Modern Arc Welding Technology

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Modern Arc
Welding
Technology

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Preface
Welding is a small but crucial part of metallurgy i.e. the science of discovering new metals and working effi-
ciently with them. The welding specialist has to have an intimate knowledge of the properties, structure and
behaviour of each metal as also new alloys and exotic variants for specific industries and applications. When
metallurgy moves to the next phase of metalworking there are many skills and processes that need to be mas-
tered. This is why in the middle ages there were no books but there were guilds where the 'masters' taught
'know-how' through a process of 'show-how'. Today's equivalent is the knowledge volume in hard copy (book)
form or digital storage.
Adorians have for over 50 years helped to discover, process and share new horizons in metallurgy, metal-
working, welding and cutting. There was a time when this company was literally a parent institution for the
nascent growth and development of welding science and applications in India. This earned for the company the
merited encomium:
'Welders To The Nation'.
Today there are many nuclei of welding knowledge where "excellence" is the quest and "improvisation" the
password for cost effectiveness and value addition. Over the years, the ADOR Group has always understood the
trends and cost drivers of the industry and has re-configured its contributions to meet these needs.
The coilntry has a huge manufacturing base which spans a wide spectrum: from petrochemicals to iron &
steel, power, construction & cement, mining, transport, defence, nuclear, food processing and telecom. India
also has the largest reservoir of technical and trained human resources in the world. Welding is the crucial bond
between development & future growth and welding professionals can therefore look forward to playing a major
part in the global fabrication sector.
This revised and updated edition of India's first and only Handbook on Welding could not have come at a
more appropriate time. It is both a tribute and a sequel to Mr. S. V. Nadkarni's original efforts to capture India's
welding expertise in a body of knowledge. This fills the gap between generations of people, processes, products
and welding expertise.
As the leaders of India's welding industry, ADOR WELDING LIMITED fulfils its avowed mission of grow-
ing the knowledge base and encapsulating the experiential quotient of an industry that is vital to India's future
place in the industrialized nations of the world.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Contents
Preface V

1. Introduction To Welding And Allied Processes 1

2. Power Sources For Arc Welding 31
3. Manual Metal-Arc Welding 57
4. Submerged Arc Welding 187
5. Tungsten Inter-Gas Arc Welding (TIG Welding) 261
6. Metal Inter-Gas/C0 2 Arc Welding 315
7. Flux-Cored Arc Welding 357
8. Electroslag and Electrogas Welding 377
9. Welding Metallurgy 391
10. Weldability of Metals 427
11. Hardfacing by Welding 511
12. Welding Defects: Their Causes and Prevention 533
13. Testing and Inspection of Welding 555
14. Metal Cutting Processes 599
15. Welding Costs and Economics 609
16. Safety Requirements in Arc Cutting and Welding 623
17. General Hints on Welding Design 637
18. Welding Procedure Specifications 657
19. Welding Applications 681
20. Preheat and Postweld Heat Treatment 771
21. Mechanised Arc Welding 783
22. Information Technology (IT) in Welding 789

Glossary 793
Index 801
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Introduction To
Welding And
Allied Processes
WELDING is recognised all over the world, today, as a
remarkably versatile means of metal fabrication. Weld-
ing, in combination with allied processes like thermal
cutting, brazing, brazewelding and metal spraying has
provided ample freedom to the modern designer to de-
velop metallic products in which optimum mechanical
properties, lightness and aesthetics are harmoniously
blended.
A large number of welding and allied processes have
come into industrial use in the last 30 years. Variations
and extensions of these processes are being developed
and put to practical use from time to time. Thus the
metal-joining technology is in a constant state of flux.
The wide range and variety of these processes enables
the modern engineer to join almost all commercial
metals and alloys in many different shapes and sizes
and in thicknesses ranging from a fraction of a millimetre
to over 500 mm.
Plain carbon steels, low-alloy steels, stainless and
heat-resisting steels, and many non-ferrous metals and
their alloys (such as of aluminium, nickel and copper)
and metals such as titanium, columbium, molybdenum
and zirconium are w e l d e d extensively. M o d e r n
industrial products such as automobiles, railway rolling
stock, transmission pipelines, pressure vessels, storage
tanks, machinery, power generation equipment, offshore
platforms, oil refineries and fertiliser plants, which have
contributed to the material prosperity of mankind, owe
their development and efficient performance to welding.
In the last few years, m a n y of the new high-
t e m p e r a t u r e metals and superalloys h a v e been
fabricated by welding into critical components required
for guided missiles, jet aircraft and nuclear power plants.
These and other similar recent spectacular developments
would not have been possible without the use of
welding.
The technique of joining metal pieces by welding
apparently originated more than 1,500 years ago, when
man learnt the art of manufacturing wrought iron,
heating iron pieces to dull red and then hammering them
together. This became the traditional hammer-and-tong
process of the village blacksmith, which today is known
as forge-welding. The 1,500-year-old Iron Pillar at the
Qutab Minar in Delhi is made of pure iron ingots
forgewelded together.
An amazing piece of early welding can be seen in
the 13th century temple at Konarak in Orissa. The flat
stone roof of the Black Pagoda there is supported on
welded beams; each beam is 25 cm2 and nearly 6 metres
long, and is fabricated from 75 mm blocks of iron by
welding.
The well-known Damascus swords and many other
specimens of ancient and medieval swords that are seen
in museums today were produced by hammer welding
strips of high carbon steel to low carbon steel, forging
the composite metal, doubling it upon itself, again
welding and forging, and repeating these steps until a
finely laminated strip was obtained, from which the
blade was forged and ground. Such a weapon could be
hardened and given a sharp cutting edge, but at the same
time it was ductile enough to resist brittle fracture in
combat.
In the western countries, especially in the U.S.A., the
U.K. and West Germany, the application of welding to
the mass production of industrial items and war
equipment dates only from the second decade of the
present century. Welding received special impetus
during World War II, when the urgency of providing
2 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
large fleets of ships, tanks, trucks and aircraft at a short
notice led to the large-scale replacement of riveting by
welding. During the following decades, the use of
welding multiplied with amazing swiftness and today
this method of joining metals has a dominant place in
modern life.
Having briefly touched upon the history of welding,
let us revert to the present-day welding and allied
processes. These can be conveniently grouped under
seven main headings as follows, each suggesting the
technological principle on which they are based:
• Fusion welding
• Electric resistance welding
• Solid phase welding
• Braze welding
• Brazing
• Thermal cutting and
• Thermal spraying
Each of these can be further divided into sub-groups
and their variations and extensions. All of them have been
presented at a glance in the Ador Welding Limited process
chart (Table 1.1).
Before starting to introduce this process chart, it is
necessary to explain the terms weld and welding. The
American Welding Society (AWS) defines weld as a
localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the materials to suitable temperatures,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone, and with or without the
use of filler material. Indian Standard IS: 812-1957
defines the weld as "a union between two pieces of a
metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat or by
pressure, or both.
Filler metal may be used to effect the union."
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) has
defined welding as "an operation by which two or more
parts are united, by means of heat or pressure, or both,
in such a way that there is continuity of the nature of
the material between these parts. A filler material, the
melting temperature of which is of the same order as
that of the parent material, may or may not be used."
Welding is defined by the AWS, simply as a materials
joining process used in making a weld.
To elaborate, a weld is a localised coalescence or
union of metals. The word coalescence comes from the
verb to coalesce, whose dictionary meaning is, to grow
together or unite into one body. This implies that in the
formation of a weld, the abutting surfaces grow together
into a common mass, so that the joint has metallic
continuity. The ideal weld is one in which there is perfect
continuity between the parts joined, such that every part
of the joint is indistinguishable from the metal in which
the joint is made.
This ideal is never achieved in practice, because the
microstructure and mechanical properties are not
identical over the entire joint and the original metal. Yet,
welds which give satisfactory service can, and are being
made, using the proper welding process to suit each
metal, type of joint and application. The skill of the
welding engineer consists in the recognition of the
essential requirements which a particular weld must
satisfy and the choice of appropriate welding process,
and procedure which will meet them.
FUSION WELDING PROCESSES
These processes involve fusion of the base metal to
complete the weld. Fusion welds ordinarily do not
require the application of pressure, and they may be
completed with or without the addition of filler metal.
A fusion weld made without the addition of filler metal
is called autogenous weld. In most cases, fusion welding
involves the use of filler metal.
In the process chart (Table 1.1), fusion welding
processes and, among them, electric arc processes have
been given the first place. This is justified by the fact
that they are used to the largest extent in industry today.
Metal-Arc Welding
This is a group of processes in which the heat required
for fusion is generated by the electric arc formed between
a metallic electrode and the base metal. The electrode is
consumed in the arc and provides the filler metal for
the joint.
The electric arc is an ideal source of welding heat.
The extremely high arc temperature of over 5000°C
permits it to supply a large amount of heat to a small
area. Hence the welding speed is very high, and any
metallurgical disturbance in the base metal is restricted
to a narrow zone.
Among the arc processes, manual metal-arc welding
is the most common, versatile and inexpensive one and
accounts for over 50% of the total welding in advanced
countries and over 80% of the total welding in India. It
is a manual process, and hence depends on the skill and
experience of the welder. It makes use of a flux-coated
electrode having a core of solid metallic wire (diameter
 Table 1.1

PROCESS CHART
By S. V. Nadkarni

WELDING, CUTTING, AND ALLIED PROCESSES

FUSION WELDING ELECTRIC

1 BRAZEWELDING
1 THERMAL THERMAL
SOLID PHASE BRAZING
RESISTANCE CUTTING SPRAYING

BLACKSMITH
HAMMER
ARC GAS THERMIT ELECTRON ELECTROSLAG LASER - FORGE - _E ROLL FLAME ELECTRIC PLASMA
BEAM | GAS PRESSURE ARC
CONSUMABLE | — HIGH FREQUENCY PRESSURE
GUIDE
COLD
DIFFUSION BONDING
1 1 1 1 1 1 EXPLOSIVE
METAL CARBON TIG ARC ARC ATOMIC ELECTROGAS PLASMA
FRICTION
ARC ARC SPOT STUD HYDROGEN ARC
I—FRICTION STIR
I
MICRO PLASMA — ULTRASONIC
' — MAGNETIC PULSE

MANUAL SUBMERGED MIG MAG

i r i
FLUX CORED GRAVITY FIRECRACKER
METAL ARC ARC (ccy J

AUTO CONTACTOR
RESISTANCE DIP FLAME FURNACE INDUCTION SALTBATH DIFFUSION MIG
SYNERGIC PLASMA GAS SHELF
MIG MIG SHIELDED SHIELDING

1 I I T^
RESISTANCE FLASH SPOT SEAM PROJECTION PERCUSSION HIGH FREQUENCY OXYGEN OXYGEN ARC SPARK ELECTRON LASER
BUTT | | RESISTANCE ARC EROSION BEAM

STITCH MULTIPLE SERIES ROLLER FLAME POWDER LANCING

SPOT SPOT SPOT

BUTT SEAM CARBON METAL n 1

ARC ARC AIR PLASMA
ARC ARC
FOIL BUTT SEAM
4 MODERN ARC W E U *«G TECHNOLOGY

6.3-1.6 mm, length 450-250 mm). 11 needs a powc source,
either a transformer supplying A " or a generator/
rectifier /inverter supplying DC (see fig. 1.1).
The process is extremely flexible and suitable for the
entire range of plate thicknesses, and for almost all
commercial metals and alloys. It is used for joining
as well as for surfacing (rebuilding). It can be used
in all welding positions. It is well-suited for site
welding.
Submerged-Arc Welding
This is mostly used as a fully-automatic process, and
sometimes as a semi-automatic process.
The electrode is a continuous metallic wire (solid or
flux-cored) in the form of a spool or a coil. It is fed
automatically into the arc at a constant speed. The arc is
covered with a layer of dry granular flux which performs
the same functions as the coating of a manual electrode.
The arc length is automatically controlled. The power
source can be a transformer (AC) or a generator/rectifier
(DC). It is generally of very high capacity, say 750 or
even up to 3,000 amps (see Fig. 1.2).
In semi-automatic welding, the operator guides the
flexible welding head along the seam. In doing so he
controls the speed of travel and the line of travel.
Controlling the line is difficult, because the joint is
submerged by flux. Hence this version is usually
restricted to fillet welds and grooved butt welds.
In fully-automatic welding, the welding head is
mounted on a trolley which travels along the joint.

ELECTRODE COATING

POWER SOURCE CORE WIRE

SHIELDING ATMOSPHERE

ELECTRODE HOLDER ARC POOL

SOLIDIHED SLAG
ELECTRODE ARC STREAM

aa^M
ARC — PENETRATION DEPTH

GROUND CABLE BASE METAL

(A)
ELECTRODE CABLE (B)

Fig. 1.1: Manual metal-arc welding: (A) Welding circuit; (B) Welding arc in action.

TO AUTOMATIC WIRE FEED

TO WELDER POWER
i. -TO FLUX HOPPER

WELDING VEE

BA
WELDING WIRE SE METAL

GROUND CONNECTION

WELD TRAVEL
WELD BACKING PLATE

Fig. 1.2: Diagrammatic sketch of submerged arc welding


Alternately, the welding head is stationary, and the joint
moves under it.
This process gives very high productivity and
excellent weld quality.
It is generally applied on mild steel, high tensile
steels, low-alloy and stainless steels. It is ideal for heavy
thicknesses. For thin sections, weld backing is necessary
to avoid burn-through. It is commonly used for the
fabrication of plate girders, pressure vessels, pipes and
penstocks, for surfacing and strip cladding. In strip
cladding, the electrode is in the form of a strip, usually
1.6 mm x 75 mm wide.
MIG Welding
MIG welding is an abbreviation for metal-inert-gas
welding. It is also known as GMAW, which stands for
gas-metal-arc welding. In this process, coalescence is
achieved by an electric arc formed between the
workpiece and a continuous consumable solid wire
electrode which is fed through a gun at controlled
speeds. Inert gas usually argon or argon mixture flows
through the gun and forms a blanket over the weld
puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.
The welding can be semi-automatic or fully
mechanised. In the semi-automatic version, the welder
concerns himself only with gun-to-work distance, gun
manipulation, and welding speed. Wire-feed rates,
electrical settings, and gas flow are pre-set. When the
equipment is completely mechanised all of these
variables and welding functions are performed
automatically without the need for a welder.
The power source is a rectifier or motor generator
giving DC. Reverse polarity is generally used (electrode
positive), as it gives better melting, deeper penetration
and better cleaning action (see Fig. 1.3).
NOTE: SOMETIMES A WATER
CIRCULATOR IS USED
SHIELDING GAS
U steels in lower thickness range
■CONTROLS FOR
(GOVERNING WIRE
pRIVE CURRENT
FLOW AND COOUNGj
WELDING
MACHINE CONTACTOR
frATER IF FUSED
Fig. 1.3: Schematic diagram of MIG/MAG (C02) welding
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 5
Four distinct techniques are possible in MIG welding,
depending on electrode size, shielding gas, arc voltage
and welding current:
a) Spray mode of metal transfer
b) Globular mode of metal transfer
c) Short-circuiting
d) Pulsed transfer
a) This technique uses heavy wires, large currents
and preferably argon-oxygen mixture. This gives high
heat input, high deposition rate and deep penetration.
It is preferred for heavy gauge welding.
b) When current is low, metal transfer occurs in large
globules. The result is poor arc stability, shallow pen-
etration and excessive spatter. Hence this technique is
not used.
c) This technique is the most practical at currents
below 200 amps and with fine wires (0.8-1.2 mm diam-
eter). It permits welding thinner sections with ease, and
is extremely practical for welding in all positions.
d) Pulsed transfer is a controlled method of spray
transfer welding requiring more sophisticated power
source whereas the three types of transfers described
previously can be obtained with standard power sources
and wire feed units. This mode of transfer can be used
on mild and low alloy steels, stainless steel and is par-
ticularly useful with aluminium and alloys on light to
medium plate sections.
MIG is a versatile process, and is gradually replacing
manual metal-arc and TIG welding. Most metals can be
easily welded including aluminium, carbon steels, low-
alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel, copper, magnesium,
titanium and zirconium. However, for carbon steels and
low-alloy steels, MAG or C0 2 welding is often preferred,
because it avoids the use of expensive argon gas.
In welding ferrous metals (i.e. carbon steels, low alloy
steels and stainless steels), pure argon shield gives erratic
metal transfer and shallow penetration/side-wall fusion
^ levels and hence certain gas combinations are used, e.g.:
GAS
1) Ar + 1-2% 0 2 (slightly oxidizing) for alloy steels
SUPPLY and stainless steels
2) Ar + 3-5% 0 2 or 5-8% C0 2 for carbon or low alloy
3) Ar + 15-20% C0 2 for carbon or low alloy steels in
higher thickness range
MAG (C0 2 ) Welding
MAG stands for metal-active-gas arc welding. This
is a variation of MIG welding, in which an identical
equipment is used but the inert gas is replaced by carbon
dioxide, which is chemically active. The term gas-metal-
6 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

arc welding (GMAW) is also applied to the MAG (C0 2 )
process.
C 0 2 welding has a very hot coarse arc associated with
relatively high level of spatter formation. However,
because of excellent fusion and wetting properties, this
provides a lower cost solution for good quality welding,
where spatter can be tolerated.
C 0 2 welding is gradually replacing manual metal-
arc welding in the fabrication of structurals, pipes,
automotive products, storage tanks, machinery, etc.
Plasma-MIG Welding
This process has been dealt with later under the
heading Plasma Processes.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
This is an extension of the MIG/MAG process. The
continuous solid wire is replaced by a tubular wire
whose core is filled with flux. The equipment is the same
as used for MIG/MAG welding (see Fig. 1.4).
The flux performs the same functions as the coating
of a manual electrode. For welding alloy steels and for
hardfacing applications, suitable alloying elements are
also included in the flux. Flux-cored wires provide an
easy means of producing alloyed and hardfacing wires
of any desired composition, in small batches and at short
notice. They are a big boon to the industry, since for solid
wire one has to depend on a steel producer, rolling mill
and a large production batch.
Flux-cored arc welding is normally performed with
a C 0 2 shield to protect the weld pool from atmospheric
attack. Thus it becomes a gas-shielded process.
Some flux-cored wires are specially designed to be
self-shielding, which means they do not require the
external C 0 2 shield. Such wires are widely used in the
U.S.A. a n d J a p a n for s t r u c t u r a l a n d h a r d f a c i n g
applications. When such wires are used, the process is
described as self-shielding or gasless.
Gravity Welding
This is a semi-automatic version of manual metal-arc
welding. The bare end of a specially designed heavy-
coated manual welding electrode (diameter 4.5-6.3 mm,
length 600-700 mm) is clamped in a holder, which is fixed
on one of the legs of a tripod. The striking end of the
electrode is placed in the root of a tee joint. When the arc
is struck, the electrode begins to consume and the arc
length is automatically maintained due to the sleeve
formation at the burning end, as in contact welding. At
the same time, the holder slides down by gravity. The
electrode automatically retracts and cuts off the arc when
a 50 mm long stub is left (see Fig. 1.5).
Fig. 1.5: Diagrammatic sketch of gravity welding

fa
DIRECT CURRENT
CONSTANT VOLTAGE TO SOLENOID VALVE FLUX CORED ELECTRODE
POWER SOURCE CURRENT CARRYING ^ ^
\ VOLTAGE CONTROL IWDERED METAL VAPOUR
CONTACT T U B E - , f n
SHIELDING FORMING MATERIALS
Q ^ n " CONTACTOR CONTROL SOLIDIFIED SLAG - | ^<L
GAS SOURCE DEOXIDISERS
VOLTMETER AND
AMMETER
N LJ/ AND SCAVENGERS
GAS SHIELD FORMED FROM
CORE MATERIALS

ARC AND METAL TRANSFER

j * - GAS OUT

GROUND CABLE ^

Fig. 1.4: Flux-cored arc welding: (A) Schematic diagram of the process; (B) Welding arc in action

The fillet size (throat thickness) ranges between
3.5mm and 5.5 mm, the length of weld per electrode being
in the range of 600-1,000 mm. One operator can handle
four tripods at a time. The process is fairly popular in
shipbuilding, where it is used for depositing long and
continuous fillet welds. It can be used with equal
advantage in other similar structures. In Japan, this pro-
cess has been successfully used for underwater welding.
Firecracker Welding
This is also a semi-automatic version of MMA
welding. A specially designed heavy-coated electrode,
which can be of any length up to 2 metres is laid on the
seam of a grooved butt joint or along the root of a tee
joint. It is then clamped down with a water-cooled
copper bar of heavy square section, which is grooved to
accommodate the electrode. The copper bar is nearly as
long as the electrode. The bare end is clamped in a holder
(see Fig. 1.6).
The arc is struck at the striking end, and the electrode
gradually consumes by itself, making the butt or fillet weld
Fig. 1.6: Diagrammatic sketch of firecracker welding
Fig. 1.7: Sketch of auto-contact welding device
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 7
of the same length as the electrode. The copper block helps
to prevent overheating of the electrode and to maintain
intimate contact between the electrode and the joint.
Auto-Contact Welding
This process combines the principles of gravity
welding and firecracker welding. A gravity welding
electrode is clamped in the holder of an auto-contact
welding device. In this device, a spring actuated by a
lever pushes the electrode to the welding line at a low
angle (10° to 50°). The device is held against the
workpiece by a permanent magnet fixed in the device.
The arc is cut off automatically with a stub length of 60
m m by a simple trip mechanism. The process is
commonly used in shipbuilding (see Fig. 1.7).
Carbon Arc Welding
In this process, an arc is struck between a non-
consumable carbon electrode and the base metal or
between two carbon electrodes, using specially designed
electrode holders. No shielding is used. Pressure and
filler metal may or may not be used. The process has
been used for brazing operations. It has almost become
obsolete with the introduction of atomic hydrogen
welding and TIG (tungsten-inert-gas) welding.
TIG Welding
TIG is an abbreviation for tungsten-inert-gas. The
process is also termed as gas-tungsten-arc welding and
designated as GTAW.
In this process, an arc is struck between a non-
consumable tungsten electrode and the base metal. The
arc is shielded by the inert argon or helium or argon-
helium mixture (see Fig. 1.8).
A filler wire may or may not be used. When it is used,
it is fed externally into the arc in the form of rod or strip
8 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

electric arc between an electrode and the work. The weld

NOTE: SOMETIMES A WATER
CIRCULATOR IS USED
is made without preparing a hole in either member. Filler
metal or a shielding gas or flux may or may not be used
(see Fig. 1.9).
The arc is produced by using either of the carbon
arc, manual metal arc, TIG and MIG processes. Arc spot
welding by the MAG (C02) process is widely used today,
for which the equipment is provided with the necessary
controls to achieve consistent spot welds.
While electric resistance spot welding requires access
from both sides of the overlapping plates, arc spot
welding can be made from one side only.

