types
Cutting and excavation
Classification of Excavation based on it purposes:
 Stripping
 Roadway excavation
 Drainage or structure excavation
 Bridge excavation
 Channel excavation
 Footing excavation
 Borrow excavation
 Dredge excavation
Cutting and excavation
• Excavation can be either a part of the permanent works (e.g.
cuttings) or a temporary expedient in the construction of the works
(e.g. for foundations and drainage)

• The sides of the excavations

are required to remain stable
during their design life, can
be achieved by:

 excavating the material to a

stable slope angle

 retaining or supporting the

material.
Cutting and excavation
Cutting and excavation
Cut and Fill in during earthworks
 Engineers need to concern themselves with issues of geotechnical
engineering (such as soil density and strength) and with quantity
estimation to ensure that soil volumes in the cuts match those of the
fills, while minimizing the distance of movement.
 In the past, volume analysis were done by hand using a slide rule and
with methods such as Simpson's rule.
 Nowadays, calculations can be performed with a computer and
specialized software, including optimisation on haul cost and not haul
distance.
Cutting and excavation
Cutting and excavation
 Cut and Fill Calculation

There are two basic methods for calculating cut

and fill construction projects by hand

• The first is called the grid method

• The second is called the cross-section method

 Cut and Fill Calculation
The Grid Method

1. Lay your plan out on the flat

surface. Then draw set of
equally spaced horizontal
and vertical lines across your
plan.

2. At each intersection of the

horizontal and vertical lines,
determine the existing and
the proposed new elevation
3. For each intersection
subtract the existing Existing elevations

elevation from the

proposed elevation.
Positive numbers are fill.
Negative numbers are cut.
Proposed elevations
 The Grid Method…cont.
4. For each cell, add the four cut and fill numbers together
and divide them by 4.0 to calculate the average cut or fill
depth for that cell.
Average Depth = (n1+n2+n3+n4)/4
5. Multiply the average cut or fill depth by the number of
square meters/feet in the grid cell (Area to get the cut or
fill volume in cubic meters/feet.
V = Area x Avg. Depth

m/f
m/f

Cell
The Grid Method…cont.

6. Add all of the cut volumes up to get the total

cut for the site in cubic meters/feet.

7. Add all of the fill volumes up to get the total fill

for the site in cubic meters/feet.

8. To calculate the import or export, subtract the

fill volume from the cut volume.

If the result is a positive number, you have more

cut than fill and you will need export material from
your site.
If the numbers negative, you will need to import
dirt onto the building site.
 Cut and Fill Calculation
The Cross-section Method

1. Lay your plan out, and divide your plan Existing

with a number of equally spaced elevations
horizontal lines.

vertical axis
2. On a piece of graph paper, plot out the
existing elevations from the beginning to
the end of each cross-section line.
Proposed
elevations

Horizontal
Axis
 Cut and Fill Calculation
3. The vertical axis is for elevations and the
horizontal axis is for the distance along the cross-
section.

4. Then for each cross- Proposed new elevation

section, plot out the Existing elevation
proposed elevations
from the beginning to the
end of each cross-section
line on the same graph as
the existing.

Construction Site
 The Cross-section Method...Cont.

5. For each cross-section, count the

number of squares where the existing
line is above the proposed line. This is
your cut area for that cross-section.
Cut Area Fill Area

6. For each cross-section, count the

number of squares where the existing
line is below the proposed line. This is
your fill area for that cross-section.
 The Cross-section Method...Cont.

7. For each adjacent pair of cross-

sections, average the cut area
between the two and multiply it
by the distance between the two
cross-sections to calculate your
cut volume.
8. For each adjacent pair of cross-
sections, average the fill area
between the two and multiply by Distance between two cross-sections
the distance between the two
cross-sections to calculate your fill
volume.
 The Cross-section Method...Cont.
9. Now add up all of your cut volumes to get the
total cut volume for your site in cubic meters.

10.Add up all of your fill volumes to get the total

fill volume for your site in cubic meters.

11.To determine the export for your site, subtract

the fill volume from the cut volume.

If this is a positive number, then you have more cut

than fill so you’ll need to export material from
your site. Red colour is cut
Blue colour is fill
If the numbers negative you have more fill than
cut, and you will need to import material onto your
building site.
There is another method using software
Can learn more about:
• Grid method
• Cross section method
• Software method
From the link below and others:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TfqNK4v73nk
QUIZ