Arc Stud Welding

The word arc is often omitted, and the process is
Fig. 1.8: Schematic diagram of TIG welding simply called stud welding. This is an arc welding
process in which the arc is struck between a metal stud
by the welder. The welder also has to control the arc length or similar part and the base metal. The arc heats the
and arc travel speed. An AC power source is used for mating ends to a proper temperature after which they
welding aluminium and its alloys, while a DC source is are brought together under pressure (see Fig. 1.10).
used for all the other metals. This is an ideal process for The process has two versions:
welding non-ferrous metals and stainless steels in limited
thicknesses. TIG is also preferred for depositing the root
pass in the pressure piping, where welding from inside
is nonpossible. 3 ^SUPPLY RECTIFIER
The most commonly used gas for TIG welding is
argon which can be used on all metals. Helium-argon
mixture give deeper penetration, greater heat input and
hence faster welding. Pure helium can be used for
welding aluminium and copper alloys.
The use of pulsed current greatly extends the control
of the process allowing improved consistency, ability to
join thick to thin material and low thickness joints
without risks of burn through.

Arc Spot Welding CONTROL CABLE

In this process, coalescence at the overlapping
surfaces is produced in one spot by heating with an Fig. 1.10: Schematic diagram of arc stud welding

V
ELECTRODE Arc stud welding and capacitor discharge welding
• Arc Stud Welding: In this case, the welding end
of the stud is recessed and contains flux which is meant
A to stabilise the arc and act as a deoxidising agent. The
OVERLAPPING stud, held in a portable pistol-shaped tool called a stud-
ARC PLATES
gun, is positioned by the operator. He then actuates the
unit by pressing the trigger switch. The welding time
//MV and the final driving home of the stud to complete the
^ ] weld are controlled automatically by a timing device. A
L ceramic ferrule is used with each stud. The ferrule con-
\ SPOT WELD
Fig. 1.9: Diagram of arc spot welding centrates the heat, prevents influx of air to the molten
metal and confines the molten metal to the weld zone.

• Capacitor Discharge Welding: In this case, the stud
has a small cylindrical tip on its welding end and the arc
is produced by a rapid discharge of stored electrical en-
ergy with pressure applied during or immediately fol-
lowing the electrical discharge. It employs a specially
designed air gun. The gun is equipped with a collect
attached to the end of a piston rod which holds the stud.
Air pressure keeps the stud away from the plate until the
weld is to be made. At the proper time, air pressure drives
the stud against the workpiece. As soon as the tip of the
stud touches the workpiece, a high-ampere, low-voltage
discharge takes place. The current creates an arc which
melts the entire face of the stud and a similar area of the
work. The stud is then driven at a high velocity into the
molten pool.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding
In this process, an arc is struck between two tungsten
electrodes using AC. Streams of hydrogen gas are passed
from orifices around the electrodes into the arc. Here
the molecules of hydrogen dissociate into atoms with
the absorption of heat from the arc. The atoms recombine
into molecules at a point a few millimetres away from
the arc and liberate intense heat. It is this point which is
used for melting the base metal (see Fig. 1.11).
Thus, in this process, the source of heat is not the arc
but the hydrogen gas acting as the carrier of heat. Filler
metal may be added externally if required.
Since hydrogen is present in the arc, this process can
cause hydrogen-induced cracking in hardenable steels
and in heavy, restrained joints in normal steels, and
porosity in high-sulphur, free-machining steels. Hence,
it has been largely replaced by the TIG process.
X Y TRAVEL
W0RK
&L Vk SURFACE
ARC +^k&) /
POSTHEATING t f t PREHEATING ZONE
(GOOLING) ZONE MAX HEAT INPUT
(FUSION) ZONE
Fig. 1.11: Diagrammatic sketch of atomic hydrogen
welding
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 9
Electrogas Welding
Electrogas welding is an extension of the M I G / C 0 2
process and is designed for single-pass vertical welding
of steel plates in the thickness range of 10-38 mm. The
joining operation consists of lining up two square butt
edges with a 12.5 mm gap, regardless of plate thickness.
The wire electrode is introduced downward into the
cavity formed by the two plates to be joined and two
fixed water-cooled dams or chill blocks. The cavity
is kept free of air by the shielding gas, which usually
is a m i x t u r e of argon a n d carbon dioxide. Wire
diameter may be 1.6, 2 or 2.4 mm, depending on the
thickness of the plate.
The welding head is suspended from an elevator
mechanism, which provides automatic control of the
v e r t i c a l t r a v e l s p e e d d u r i n g w e l d i n g . This
mechanism raises the welding head automatically
at the same rate as the advancing weld metal. The
welding head is self-aligning and can adjust to any
misalignment in plate or joint. Once the equipment
is positioned on the joint, welding is completely
automatic. Wire feed and current are constant. At the
end of the weld the process stops automatically (see
Fig. 1.12).
This welding technique is increasingly used in
shipyards and in the fabrication of storage tanks and
large diameter pipes.
Plasma Arc and Micro-Plasma Arc Welding
This has b e e n dealt w i t h later u n d e r Plasma
Processes.
Gas Welding
In this process, the melting of the base metal is
achieved by means of a gas flame which derives its
intense heat from the combustion of a fuel with oxygen.
The most commonly used fuel is acetylene, though
Mapp gas (stabilised methylacetylene propadiene) and
hydrogen are sometimes used. Hence the appropriate
term of this process is oxyfuel or oxyacetylene welding.
Filler metal may or may not be used (see Fig. 1.13).
The oxyacetylene process depends on the chemical
reaction which occurs in two stages.
Primary stage:
C2H2 + 02 = 2 CO + H2
acetylene oxygen carbon hydrogen
monoxide
The primary combustion provides the actual flame
for welding, with temperature up to 3,092° C, which is
in the inner cone.
10 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

w FLUX-CORED ELECTRODE

BASE PLATE 1

DRIVE ROLLERS

GAS SHIELDING

MOLTEN WELD METAL

SOLIDIFYING WELD METAL

WATER CIRCULATION
SOLIDIFIED METAL

WATER CONNECTIONS

COMPLETED WELD
BASE PLATE 2

Fig. 1.12: Diagrammatic sketch of electrogas welding

GAS REGULATORS

HOSES

WELDING TORCH

(A)

REDUCING
GAS SUPPLY REGULATORS

OXYGEN TORCH 8 MIXER

COMBUSTIBLE
GAS

Fig. 1.13: Oxyfuel welding: (A) Schematic diagram of the process; (B) Sketch of the welding torch
 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 11

Secondary stage: part of aluminium by weight is locally heated with a

2 CO + H2 + m o2 == 2 C 0 2 + H 2 0
carbon hydrogen oxygen carbon water
monoxide from air dioxide vapour
This secondary combustion occurs at the outer
portion of the flame. It protects the molten puddle from
attack by air and helps to preheat the base metal.
Equipment for oxyacetylene welding consists of
oxygen and acetylene cylinders, pressure regulators
which reduce the high cylinder gas pressure to the
required working pressure, a torch where the two gases
are mixed, and hoses which connect the regulators to
the torch.
Gas welding has limited application for industrial
production purposes, because it is much slower than
arc welding processes. It is used considerably more for
general maintenance work including hardfacing,
welding metals of low melting points (especially non-
ferrous metals) and performing such operations as
brazing, soldering, and thermal spraying.
Thermit Welding
This process utilises the intense heat developed
during the reaction between iron oxide and aluminium.
When a mixture of three parts of iron oxide and one
special ignition powder, a vigorous reaction takes place
which proceeds rapidly through the mass, resulting in
the formation of aluminium oxide and iron, and a
considerable amount of heat. The heat is sufficient to
melt the iron and the oxide slag.
In carrying out a thermit welding operation, the
thermit mixture is placed in a refractory crucible above
the pieces to be welded. In practice, additional metals
and compounds are often placed in the thermit mixture
to alloy the iron and improve its properties. The molten
metal from the thermit reaction in the refractory crucible
is guided to the joint to be welded by a sand mould,
which is fastened around the work. By virtue of its
superheat, the thermit metal melts a portion of the base
metal with which it comes in contact. Upon solidification
of this melt, the weld is completed (see Fig. 1.14).
The process is commonly used for welding the rails
of railway tracks. It is also sometimes used to repair
heavy broken parts such as steel mill rolls.
Electron Beam Welding
In this process, fusion is achieved by focusing a high
power density beam of electrons on the area to be joined.
Upon striking the metal, the kinetic energy of the high
velocity electrons changes to thermal energy, causing

CRUCIBLE CAP
IGNITION POWDER
THERMIT

CRUCIBLE LINING
(A)
CRUCIBLE SHELL

SLAG SEAL ASBESTOS SEAL

THIMBLE
TAPPING PIN

SLAG TROUGH

POURING GATE
(B)
REFRACTORY GATE
RISER
MOULD BOX
— PREHEATING GATE
PREHEATING GATE —" SPINDLE TO BE
WELDED

WAX DRAIN — j g ? S PREHEATING GATE

- g ifrA*V»

Fig. 1.14: Diagrammatic sketch of thermit welding : (A) Refractory cubicle in which thermit reaction occurs;
(B) Sand mould containing the joint
12 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
the metal to melt and fuse. The electrons are emitted from
a tungsten filament heated to approximately 2,000°C.
Since the filament would quickly oxidise at this
temperature if exposed to normal atmosphere, the unit
as well as the focusing devices and workpiece are placed
in a vacuum (see Fig. 1.15).
The major advantages of electron beam welding are:
• Its ability to produce deeper and narrower welds
with total heat input which is much lower than
in arc welding
• Good control over weld penetration and other
weld dimensions
• High-purity welds free from oxides and nitrides,
and
• Very high welding speeds and production rates.
HIGH VOLTAGE RECEPTACLE
ALIGNMENT ADJUSTMENT
SCREW
OPTICAL VIEWING SYSTEM
WATER CONNECTIONS
CHAMBER
Fig. 1.15: Schematic diagram of electron beam welding
Electron beam welding can join materials ranging
from thin foils to sheets of 50 mm thickness. It is
particularly suited for the welding of refractory metals
such as tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, tantalum,
and metals which oxidise readily, such as titanium,
beryllium and zirconium. It also has wide application
in joining dissimilar metals, aluminium, standard steels
and ceramics.
An electron beam welder is very expensive, but its
use is justified for critical applications such as bimetallic
blades for metal-cutting saws, aircraft engine
components and supercharger impellers for diesel
engines.
Lately, non-vacuum electron beam welders have
been developed, which give higher production rates at
lower costs, because no vacuum chamber is needed for
ELECTRON BEAM GUN
COLUMN HINGE
COLUMN VENT VALVE
MAGNETIC LENS
DEFLECTION COIL
TO VACUUM SYSTEM

the work and no time is lost in pumping down for each
load. Also work size is not limited by chamber
dimensions. The non-vacuum technique, however, gives
reduced penetration and the welds are not as narrow
and non-tapering as those made in a vacuum.
Electroslag Welding
This process, which is similar to the electrogas
process described earlier, is primarily designed for
making a butt weld in the vertical position in one single
pass, regardless of the plate thickness which can range
between 12.5 and 500 mm. The welding heat is provided
by a small quantity of flux which is converted into a
conductive molten slag by its resistance to the electric
current passing between the continuously fed wire or
wires (one wire for thickness up to 100 mm, two wires
up to 230 mm and three wires up to 500 mm) and the
parent plates. The hot molten slag melts the filler wire
and the joint surfaces, and also shields the weld pool
which moves upward along the full cross-section of the
joint as welding progresses. There is no arc, and hence
the welding action is quiet and spatter-free.
A pair of water-cooled copper shoes fitted on each side
of the joint retains the molten metal and slag pool and
acts as a mould to cool and shape the weld surfaces. The
copper shoes automatically slide upward as welding
progresses (see Fig. 1.16).
Fig. 1.16: Diagrammatic sketch of electroslag welding
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 13
The weld metal usually consists entirely of coarse or
fine columnar dendrites, or of two zones: one zone of
coarse columnar dendrites and the other of fine
columnar dendrites. Electroslag joints made correctly
in structural steel applications do not need postheating.
On the other hand, joints in pressure vessels which must
have optimum notch toughness, require a normalising
treatment to refine and reorient the grains.
With variations in technique, this process can be
applied to T-joints, corner joints, girth seams in heavy-
wall cylinders, and so forth.
Consumable Guide Method
This is a modified version of the electroslag process.
In this method, there is no need for the copper shoes,
wire-feeding mechanism and associated equipment to
move upward during welding. It uses simply a metal
tube extending the full-length of the weld joint to guide
the welding wire to the welding zone. The copper
moulds also are full-length. These moulds and all wire-
feeding equipment remain stationary, with the wire
being the only moving part. The guide tube melts in the
weld pool as the pool rises and adds itself to the weld
metal (see Fig. 1.17).
The consumable guide is generally provided with a
flux coating on the outside to:
• Insulate it electrically from the base plate, and
• To maintain the level of the slag pool till the end.
^ WATER OUT
Fig. 1.17: Schematic diagram of electroslag consumable
guide method
14 IIODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Laser Welding
In this process, fusion is achieved by directing a
highly concentrated beam to a spot about the diameter
of a human hair. The word laser is an abbreviation of
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
A laser beam has a higher energy concentration than
even an electron beam. Since the heat input to the
workpiece is extremely small, the size of the heat affected
zone and the thermal damage to the adjacent parts of
the weld are negligible.
Laser can be used to join dissimilar metals and other
difficult-to-weld metals such as copper, nickel, tungsten,
aluminium, stainless steel, titanium and columbium.
The current application of laser welding is largely in
aerospace and electronic industries, where extreme
control in weldments is required. Its major limitation is
the shallow penetration (less than 1 mm).
The technique of projecting a laser beam is interesting
(see Fig. 1.18), An intense green light is thrown on a
special man-made ruby, 10 mm in diameter, containing
CAPACITOR
BANK
FLASH TUBE
itbLs*m
OUTER REFLECTOR *ȣ<
QUARTZ
THERMAL ^
<ti>
BARRIER
FOCUSING .
LENS
COHERENT
MONOCROMATIC
RADIATION
WELDING LASER (SCHEMATIC)
Fig. 1.18: Schematic diagram of laser welding
about 0.05%, by weight, of chromium oxide. The green
light pumps the chromium atoms to a higher state of
energy. Each of these excited atoms emits red light and
thereby excites neighbouring atoms which also give off
red light which is in phase with the collided red light
wave.
In other words, the red light gets continuously
amplified. To further enhance this effect, the parallel
ends of the rod are mirrored to bounce the red light back
and forth within the rod. When a certain critical intensity
of pumping is reached (the so-called threshold energy),
the chain reaction collisions become numerous enough
to cause a burst of red light. The mirror at the front end
of the rod is only a partial reflector, allowing the burst
of light to escape through it.
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESSES
In describing this group of processes, the word
electric is usually omitted and simply the term resistance
welding is used. In these processes, the coalescence is
POWER
SUPPLY
ENERGY
STORAGE
PUMPING
SYSTEM
LASER
MATERIAL
FOCUSING
SYSTEM
+—*
WORK
PIECES
BASIC LASER SYSTEM

achieved by passing electric current through the metallic
parts by inserting them into a circuit. The electric
resistance produces heat at the junction of the parts.
Finally, pressure is applied.
In the process chart (Table 1.1), resistance welding
processes have been placed between fusion and solid
phase processes, because it is difficult to decide whether
they are fusion processes or solid state processes as
evident from the following examples:
• Resistance butt welding is a solid state process in
which melting of the joint is totally avoided by
controlling the parameters.
• Spot, seam and projection welding are also solid
state processes, except for a small molten nugget
which is formed in the weld. The size of the nug-
get is kept as small as possible.
• In flash, percussion and high frequency welding,
the surfaces to be joined do get fused, but the fu-
sion zone is controlled to an extremely narrow
zone, almost to 0.005 mm. If the fusion is not re-
stricted, molten metal will fly off under pressure
and the weld will not take place.
Resistance Butt Welding
This process is also known as upset welding or
simply butt welding. Here, the temperature of the joint
is raised by the resistance to the passage of an electric
current across the interface of the joint. The parts to be
joined (usually wires and rods) are held in clamps, one
stationary and the other m o v a b l e , which act as
conductors for the low-voltage electric supply and also
apply force (see Fig. 1.19).
This force or pressure is applied only after the
abutting surfaces have reached a temperature slightly
below the melting point, which results in the upsetting
of the metal. Uniform and accurately mating surfaces
are desirable to exclude air and give uniform heating.
The process is commonly used during rod rolling and
wire drawing operations to join the ends.
SOLID CONTACT
frrr =v
Fig. 1.19: Sketch of resistance butt welding
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 15
Flash Butt Welding
This process is an extension of resistance butt welding.
The parts to be joined are gripped in the clamps, and their
interfaces are gradually brought into contact to complete
the secondary circuit. When the welding voltage of up to
about 10 is applied at the clamps, current flows through
the initial points of contact causing them to melt. These
molten bridges are then ruptured and small short-lived
arcs are formed.
The platen on which the movable clamp is mounted
is moving forward while this takes place, and fresh con-
tacts are then made elsewhere so that the cycle of events
can be repeated. This intermittent process, during which
much of the metal contained in the molten bridges is
expelled violently in a spectacular manner, is called
flashing.
Flashing is allowed to continue until the surfaces to
be joined are uniformly heated or molten. By this time
the moving platen will have advanced, at an increasing
rate, to close the gap as metal is expelled, the total
distance up to the point of upset being known as the
flashing allowance. At this point the rate of movement
of the platen is rapidly increased and a high force
applied to forge the parts together and expel the molten
metal on the surfaces (see Fig. 1.20).
Typical applications of this process are: rails, steel
strips, window frames and automobile rear axle casings.
Special purpose machines are designed for each of these
applications.
Spot Welding
In this process, a spot of weld is made between over-
lapping sheets by means of two cylindrical copper-alloy
electrodes, one on top and the other at the bottom, which
carry a high current. The electrodes also clamp the work
and apply pressure when the metal at the joint gets
sufficiently heated by electrical resistance (see Fig. 1.21).
A tiny button of fused metal results at the sheet inter-
face which is called the nugget. The electrodes are re-
tracted after the weld is complete. Spot welding is always
performed with a machine in which all the parameters
can be controlled. The process is used on a large scale in
automotive production, and in sheet-metal fabrication.
Stitch Welding
This is an extension of spot welding, in which a series
of overlapping spot welds are made in the same manner
as stitching cloth. Stitch welding may be performed with
a normal spot welding machine or with a specially
designed one, which automatically makes spot welds
in a continuous series.
16 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

CLAMPS JOINT TO BE WELDED

MOVABLE PLATEN

WELDING FLEXIBLE LEAD

TRANSFOFH
MER
1 1
;/>'. ■J//////3
LIGHT CONTACT AC SUPPLY
<A) IB)
Fig. 1.20: Flash butt welding: (A) Sketch of joint set-up; (B) Schematic diagram of equipment

FORCE Multiple Spot Welding

This is a modification of spot welding, in which two
or more welds can be obtained from each transformer
secondary. Four typical types are shown in Fig. 1.22.

\\V^MWti&SSq z Series Spot Welding

f/////,/;,////////////A
Fig. 1.21: Sketch of spot welding
UJ
cc
cc
In series welding (see Fig. 1.22A), a portion of the
secondary current bypasses (shunts) any weld nugget
being formed. This shunt current passes through one of
the panels being welded. Generally, two welds are made
per transformer secondary.

UuuuJ UuuuJ

SERIES WELDING DIRECT WELDING IN SERIES

UjLfliJ

r~6 ft
nnnnrs
OVER-AND UNDER-WELDING PARALLEL SPOT WELDING

Fig. 1.22: Sketches showing four methods of multiple spot welding

 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 17

Roller Spot Welding The joint edges are in intimate contact and the roller
In this process, a series of intermittent spot welds are electrodes travel directly over the seam. Figure 1.25
made using wheels or rollers as electrodes. The rollers shows the process being used in the production of
are power driven and are stopped while individual welded tubes.
welds are made. Current is passed intermittently when
the electrodes are stationary (see Fig. 1.23). Foil Butt Seam Welding
This is a modification of seam welding, in which
Seam Welding thin narrow strips of metal are introduced between one
Seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that or both of the circular electrodes and the workpiece. The
the copper-alloy electrodes are in the form of circular joint edges are held in the same plane instead of being
rollers. The overlapping sheets are held under constant overlapped. The strips help to localise the melting and
pressure between the roller electrodes, which rotate at to avoid reduction of section thickness at the joint (see
constant speed and carry current (see Fig. 1.24). Fig. 1.26).
A series of spot welds, whose nuggets overlap each The process is being used successfully on the shells
other, are formed which give the appearance of a of railcoaches.
continuous weld seam. A common application of seam
welding is in the manufacture of steel drums. Projection Welding
This is a modified method of making single or multiple
Butt Seam Welding spot welds. Projection welds are made by providing an
This is similar to seam welding, except that the embossment or projection on one or both of the contacting
sheets to be joined are in the same plane instead of being base metal surfaces to localise the pre-ssure and current
overlapped. flow at a particular point (see Fig. 1.27).
This reduces the amount of current and pressure
required to produce a spot weld between two pieces of
ELECTRODE FORCE metal. Other advantages would include:
• Maintaining proper heat balance between two
INTERMITTENT ENT workpieces of markedly different mass
WELDS • Better control of size and shape of fused area
• Making of multiple welds simultaneously between
a single set of electrodes or contact platens and
WHEEL ELECTRODESI
WITH SHAPED • Forming of welds from one side of the assembly by
PERIPHERY series welding two separated projections, provided
adequate pressure can be applied.
Fig. 1.23: Sketch of roller spot welding
Percussion Welding
Percussion (or percussive) welding is unique and
FORCE
of considerable interest, because butt welds can be made
with incredible speed, in almost any combination of
dissimilar materials and without the expulsion of a fin
or flash around the joint.
The pieces to be joined are held a short distance
apart in clamping dies which carry current and apply
pressure. The ends to be welded are prepared for
f/mffm//tiiiX;ti;;;ti;;S;: 3
accurate mating. An extremely heavy electric current is
delivered (electrical energy from discharging condensers
or capacitors) to the pieces as a very short impulse,
perhaps for only 0.001 second, and flows across the gap
FORCE between the pieces as an arc. The heat of this high-energy
Fig. 1.24: Sketch of seam welding
arc produces superficial melting over the entire end
surfaces of the bars. An instant after the arc has struck,
18 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
SIDE PRESSURE ROLLS
TUBE BEING WELDED
Fig. 1.25: Diagrammatic sketch of butt seam welding
FOIL
FOIL
Fig. 1.26: Sketch of foil butt seam welding
the pieces are brought together with an impact blow
(hence the term percussion) to complete the weld (see
Fig. 1.28).
High Frequency Resistance Welding
This process is mainly used in the upset butt welding
of tubes as a continuous process. The tube formed out of
a continuous strip passes under the electrodes, which
transfer the high frequency welding current (alternating
currents ranging from 200 to 4,50,000 cycles) into the
material being welded and through a set of rolls, which
provides the welding force (see Fig. 1.29).
The amount of upset is regulated by the relative
position of the welding electrodes and the rolls applying
the upset force. The required welding heat is governed
by the current passing through the work and the speed
at which the tube goes through the rolls.
TRANSFORMER
FORCE
BEFORE AFTER WELDING
Fig. 1.27: Sketch of projection welding
SOLID PHASE WELDING
This is a group of processes in which coalescence is
produced essentially below the melting point of the base
metals being joined, without the additiort of brazing
filler metal. In some of them pressure is used. With the
exception of cold welding and ultrasonic welding, all
the processes involve heat.
Forge Welding
This is the age-old process used by the village
blacksmith. It consists of heating the surfaces to be joined
(may be on a charcoal fire or any other handy source of
heat), placing these surfaces in contact, and hammering
them together to form a weld. The surfaces are heated
below the melting point, so that they are in a plastic state.
The oxidising flame of the fire produces a liquid film of
iron oxide on the surface, which is squeezed out more or

DRIVE SPRING
WIRE LEAD
POWER SUPPLY
Fig. 1.28: Diagrammatic sketch of percussion welding:
(A) Wire end for capacitor discharge; (B) Percussion welded assembly
FORCE
Fig. 1.29: Sketch of high frequency resistance welding
less completely when the solid surfaces are hammered
together.
The historic Iron Pillar in Delhi consists of several
ingots of pure iron forge-welded together.
Hammer Welding / Die Welding / Roll Welding
These are the refined variations of forge welding.
Hammer welding is a semi-automatic or automatic
process in which a heavy hammer is powered by steam,
hydraulic or pneumatic equipment and the hammer
blows are applied at low velocity to forge the weld.
In die welding, the parts are heated in a furnace and
the pressure is applied by means of dies. The dies also
form the work while it is hot.
In roll welding, the pressure is applied on heated
parts by means of rollers. Roll welding is used mostly for
the manufacture of clad steel plates and sheets. First, an
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 19
COMPONENT
WELD
TERMINAL
PRINTED CIRCUIT
OR MOULDED BOARD (B)
assembly of the steel plate and the cladding material such
as nickel or stainless steel is formed.
The assembly or sandwich is then welded at the
periphery to exclude air as well as to hold the parts
together during rolling. In rolling, the high temperature
and working create a solid-phase weld between the steel
and cladding metal.
Production of clad plate by hot rolling a pack or
sandwich is an example of roller forge welding.
Gas Pressure Welding
This is another modern adaptation of forge
welding, in which the joint, held in compression, is
locally heated by oxy-acetylene flames to a temperature
somewhere below the melting point. When the joint is
held for a sufficient length of time at this temperature
under pressure, welding takes place.
This process has been successfully adapted for the
welding of rail ends.
High Frequency Pressure Welding
This process differs from high-frequency resistance
welding described earlier. The difference is that instead
of direct contact being made with the work, the current
is induced in the surface layer by a coil wrapped round
the workpiece. This causes heating. When a suitable
temperature is reached, the weld is consolidated by a
forging action of the joint (see Fig. 1.30).
The process is also referred to as high-frequency
induction welding. It is used in the manufacture of tubes.
Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW)
This is basically a solid state welding process, still in
its infancy, in which bonding is produced by an oblique,
high velocity collision between the two bodies to be
20 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
WELD ROLLS
CURRENT
VEE
INDUCTION COIL
I— IMPEDER
Fig. 1.30: Sketch of high-frequency pressure welding
welded. The principle of magnetic repulsion effect is
iitilised in this process.
A wide range of tubular materials have been joined
using MPW technology. Dissimilar metals like steel to
copper, steel to aluminium, copper to aluminium etc.
can be joined using no filler metal or gases. Fig. 1.31
illustrates the basic principle of the process.
Cold Welding
In this process, welding is obtained at room
temperature solely by the application of pressure across
the interface. The contact surfaces have to be specially
prepared by degreasing, scratch brushing and other
operations. The joints are either lap or butt. For making
lap joints, indenting dies may be forced into the metal
causing deformation and flow to provide the extension
of the interface. The butt method is used for joining
wires, tubes and bar stock, the parts being gripped in
dies and forced together to cause lateral flow.
• id ; ' issi - * isi ; ■ cs^— 2 coii
v ym?, vW ,
8.Workpiece(after)-y— * * / " " ~ " \ / " ~ * \ / " ~ * \ / ^ ~ * \ ~
. +)( +) ( + ) ( + )
5. Pressure v<C . . . ^ ! ^ * ? ! ^ ! ^ ^ r ? ^ T ? T ? ? r ! ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ / ^ ^ ^
6. WorKpiece(afterV—V " ^ V _ , ' V_„/ V _ /
\'• ^ v ' • ^ v ' •^P' ■ ^fc;
\r.^^" x
^ ^ ' V
^ y
v v
Fig. 1.31: Sketch of magnetic pulse welding
Cold welding is generally done on ductile metals like
WELD POINT copper and aluminium.
I— WELD SEAM
Diffusion Bonding
In this process, union between specially prepared
mating surfaces takes place as a result of diffusion, which
occurs due to high temperature and pressure exerted
for a sufficiently long time. The pressure is low enough
to ensure that there is no plastic flow or deformation.
The extended time of several minutes at elevated
temperatures (which will cause oxidation) requires that
the joint is made in protective atmosphere or vacuum.
Sometimes thin inserts are placed between the mating
surfaces to speed up diffusion and ensure strong welds.
Explosive Welding
In this process, two pieces of metal are impacted
together at an extremely high velocity of impact
achieved by the detonation of an explosive charge. The
result is a solid-state weld completed in microseconds
without any noticeable deformation (see Fig. 1.32).
EXPLOSIVE
— ^ r METAL PLATE
/
*/ EXPLOSIVE
' SPACE ^VS^^TAL PLATE
Fig. 1.32: Sketches of explosive welding
The process has been used to prepare clad plates
involving dissimilar metals, and in welding tubes to
tube-plates in heat exchangers.
^ 'Wm_ ■ * ^iir, Discharge current
Friction Welding
r
4. Workpiece (before!
In this process, friction is employed to generate heat
between two sliding or rotating metal surfaces. The
process is usually carried out by placing the pieces to
be welded in chucks on a common horizontal axis. One
part is rotated while the other remains stationary.
V_r/ 4. Workpiece (before; Pressure is applied to generate enough heat to reach a
2 bonding temperature within a few seconds. At this point,
^^V'' y
^\*^ 1. Discharge current rotation is stopped very quickly and pressure is
v
maintained or increased until welding is complete (see
Fig. 1.33).

STATIONARY CHUCK
ROTATING CHUCK
THRUST CYLINDER
(A)
MOTOR
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
START
THRUST APPLIED
STAGE 3 BEGINS
> frequency vibratory energy to workpieces held together
m FORGE AND BRAKE
Fig. 1.33: Diagrammatic sketches of friction welding:
(A) Main components of the equipment;
(B) Stages of weld formation
To accommodate awkward or unusually long
sections, an intermediate slug or disk can be rotated
between the sections to be joined.
In applying the process, one uses a specially designed
machine called the friction welder. It helps one to
produce consistently high quality joints, each within a
few seconds, in various similar and dissimilar metal
combinations.
Friction Stir Welding
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) uses a new solid phase
welding technique which has been developed in the 90's
primarily for joining aluminium alloys. FSW is a
derivative of conventional friction welding enabling the
advantages of solid phase welding to be applied to the
fabrication of long butt and lap joints, with very little
post-weld distortion. The concept of FSW is shown in
Fig. 1.34
Ultrasonic Welding
Ultrasonic welding is a solid-state process for joining
similar or dissimilar metals by application of high-
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 21
Workpiece
Tool
shoulder
Welding pin with
spocial profile
Backing bar
Fig. 1.34: The friction stir welding concept
under moderate static pressure (see Fig. 1.35).
The process has proved to be an economical substi-
tute for resistance welding of electrical conductors: it
welds faster, uses less power, and usually requires lower
capital investment.
The vibrations break up and disperse oxides, surface
films, and some types of insulation at the joint surface
to permit bare metal contact. Inter-atomic diffusion
occurs across the facing surfaces and results in a
metallurgical bond without application of heat. The
joints so produced possess electrical resistance and
mechanical strength almost equal to that of the parent
materials.
The equipment consists of a frequency converter
which changes 60-cycle line power to the high frequency
(15 to 60 kHz) required by the ultrasonic head. The head
incorporates a piezoelectric transducer, which converts
the high frequency electrical output into vibratory
mechanical motion, and waveguides which transmit the
vibratory waves to the tools and into the weldment.
Static clamping force is applied to the head by a
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder. High production
operations use a high-speed cam-operated anvil to
position the work.
The process has been successfully used in the
electrical equipment production in the U.S.A. Typical
applications include:
• Almost all commonly used armatures. On tang
type armatures, the tang is bent and welded dur-
ing the ultrasonic cycle. Vibratory energy im-
22 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
CLAMPING FORCE APPLIED - - ^ j - 1
THROUGH MOUNT
FREQUENCY CONVERTER
TRANSDUCER
Fig. 1.35: Diagrammatic sketch of ultrasonic welding
parted to the wire scrubs away the insulation and
makes a tack weld between tang and commutator
and between wire and tang
• Slotted commutators
• Starter motor armatures
• Commutator armatures for motors of electric door
locks and windshield wiper-washers
• Field coils, field coil assembly, wire harness sys-
tems, wire terminal connections, and induction
coils
• Joining of braided brush wire to brush plate
• A wide variety of wire terminals
BRAZEWELDING
This process is similar to brazing which is described
below, except that the molten filler metal is not
distributed in the joint by capillary action. It gets filled
up in a groove or gets piled up as a fillet weld. In other
words, brazewelding is similar to normal welding, but
the filler metal used has melting point above 450°C but
below the melting point of the base metal.
A typical example of this process is what is popularly
called bronze welding, used for making joints in mild
steel and cast iron. The filler rod is a special copper alloy
which melts at approximately 800°C. It is used in
combination with flux. The filler rod is melted with an
oxyfuel flame. The molten metal fills the V-groove in a
butt joint or piles up as a fillet weld and makes a joint
without causing the base metal to melt.
Brazing
In brazing, the coalescence between metallic parts
is obtained by
(a) heating them to a suitable temperature,
(b) using a filler metal with melting point above
<J^
VIBRATION - ^ ^ A - K
450°C but below the melting point of the base metal,
and
(c) heating the filler metal till it melts and gets dis-
tributed between the closely fitted surfaces by capillary
attraction.
Like welding, brazing is used in the fabrication of a
variety of metallic products ranging from tea kettles and
bicycle parts to heat exchangers and aerospace
structures. In recent years, hundreds of new con-
structional alloys have been developed, and at the same
time new brazing filler metals have been perfected to join
them. Today thousands of tonnes of carbon steel
components brazed with copper alloy filler metals are
produced annually by the fabrication industry.
Brazing is being used for the production of large foil
heat exchangers, automobile radiators, turbojet engine
components, and many such critical items.
The range of materials which can be successfully
brazed is very wide and includes beryllium, titanium,
superalloys, refractory metals, dispersion strengthened
metals, all-metal composites, dissimilar metals and
special ceramic-to-metal combinations.
Resistance Brazing
In this process, the heat is provided by the resistance
of the parts to the flow of low-voltage, high-current
power supplied from a suitable transformer and from
the heat conduction from the high resistance facing
materials on the contacting electrodes. The electrodes
are usually of carbon, molybdenum, tungsten or steel.
This process is extensively used when small areas are to
be brazed and when the material has high electrical
conductivity.
Dip Brazing
In this case, the heat is provided by a molten chemical
bath or molten metal bath. In the former, the bath may
 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 23

act as a flux. In the latter, the bath provides the filler
metal.
The parts to be brazed are first cleaned. Filler metal
inserts are pre-placed in the joints in the case of flux
bath brazing. In the case of metal bath brazing, the parts
and joint surfaces are protected with flux. They are then
assembled in a fixture which is usually of stainless steel.
Next, they are preheated to a suitable temperature in a
furnace and finally introduced into the molten bath.
Flame Brazing
This is the most common process which uses the
standard oxyacetylene flame and equipment.
MIG Brazing
Conventional brazing joins materials with the aid of
melted filler, the melting temperature of which lies below
that of the parent metal, which is wetted to form the joint
but not melted. In MIG brazing, this technique is extended
in semi-automatic or even in fully automatic mode, similar
to MIG process. Pure argon is the shielding gas most
often used in MIG brazing although addition of 1%
oxygen is not uncommon. Many types of copper-based
welding wires are available—common amongst these are
Si-Mn alloys, aluminium-bronze and phosphor-bronze.
Modern inverter type MIG power sources are most
suitable for this process.

Furnace Brazing THERMAL CUTTING

Here the parts are assembled in a jig, filler metal is Thermal cutting processes involve melting of the
pre-placed in the joints, flux is also applied at the joints, metal to be cut. The word thermal distinguishes them
and the entire assembly is heated in an electric or gas/ from the mechanical methods of cutting.
oil heated furnace where the temperature can be
controlled within ±5°C. Sometimes a special atmosphere Oxygen Flame Cutting
is used in the furnace instead of the flux. In this process of metal-cutting, popularly known as
Vacuum is used for special stainless steels, oxyacetylene or gas cutting, the cut is started by
superalloys, Ti alloys, etc. preheating a section of metal to the ignition temperature
with an oxyacetylene flame. Oxygen is then turned on,
Induction Brazing which ignites the iron or steel at the upper surface. This
In this case, heat is obtained from the resistance of burning (oxidation) releases heat and thereby raises the
the work to induced electric current. Parts to be heated temperature of the metal below the surface and melts
act as the short-circuited secondary of a transformer, it. The cutting oxygen now ignites the molten metal,
where the work coil, which is connected to the generator which in turn releases heat to the metal below. The same
is the primary. The heating results from the resistance action progresses downward until the metal is severed
of the parts to the currents induced in the parts (see Fig. 1.36).
themselves by the transformer action. High frequencies The slag which is mainly iron oxide (Fe304) is blown
are usually used, the most common being 10,000 Hz out of the cut by the force of the oxygen stream.
obtained from a motor-generator set.

Salt Bath Brazing

This is similar to molten flux bath dip brazing
described earlier. Here a salt of suitable melting point is
used instead of the flux.

Diffusion Brazing
Here the parts to be joined are heated to a suitable
temperature, and braze filler metal is introduced
between the contacting surfaces by preplacing or by
capillary action. Sometimes a liquid phase develops in
situ at the contacting surfaces, which acts like a filler
metal. The filler metal or this liquid phase gets diffused Fig. 1.36: Oxygen flame cutting:
with the base metal, with the result that the joint (A) Cutting tip showing arrangement of orifices;
properties are changed to approach those of the base (B) Sketch of cutting action;
(C) Drag formation
metal.
24 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

The process uses the normal gas welding equipment
and a specially designed cutting torch, which is equipped
with a special lever for the control of the oxygen and a
cutting tip, which has an orifice in the centre surrounded
by several smaller ones. The smaller holes provide the
heating flame while the centre opening allows the flow
of cutting oxygen.
Powder Cutting
The normal oxygen cutting process is ineffective for
cutting metals that form refractory oxides such as
aluminium, bronzes, and high-nickel alloys. To cut these
metals, iron powder is fed into the oxygen stream. A
mixture of iron powder and aluminium powder is
sometimes used for cutting brass, copper and high-
nickel alloys. The aluminium releases more heat than
just the iron powder alone. Iron powder also produces
a rapid cutting action on stainless steels and is very
effective in getting smoother cuts in cast iron.
Powder cutting makes use of a special torch which is
equipped with a powder tube, nozzle, and powder valve.
The powder is stored in a dispenser and is carried to the
powder valve by compressed air or nitrogen where it is
fed to the flame. In operation the powder valve is opened
first and then the oxygen valve.
stream of oxygen is blown through the hollow core to
oxidise and eject the metal (see Fig. 1.38).
The coating helps to melt, oxidise or dilute the molten
base metal. In the case of oxidation-resistant metals, the
coating helps the molten metal to flow from the cut. The
cutting is very rapid.
This process was primarily developed for
underwater cutting. It can be effectively used by
foundries and scrap yards and for dismantling work,
since it is capable of cutting all types of metals in all
positions.
Carbon Arc Cutting
In this process, the arc formed between a non-
consumable carbon electrode and the base metal is used
for cutting. This process was formerly in use along with
carbon arc welding, but is now almost obsolete.

Oxygen Lancing
This is an oxygen cutting process in which the base
metal is first preheated with a normal cutting torch, and
then oxygen is fed by means of a long steel pipe called
oxygen lance. The lance pipe is moved suitably to
regulate the metal being cut or pierced. The pipe gets
consumed gradually in the process (see Fig. 1.37).
Lancing and another similar process called scarfing
are used to remove the surface defects of steel blooms,
slabs and billets before finish rolling in a steel mill.

Oxygen Arc Cutting

In this case, a hollow (tubular) coated electrode
makes an arc with the base metal causing it to melt. A

Fig. 1.38: Diagrammatic sketch of oxygen arc cutting


Metal-Arc Cutting
Here a manual welding electrode having a penetrating
arc is used to cut the metal (see Fig. 1.39). Some arc-cutting
electrodes are also capable of chamfering and gouging
metals.
Fig. 1.39: Metal arc cutting: (A) Swinging action of
electrode; (B) Form of cut
Air-Arc Cutting
In this process, which is widely used in fabrication
shops and foundries, an arc is formed between a non-
consumable copper-coated graphite electrode and the
base metal; the molten metal is blown away with a high
velocity jet of compressed air, parallel and external to
the electrode. Since this process does not depend on
oxidation, it works equally well on metals which do not
readily oxidise (see Fig. 1.40).
A special holder is used to clamp a carbon-graphite
electrode in such a position that air emitted from orifices
in the electrode holder is directed parallel to the
electrode. The air then strikes the molten metal
immediately behind the arc. The electrode holder also
contains an air control valve and a cable which carries
both the current and the air. This cable is connected to a
welding machine as well as to a source of compressed
air.
ELECTRODE
Fig. 1.40: Diagrammatic sketch of air-arc cutting torch gripping a carbon-graphite electrode
INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 25
Plasma Arc Cutting
This is dealt with later under Plasma Processes.
Spark Erosion Cutting
This process makes use of spark-discharge machines
to perform unique shaping and piercing operations on
hardened steel.
Electron Beam Cutting/ Laser Cutting
These processes are based on the same principles as
electron beam welding and laser welding described
earlier.
THERMAL SPRAYING
Thermal spraying is a group of processes in which a
metallic or non-metallic material in the form of wire,
rod or powder is heated to a molten or semi-molten state
and then sprayed in atomised form onto a surface (called
substrate) to form a coating. The heating is commonly
done with an oxyfuel gas flame, an electric arc or a
plasma arc. A mechanical contrivance called the spray
gun is used to propel the hot material to the surface by
means of a gas jet. The plastic or molten particles flatten
and form thin platelets when they strike the surface. The
bond between the spray deposit and the substrate may
be mechanical, metallurgical, chemical or a combination
of these.
Thermal s p r a y i n g is also sometimes called
metallising or metal spraying, which implies that the
material being sprayed is metallic.
Flame Spraying
In this case, the metal to be sprayed, which is in the
form of wire or finely divided powder, is passed through
an oxyacetylene flame (see Fig. 1.41). In the case of the
wire, a stream of high-velocity gas (air, nitrogen or C0 2 )
ELECTRODE RELEASE
AIR AND
POWER SUPPLY
26 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

WIRE CONTROL
UNITJ / FLOW METER
AIR CONTROL UNIT

METALLISING UNIT

HOSE UNIT
OXYGEN ' \ ACETYLENE OR PROPANE

Fig. 1.41: Schematic diagram of flame spraying

is also passed over the flame to divide the molten metal
into fine particles and carry them to the work surface. In
certain cases, the stream of gas also serves to feed the
wire into the flame.
Electric Arc Spraying
Here two current-carrying wires are continuously fed
into a gun through wire guides. The wire ends meet in
front of the gun nozzle and form an arc. An air jet is
blown through the gun nozzle on to the arc. It ejects
molten metal particles and carries them to the work
surface (see Fig. 1.42).
Plasma Spraying
This process is discussed under Plasma Processes.
PLASMA PROCESSES
Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter, the
other three being solid, liquid and gas. Plasma is a
superheated gas which has dissociated into positive ions,
neutral atoms and negative electrons. Plasma is formed
when an electrical discharge takes place in a gas, and
also in an electric arc (the blinding light of an arc comes
from the plasma). In normal arc welding processes, the
plasma is easily blown away by moving gas streams.
But in plasma processes which are listed below, the
plasma is contained and used effectively:
• Plasma arc welding
• Micro-plasma arc welding
• Plasma-MIG welding
• Plasma arc cutting
• Plasma spraying.
In all these processes, based on DC supply, a specially
designed torch, which is a modification of the TIG torch,
concentrates the plasma energy and ensures its most
efficient utilisation for welding, cutting and spraying.
The tip of the tungsten electrode (DC negative) is located
within the torch nozzle, while the nozzle has a small
opening which constricts the arc. As gas (usually argon)
is fed through the arc, it becomes heated to the plasma
temperature range (30,000 to 60,000°F). The plasma tail-

TOP VIEW
SECTION A-A
n 3

7 8

Fig. 1.42: Schematic diagram of electric arc spraying gun

Insulated housing for contact piece; 2. Contact piece; 3. Heat resistant protective plate; 4. Wire guides;
5. Atomizing air nozzle; 6. Arc point; 7. Metal particles; 8. Atomizing air stream; 9. Wires.
 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 27

flame issues from the torch nozzle as a jet of tremendous

velocity.
The plasma-arc is of two types: transferred arc and ORIFICE GAS
ELECTRODE
non-transfer red arc. In the former, the arc is formed
between the electrode and the workpiece. In the latter, the
arc is formed between the electrode and the constricting
orifice inside the torch (see Fig. 1.43).
SHIELDING GAS
Plasma Welding
Plasma welding is an extension of TIG welding. The

L
main difference as explained above is the constriction
of the arc column, resulting in much higher heat transfer
rate. The torch is further modified to provide an outer
sheath of cool gas around the central plasma core, as
NOZZLE
shown in Fig. 1.44. Plasma welding makes use of the | y W _ SHIELDING GAS
keyhole technique. When the plasma jet strikes the
metal, it cuts or keyholes entirely through the workpiece
producing a small hole, which is carried along the weld
seam. During this cutting action, the molten metal in
front of the arc flows around the arc column, then gets ARC PLASMA
WORK
drawn together immediately behind the hole by surface

mi*^
tension forces and reforms as a weld bead. Thus butt
welds of 12.5 mm or larger thickness are possible in a
single pass without edge preparation or fillet metal. The
process can weld carbon steels, stainless steels, copper,
brass, aluminium, titanium, monel and inconel. Fig. 1.44: Sketch of plasma welding torch

CONSTRICTING N

RIFICE GAS

SHIELDING GAS

UP/-NfEiD
(A) (B)

Fig. 1.43: Sketch of plasma arc torch: (A) Transferred arc; (B) Non-transferred arc
28 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Micro-Plasma Arc Welding

This is a modified process using DC current range of
ELECTRODE
0.1-10 amps. It is capable of welding extremely thin sheets ORIFICE SHIELDING GAS
and foils in the thickness range of 0.05-1.6 mm. GAS

CONSTRICTING
Plasma-MIG Welding N022LE

This is an extension of plasma arc welding in which

the non-consumable tungsten electrode is replaced by a WORKPIECE
consumable continuously-fed metallic electrode (see Fig.
1.45).

CONSUMABLE WIPE |
TUNGSTEN

POWER j . ~
SUPPLY)
Fig. 1.46: Sketch of plasma arc cutting

For cutting carbon steels, nitrogen is used as a cutting

Fig. 1.45: Schematic diagram of plasma-MIG welding
Plasma Arc Cutting
This process shown in Fig. 1.46, uses DC source with
open circuit voltage of 120 or more. Hence as a safety
precaution against electric shock, it is preferably used as
a mechanised process.
Dual gases are often used: one as a cutting gas and
the other as a shielding gas. The typical combination is
argon/ hydrogen or nitrogen/ hydrogen for cutting
aluminium and stainless steels, in which argon and
nitrogen are for cutting while hydrogen is for shielding.
gas while oxygen is also passed into the plasma to provide
additional heat from the iron-oxygen reaction at the
cutting point. A transferred arc is used, that is, the arc is
formed between the tungsten electrode (-) and the
workpiece (+).
Plasma Spraying
In this process, a special plasma spray gun is used in
which a non-transferred arc forms between the tungsten
electrode (-) and the nozzle (+). Plasma gas is passed
through the arc in the nozzle bore. The spraying material,
in powder form is fed into the nozzle bore or into the
flame just beyond the end of the nozzle. The plasma
flame melts the particles and impels the molten material
onto the workpiece (see Fig. 1.47).
The gas is either n i t r o g e n or argon or 5-25%
hydrogen mixed with nitrogen or argon.

TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
NON-TRANSFERRED
POWER SUPPLY ,
CENTRE GAS
GAS- BORNE POWDER

ARC ORIFICE

TRANSFERRED POWER
SUPPLY SHIELDING GAS

Fig. 1.47: Schematic diagram of plasma spraying

 INTRODUCTION TO WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 29

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, 7th Ed., Vols. 2 & 3, published by American Welding Society.
Welding Technology by J.W. Giachino, W. Weeks & G.S. Johnson, published 1968, by American Technical Society.
Welding Process Technology by P.T. Houldcraft, published 1977, by Cambridge University Press.
Some Aspect of Welding in Modern Ship Construction by V.P. Nair, Indian Welding Journal, Oct. 1977, published by The Indian
Institute of Welding.
The Welding Encyclopedia by T.B. Jefferson, published 1964, by Monticello Books, III., U.S.A.
Welding Metallurgy. Vols. 1 & 2 by Linnet, published 1965, by American Welding Society.
Advances in Welding Processes—Conference Proceedings, published 1971, by The Welding Institute, U.K.
Current Welding Processes, published 1964, by American Welding Society.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 2

Power Sources
For
Arc Welding
THE various arc welding processes shown in the pro-
cess chart (Table 1.1) dhd briefly p l a i n e d in Chapter 1
require special electfic ^dWS- ftf Matively low Vdltage
and high current to produce arid kiisiain dri arc capable
of making a good weld. Machines designed to deliver
such electric power are known as power sources for arc
welding.
Many types of power sources are available to suit
the various arc welding processes, and they can be
classified in several ways. A simple classification based

Table 2.1: Classification system for power sources

Method of classification
1) Type of basic design
2) Method of current control
3) Type of output current
4) Type of static characteristics
(V-A curve)
5) Rated current & duty cycle
6) Suitability for the process
7) Suitability fdr ho. of operators
8) Type of cooling method
9) Type of insulation
Features
Rotating type Static type
Motor-driven Engine-driven Transformer Rectifier/ Inverter
generator generator
Field control/ variable reactor, variable coupling, tap changer switch,
satttfdble reactor, electronic control with feedback (thyristor control,
transistor control, IGBT control, etc.}
Direct current (DC)
Alternating current (AC)
Cdmbmation of both (AC) & (DC)
Constant ctif^ht type (CC)
Constant voltage type (CV)
Combination of both (CC) k (CV) type
Capability of the power source to deliver current at specified duty cycle, say
60% duty cycle, 100% duty cycle, etc., and range of welding current.
Capability of the power source to be used for manual metal arc welding
(MMAW), gas metal arc welding (MIG/C0 2 ), gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW or TIG), submerged arc welding (SAW), etc.
Capability of the power source to be used simultaneously by a single operator,
by double operators or multioperators.
Natural air-cooled (NA)
Forced air-cooled (FA)
Oil-cooled natural (ON)
Oil-cooled forced (OF)
Class A, Class B, Class E, Class F, and Class H, depending on the max.
allowable temperature rise over a specified ambient temperature (usually 40°C).
32 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
on the consideration of design, rating and applications
is shown in Table 2.1. The description of a power source
should include the appropriate feature under each
method of classification given in this table. For example,
a particular power source could be described as static
type transformer-rectifier having saturable core type
current control and constant current (CC) characteristics,
with A C / DC output, current range of 70 to 400 Amps.
and rating of 400 Amps, at 60% duty cycle. Thus each
method of classification explains a particular feature of
the power source but is not complete in itself to describe
its essential features.
Before proceeding further, one must understand the
following basic features of the arc welding power source:
1) Static characteristic curves (Volt-Amp curves)
2) Open-circuit voltage (OCV)
3) Static and dynamic characteristics
4) Current ratings and duty cycle specifications
5) Classes of insulation
6) Power factor
1) Static Characteristic Curves
These curves show the relation between load voltage
and load current under various load conditions. Hence
they are also called Volt-Amp (V-A) curves. To obtain
such a curve, a pure resistive load (usually water load)
is connected across the output terminals of the power
source. The load is gradually varied from the minimum
or no-load condition to the maximum or short-circuit
condition, and the voltage across the load and the
current p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the load are accurately
measured. The graph showing load voltage versus load
current is then plotted to obtain the static characteristic
curve.
Typical curves obtained with various types of power
sources are shown in Fig 2.1. It is seen that some curves
WELDING CURRENT-AMPERES
Fig. 2.1: Characteristic curves of welding power sources
are of drooping type, while the others are of relatively
flat type. A machine giving a drooping curve is said to
have drooping characteristics and is described as a
constant current (CC) type machine, because small
variations in the voltage caused by variations in arc
length during welding, do not significantly change the
output current.
A machine with a relatively flat curve is described
as a constant voltage (CV) or constant potential (CP)
type machine, because in this case small variations in
load voltage caused by arc fluctuations result in
substantial changes in the current output. Normally CV
machines are designed for DC welding. A CV power
source giving AC output is not suitable for arc welding.
The terms constant current and constant voltage are
technically incorrect; yet they are used and accepted by
the welding industry. It is only recently that electroni-
cally controlled power sources have been developed,
which are capable of giving virtually any type of curve
between truly constant current and truly constant volt-
age. These have been dealt with later in this chapter.
Drooping or constant current type power sources are
conventionally used for manual metal arc welding
(MMAW) or gas tungsten arc welding (TIG), the obvious
reason being that with this type of characteristics, the
w e l d i n g c u r r e n t r e m a i n s substantially constant,
irrespective of small variations in arc length and
consequent slight change in arc voltage, which are
unavoidable even in the case of a skilled welder. As the
welding current is fairly steady, the weld quality is
consistent. In this case the short-circuit current is not
excessive (normally less than 200% of the set current);
hence at the time of arc striking and in case of accidental
situations, the current does not exceed too much and
hence the weld quality remains unimpaired.
Flat or constant-voltage type power sources are
conventionally used for semi-automatic and fully-
automatic processes involving a continuous electrode
fed at a constant rate, such as M I G / C 0 2 welding, flux-
cored arc welding and submerged-arc welding. The flat
type power source together with a continuous electrode
fed at a constant wire-feed speed form essentially a self-
regulating arc. The arc length and weld current are
interrelated in such a way as to correct sudden changes.
For example, arc length variation is determined by
the difference between melting rate and feeding rate of
the electrode wire. The voltage drop across the arc is
directly proportional to arc length. A small change in
arc voltage results in a very large change in the welding
current. This in turn increases the melting rate of the
wire and quickly restores the arc length to normal.
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 33

In M I G / C 0 2 welding, changes in arc length can
occur when the operator moves the welding torch
toward or away from the workpiece. The flat type power
source compensates for these changes by momentarily
changing the current and the melt-off rate of the wire
until equilibrium is established. Thus, the arc length can
be adjusted by setting appropriate voltage on the power
source and the w e l d i n g current is controlled by
adjusting the wire-feed speed. By selecting a correct
combination of voltage and wire-feed speed, a stable
metal transfer can be obtained which results in getting
a good quality weld. In this case, the flat characteristic
is not truly flat but has a slight drooping tendency
(approximately 2 to 3 V per 100 Amps.).
Power sources having both d r o o p i n g and flat
characteristics are also available. The r e q u i r e d
characteristic can be preselected by means of a change-
over switch/ link board. In modern times such change
in characteristics is acheivable by electronic switching
systems. These power sources are called Universal
Power Sources or Multiprocess Power Sburces, as they
are equally suitable for manual welding and semi-auto-
matic and fully automatic welding. They are described
later. Table 2.2 indicates at a glance the suitability or
otherwise of A C / D C and C C / C V types of power
sources for several common arc welding processes.
2) Open-circuit Voltage
Open-circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage across the
output terminals of the power source when it is under
no-load condition. Hence it is also termed as no-load
voltage.
In CV type power sources, OCV is not significant,
but in the case of CC type machines, both AC and DC,
OCV plays a very important role in ensuring easy arc
starting and good arc stability. Higher the OCV, better
is the arc stability. However, high OCV poses the danger
of electric shock to the welder and hence its value is
restricted to 100 V maximum by IS:4559, "Specification
for single operator rectifier type DC arc welder" and
other relevant standards.
Commercially available welding rectifiers have OCV
values generally ranging between 65 and 80 V, while
welding generators have variable OCV values in the 40-
90 V range. Welding transformers meant for heavy duty
applications are generally designed for OCV of 60 to 70
V, while low-cost limited-service class transformers have
OCV as low as 50 V With such low OCV transformers,
it is difficult to strike and maintain an arc; they are there-
fore suitable for electrodes having a high proportion of
arc stabilisers in their coating. Some transformers are
designed to give OCV of 100 V in addition to the nor-
mal OCV value, so that they can operate satisfactorily
with certain basic low-hydrogen electrodes. Generally
speaking, all general-purpose electrodes operate satis-
factorily with OCV of 80 V (AC as well as DC).
In AC w e l d i n g , OCV becomes all the more
i m p o r t a n t , because alternating current reverses
direction of flow each 0.01 second in a 50 Hz supply
system. Figure 2.2 shows sine waveforms of a typical
two-range AC power source with OCV of 80 V and 55
V, each sine waveform completing a cycle in 0.02 second.
It is seen that at each half-cycle, the current becomes
zero. This means that at this instant the electrons and
ions which cause the current flow in the arc cease to
flow. In the next instant the electrons and ions must
resume their flow but in the opposite direction. To make
this possible, ionisation of the material in the arc must

Table 2.2: Welding processes and recommended power source type

Process Direct current Alternating
Current
CC CV CC
Manual metal arc welding Yes Not used Yes
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW or TIG) Yes Not used Yes
Plasma arc welding Yes Not used No
Carbon arc welding, cutting, gouging Yes Possible Yes
Stud welding Yes Possible No
Submerged arc welding (SAW) Yes Yes Yes
Gas metal arc welding (MIG) Yes Yes No
MAG (CO ) welding Usable Yes Not used
MIG/MAG, short-circuiting Not used Yes Not used
Flux-cored arc welding Yes Yes Possible
Electroslag welding Possible Yes Usable
Courtesy: Modern Welding Technology by Carey
34 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 2.2: Typical sine waves of two-range AC power source
be either maintained or re-ignited by the voltage across
the arc gap. This voltage called the 'recovery voltage' is
shown in the figure.
To make the period of arc extinction as brief as
possible, it is necessary that the recovery voltage is kept
at the highest possible value. The figure shows that the
recovery voltage is higher with 80 OCV, firstly, because
of the higher source voltage and secondly, because with
the greater phase shift of the current, the zero current
occurs at a time when the recovery voltage is nearly as
great as the open-circuit voltage.
3) Static and Dynamic Characteristics
Every power source has specific static characteristics
as well as dynamic characteristics, both of which are
important from the welding performance point of view.
As explained earlier, the static characteristics describe
the relation between voltage and current under various
fixed load c o n d i t i o n s . In contrast, the d y n a m i c
characteristics describe the relation between voltage and
current u n d e r changing load conditions, i.e. the
instantaneous variation in arc voltage with change in
welding current over an extremely short interval of time
(say, 1 microsecond). Good dynamic characteristics
enable the power source to provide extremely rapid
changes in its o u t p u t voltage and current u n d e r
changing arc conditions.
This is of special significance for the power source,
because the welding arc is never in real steady state,
but is subjected to severe and rapid fluctuations due to
constant small variations in arc length, arc voltage and
welding current. The arc gives rise to transients at the
time of starting, extinction and re-ignition after each
half-cycle in the case of AC welding. It also gives similar
transients in spray transfer M I G / C 0 2 welding.
A power source having good dynamic characteristics
gives a very stable and smooth arc in spite of such
transients. The dynamic characteristics of a power can
be improved by providing appropriate value of series
OPEN -CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE-55 V
CURRENT
inductance (choke), by providing feedback controls and
by modification of waveform of the welding current
(pulsed modulations), singly or in combination.
Dynamic characteristics cannot be observed with
standard graphs as in the case of static characteristics.
The dynamic behaviour of a power source is studied on
an oscilloscope with special simulated conditions in the
laboratory.
4) Current Ratings and Duty Cycles
Power sources are of various current ratings and
duty cycles, and are rated by the manufacturers on the
basis of their current output at specific duty cycles. Duty
cycle is defined as the percentage of a five-minute
interval that it operates at a given current setting. A 60%
duty cycle means that the arc is in action for three
minutes out of a five-minute time period. In other
words, a cycle of five minutes comprises a period of
three minutes of welding load followed by a period of
two minutes of no-load operation. Continuous operation
at rated currents for 36 minutes out of one hour is not a
60% duty cycle, because the rating is based on successive
five-minute intervals.
For heavy-duty service in the fabrication industry,
60% duty cycle is taken as standard for the MMA
process. For example, if a machine is rated at 300 Amps.,
at 60% duty cycle, it means that it can be safely operated
at 300 Amps, current without the danger of overheating
for three out of every five minutes. Power sources
designed for less rigorous applications and those
involving short welding cycles and long intervals may
be rated at lower currents than 300 Amps, and at lower
duty cycles, say 50% or even 20%, taking into account
the end use and safe working. Such machines are less
expensive than the normal ones, but if they are used at
higher duty cycles, their insulation is likely to burn out
prematurely due to overloading.
Sometimes welding machines are required to give
output other than rated, as for example, when a 400 A
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 35

60% duty cycle machine is used for automatic welding 6) Power Factor
application. In this case, the user should know the safe Power factor (pf) is an important electrical characteristic
current of operation at 100% d u t y cycle. This is of a power source, which is calculated from the following
computed by the following formula which takes into formula:
account the safe thermal rating of the power source: pf = K
^
F
Kva
Desired duty = (Rated current)2 x Rated d , ^ %
cycle in % (Desired current)2 where Kva is apparent power drawn from the supply
line and Kw (Kilo-watts) is actual power used to pro-
In the above example, the automatic current limit
duce the rated load, which gets registered on the power
will be
meter. Kva means kilovolt-ampere, which indicates the
(400)2 total product of ampere times volts delivered by the
100 = 60
(Automatic current) 7 supply company. For example, if the voltage reading
and current reading on the primary side are 240 V and
60 30 Amps, respectively and the actual watts registered
(Automatic current) 2 = (400)2 x
100 are 5040.

Hence, automatic current = 400 x 0.78 pf : 5040 = 0.7.

= 310 Amps.
Similar calculation shows that a 300 Amps., 60% duty
cycle machine could be used at 373 Amps, without the
danger of damaging the insulation, if the duty cycle is
reduced to 35%.
5) Classes of Insulation
The duty cycle rating of a power source is primarily
based on the maximum allowable temperature of
various components (e.g. primary coil, secondary coil,
choke, etc.) in the power source. These temperature
values in turn depend on the type of insulation used in
the manufacture of these c o m p o n e n t s . Various
insulation classes and the corresponding maximum
permissible t e m p e r a t u r e s specified by IS: 4559,
"Specification for single operator rectifier type DC arc
welder," are given in Table 2.3.
240 x 30
Low pf means unnecessary wastage and less efficient
utilisation of power. Power supply companies as well
as plant engineers are specially interested in maintaining
high pf for all the electrical equipment. IS: 4559 has
specified that machines must have a minimum pf of 0.80
at 50% of the continuous hand welding current. The pf
of a welding transformer can be as low as 0.45, and this
applies equally to a welding rectifier, which is basically
a transformer with a means of rectification on the
secondary side. On the other hand, the inherent pf of a
motor-generator is between 0.80 and 0.90.
The pf of a welding transformer or rectifier is
improved by connecting a capacitor across the primary
winding. The result is that less primary current is
demanded while welding is being performed. In the
absence of a capacitor, much higher line current is

Table 2.3: Limits of permissible temperaturerise

Parts Class A Class E Class B Class F Class H

Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation
T R T R T R T R T R
°C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
a) Windings 50 60 65 75 70 80 85 100 105 125
b) Oil
c) Uninsulated parts including The temperature rise shall in no case reach such a value
cores not in contact with that there is risk of injury to any insulating material
insulated windings on adjacent parts or to the welding plant in any respect
Note 1—T-by thermometer R = by resistance.
Note 2—The numerical values quoted for classes F and H should be considered as tentative only and may be revised when more practical experience is
available. If Class C insulation is used, the temperature rise shall be a matter of agreement between purchaser and supplier.
Note 3—For details of classes of insulation, please see IS: 1271: Classification of insulating materials for electrical machinery and apparatus in relation
to their thermal stability in service.
36 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

drawn, which is likely to overload and damage the alternating voltage is given to one of the coils, an
electrical wiring. To avoid this, one must provide wiring alternating flux is built up, which induces voltage in
of higher capacity, which again means extra expenditure. the second coil. The relation between input voltage and
induced voltage is given by the formula:
ARC WELDING TRANSFORMERS
Input voltage (VJ No. of turns on supply winding
Among welding power sources, the transformer is
Induced voltage (V9) No. of turns on induced winding
the most popular type due to its low cost, simple
construction and ease of maintenance. This welding Supply winding is called primary and induced
machine which always delivers AC output for welding, winding is tailed secondary. The relation between
is mainly a step-down type of transformer, which voltage and Current is given by the formula:
converts the high-voltage low-current industrial supply Primary Secondary Primary no. of
into low-voltage and high-current required for welding. voltage (VJ current (I2) turns (NJ
It generally operates on single-phase supply, i.e. 220 V
Secondary Primary Secondary no. of
single-phase, or two lines of 440 V three-phase supply
Typical welding transformers are shown in Fig. 2.3. and voltage (V0) current (IJ turns (N2)
Fig. 2.3a In an arc welding transformer, the number of primary
The basic principle of a transformer is as follows: turns is considerably larger than the number of secondary
If two electrically conductive coils, which are turns. This results in low output voltage and high current
electrically insulated from each other are wound on a required for welding. Heavy duty industrial machines
common core made up of a magnetic material and an are rated for 200 to 500 Amps, at 60% duty cycle and

Fig. 2.3: Three old models of welding transformers

Fig. 2.3a: New range of welding transformers


operate on 440 V mains supply, whereas those meant
for lower duty cycles are rated for 50 to 200 Amps, and
operate on 220 V supply Heavy duty transformers used
for automatic submerged arc welding are rated for 1,000
to 1,500 Amps, at 100% duty cycle.
The welding transformer essentially consists of:
• Main transformer assembly
• Frame
• Ventilating system (natural air cooling, forced air
cooling or oil cooling)
• Current control mechanism
The main transformer consists of primary and
secondary coils and a magnetic core made up from thin
laminations of special silicon-alloy steel. The laminated
core results in low core losses and improved overall
efficiency. The primary and secondary coils are made
up of copper or aluminium. Aluminium coils provide
advantages of low w e i g h t and economy. As the
conductivity of aluminium is less than that of copper,
conductors of heavier cross-section are used for
aluminium windings.
Natural and forced air-cooled transformers are
commonly used in industries. However, if the environ-
ment is corrosive or if metallic dust particles are likely
to enter the coils in service, oil-cooled transformers are
preferred.
Various mechanisms are used to control and adjust
the welding current to the desired value. In the early
days, a bank of very high wattage resistors was added
in the output circuit.
By using various parallel series combinations the
effective resistance could be changed resulting in
variation in the output current. This method of current
control is totally outdated mainly because considerable
electrical power is wasted in the resistor bank and hence
the efficiency is very low, and the resistor bank is bulky
and heavy.
In the modern industrial welding transformers,
welding current is controlled by any of the following
five methods:
A) Tapped choke: Tapping on a reactor in the
secondary circuit.
B) Moving coils: Changing the magnetic coupling
between primary and secondary by physically
changing the position of coils.
C) Magnetic shunt: Changing the magnetic coupling
between primary and secondary by putting a
movable magnetic shunt.
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 37
D) Moving core: Moving the iron core in the reactor.
E) Saturable reactor: Putting saturable reactor unit
in the secondary circuit.
Diagrams explaining the principle of these methods
are shown in Fig. 2.4.
Method (A) uses a tapped reactor, which does not give
a continuous current output demands for certain im-
portant applications. The limited number of taps re-
stricts the values of output current available. However,
this system is relatively efficient and suitable for gen-
eral fabrication and repair work.
Method (B) changes the reactance of the transformer
by changing the relative positions of the coils. Moving
one coil away from the other increases the amount of
leakage flux flow between them, thereby increasing the
leakage reactance of the coils. This reduces the current
output. Bringing the coils nearer results in increased
current output. The change in positions of coils is
brought about by a lead screw which facilitates continu-
ous adjustment of current. With such a design, the coils
may at times get loosened and vibrate when the trans-
former is in use, causing noise. The connections to coils
may also create service problems because of continu-
ous flexing.
Method (C) uses a different principle for changing the
reactance of the coils. It employs a low magnetic resis-
tance path which diverts part of total lines of force link-
ing with the secondary coils. The movement of this
magnetic shunt causes the leakage flux to vary and
thereby adjusts the output current. This method may
also give rise to vibration of movable parts with
attendent noise if the parts wear out and become loose
in service. Sometimes mechanical parts such as the lead
screw can become dirty and difficult to move. These
drawbacks can be taken care of through careful assem-
bly and efficient workmanship in manufacture and
through good maintenance at the user's end. On large
machines, the movement of the magnetic shunt can be
conveniently motorised.
Method (D) uses a moving iron core in the reactor in-
stead of in the main core. The moving core changes the
air gap which changes the reactance. The larger the air
gap, smaller the impedance and higher the output. The
remarks about vibration and noise mentioned in method
(C) above are also applicable to this method. The inside
of a typical moving core type transformer is shown in
Fig. 2.5.
38 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

TAPPED REACTOR

tfnnfiM
SECONDARY
ELECTRODE
HOLDER

TRANSFORMER
CORE I I
WORK
LINE

2
PRIMARY (i) TAPPED REACTOR
PRIMARY ADJUSTING SCREW ADJUSTING SCREW

PRIMARY SECONDARY
TRANSFORMER
CORE ELECTRODE
LINE HC& HOLDER
ELECTRODE
HOLDER

SECONDARY
z: (ii) MOVING COIL
\
I
WORK
I
TRANSFORMER CORE
(lii) MOVING SHUNT CORE
/RHEOSTAT
W
°RK

^RECTIFIER /
ADJUSTING SCREW
AAJtv—4 ^SATURATED
REACTOR

REACTOR

PRIMARY
PRIMARY 7 *C
TRANSFORMER CORE WORK
(iv) MOVING REACTOR CORE (v) SATURABLE REACTOR

Fig. 2.4: Methods of controlling the output of welding transformers

Fig. 2.5: Interior of a typical moving-core type welding transformer


Method (E) eliminates all the moving p^rts with their
service problems, but is more expensive. In this system/
secondary reactor impedance is controlled by regulat-
ing the saturation level of the core electrically. The sys-
tem uses a rectifier bridge and a rheostat to control the
DC current in the control coil. When there is no DC cur-
rent flowing through the control winding, the imped-
ance is maximum and the output is minimum. Reverse
is the case when the maximum DC current is flowing in
the control winding. With this method, remote control
of welding current is possible, i.e. the reactor current
adjustment can be located near the welder by using an
extension cord. The adjustment can be by the welder's
hand or foot.
Electrical circuit diagram of a typical heavy-duty
welding transformer having maximum continuous
handwelding current of 300 Amps, at 60% duty cycle is
shown in Fig. 2.6. This machine uses moving core
magnetic shunt method of current control.
As mentioned earlier, welding transformers are
usually single-phase and are connected across two lines
of a three-phase supply. This introduces an imbalance
in the supply lines, which is unavoidable. Welding
transformers with three-phase input supply are also
available. These are either constructed with scott
connection or are of open-delta type, However, it should
be noted that in such machines even with three-phase
input supply, the problem of line imbalance is not fully
resolved. The imbalance problem can be minimised by
taking suitable steps while installing several
oc
oo B o
415 V 3 80 V
380/415 V
£i
\0 50><
B 0-» LoD
f
Fig. 2.6: Electrical circuit diagram of a heavy-duty welding transformer
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 39
transformers on different phases to achieve a somewhat
balanced condition. Even when theoretically valid, it is
impossible to achieve full balance in practice.
Though low-priced and simple in construction,
welding transformers are robust enough to be used for
general-purpose welding in shops and in open site
conditions. In special and critical welding applications
and where high welding quality is essential, DC power
sources are preferred to welding transformers. However,
there are certain applications where DC is unsuitable
and hence transformer power sources must be used.
Examples are:
• Welding of aluminium and magnesium and their
alloys using the GTAW process
• Tandem submerged-arc welding of heavy plate
in which the welding transformer is used as an
additional power source
• Manual metal-arc welding applications where
DC poses the problem of arc blow.
Remote Current Control
In a welding operation, the welder needs to change
the welding current occasionally to suit a particular
application. In site welding, where long welding cables
are often used to reach the job or when the welder is up
on a ladder to weld, it becomes extremely inconvenient
for him to walk up to the machine to change the current
setting, The task becomes confusing when a number of
transformers in service are grouped together. Remote
control is an easy answer to this problem,
PILOT
LAMP
40 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Remote control can be achieved in the moving core
a n d m o v i n g s h u n t designs by m o t o r i s i n g the
mechanism and providing the operator with a pendent
with push-buttons for increase/decrease. In these cases,
a separate pendent cable has to run along with the
welding cables from the machine to the operator and
this could be a disadvantage.
In the most modern remote control transformer,
neither control cable nor p u s h b u t t o n p e n d e n t is
required. The operator keeps a small probe in his pocket.
When the current has to be changed, the operator fits
the probe in the electrode holder and touches the job.
The corresponding welding current signal is sensed by
electronic circuitry to change the current to the desired
value. This form of remote control is particularly useful
in shipyards.
Popular Models
The small transformer shown in Fig. 2.3 is designed
for connection to 230 V single-phase supply and gives
the welding current range of 50-190 Amps, and open-
circuit voltage to 50 V. A moving shunt core method of
current control is used w h e r e b y stepless current
regulation is achieved. It is a light-weight AC welder
weighing 33 kg. It is rated at 20% duty cycle and is meant
to be used intermittently for repair, maintenance jobs
and light fabrication work in farms, small shops and
automobile garages. It is suitable for electrodes of 3.15
to 2 mm diameter.
One of the machines depicted in Fig 2.5 is a welding
transformer for application with 2.5 to 6.3 mm electrode
range and working on single phase line to line 415 V
AC supply. 60% duty cycle is 300 Amps., and current
range is 60-400 Amps.. Current is adjusted with a
moving core mechanism to the required value.
The transformer whose electrical circuit diagram
is shown in Fig. 2.6 is a typical heavy duty air-cooled
single-phase machine specially designed with OCV of
90 V for welding with electrodes of the cellulosic and
basic low-hydrogen types which normally require
such a high OCV value for good arc stability in AC
w e l d i n g . Its m a x i m u m c o n t i n u o u s h a n d w e l d i n g
current is 300 Amps., at 60% d u t y cycle, and the
current range is 60-400 Amps.. Use of a capacitor of 8
KVAr is recommended. It is the best machine for heavy
continuous manual welding with 5 m m and 6.3 m m
heavy-coated iron-powder type electrodes and for TIG
welding of thick sections of aluminium, magnesium
a n d their alloys. Like o t h e r m o d e r n w e l d i n g
transformers, it possesses the following attractive
features:
• Welding current regulation by modern moving
core magnetic shunt design
• Stepless, smooth and infinitely variable current
regulation
• Adjustment of welding current feasible even
while welding is in progress; this enables fine
current control
• A special design provides for excellent dynamic
characteristics and thus ensures smooth and op-
timum metal transfer.
ARC WELDING GENERATORS
The welding generator was the first power source
successfully developed for industrial use. It is a rotary
type machine driven by an electric motor or an internal
combustion engine. The latter is either a diesel engine
or a petrol engine and is air-cooled or water-cooled. The
welding generator, whether driven by a motor or an
engine, forms a single integral unit. A typical motor-
driven generator is shown in Fig. 2.7 and a diesel engine-
driven generator is shown in Fig 2.8.
The welding generator is a rugged and reliable DC
machine which gives high quality welds and has many
other outstanding advantages which will be discussed
later. The engine-driven type is specially developed for
use in the open air and at site where regular power
s u p p l y is not available. The w e l d i n g g e n e r a t o r s
commonly used in industry have outputs of 200 to 600
Amps..
The welding generators which were developed and
manufatured earlier were basically DC generators with
carbon brushes and commutators. Now welding gensets
are available with latest Brushless Technology which
are enery efficient and also maintenance-free at the same
time, as they do not have commutator and carbon
brushes which are subjected to wear and tear. These sets
now also have multi-process capabilities and becoming
quite useful for site fabrication as well as cross-country
pipeline welding. Details of these sets will be discussed
later.
The generator works on the following principle:
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it cuts
the magnetic lines of force (flux) and, as a result,
alternating voltage is generated in the conductor. This
alternating voltage is then converted to direct voltage
by means of a device called commutator and collected
together by a set of carbon brushes to get the required
output.
The generator is a complex piece of equipment as
seen in Fig. 2.9 which shows the cut-out internal view
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 41

Fig. 2.7: A typical motor-driven welding generator

Fig. 2.8: A typical diesel engine-driven welding generator

of the motor-driven type. In addition to its elaborate
electrical set-up, it is a perfectly mechanically balanced
assembly fitted on a common shaft.
As illustrated in Fig. 2.9, the welding generator
consists of a stationary frame called a stator, and a
rotating armature, called a rotor. The frame, also called
yoke, contains an extremely efficient magnetic circuit
consisting of various poles. Each pole is surrounded by
a fine gauge wire coil and is so connected that the poles
form a north/south combination. The power required
to energise the poles is either taken from the exciter or
the machine can be self-excited type, which makes use
of the residual magnetism of the magnetic field.
The output voltage is controlled by the rheostat in
series with the main poles. This increases or decreases
the main magnetic lines of force and thereby brings
about a change in the output voltage. Additional
magnetic poles known as interpoles are added in many
welding generators and they normally carry the welding
current. These are known as bucking field coils or series
fields. The welding current is passed through these coils
normally through taps or by means of a current range
selector switch. This provides a magnetic field in
opposition to the main field, resulting in reduced output.
This produces the necessary drooping effect and makes
the generator CC type. The selection of turns on the
series winding decides the output current or the output
voltage. By changing the current in the field windings
by means of a rheostat, the output current can be set at
the desired value.
42 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

SELFHNDICATING CONTROL DIALS

SELF-LOCKING LUGS A
STARTING SWITCH' \ LIFTING
''HOOK
BURN PROOF
POLARITY SWITCH

SAFETY STARTING CONTINUOUS

PUSH BUTTON - "CURRENT CONTROL

'OB SELECTOR RHEOSTAT SAFETY ZONED" CONTROL

BOX
MOTOR STATOR
GENERATOR FIELD POLE PIECE
MOTOR FIELD COILS GENERATOR INTERPOLE
COIL
EXCITER FIELD POLE GENERATOR ARMATURE
MAIN
EXCITER FIELD
BRUSHOLDERS
COIL
BLOWER FAN
EXCITER BRUSHOLDER
EXCITER BRUSH

SEPARATE EXCITER OMMUTATOR

ARMATURE

INTAKE VENT EXHAUST VENTS

FOR FRESH AIR /

BALL BEARING \ ARC WELDED/

\ STEEL FEET /

WELDER LAMINATED
PROTECTIVE DEVICE GENERATOR FRAME

(A)

*V**" (B)
\ UT
Fig. 2.9: (A) Internal view of a motor-driven welding generator; (B) Superchallenger 400

Besides these interpoles and series windings, there
are other poles and their windings too. These are
commutating poles and in many cases compensating
poles. Normally these provide the necessary aiding
magnetic field of appropriate value to the main field to
get a sparkless commutation.
Figure 2.10 shows a typical circuit diagram of the
self-excited CC type motor-drivern generator shown
earlier in Fig. 2.7.
In a CV type generator, the differential series fields
are reversed so as to aid the main field. This arrangement
makes the machine produce a constant voltage.
As already explained, excitation for the generator
can be obtained through a separate exciter. Alternately,
a solid state rectifier bridge can be used to provide the
necessary DC power to the main fields. It has also been
pointed out that generators of the self-excited type use
the residual magnetism of the magnetic circuit to build
u p the necessary voltage. Such machines, unlike the
separately excited types, give a very steady output,
independent of the input supply voltage fluctuations
and are therefore preferred where input supply voltage
fluctuates erratically. The machine shown in Fig. 2.7 has
this advantageous feature.
The carbon brushes which ride on the surface of the
commutator pick up the generated current and convert
it into DC. Cables fastened to the brush holders carry
the DC power from the brushes to the two output
terminals to which electrode cable and earth cable have
to be connected. In earlier designs, stabilising coils were

Fig. 2.10: Electrical circuit diagram of a motor-driven welding generator
placed externally; but modern machines are built with
sufficient inherent inductance, thereby obviating the
need to use them.
Since welding generators give DC output, provision
has to be made for the reversal of polarity to suit welding
conditions. In most cases, this is done through a reversing
switch or by physically changing the output connections
(i.e. electrode cable and earth cable). The output terminals
are marked +ve and -ve or electrode and work. The
reversing switch changes the direction of the main field
and thereby changes the output polarity.
Engine-driven generators can be designed for any
rotational speed, but speeds between 1,500 and 3,000
rpm are normally preferred. Motor generators rotate at
a speed of either 1,500 or 3,000 rpm, depending on motor
design. The motor is preferably a three-phase induction
motor, squirrel cage type, since it has the advantages of
high starting torque and ruggedness. The use of three-
phase induction motor also ensures a balanced load on
the supply lines. This is another advantageous feature.
It is important that the direction of rotation of the
motor is in accordance with the design of the generator.
Generators are marked with arrows indicating the
direction of rotation. If the rotation is opposite to the arrow
pointer, the two leads of the supply to the induction motor
should be reversed. Normally these motors are provided
with suitable star-delta starters to limit the starting
current. These starters also have thermal overload
devices, which trip the input supply to the motor in case
the temperature exceeds the safe limit.
Remote current control is possible with a generator,
provided the current regulator is of detachable type, so
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 43
6 EXCITATION COILS ARE
FITTED ON POLE (1) AND
POLE (4)
5 R1 .REGULATOR
4 ST1 -REGULATOR SOCKET
3 S1 -OUTPUT TERMINALS
2 POLE POSITIONS ARE
SHOWN LOOKING FROM
COMMUTATOR SIDE
1 COLOUR CODING OF THE
CABLES IS SHOWN IN
BRACKETS
that it can be taken out of the control box and placed at
the point of w e l d i n g by e x t e n d i n g . t h e regulator
connection cable. When the regulator is so placed, the
welder can make current changes to suit electrode size
and welding position without having to walk up to the
generator.
In order to obtain current values higher than those
permitted by the rating of a single welding generator,
one can connect two sets in parallel. For the purpose of
equal distribution of the load, it is absolutely essential
to set the welding current regulators to equal values.
Taking as example, the case of two machines of the type
shown in Fig. 2.7 to be connected in parallel, the
following procedure has to be followed:
1) Connect the welding sets to the supply lines.
2) Short-circuit the small b r u s h sets on the
commutators of the machines, preferably through
their leads from the regulator sockets.
3) Interconnect (short-circuit) terminals marked MAX
on the machines by welding cable.
4) Set the regulators to their minimum welding
current position.
5) Interconnect (short-circuit) the terminals marked-
6) Start the welding machines.
7) Set the regulators to the required current value.
(Regulators must be in identical position.)
8) Now use any two terminals marked MAX and -
for welding work.
The method of interconnection is shown in Fig. 2.11.
44 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 2.11: Sketch of parallel operation of motor-driven welding generators
Popular Models
The DC motor-driven generator shown in Fig. 2.7
and whose wiring diagram is shown in Fig. 2.10 has the
following salient features:
• Specially designed to yield fine dynamic and
static characteristics which help easy striking and
excellent stability of arc throughout the operat-
ing range.
• Versatile enough to be used with all types of
MMAW electrodes and carbon electrodes.
• Positive protection against overload and single
phasing is achieved through thermostats embed-
ded in the motor winding.
• Interlocking against direct starting of the set in
delta position and continuous running of the set
in star position.
• Current variation is continuous over two ranges.
• Suitable for connection to a 400/440 V, three-
phase, 50 Hz, electrical system. Models for other
voltages up to 550 V and frequencies up to 60 Hz
can also be supplied on specific orders.
• Designed to load all three phases of the supply
equally.
• The detachable regulator provides for remote con-
trol of welding current when connected to the
generator by a 2 x 1.5 mm 2 cable.
• The regulator weighs only 2 kg and is therefore
suitable for remote control.
The machine has maximum OCV of 90 and two
current ranges: 35-130 Amps, and 110-320 Amps.. It is
rated for maximum continuous handwelding current
of 300 Amps, at 60% duty cycle and 320 Amps, at 55%
duty cycle. The motor has rated capacity of 16 KW at
60% duty cycle and has rotational speed of 2,850 rpm.
E-class insulation is used. All electrode sizes from 1.6 to
6.3 mm can be used with this machine.
Both motor and generator are mounted on an
integral shaft running between two bearings. It is
mounted on three rubber-tyred wheels to give mobility.
It is drip-proof and designed to withstand tropical
conditions.
The diesel engine-driven generator illustrated in Fig.
2.8 consists of a generator, designed to give welding
c u r r e n t r a n g e of 50-350 A m p s , a n d m a x i m u m
continuous hand-welding current of 300 Amps, at 60%
duty cycle, which is connected to a simpson P3 (1) three-
cylinder diesel engine of the water-cooled type. The
engine generates 33 BHP at 2,000 rpm. To ensure perfect
alignment, smooth running and easy maintenance, the
generator is flange-mounted and directly coupled to the
engine through a flexible coupling. The machine can be
provided with remote control current regulator, an
ammeter and a voltmeter. The entire engine-generator
is mounted on a trailer of sturdy steel construction,
which travels on two or four pneumatic rubber-tyred
wheels. It has a towing hook and is furnished with a
canopy with hinged doors to protect the equipment from
unfavourable weather conditions.

BRUSHLESS WELDING SETS
As m e n t i o n e d above b r u s h l e s s type w e l d i n g
generators are available both in motor generator types
and engine driven types. We will discuss each separately.
A. BRUSHLESS TYPE MOTOR GENERATOR SETS
As the the name suggests, these welding sets are
driven by Induction motor. The synchronous speed of
the motor is 3000 rpm but however size of the motor is
compact compared to the motor of old technology
gensets, as the insulation of motors is F class. These
sets are with monoblock construction in which motor
and generator rotors are mounted on single shaft. Weld-
ing generators are either on the principle of "Synchro-
nous" or "Reluctance" types. Rotors of Reluctance gen-
erators are winding less . Thus generator has only sta-
tor windings which are further divided in to field wind-
ing and armature winding. Field winding or the excita-
tion winding of the machine sets the magnetic field in
the air gap. Rotor cuts this magneitic field while it is
rotating. Thus varying magnetic field is produced due
to variation in the air gap reluctance. This varying mag-
netic field induces voltage and current in the stator
winding.The frequency of this voltage and current de-
pends on the speed (3000 rpm) and nos of armature
winding poles. This electrical welding power thus gen-
erated is AC but with high frequency. This AC welding
power is rectified to D.C. which is absolutely ripple-
hee as the AC side power is of high frequency. The weld-
ing current is controlled and regulated by regulating
the field or excitation current. (Refer generator Fig.2.7)
These brushless welding generators have following
a d v a n t a g e o u s features over earlier sets w i t h
commutators and brushes.
1. Windingless and magnetless or rotating diodeless
rotor improves overall efficiency of the genset as
the rotor winding losses, Brush friction and wind-
age losses are absent in these sets.
2. Overall power savings upto 30 % over old type
of welding gensets
3. Enclosure protection is IP44 instead of IP23, hence
stator windings are well protected against dusty,
dirty and contaminated air, making them ideally
suitable for site usage
4. High frequency type generator gives ripple-free
smooth DC welding current resulting excellent
welding performance w i t h good d y n a m i c
response
5. Since welding current regulation system includes
current feedback circuit these generators are well
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 45
suitable for welding with longer welding cables
exceeding even 100 metres
6. These welding gensets are normally provided
with electrical protections such as Undervoltage/
Overvoltage/Single phasing/Overload etc. so
that these machines become a reliable welding
sets
Parallel Operations of Welding Gensets
These gensets can be used in parallel like the old type
of sets to get higher welding current.Thus using 2
generators of 320 Amps, in parallel combination, user
can get welding current upto 640 Amps, and thus such
combination can be used for gouging applications.
Single remote control is available to control or set the
current from the machine itself.
B. BRUSHLESS TYPE ENGINE-DRIVEN WELONG
SETS
On the similar line of motor generator sets, Brushless
Type engine-driven sets are also available in welding
current range starting from 150 Amps, to 600 Amps..
The working principle of these sets is same like motor
generator sets. However there are quite good amount
of varieties of types of sets available starting from
P e r m a n e n t m a g n e t to Synchronous generators,
A s y n c h r o n o u s I n d u c t i o n generators, Reluctance
generators etc. Out of these different types of gensets,
Reluctance and Induction generators are most reliable
sets. Most common ratings are 150, 175, 225, 300/320,
400, 500 & 600 Amps. (Refer Fig. 2.8.)
Some of the machine ratings are available with C C /
CV characterstics. Thus these sets with multiprocess
capabilities can be used for SMAW (Stick), TIG, GMAW
& FCAW welding processes. Some manufacturers also
manufacture these welding sets with MOSFET based
technologies, in which case entire generator and current
regulator systems are very efficient and a Multi-operator
welding sets also become possible with the same Horse
Power of Diesel Engine.
Thus double operator welding set with facility of 2
operators at 300 Amps, each are available with diesel
engine of 47.5 BHP rating.
Auxiliary Power Source
These engine-driven welding sets are invariably
built in with auxiliary power sources which are used
for operating grinding tools, portable drilling machines,
lightening purposes etc. The requirement of such
auxiliary power is very essential since these welding
sets are used in remote project sites where electricity is
46 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
not available. Most common ratings of auxiliary power
source are ranging from 2 KVA to 20 KVA. Smaller
capacity portable ED sets have Auxiliary rating from 2
to 4 KVA, 1-Phase and medium to large rating ED sets
have auxiliary ratings from 5 KVA to 20 KVA in 3 Phase
(415 volts) and 3 to 15 KVA in single Phase (230 volts)
supply conditions. It is possible to use these auxiliary
power sources for operating small water pumps at the
site since these power sources are available with 3 Phase
supply. It is also possible to use smaller current ratings
inverter based Rectifiers or TIG units on these auxiliary
power sources. In this way also these ED sets become
multioperator in the sense that two welding points i.e.
one from main welding generator a n d other from
auxiliary power source are available from these sets.
These modern brushless ED sets have following
advantages over old generation ED sets
1. Unique high frequency brushless design makes
these ED sets maintenance free as there are no
carbon brushes,windings and commutator on the
rotor which are subjected to wear and tear.
2. Windingless, Magnetless, Rotating diodeless ro-
tor assembly makes these machines reliable and
ideal choice for project site usage.
3. These ED sets are with F insulation class as com-
pared to earlier sets with E insulation class gen-
erators
4. Welding sets being brushless are efficient and
overall operating costs are less due to reduced
fuel consumption of the engine and lesser main-
tenance of welding generator
5. Single bearing, closed couple type assembly con-
struction with life-long stainless steel flexible cou-
pling arrangement for brushless generator makes
the entire assembly of engine and generator very
compact.
6. Auxiliary power source is also brushless and
mounted on the same shaft or integral with main
welding generator.
7. Choice of water^ooled or air-cooled engine is
available and BHP of engine depends on current
rating of the set.
ARC WELDING RECTIFIERS
The welding rectifier, like the welding generator,
provides DC for welding b u t unlike the welding
generator, it has no moving parts. It consists of a step-
down voltage transformer with means to rectify AC to
DC. The transformer can be single-phase (or three-
phase) type, which converts the mains supply to a low
voltage supply on the secondary side. On a three-phase
machine, the primary is connected in delta or star, but
the secondary is connected in delta, because this
connection is more convenient for low voltage and high
current. The method of controlling the current is usually
in the AC section between the transformer and the
rectifier set. The welding rectifier can be designed for
constant current (CC) as well as for constant voltage
(CV). CC type rectifiers meant for manual welding are
usually rated for any value between 200 and 600 Amps.,
while the CV types meant for automatic welding are
rated between 300 and 1,500 Amps.
CC Type Rectifier
In this type, the current is controlled through variable
i n d u c t a n c e or i m p e d a n c e . T h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s
available for varying the impedance are: (a) moving coil,
(b) moving shunt, (c) saturable reactor or magnetic
amplifiers, (d) tapped reactor, (e) moving reactor core
and (f) solid state. The methods (a) to (e) are the same
as explained under transformer current control methods
and illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
For converting AC to DC, rectifiers are used. A
rectifier is a device which conducts easily in one
direction, while offering a high resistance in the other
direction. Today silicon diode rectifiers are preferred to
selenium or germanium rectifiers, because they have
greater rectification efficiency and are not crippled by
aging as the latter types are. Silicon diodes are smaller
than selenium diodes and are hermetically sealed and
mounted on a suitable fin for cooling. Silicon diode
assembly and its parts are shown in Fig. 2.12. In most
cffifrgftSaa^a—i^j
(A)
Fig. 2.12: Silicon diode rectifier: (A) Internal
components; (B) Final finished form

recent designs, silicon diodes have been replaced by SCR
(Silicon Controlled Rectifiers) or thyristors.
Figure 2.13 shows the diagram of a three-phase
rectifier using saturable reactor method of current
control. Such a three-phase type ensures a balanced load
on the supply lines.
It is usually necessary to use an inductance (also
called reactor, stabiliser or filter choke) in the DC
welding circuit to control excessive surges in load
current. The value of inductance required for a three-
phase machine is much smaller than that required for a
single-phase machine.
Though, as stated earlier, the welding rectifier is
primarily a DC machine, it can be suitably modified to
give AC/DC output. The AC/DC type is provided with
a switch to connect or disconnect the rectifier to the
secondary circuit to furnish either DC or AC at the
output terminals. It is capable of welding the entire
range of metals and alloys by the MMA process, as it
enables the operator to choose either AC or DC
depending on the electrode he uses. This type is even
more versatile as a power source for TIG (argon-arc)
welding, in which AC is required for w e l d i n g
aluminium /magnesium and their alloys and DC is
required for ferrous metals and for copper and its alloys.
The A C / D C type incorporates a single-phase
transformer, often using the moving shunt or saturable
reactor method of current control. The purely DC
TRANSFORH
AC- CONTROLS
MER
TRANSFORMERS SATURABLE REACTORS
SECONDARY COIL LOAD COIL CONTROL COIL
PRIMARY COIL
3 PHASE
POWER
CONTACTOB
7 — {oj
v
CONTROL TRANSFORMER '
Fig. 2.13: Schematic diagram of a three-phase welding rectifier
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 47
rectifier has, as stated earlier, a three-phase transformer,
in which the saturable reactor method of current control
is preferred.
The smoothness of the DC output of a rectifier
depends on the rectifier circuit and filter circuit used.
Figure 2.14 shows typical single-phase and three-phase
rectifier systems. A close look at this figure shows that a
three-phase full-wave rectification provides a vastly
smoother output necessary for a welding power source.
Output can be further smoothened by using inductors
a n d capacitors in the o u t p u t circuit. Machines
incorporating all these provisions have very low ripple
content and therefore give far superior performance
compared to those using a single-phase rectification.
CV Type Rectifier
This type is usually designed to give a slightly
sloping, instead of a perfectly flat, volt-ampere curve.
While some machines are designed with one fixed slope,
others are provided with an adjustment to tailor the
slope of the V-A curve as desired. Slope adjustment must
take care that the dynamic characteristics of the machine
are not affected. For this purpose, adjustable inductors
may be placed in the DC portion of the circuit.
In CV machines, the slope is usually achieved by
changing taps on reactors in series with the AC part of
the circuit. Slope control may be provided by carbon
brushes, attached to a lead screw, contacting the reactor
DC
RECTIFIER
"OUTPUT
I
|
CONTROL RECTIFIER
A \ )
\ VARIABLE TRANSFORMER
48 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
A.C. INPUT o to
SINGLE PHASE
SINGLE PHASE
12 3 12 3 1
»-^W1N«
THREE PHASE
12 3 12 3 1
THREE PHASE
Fig. 2.14: Sketches of simplified rectifier systems
turns. This variable reactor p r o v i d e s continuous
adjustment of slope. Another method of control uses
magnetic amplifiers or solid state devices to electrically
regulate output voltages. These machines may have
either voltage taps or slope taps in addition to electrical
control.
CV machines have a wide range of open circuit
voltages. Tn electrically controlled machines, it may be
as high as 75 V. In the case of tapped or adjustable
transformer types, open circuit voltage may be varied
from 30 or 50 V maximum to 10 V minimum. While
there is no fixed rule for the volt-ampere slope in the
welding range, most machines have slopes of from 1 to
3 V per 100 Amps..
CV Type with Automatic Choke
In CV type machines, the value of choke decides the
a m o u n t of slope. In M I G / M A G w e l d i n g , the
smoothness of droplet transfer into weld puddle is
determined by the choke value, and this value varies
according to current a n d voltage settings. In a
conventional p o w e r source a t a p p e d choke is
incorporated, in which case the operator has to arrive
at the optimum choke tap by trial and error. Power
sources i n c o r p o r a t i n g automatic choke are n o w
available w h i c h set the r e q u i r e d choke value
automatically. This is achieved by feedback circuitry,
D.C OUTPUT
A A
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
AAAA
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
to—4 / W Y V W ^
HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION
S3H
t* Tw t +
p^r 0
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
which makes it easy for the operator to set the correct
parameters and obtain good welds.
Popular Model
The machine shown in Fig. 2.15 is a heavy duty three-
p h a s e constant current transformer-rectifier for
connection to 440 V three-phase 50 cycles main supply,
with welding current range of 50 to 400 Amps, and
suitable for manual metal-arc welding. Its salient
features are:
• Excellent welding characteristics: the use of a
three-phase DC power source combined with a
well designed transductor gives a smooth and
steady arc with minimum spatter, resulting in a
smooth weld bead.
• Easy arc striking: The machine is designed to give
easy arc striking with any type of electrode.
• Built-in safeguards: The set is safeguarded against
fan failure overload or inadequate cooling. Spe-
cial surge suppressor devices are used for pro-
tecting the control circuitry from surges.
• Reliability: M a d e to latest s t a n d a r d s , the
equipment can withstand rigorous environ-
i mental conditions.
Light and compact: The equipment is very compact and
light in weight, easy to manoeuvre, transport and handle.

Fig. 2.15: Popular models of welding rectifiers
The machine has OCV of 80 V and m a x i m u m
continuous hand-welding current of 400 Amps, at 60%
duty cycle. It has B-class insulation, forced air cooling
and drip-proof casing. Capacitor of 9 KVA is
recommended to be used to improve the power factor.
Remote control unit can be provided, so that the welder
can adjust the current from the work place itself.
COMPARISON OF POWER SOURCES
It is important to know the merits and demerits of
the three main classes of power sources—the welding
transformer, the welding generator and the welding
rectifier—so that a correct choice can be made according
to the conditions prevailing in the fabrication shops.
The comparative advantages of AC and DC welding
will be pointed out in Chapter 3. Based on them, one
would first arrive at a decision whether to use AC
(welding transformers) or DC (welding generators or
rectifiers or inverters).
Transformers have much lower initial costs than DC
power sources. Today's market prices for typical 300
Amps, machines of standard make are as follows:
Welding transformer Rs. 20,000.00
Welding generator Rs. 1,00,000.00
Welding rectifier Rs. 60,000.00
Welding inverter Rs. 90,000.00
POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 49
Transformers require least maintenance because of
their simple construction and absence of moving parts.
Generators call for careful maintenance, because some
of their m o v i n g p a r t s require periodic repair or
replacement. When it comes to the cost of electric power
for current output, the motor-generator is the most
expensive, because heavy parts are continuously rotated
even w h e n w e l d i n g is not being performed.
Transformer-rectifiers and transformers operate more
cheaply, because they have no moving parts except
cooling fans and, what is significant, their no-load power
loss is negligible.
Figure 2.16 compares the efficiencies of the machines
at various operating loads and shows that even at high
duty cycles, the efficiency of the motor-generator does
not approach that of the other two types of power
sources. Such efficiencies are measured at rated load
with arc or resistance loads, and therefore represent
actual operating conditions.
In spite of these drawbacks which are relatively
insignificant, DC machines are preferred because of their
ability to weld a wide range of base metals, their better
arc stability, choice of polarity (positive or negative) and
other advantageous features mentioned under AC
versus DC in Chapter 3.
Electrode burnoff rate, i.e. the rate at which an
electrode of a given size and type gets consumed at a
50 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
20 40 60 80 100 120
PERCENTAGE OF RATED LOAD
Fig. 2.16: Effect of operating load (as a percentage of
rated load) on efficiency of three types of MMAW power
supplies
specific current value (expressed in mm per minute),
has been found in many cases to be the highest with the
motor-generator and lowest with the welding
transformer. The rate for the welding rectifier is
intermediate between the two. Weld metal deposition
rates also vary in the same manner. A study with various
sizes of medium-coated rutile-type electrodes has shown
that the average deposition rate with the motor-
generator is 8.8% greater than with the rectifier, and
15.1% greater than with the transformer.
Mention has been made of the low power factor (pf)
of a welding transformer. The pf of a typical transformer
can be as low as 0.45, and this applies equally to a
welding rectifier, which is basically a transformer with
a means of rectification of the secondary output. Both
of them need capacitors to raise the pf above 0.80 as
demanded by electric supply authorities. On the other
hand, the inherent pf of a motor-generator is between
0.80 and 0.90.
It has also been pointed out that welding
transformers and welding rectifiers are very sensitive
to fluctuations in supply voltage, while generators of
proper design are affected to a negligible extent. A 5%
change in supply voltage will be immediately reflected
on welding current side to the extent of about 7% in the
case of transformers, but only 1% in the case of
generators. Transformers also present the problem of
load imbalance, which is absent in the case of generators
and three-phase rectifiers.
FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF POWER SOURCE
The following factors must be considered in choosing a
power source from among a transformer, generator and
rectifier:
1) Initial cost
2) Cost of periodical maintenance and repair
3) Whether the mains supply is 220 V or 440 V, or
no electrical power is available
4) Whether the machine will give steady current
output in spite of the main voltage fluctuations
5) Whether the machine will cause imbalance in the
power load
6) Inherent power factor of the machine—whether
capacitor will be required to raise it
7) Whether the welding jobs demand a portable unit
8) Whether the welding jobs require AC or DC or
both AC and DC
9) Whether the machine has adequate current rat-
ing and range to weld with the largest and small-
est size of electrode to be used on the job
10) Whether the machine will give good arc striking
and arc stability for the types of electrodes to be
used
11) Whether the welding process to be used demands
constant current or constant voltage type
12) Whether the machine will give the required weld
radiographic quality and impact values with the
types of electrodes to be used
13) Whether the same machine could serve several
welding processes which are expected to be used
in the shop
14) Whether remote current control arrangement will
help, and whether the machine can provide it
15) Whether the machine will withstand shop or site
environment (corrosive gases, dust, moisture,
etc.)
SPECIAL POWER SOURCES
So far the conventional power sources used for
normal welding applications have been discussed.
Today, considerable sophistication has been introduced
in power source design to meet the requirements of
automation, accuracy and response during welding, and
compactness and reduced weight. It is impossible to deal
with all these developments here. Hence, we shall only
cover in brief the following types of special power
sources:
1) Universal type giving AC and DC outputs at
constant current as well as constant voltage
2) Multi-operator type giving AC or DC output
3) Solid state power source:
a) thyristorised and transistorised machines
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 51

b) rectifier with slope control for MMA welding 3) Solid State Power Source
c) transistorised/IGBT based (using inverter tech- a) Thyristorised and transistorised machines: Under a
nology to make the machine compact and light broad category, these can be termed as solid state or
weight) electronically controlled machines. These are DC power
sources, incorporating many modern sophisticated
4) Special power source for TIG and plasma arc weld-
techniques. They have the following distinct advantages
ing
over the conventional ones:
5) Special power source for MIG/C02, welding • Constant output: The output remains absolutely
constant irrespective of wide variations in the
1) Universal Type main supply voltage (normally fluctuations
This is generally a DC type power source having within ± 10 to 15% do not affect the output).
facility to obtain constant current as well as constant • Flexible output characteristics: It is possible to con-
voltage type output characteristics. Its main advantage trol and vary the static characteristics of the
is that it can be used for various processes like MMAW, power source by merely changing the control cir-
MIG/C0 2 , TIG and SAW, when coupled with suitable cuitry. This helps to get the desired characteris-
control outfits and accessories. It is generally rated for tics for various applications from a single power
600 Amps., so that it can cover practically a wide source.
spectrum of applications. This power source can be of
• Fast response: It gives very fast response to changes
conventional design (transformer-rectifier) or solid-state
design with feedback system. With the latter, one can in the output conditions, which is especially ad-
obtain the variable output characteristics easily and vantageous in pulsed mode applications.
economically. In a medium sized workshop where the • Higher efficiency: Overall efficiency is higher, as
fabrication programme demands use of several welding also the power factor. Hence, generally power
processes, a single universal power source can be used factor improving capacitors need not be added.
with advantage. • Easy remote control: The output can be varied
merely by varying reference control signals
2) Multi-operator Type through control gear circuitry; hence these power
When a large number of welders are concentrated sources can be readily used for mechanised and
in a small area, as in the case of shipyards and automated applications.
construction sites, it is economical to use a multi- Compared to thyristorised machines, transistorised
operator set capable of providing current output to 3,6, ones give steadier DC output with ripple as low as 1 to
9 or 12 operators at a time, instead of using individual 2%. The latter are also claimed to possess other attractive
units. The multi-operator power source can be either a features. However, they are very expensive. Today,
transformer giving AC output or a rectifier giving DC thyristorised power sources have been industrially
output. The overall maximum current rating of such an accepted, especially for mechanised and robotic
equipment can range between 1.200 and 2,500 Amps., applications.
catering currents up to 250 or 300 Amps, to each welder. All solid state DC power sources work on the
Each welder has a separate remote control regulator to principle of feedback control. Figure 2.17 shows a
enable him to set the current as required. simplified schematic diagram of a solid state power
The economy of a multi-operator unit is based on source incorporating the feedback control system. Its
the fact that in a large group of welders, only a few are principle can be explained thus:
actually welding at any given instant; and, secondly, The input voltage is first stepped down to low
the arc time factor varies between 10 and 30%. Arc time voltage. This low voltage is rectified by a thyristor bridge
factor is defined as the percentage of time the welder is rectifier. When the operator starts welding, a small signal
actually welding against the total shift time. The number proportional to actual welding current is fed into an
of arcs that can be used with the total welding power is electronic comparator unit. The comparator compares
given by the following formula: this feedback signal with the reference signal,, which is
Total welding power proportional to the set current. The difference between
Number = the two signals makes the error signal. If the output
of arcs Ave. amp of each arc x Ave. arc time factor of each arc current is higher than the set current, the error signal is
52 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

INPUT

I CONTROL MAIN
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

V REGULATOR
1 CONTROL
[ SUPPLY

t THYRISTOR BRIDGE
ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER RECTIFIER

r^
-V ERROR OR DIODE BRIDGE

y TRANSISTOR
BANK
i i
k
REF. SIGNAL
a SET
CURRENT FEEDBACK SIGNAL
o ACTUAL
CURRENT

'r 5rur»KX
OPERATOR £}*"***
CONTROL

Wl
t f RISTICS
ELDING CHARACTE NTROL
OJ
RRENT SLOPE CO

6
SHUNT
o

6
WELDING OUTPUT

Fig. 2.17: Schematic diagram of a solid state power source

negative, and if it is lower than the set current, the error
signal is positive. Depending on the error signal the
firing angle of the thyristor gets changed to make the
error zero, which in effect makes the output current
come back to the set value. If the feedback signal is
proportional to the output voltage, then output voltage
also can be controlled in the same way.
In transistorised versions, base current is controlled
in the same way as firing angle in order to maintain
constant output.
b) Slope-controlled rectifiers for manual welding: Though
conventional d r o o p i n g or CC type transformers,
generators and rectifiers are used satisfactorily for
manual metal-arc welding, their static characteristics
vary from type to type and from unit to unit. The result
is that the performance characteristics of any given
power source in a particular welding application cannot
be predicted.
For example, a power source may give very good
result in downhand welding, but may not perform
satisfactorily in vertical up and overhead welding. In
some cases, if the short-circuit current at a particular
setting is too low, the electrode may give sticking effect;
on the other hand if the short-circuit current is on the
higher side, it will give a forceful and digging arc. Some
power sources may give good arc striking, while others
may not.
Such varying performances are due to divergent
static characteristics of the power sources. To illustrate,
let us take two power sources A and B, A being more
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 53

drooping than B. A will give relatively less current

variation (say 15 Amps.), with change in arc length. This
power source will deposit a more uniform weld bead
with uniform penetration and will be well-suited for
welding thin sheet. B will give large current variations
(say 50 Amps.) with changes in arc length, and hence it
will give burnthrough if used for welding thin sheets.
However, B will be better suited for vertical and
overhead welding, because in this case the welder can
wilfully vary the current substantially, by making subtle
changes in the arc length, thereby controlling the volume
of molten metal in the weld puddle.
It is evident that for best all-round results, the welder
should be able to adjust the slope as desired. Recently
developed thyristorised rectifiers provide the facility to
select the optimum characteristic to suit a particular
application. The welder can select truly constant current
(i.e. absolutely vertical) characteristic or add to it as
much slope as required.
In some of these thyristorised rectifiers, a booster
circuit is incorporated to i m p r o v e arc striking.
Sometimes a safety circuit is added, which results in
very low OCV of 10 to 20 V in the idle condition, and
very high OCV of 100 to 120 V just at the time of striking
the arc. The result is excellent arc striking feature.
c) Inverter based machine for MMAW: This is a
Fig. 2.18: Inverter based rectifier
revolutionary power source using the latest high
frequency transistor inverter technology. It is five times
smaller in size a n d ten times lighter t h a n the DC supply is fed to either IGBT devices or MOSFET
conventional type and yet rated for industrial duty cycle devices to invert the DC supply to AC supply but at
and high output current. very high frequency up to 100 KHZ.The high frequency
These p o w e r sources n o w have become quite supply obtained thus is fed to step down transformer
popular and well established across almost all to reduce the voltage to the welding voltage.The size of
industries.They are available in the welding current transformer becomes very compact because of the high
range starting from 120 Amps, to 600 Amps.. Machines frequency supply at the primary side. The step down
up to 220 Amps, are basically single phase machines voltage is further rectified and filtered to DC supply as
and machines above the current ratings are three phase shown in the circuit diagram.The current feedback and
machines. Apart from light weight and compactness of control circuitry ensures that w e l d i n g current is
these machines they have higher efficiency (>85%) and m a i n t a i n e d constant to the set value on the
power factor (upto .98) compared conventional diode potentiometer scale.
based or thyristor based machines smaller rating
machines upto 150 Amps, current rating have become Inverter Based Multi Process Power Source Units
very popular for the maintenance work since they are Inverter based welding power sources are available
very light weight up to 5 kgs and can be carried any with CC/CV characteristics with the welding current
where conveniently for the welding.These machines are rating from 100 Amps to 600 Amps, and these are
either IGBT based or MOSFET based and working suitable for multi-process applications like SMAW,
frequency of devices is from 15 KHZ to 100 KHZ. (Refer GMAW, FCAW, GTAW & SAW processes.The use of
Fig. 2.18) Typical circuit diagram of the machine is inverter circuit produces significant reductions in size
shown below (Fig. 2.19). The input supply is rectified and weight of the magnetic circuitry components as well
through primary rectifier and the rectified DC output as decrease their electrical losses. Faster response times
is filtered as shown in tihe circuit diagram.This filtered are generally associated with the higher switching and
54 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
mjjLLi^
INPUT
BRIDGE
ra
RECTIFIER INVERTER TRANSFORMER
14>0R3<J) ■
PRIMARY •
-w—
llNVERTER
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
Fig. 2.19: Inverter diagram showing power supply sections and voltage wave forms
control frequencies used in this technology, resulting in
more stable arc and superior arc performance. An
inverter based power source is smaller, more compact,
requires less electrical energy than conventional welding
power sources, and offers a faster response time.
4) Power Sources for TIG and Plasma Arc Welding
Though any drooping or CC type power source is
suitable for these processes, machines having OCV of
70-80 V are preferred, because they give a more stable
arc and better performance. Special power sources are
also available, in which the following parts are
integrated:
(a) high frequency unit for automatic arc striking;
(b) DC suppressor capacitor bank for AC welding of
aluminium, magnesium and its alloys; and (c) water
circulatory system to cool the torch. In the plasma
welding power source, a separate circuitry is added to
provide the pilot arc. In the most up-to-date TIG/
Plasma power source, controls for pre-flow and post-
flow of shielding gas, and for up-slope and down-slope
of welding current at the start and finish respectively,
are provided. In addition, facilities like pulsed current
and programmed parameter setting are incorporated.
All these features are aimed at consistently perfect
welds.
To suit any specific TIG/Plasma welding job, the
various parameters like pre-flow, post-flow, up-slope
OUTPUT
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER INDUCTOR
-o +
LuuJ
-o-
time, peak current, background current, etc., can be pre-
set in a special module, and such a readily programmed
module can be fitted in the power source to weld that
particular job. In more advanced and sophisticated
power sources, such programmes can be processed
through a microprocessor. The zrelevant parameters can
be stored in memory bits of the microprocessor and can
be obtained as and when required to weld a particular
job. Interfacing of such microcomputer controls is pos-
sible only with electronic power sources and not with
conventional power sources.
Conventional AC power sources, used for the TIG
welding of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys, give
sinusoidal output waveform and require DC suppressor
capacitor bank as mentioned above. Recent research has
shown that square wave AC output gives a very stable
and smooth arc and eliminates the need of suppressing
DC. Power sources designed to give square wave AC
are preferably electronically controlled.
5) Power Sources for MIG/C0 2 Welding
Though the conventional CV or flat characteristic
type DC power source is suitable for MIG/C0 2 welding,
regular users of this process prefer the composite power
source with built-in wire feeder and allied controls.
Recently, one knob C0 2 welding machines have been
introduced in the market, which simplify the setting of
welding parameters.
 POWER SOURCES FOR ARC WELDING 55

The most recently developed are the pulsed-MIG/
C 0 2 power sources of various designs. Some have
pulsed wire-feed systems, while others have the facility
of impulsed current at fixed frequencies like 25, 33,
150 Hz, etc. The most recent design known as Synchro
Pulsed MIG incorporates a closed loop feedback
system, which selects correct pulse frequency to get
ideal metal transfer of one drop per pulse. It is claimed
that these power sources give negligible spatter, high
deposition rates and good welding even at currents as
low as 40 Amps.. Some of these power sources are
electronically controlled a n d p r o g r a m m e d and
interfaced with the microprocessor. Various sets of
parameters pertaining to different types of base metals,
joint configurations, joint thicknesses, etc., are stored
in memory bits.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Power Handbook by A.F. Manz, published 1973, by Union Carbide Corporation and reprinted by American Welding
Society.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 1, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Modem Welding Technology by H.B. Gary, published 1979, by Prentice-Hall Inc., N.J., U.S.A.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published 1971, by American Society for Metals.
IS: 1851, Single Operator Type Arc Welding Transformers, published by Indian Standards Institution.
IS: 2635, DC Electric Welding Generators, published by Indian Standards Institution.
IS: 4559, Specification for Single Operator Rectifier Type DC Arc. Welder, published by Indian Standards Institution.
IS: 6008, Single Operator AC/DC Arc Welding Power Source Incorporating Solid State Rectifiers and Having Drooping
Characteristics, published by Indian Standards Institution.
IS: 8804, Plugs, Sockets and Terminal Arrangements for Manual Arc Welding Equipment, published by Indian Standards
Institution.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Manual
Metal-Arc
Welding
AS pointed out in Chapter 1, the various arc welding
processes shown in the process chart (Table 1.1) find
wide application in industry and of these, the manual
metal-arc welding (MMAW) is the most extensively
used process, because it requires low capital investment,
is easy and economical to use and can be applied on a
wide variety of metals and jobs.
Historical Background
Electric arc was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy
in 1801. The idea of using the arc for joining metals was
born 80 years later in 1881, when Auguste de Meritens
successfully welded lead storage battery plates using a
carbon arc. It was further d e v e l o p e d by several
scientists, among them a Russian named Nikolas de
Barnardos, who used a carbon rod fitted to an insulated
handle to weld parts manually He was issued a British
patent in 1887, which is considered to be the first one
on arc welding. Carbon arc process was commercially
exploited in Europe and the U.S.A. in the late 1880's
and the early 1890's with limited success, because it
operated on high voltages (100-300 V) and currents
(600-1,000 amps), and resulted in hard and brittle weld
metal due to carbon inclusions.
The shift from carbon arc to metal-arc welding came
soon. In 1889, two men independently announced the
development of arc welding using a metal rod, in which,
after the arc was struck, the rod progressively melted
and provided additional weld metal. They were: N.G.
Slavianoff, a Russian, and Charles Coffin, an American,
who later became President of the General Electric
Company The latter was granted a U.S. patent on the
process in 1889.
At the start of the 20th century, manual metal-arc
welding came to be industrially accepted, but it was far
from perfect, because it used bare wires as electrodes.
In the U.S.A., the use of sul-coated and lime-washed
bare electrodes resulted in a marginal improvement as
they provided a comparatively more stable arc. Sul-
coated wires had a special rust-coated finish, which was
obtained by maintaining the coils in a spray of water
before the final drawing. Lime-washed wires had a thin
layer of lime, used as a lubricant in the lime or dry
drawing process.
Oscar Kjellberg of Sweden is credited with being the
pioneer of modern coated arc welding electrodes. He
first conceived the idea of applying mixtures of organic
and mineral coatings on wires to effectively control the
arc and weld metal characteristics. In 1907, he was
granted a patent on covered electrodes.
Development of power sources also proceeded side
by side. In the pioneering days of 1880's a bank of
batteries charged with a dynamo served as the power
source. Serious experimentation started in the first
decade of the 20th century. By 1907, the first welding
generator was introduced in the U.S. market.
Electric Arc
The electric arc is a sustained electrical discharge over
a gaseous path between two poles. The arc current is
carried by ionised gas called plasma, which consists of
nearly equal numbers of electrons and ions. The current
is mainly conducted by electrons, which flow out of a
negative pole (cathode) and move towards a positive
pole (anode). In a welding arc, the plasma may be mixed
with other states of matter such as molten metals, slags,
v a p o u r s , neutral and excited gaseous atoms and
molecules. From the practical viewpoint, a welding arc
may be considered to be a gaseous conductor, which
converts electrical energy into heat.
58 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Welding arc temperatures have been found to range

between 5,000 and 30,000 K, depending on the nature ELECTRODE
of the plasma and the current passing through the arc.
In covered electrodes which carry easily ionised
materials such as sodium and potassium in the coating,
maximum arc temperatures are about 6,000 K. In an inert
gas shielded arc, the axial temperature can be as high
as 30,000 K. The highly concentrated heat of the arc and
its small size make it possible to weld thick metallic
sections at fairly high speeds with excellent bonding
and minimum dissipation of heat, resulting in narrow
heat-affected zones.
In a welding arc, heat generation takes place at the
cathode, in the plasma and at the anode. Heat at the (A)
cathode is generated mainly by ionic bombardment. The
plasma heat comes from the collisions among electrons,
ions and atoms. At the anode, the incoming electrons
strike the anode surface and liberate considerable heat,
because of the energy which they took upon emission
from the cathode and the added energy which they
acquired during acceleration across the plasma under
the potential difference of the poles.
The heat liberated at the cathode and anode regions
is usually greater than that from the plasma or arc
column. Also the amount of heat generated at the
cathode and anode differ appreciably, depending on the SLAG
metals which make up the electrode and base metal,
and on the nature of the plasma. The heat distribution
(B)
between cathode and anode often determines the
melting rate of the electrode and penetration into the
base metal. The significance of this factor will be pointed Fig. 3.1: Heat balance in arc welding:
out from time to time as various welding processes and (A) Manual metal-arc process; (B) Submerged arc process
metals involved are being discussed. It m u s t be
understood that the above remarks apply to the DC arc
and not to the AC arc, because in the latter case the If the arc voltage is 20, the current is 300 amps and
polarity is not constant. the welding speed is 150 m m / m i n , the heat input rate
During welding the entire heat produced by the arc of the arc is 2,400 joules per mm or 2.4 kilojoules (kj)
is not used for heating and melting of joint edges, but a per mm.
portion is used for heating and melting the electrode The w e l d i n g arc cannot be ignited merely by
and its coating. Some portion is lost in radiation and applying to the cold poles the voltage required by the
convection. Arc heat balance in manual arc welding and arc. A conducting or ionising link has to be provided
submerged-arc welding is shown in Fig. 3.1. between them. This is usually done by either applying
The heat developed by an arc or arc energy can be a sufficiently high voltage between the poles to cause a
calculated by using the simple formula: discharge or by bringing them together to make a
W (joules) = V (volts) x A (amps) x T (seconds) contact and then drawing them apart. How these arc
heat arc voltage current time striking techniques are applied to various arc welding
If the arc is travelling at a speed of S m m / m i n , the processes will be explained while dealing with them in
heat input rate of the arc is given by the formula: detail.
V x A x 60 Once an arc has been struck, re-igniting it after a
Joules per mm length of joint momentary extinction is relatively easy. Re-ignition is
further improved if materials which are good thermal

emitters are present in the electrode. A DC arc is easy to
maintain once it is ignited, but this is not the case with
the AC arc, which is extinguished at zero current point
on each reversal, twice in every cycle. For the arc to re-
ignite, the required voltage must be available at the point
of zero current. This is ensured by using a low operating
power factor (usually 0.3) in an AC power source
(welding transformer) so that the current wave lags the
voltage wave, and thereby the full open-circuit voltage
of the transformer is available at the zero current point
to reignite the arc. This has been explained in detail
under Open-Circuit Voltage in Chapter 2.
Arc length is an important factor in arc welding,
because it controls arc voltage. A shorter arc means less
arc voltage and increased current, and it results in
increased weld deposition rate and welding speed. A
longer arc means higher arc voltage and lower current,
which lead to lower welding productivity. When the
arc is too long, heat is lost to the air, spatter increases
and the weld metal picks up nitrogen, with the result
that the welded joint shows porosity and reduced tough-
ness. In welding with DC, the shortest possible arc must
be used to minimise arc blow and contamination by air.
THE PROCESS
The heart of the MMAW process, which is illustrated
in Fig. 1.1 in Chapter 1, is the power source, which
provides continuous and steady supply of electrical
current of sufficient amperage and of proper voltage to
maintain an arc. It is either (a) a transformer giving AC
supply, (b) a transformer-rectifier providing DC supply,
or (c) a motor-driven or engine-driven generator giving
DC supply. Two cables or leads extend from the two
output terminals of the power source: one of them is
the ground cable attached to the workpiece by means
of an earth-clamp, the other is the welding cable attached
to the electrode holder.
To start the welding operation, the welder fixes
the bare, contact end of a flux-coated electrode into the
holder and strikes an arc by touching or scratching the
workpiece with the arc-striking end of the electrode and
then withdrawing it slightly to maintain a short arc. The
heat of the arc gradually consumes the electrode and
converts it into weld metal and slag. The welder
manually guides the electrode and controls its direction
and arc travel speed. He also maintains a steady arc
length by feeding the electrode skillfully into the
workpiece. He ends the operation by withdrawing the
electrode suddenly and thereby breaking the arc.
MMAW is a versatile and flexible process requiring
simple equipment, a skilled welder, welder's accessories
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 59
and electrodes. Welding can be carried out in all
positions, both in shop and at site. Welded joints of
sound quality and adequate mechanical properties can
be obtained by using correctly designed electrodes and
proper welding procedures. The process is intermittent,
because welding has to be interrupted from time to time
to discard the unused stub and to place afresh electrode
into the holder, and also to deslag the joint, i.e. to remove
the layer of slag covering the weld. For higher
productivity, semi-automatic or fully-automatic welding
processes are preferred.
POWER SOURCES
As explained in Chapter 2, power sources of the
constant current (CC) type h a v i n g drooping
characteristics are used for the MMAW process.
Power sources of the constant voltage (CV) type are
not suitable. The size or capacity of a-power source is
selected according to the sizes of electrodes used on the
shop floor. A welding machine rated around 300-350
amps at 60% duty cycle is considered a standard size,
because it can handle electrode sizes from 6.3 mm down
to 1.6 mm. A heavy fabrication shop using 5 mm and
6.3 mm electrodes most of the time are advised to go in
for a machine rated for 400-450 amps. On the other
hand, a shop engaged in sheet metal fabrication would
do well with a 200-250 amps machine, since the largest
size of electrode it may use is 3.15 or 4 mm.
Some heavy fabrication shops prefer to use 8 mm
size normal electrodes or 5 mm/6.3 mm sizes of heavy
coated iron powder electrodes to achieve very high
productivity. These shops must go in for welding
machines rated around 500-600 amps at 60% duty cycle.
Both AC and DC are used. DC is suitable for all types
of electrodes and for welding all ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. AC is not suitable for certain types of electrodes
and for welding certain metals. So before deciding to
go in for an AC power source, one must make sure that
the electrodes he is going to use and the metals he is
going to weld are suitable for AC. The electrode
producer indicates the suitability of each electrode type
for AC or DC on the carton and the descriptive leaflet.
He also indicates the current range for each size of
electrode. This data should be studied before deciding
to buy a power source.
To make a choice between AC and DC, the following
points must be considered:
1) All types of electrodes work on DC while some
nonferrous types and basic low-hydrogen ferritic type
electrodes may not give a stable arc with AC. In AC
welding, because of the reversing nature of the current,
60 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
flux coatings must contain enough arc stabilisers to re-
ignite the arc immediately after the current comes to
zero during each cycle.
2) When using small-diameter electrodes at low
amperages, DC has a definite advantage over AC, both
for starting and maintaining the arc.
3) For all electrode sizes, maintaining a short arc is
easier with DC than with AC, except when iron-pow-
der electrodes are used,
4) Vertical and overhead welding on thick sections
is easier with DC than with AC, because a stable arc can
be maintained at lower currents.
5) Effect of polarity: DC has the advantage of two
polarities, which means that the electrode can be made
negative or positive. Straight polarity (i.e. electrode
negative) can be used for MMAW of all steels (except
when low-hydrogen electrodes are used), but not for
most non-ferrous metals. With straight polarity, more
of the arc heat is concentrated on the electrode and con-
sequently melting and deposition rates are higher, weld-
ing is more rapid and the workpiece is less susceptible
to distortion. Higher welding speed is possible. How-
ever, penetration is shallower and narrower.
Reverse polarity (i.e. electrode positive) is used with
basic low-hydrogen electrodes and for most non-ferrous
metals. It produces maximum penetration for a given
set of conditions. This characteristic makes reverse po-
larity the better choice for root passes in groove welds
made with use of backing bars, and for vertical and
overhead welding.
In AC welding, a choice of polarity is non-existent
because AC combines reverse and straight polarity in
regular cycles. Hence AC gives penetration and elec-
trode melting rate intermediate between those given by
DC + and DC -. The comparative bead profiles and pen-
etrations are shown in Fig. 3.2.
It must be pointed out that these polarity effects ob-
served in MMAW are different from those observed in
TIG welding, because of the influence of the metal ions
and fluxing compounds in the arc.
In TIG and similar n o n - c o n s u m a b l e electrode
welding processes, 66% of the arc heat is generated at
the positive pole and 33% at the negative pole. In TIG
welding, therefore, DC electrode negative is preferred,
DIRECT CURRENT
STRAIGHT POLARITY^
Fig. 3.2: Comparative bead profile and penetration for different current conditions
because the electrode in this case is able to carry a much
higher current without overheating and the base metal
has deeper penetration than when the electrode is
positive.
6) DC can cause the problem of arc blow, especially
when welding is done in corners, near the ends of joints
or on structures involving several pieces coming to-
gether. Welding with high currents on heavy structured
may also give rise to arc blow, more so when the fit-up
is bad. AC does not present this problem (see the sec-
tion on Arc Blow in Chapter 12).
7) Voltage drop due to long cables is a matter for
concern both in the case of DC and AC. Such voltage
drop added to that of the arc may overload the welding
power source and weaken the arc. AC is preferred where
distances between the welding areas and power sources
are considerable as in shipyards. Long cables should
not be coiled excessively, because induction set up by
the coils will reduce the output of the power source,
and may overload the transformer. It is a good policy to
keep the cables as short as required for the job.
8) For sheet metal welding, DC is preferable to AC.
DC straight polarity minimises burn-through, because
of the shallow penetration it causes. Bearing in mind
the comparative features of AC and DC, the fabricator
can decide whether to go in for a welding transformer
for AC supply, or a welding generator / rectifier for DC
supply.
Other factors which also have to be considered in
choosing a power source have been discussed in Chap-
ter 2 under the section Comparison of Power Sources.
WELDING ACCESSORIES
MMAW requires a number of accessories, some of
which are essential parts of the welding circuit, while
the others are needed for the welder's safety. The
standard set of welding accessories supplied with the
welding power source consists of:
• 3 m each of welding and ground cables
• Insulated electrode holder
• Ground clamp
• Chipping hammer and steel wire brush
• Handshield with coloured glass.
DIRECT CURRENT
REVERSE POLARITY

Besides these, the welder must be provided with
protective clothing to protect him from intense heat of
the arc, spatter, hot slag and hot metal. Leather gauntlet
gloves are a must to protect hands from harmful rays,
and to prevent burns. A leather apron is also absolutely
essential. Additional items like skull-caps, shoulder
covers and leg-pads made of leather or any other flame-
resisting material may be required during overhead
welding to protect the welder from hot spatter.
Electrode Holder
The electrode holder is used to grip the electrode and
provide it with the welding current. A holder can be
partly or fully insulated. In the former, shown in Fig.
3.3, only the handle is insulated to ensure that the
welder's hand is not in electrical contact with the
welding circuit. When using such a holder, care must
be taken to avoid its contact with the work, because it
will cause a flash. A fully-insulated holder, such as the
one shown in Fig. 3.4, on the other hand, can be placed
REPLACEABLE
JAWS
Fig. 3.3: Diagrammatic sketch of a typical partly insulated electrode holder
HANDLE
HEAT
SHIELD
Fig. 3.4: Diagrammatic sketch of a typical fully insulated electrode holder
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 61
or touched anywhere safely, because its handle as well
as the jaws are completely insulated.
A properly designed holder is light in weight, grips
the electrode securely in position, receives and ejects
the electrodes easily, a n d resists overheating in
continuous use. Holders are available in various sizes
according to their current-carrying capacities, their
weight increasing with increasing capacity. The jaws
of a holder must be in good condition and ensure good
electrical contact with the bare end of an electrode. Bad
contact at the jaws causes arcing and overheating of the
holder and impairs welding performance.
A holder should be firmly connected to the welding
cable. A loose connection between the two may result
in overheating of the holder. Electrode holders should
never be immersed in water for cooling.
Ground Clamp
The ground clamp connects the ground cable to the
work. It is an important device because without proper
MECHANICAL CABLE CONNECTION
JAW SPREADING
LEVER
INSULATOR
62 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

grounding, one fails to get a stable arc and the required
heat for welding. A ground clamp should be designed
to provide a strong positive electrical contact, to be
capable of easy attachment and detachment, and to
withstand rough use. A commonly used design is shown
in Fig. 3.5.
Electrode Cable/Ground Cable
These cables consist of a large n u m b e r of fine
aluminium or copper wires enclosed in a tough casing of
woven fabric and rubber. They are very flexible. The cable
size must be correctly chosen depending on the capacity
of the power source and the distance between the power
source and the work. The effect of cable length may be
explained thus: a 10-metre cable of a particular size may
satisfactorily carry the required current, but if another 10
metres of cable were added, the combined resistance of
the two cables would reduce the current output of the
power source. If the machine is then readjusted for the
original current output, the additional load may overheat
it as well as increase its power consumption.
Cable sizes should be correctly selected, because they
have a definite bearing on the welding operation. Advice
of the manufacturer of welding equipment may be
sought on this point. Table 3.1 derived from IS: 434,
indicates cable sizes for copper and aluminium material.
From the resistance values and current being used, the
voltage drop can be calculated. The larger size of cable
is used when the voltage drop with the smaller cables
becomes excessive. When greater flexibility is required,
two small size cables in parallel may be used instead of
one equivalent larger cable.
To carry the usual heavy welding current consistently,
the cable connections must be of heavy-duty design. For
connecting the cables to the secondary terminals of a
power source, lugs are attached to the cable ends by
soldering or mechanical crimping. A lug may also be
attached to the earthing end of the ground cable to
connect it to the work bench as shown in Fig. 3.6.

Handshield/ Headshield
Arc w e l d i n g d e m a n d s that a w e l d e r uses a
Fig. 3.5: Ground clamp (earthing clamp) handshield or a headshield (see Fig. 3.7). The headshield,
also called a helmet, is used only when the welder needs

Table 3.1: Specifications of welding cables as per IS:434

Copper cable specifications
Nominal hand- C/S No. of strands Resi. per km Total thickness Min. insu. resi.
welding current (mm2) & dia. of each at 20°C of covering per km at 20°C
(Amps.) wire (mm) (Ohms) (mm) (Mega Ohms)
100 16 509/0.2 1.132 2 35
150 25 796/0.2 0.7239 2 35
230 35 1,114/0.2 0.5173 2 35
400 50 1,591/0.2 0.3622 2 35
600 70 2,228/0.2 0.2586 2 35
600 (heavy duty) 95 1,344/0.3 0.1905 2.55 35

Aluminium cable specifications

Nominal hand- C/S No. of strands Resi. per km Total thickness Min. insu. resi.
welding current (mm2) & dia. of each at 20°C of covering per km at 20°C
(Amps.) wire (mm) (Ohms) (mm) (Mega Ohms)
100 27 380/0.3 1.112 2 35
150 42 589/0.3 0.717 2 35
230 58 817/0.3 0.517 2 35
400 82 1,161/0.3 0.364 2 35
600 112 1,591/0.3 0.265 2 35
600 (heavy duty) , 153 962/0.450 0.195 2.5 35
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 63

WORK BENCH
GROUND CABLE BOLTED CLAMPED TACK WELDED

Fig. 3.6: Methods of attaching ground cable

K rf„, s??r

Fig. 3.7: Shields for arc welding: (A) Headshield; (B) Handshield

Welding MMAW. C02/MAG MIG TIG Plasma Micro-plasma

process (Amps.) (Amps.) (Amps.) (Amps.) cutting welding

Glass
Shade No.
5 0.5-1.3
6 — — — — — 1.4-2.6
7 — — — — — 2.7-5.0
8 — — — — — 5.1-9.9
9 20-39 — — 5-19 — 10-15
10 40-79 40-79 80-99 20-39 — 16-30
11 80 - 1 7 4 80 - 1 2 4 100 - 1 7 4 40-99 50 -149 —
12 175 - 299 125 - 1 7 4 175 - 249 100 - 1 7 4 150 - 249 —
13 300 - 499 175 - 299 , 250 - 349 175 - 249 250 - 400 —
14 500 - 560 300 - 449 ' 350-499 250 - 399 — —
15 — 450 - 600 500 - 550 400 - 500 400 & above —
16 — Above 600 Above 550 — — —
64 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
his other hand to be free while welding. It usually has a
swing mounting to enable the welder to lift the front
part of the helmet above his face and to put it back,
without removing the head band from the head. Such
movements are necessary between weld runs to deslag
and inspect them. Both the handshield and headshield
are meant to protect the face, head and eyes from the
blinding radiation of the arc and hot spatter, and are
provided with coloured filter glasses through which the
arc must be observed. An electric arc produces a brilliant
light and gives off ultraviolet and infrared rays which,
though invisible, scorch the eyes and skin. One should
never look at the arc with naked eyes within a distance
of 16 metres.
Coloured glasses called filter glasses reduce the
brilliancy of the arc light and screen out the ultraviolet
and infrared rays. They are available in various standard
shades, each one being meant for a specific welding
condition. The recommended shades (shade numbers
as per DIN standard) for different welding applications
are tabulated below:
Filter glasses are of such dark shade that one cannot
see through them unless the arc is present. They are
expensive and are usually protected from spatter and
abuse by being placed b e t w e e n two o r d i n a r y
transparent glass pieces of the same size.
Chipping Hammer/Wire Brush
The welder needs a chipping hammer to remove the
slag which covers the deposited weld bead before the
next weld bead is laid. Unless the slag is completely
removed, the finished weld joint is likely to have slag
inclusions. The chipping hammer is made of hardened
steel and is usually double-ended. One end is shaped
like a chisel for general chipping, while the other end
has a sharp point to deslag the corners. After chipping,
the weld bead needs to be brushed vigorously with a
wire brush to remove the last traces of slag. The wire
brush is also used to remove rust and dirt from joint
surfaces before starting to weld.
MMAW Electrodes
MMAW is performed with flux-coated electrodes.
As mentioned earlier, in the early days of arc welding
(between 1889 and 1910), bare electrodes were used with
DC, but the performance and the weld metal quality
were unsatisfactory
When w e l d i n g w i t h bare electrodes, the arc
atmosphere consists of iron ions and atoms of nitrogen
and oxygen of the air. The arc is unsteady in the absence
of arc stabilisers and the metal transfer takes place in
the form of large molten drops, which frequently short-
circuit the arc. The weld metal in the molten condition
becomes supersaturated with oxygen and nitrogen, and
because the weld metal solidifies and cools very rapidly
in the absence of an insulating blanket of slag, most of
the oxygen and nitrogen are retained in the weld deposit.
Iron oxide, formed by the combination of iron and
oxygen, gets distributed in the weld metal as tiny
globules. Nitrogen turns to iron nitride Fe4N. Both iron
oxide and iron nitride lower ductility and toughness.
In all arc welding processes, the arc is suitably shielded
by means of flux or inert gas primarily to prevent
contamination of weld metal by atmospheric oxygen
and nitrogen.
The MMAW electrode consists of a straight piece of
solid metallic wire, called core wire, having a concentric
covering (also called coating) of flux as shown in Fig.
3.8. As much as 25 to 40 mm of the wire is left bare at
one end to serve as a grip in the electrode holder during
welding. At the other end, called the striking end, only
the core face is left exposed to facilitate arc striking.
The electrode size refers to the diameter of its core
wire. The electrode length is d e t e r m i n e d by the
convenience of the w e l d e r to strike the arc and
manipulate the electrode, and by the capacity of the
electrode to carry a reasonably high welding current
w i t h o u t getting overheated until it is consumed.
Electrode sizes and lengths have been standardised by
ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation) as
shown in Table 3.2.
Sizes 12.5,10, 8,1.25 and 1 are rarely used. Electrode
manufacturers who are equipped to produce them
would do so only against specific orders.
T h o u g h metric sizes for electrodes have been
universally accepted, they are sometimes referred to in
fractional inches or in swg. Table 3.3 provides correct
conversion while Table 3.4 gives a p p r o x i m a t e
equivalents used for practical purposes.
The flux covering thickness varies with each class
and brand of electrode and is usually expressed as
coating factor, which is the ratio of coating diameter to
the core wire diameter (CF - D_ in Fig. 3.8).
d
Electrodes are often referred to as light-coated,
medium-coated and heavy-coated depending on their
coating factor as shown below:
Light-coated Upto 1.30
Medium-coated 1.30 to 1.50
Heavy-coated Above 1.50
These definitions are based on IS 814-1991
specification.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 65

FLUX COVERING

LX::(®)\D J(/////ZZ^
\
STRIKING END CORE WIRE BARE END FOR GRIPPING

Fig. 3.8: Sketch of manual metal-arc welding electrode

Table 3.2: Standard dimensions of electrodes

Size (mm) 12.5 10 6.3 3.15/3.2 2.5 1.6 1.25
Length (mm) 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 250/ 200/ 200 200 200
300 250
450 450 450 450 450 450 450 350 300/ 250
350

Welding Currents metallic oxides or by means of powdered ferro-alloys

Every electrode has a certain current range within
which it operates satisfactorily. On a light job where
overheating must be avoided, current on the lower side
is used. For heavy work where maximum heat for
adequate fusion is necessary, current at the top of the
range is used. Current in the middle of the range is used
for normal work. Welding current increases with
electrode size. For a given electrode size, the current
increases with coating thickness, because as the coating
thickness increases, a higher current is required to melt
it. Table 3.5 indicates the currents required for a medium-
coated electrode.
Too low a current gives an unstable arc and results
in lack of fusion in the welded joint. Too high a current
overheats the electrode, increases spatter and results in
weld metal porosity. Currents recommended by the
electrode manufacturer must be used.
Functions of Flux Coating
1) It helps to strike and maintain the arc
2) It generates gases which displace the oxygen and
nitrogen of the atmosphere and provide a gaseous shield
around the arc to protect the molten droplets during their
passage across the arc as well as the molten weld puddle
3) It produces slag which further protects the mol-
ten droplets in the arc and the molten weld puddle from
atmospheric attack, and also provides an insulating
blanket over the weld bead
4) It helps to deoxidise and refine the weld metal
5) It helps to modify the chemistry by providing al-
loying elements for the weld metal, either by reducing
and metals. Thereby the mechanical properties of the
weld metal are also suitably modified
6) It helps to control the weld bead profile and to
obtain smooth weld surface with even ripples
7) It helps to reduce weld spatter
8) It insulates the electrode so that it can operate at
sufficiently high current without getting overheated
9) It makes vertical and overhead welding possible
by controlling the viscosity of the slag
10) It influences the operating characteristics of the
electrode and, to some extent, its burn-off rate and the
depth of penetration of the weld bead into the base metal
11) The coating having a low thermal conductivity,
melts slower than the core wire. Thus, in the case of
heavy-coated electrodes, the coating forms a cup around
the upper portion of the arc and prevents air being
drawn into the arc stream. The cup formation also makes
touch or contact welding possible
12) The coating increases deposition efficiency and
weld metal deposition rate through iron powder and
ferro-alloy additions.
The coating also controls the following arc
characteristics:
• Arc voltage and current intensity
• Thermal and dynamic energy
• The feasibility of welding with DC or AC, and
electrode polarity in DC
• Process of emission and ionisation
• Mode of metal transfer: short-circuiting, free
flight, spray type.
66 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.3: Conversion for swg, fractional inch Table 3.4: Approximate equivalents of electrode sizes
and mm sizes
swg fractional (in.) mm
swg fractional (in.) mm in
— 1/32 0.8
— — 0.6 0.024 18 3/64 1.2
— 1/32 — 0.031 16 1/16 1.6
— — 0.8 0.032 14 5/64 2.0
— — 0.9 0.035 12 3/32 2.5
— — 1.0 0.039 10 1/8 3.2
— 3/64 1.2 0.047 8 5/32 4.0
18 ■ —
— 0.048 6 3/16 5.0
— — 1.5 0.059 4 — 6.0
— 1/16 — 0.062 — 1/4 6.3
— — 1.6 0.063 — 5/16 8.0
16 — — 0.064
— 5/64 — 0.078
— — 2.0 0.079 Table 3.5: Welding currents vis-a-vis electrode size
14 — — 0.080
Electrode size Welding current, (Amps.)
— 3/32 2.4 0.094
— — 2.5 0.098 (mm) for light for heavy for normal
12 — — 0.104 work work work
— — 3.0 0.118 6.3 220 320 260
— — 3.15 0.124 5 180 240 210
— 1/8 — 0.125 4 140 180 165
10 — 3.25 0.128 3.15/3.2 90 130 110
— 5.32 — 0.156 2.5 55 85 70
— — 4.0 0.157 2 40 60 60
8 — — 0.160 1.6 25 40 30
— 3/16 — 0.188
6 — — 0.192
— — 5.0 0.197 • Arc stabilisers: Potassium oxalate, Potassium sili-
— 7/32 — 0.219 cate, Zirconium carbonate, Potash feldspar,
4 — — 0.232 Lithium carbonate, Titania.
— — 6.0 0.236
— —
• Gas-forming materials: Cellulose, Limestone, Wood
6.3 0.248
— 1/4 — 0.250
flour.
2 — — 0.276 • Slipping agents (for easy extrusion): Glycerin, china
— 5/16 — 0.312 clay, Kaolin clay, Talc, Bentonite clay, Mica.
— — 8.0 0.315
— —
• Binding agents: Sodium silicate, Dextrin, Potas-
3/8 0.375
— — 10.0 0.394
sium silicate, Gum arabic, Sugar, Asbestos.
— 1/2 — 0.500 • Deoxidisers and alloying elements: Ferrotitanium,
Ferrosilicon, Ferrochromium, Ferrocolumbium,
Some of these functions will be elaborated in the Ferromanganese, Electro-nickel, Electro-manga-
section on Metal Transfer in Electrodes. nese, Ferromolybdenum, Metals in powdered
form.
Common Flux Ingredients and Their Functions
• Fluxing agents: Silica, CaO (from limestone), Flu-
orspar TYPES OF ELECTRODE COATING
• Slag-formers: Rutile, Titania, Potassium titanate, Ever since the invention of the first modern covered
Ilmenite, Asbestos, Alumina, Silica flour, Iron electrode by Oscar Kjellberg of Sweden in 1907,
powder, Fluorspar, Feldspar, Manganese dioxide, considerable research has been done on electrode
Wollastonite. coverings the world over to achieve

(a) a low-cost formulation,
(b) most satisfactory operating characteristics,
(c) all-weld tensile and impact properties matching
those of the base metal.
All such development work and experience in the
production and use of electrodes have led to the ultimate
evolution of a few standard covering types which have
been coded and classified in various national and
international specifications for electrodes. They are:
• Cellulosic type
• Rutile type
• Acid type
• Acid rutile type
• Oxidising type
• Basic type
Cellulosic Type
The major constituent of this covering is cellulose,
usually exceeding 30% by weight. Other organic
materials such as wood flour, charcoal, cotton, yarn,
paper wrappings, starches and gums have also been
used to partially replace cellulose.
The other materials generally used are titanium
dioxide (derived from the granular mineral rutile),
metallic deoxidisers such as ferromanganese, various
types of magnesium or aluminium silicates, and liquid
sodium silicate as a binder. The cellulose, which is an
organic material, decomposes in the arc and produces a
voluminous gas shield which protects the arc from the
atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. The gaseous
atmosphere produced at the arc has approximately the
following composition:
1.0% C0 2 55% CO 42% H 2 and 1.5% H 2 0
The amount of slag produced is relatively small. The
weld deposit is thus covered with a thin, friable slag
layer, which is easily detachable.
This covering type does not have enough ionising
compounds and hence the electrode having this covering
operates only on DC. For use on AC (as well as DC),
small quantities of calcium and potassium compounds
are added to the covering and the sodium silicate binder
is replaced by potassium silicate.
A special feature of this type is that 4 to 6% moisture
is deliberately retained in the coating as it contributes
favourably to the operating characteristics of the
electrode. The moisture prevents premature charring of
the cellulose and results in a deeply penetrating, forceful,
spray-type arc, which is used to advantage in the so-
called stovepipe welding of cross-country pipeline.
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 67
Rutile Type
The maior constituent of this covering is rutile,
usually exceeding 50% by weight (not taking into
account cellulosic material). Rutile is a naturally-
occurring sand, containing around 95% of titanium
dioxide. It has a natural dark-black, shining appearance,
unlike pure titanium dioxide (called titania), which is
snow-white and is therefore also termed titanium white.
Rutile is sometimes used in the covering in finely ground
form which has a dirt-brown colour.
The covering also contains slag-forming silicious
materials like feldspar and china clay, and calcium and
potassium compounds to ensure arc stability in AC
welding. Cellulose and ferro-manganese in varying
amounts are also included. The binder is sodium silicate
or potassium silicate.
Two distinct versions of this type have emerged over
the years. One of them contains 10 to 15% cellulose and
is applied to the electrode to give a coating factor of 1.3
to 1.4. The slag formed during welding is viscous and
quick-freezing, and this renders the electrode
particularly suitable for welding in the vertical and
overhead positions. The electrode with this covering is
the most popular type in most countries, and is
described as the general-purpose mild steel structural
electrode.
The other version contains around 3% cellulose and
is applied to the electrode to give a coating factor of 1.5
to 1.7. The slag formed during welding is heavy, compact
and usually self-detaching.
Acid Type
The major constituent of this covering is iron oxide.
Other constituents are manganese compounds
(sometimes including manganese oxide) and silica along
with sufficient deoxidisers. Organic materials are absent.
Potassium silicate is used as a binder. During welding,
this covering produces a voluminous iron-manganese
oxide-silica fluid slag, whose metallurgical character is
acidic. This slag solidifies in a characteristic honeycomb
structure and is easily detached.
Acid Rutile Type
This covering is a compromise between the rutile
type and the acid type. Rutile or ilmenite (a granular
mineral containing titanium oxide and iron oxide)
replaces part of the oxides of iron and manganese. The
covering is considered to be AR type only when the
amount of titanium oxide is larger than the total amount
of iron oxide and manganese oxide. The titanium oxide
content is normally not higher than 35%. The slag
68 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
formed by this covering during welding is similar to
the slag of the acid type but slightly more fluid.
Oxidising Type
This covering is composed mainly of iron oxides and
silicate with or without manganese oxides. During
welding, it transforms into a heavy solid slag which has
oxidising properties. These result in a weld deposit,
which is low in carbon and manganese. No attempt is
made to compensate the manganese loss through
addition of ferromanganese. The resultant weld metal
is therefore dead soft and has low mechanical properties.
It has limited use, which is restricted to sheet metal
fabrication.
Basic Type
This covering has a high content of calcium
carbonate (in the form of limestone, calcite or marble)
and calcium fluoride (in the form of fluorspar). This
results in a chemically basic slag, which is fairly fluid.
The solidified slag, which is heavy and friable has a
brown to dark-brown colour and a glassy appearance.
Use of organic materials like cellulose and minerals with
chemically combined water (such as china clay, talcum
and mica) is avoided in order to keep the arc hydrogen-
free. The gaseous atmosphere formed around the arc
consists of CO, C 0 2 and F c o m p o u n d s . The basic
character of the slag results in good transfer efficiency
of the alloying elements from the coating to the weld
deposit. The so-called hydrogen-controlled mild steel
electrodes are generally made with this type of coating,
and this coating is also preferred in low-alloy high
tensile electrodes, in order to minimise the risk of
hydrogen-induced cracking or cold cracking in the base
metals.
The covering is made in two versions: one suitable
for DC only, and the other suitable for AC as well as
DC. The latter, unlike the former, contains sufficient
amount of potassium salts and uses potassium silicate
as the binder to stabilise the arc.
METAL TRANSFER IN ELECTRODES
Electrical a n d other characteristics of a plain
sustained arc between two refractory materials such as
g r a p h i t e or t u n g s t e n electrodes h a v e b e e n well
understood because of the absence of metal transfer. The
arc of a metal arc welding process, however, is more
difficult to u n d e r s t a n d a n d explain, because the
emission of electrons is accompanied by the transfer of
metal and slag, plasma formation, and the occurrence
of various physico-chemical, metallurgical and electrical
energy reactions. The situation is even more complex
in manual metal-arc welding where, for example, some
electrodes perform well on D C - or AC, while others do
so on DC+.
Metal transfer is subject to forces of magnetic nature,
known as Lorentz force and pinch effect. As the welding
current flows through its own magnetic field, the mobile
electrons in the arc cut lines of magnetic flux and
experience a force directed towards the centre. In other
words, plasma from the outer regions of the arc is
pumped into the hot central core of the arc. The force
causing this effect is called Lorentz force. The pinch
effect refers to the momentary necking of the liquid drop
carrying the current, caused by the interaction between
the arc plasma kinetic pressure and the self-field
pressure. The influence of Lorentz force and pinch effect
is more pronounced in the case of high current density
processes such as MIG, but it is not significant in the
case of MMA welding, which is a low current density
process.
Early investigations of metal transfer from coated
electrodes were m a d e , either w i t h high speed
photography or by deposition on a fast moving copper
plate. In the former, high speed films of the arc were
taken, and the number and size of the droplets seen on
the film were measured. Knowing the volumetric ratio
of slag and metal for an electrode in question, and
assuming that each drop comprised metal covered with
a layer of slag, one could obtain a size distribution of
drops in relation to the type of coating. However, the
droplets actually can be entirely slag or slag and metal,
and this method cannot distinguish between the two.
The copper plate method is also not reliable, since
drops may well coalesce before they solidify. In fact, the
drop size measured in this way does appear larger than
that obtained from photographs.
One of the more recent and reliable methods is cine-
radiography, in which a flash X-ray tube produces a
shadow-graph of the core wire and liquid metal for each
X-ray flash. Arc voltage and current are recorded, and
by means of timing marks, it is possible to locate the
position of the individual frames of the film on the time
scale of the voltage and current traces.
A similar arrangement has been used in another
method, in which the X-ray source is replaced by a flash
lamp of greater luminosity than the arc itself, and the
electrode tip is recorded in silhouette on the films.
Whereas, for given electrode, light photography
shows a spray of fine drops, the X-ray pictures generally
show transfer of metal in relatively massive form.
Occasionally there are small drops, but these usually
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 69

traverse the arc individually. Rutile coated electrodes

show a characteristic drop diameter of 2.3 mm, and more
than 65% of the transfer occurs as drops with diameters
in the range 1 and 3 mm. Such drops have a transfer
velocity of between 10 and 25 cm/sec. It must, of course,
be recognised that very small drops might not be visible
on an X-ray film, and indeed, such drops probably form
during restriking of the arc after a short-circuit.
However, the idea that metal transfer from a rutile-
coated electrode occurs in a spray of droplets is clearly
incorrect.
In a study of rutile type electrodes, the light-coated
variety exhibited gassing in the form of relatively large
bubbles which could be ascribed to the formation of Fig. 3.9: Spreading of molten slag over
carbon m o n o x i d e , since the coating h a d a low liquid electrode tip
percentage of deoxidant. Key for Figs. 3.9 to 3.13: A. Core wire; B. Coating;
In a typical case, several bubbles formed and burst D. Liquid electrode tip; E. Arc; F. Workpiece;
during the transfer of a single large drop. The bubbles G. Liquid slag; H. Drop; I. Second arc
grew to about half the electrode diameter before
bursting and apart from causing irregularities in the
vaporisation of the metal a n d / o r slag, resulting in the
form of the drop, did not modify significantly the
formation of an excess pressure at the arc root. Such
character of the transfer, which was still mainly by large
pressure deforms the liquid drop until part of it is
drops. Oxide-coated electrodes showed much more
extruded outwards to form a protrusion, still coated
severe gassing with the drop profile changing rapidly
with slag (Fig. 3.10). Continued pressure at the arc root
between one frame of the X-ray film and the next.
then causes the protrusion to detach and transfer to the
However, the characteristic drop diameter was only
weld pool (Fig. 3.11).
slightly less than for the rutile-coated type (1.9 mm as
compared with 2.3 mm diameter). Basic electrodes The second mode of transfer begins in the same way
showed the coarsest drop transfer. The drops were by the formation of a protrusion. In this case, however,
relatively undistorted, and (no doubt because of the the arc root transfers to the tip of the protrusion, which
short arc length) transferred mainly as a result of short- is then pinched off (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13). A second arc
circuits. then forms between the electrode tip and the pinched-
off drop, and the resultant increase in pressure helps to
The study showed that the metal drops passing
project the drop across the weld pool.
across the arc are always coated with a layer of slag. In
both light and X-ray pictures, one could observe
frequent bridging between electrode and workpiece
without the oscillograph registering any short-circuit. A -

The light photographs suggested that these short- B -

circuits were caused by pure slag particles, but the X-
ray pictures provided a more convincing explanation
that a layer of slag on the transferring drop insulated it
from the workpiece.
Cine radiography method has made it possible to D
describe the transfer mechanism in more detail, and to AK$^ifi
distinguish two modes of transfer. In the first, the
process starts with a volume of liquid metal at the tip of
the rod which is covered with a layer of liquid slag
except at the arc root, which is smaller in diameter than
the electrode itself (Fig. 3.9). Because of the small area Fig. 3.10: Further deformation of the liquid electrode tip
of the arc root, the energy flux (and hence the through shortening of the arc and the movement of the
temperature) is very high. Therefore, there is some arc root
70 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
A-
B-
Fig. 3.11: Separation of slag-coated single-arc drop
Fig. 3.12: Further movement of the arc root from the
position in Fig. 3.11 to the end of the protrusion
Fig. 3.13: Formation of a double-arc drop and of a
second arc in series with the first
The fact that the liquid metal is coated with slag and
is surrounded by a cone of unmelted coating helps to
direct the drops towards the weld pool. However, in
the first mode of transfer (called single arc drops), the
neck of the protrusion receives a lateral impulse and
the drop may be projected sideways as spatter.
Thus it is suggested that while factors such as
viscosity and surface tension of the slag and interfacial
tension between slag and metal may be significant,
vaporisation pressure is the dominant force in projecting
droplets towards the workpiece. The slag plays an
important role by restricting the area and mobility of
the arc root, so that inward pressure at the arc root causes
outward movement of part of the liquid drop, as well
as by modifying surface tension and acting as a source
of vaporised material.
The fact that vaporisation pressure is the main
driving force for the ejecting metal has been confirmed
by Wegrzyn at the Polish Welding Research Institute,
by comparing the performance of uncoated rods of
killed and rimming steel in overhead welding. The metal
transfer in the case of rimming steel was satisfactory,
but with fully-killed wire the metal melted at the tip
and ran down the side of the wire. In this case, transfer
from the rimming steel wire was considered to be due
to gas evolution inside the melting drop, which gave
the liquid metal an impulse in the upward direction.
Wegrzyn has explained that the gas may be formed
within the liquid metal by rimming action: C + FeO =
Fe + CO (example, acid type). It could be hydrogen
evolved from the moisture or any ingredient in the
coating; in the case of basic low-hydrogen types, the
gas may evolve from the slag.
The mode of metal transfer is markedly affected by
the surface tension and viscosity of the liquid metal and
slag. The surface tension holds the droplets at the
melting electrode tip and causes them to be spherical in
shape. As the surface tension and viscosity of the liquid
metal decrease, it is easier for the metal transfer to take
place. Surface tension of the liquid metal is reduced by
increasing the welding current, as also by the formation
of oxide and slag films on the surfaces of the droplets
caused by suitable ingredients in the flux coating.
In MMA welding with all types of electrodes, except
the basic low-hydrogen type, the molten metal in the
weld pool is usually in a disturbed and effervescent
state, because it is supersaturated with hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. This affects the mode of metal transfer
more than the surface tension and viscosity. Especially
when the liquid metal is exhibiting rimming (i.e. it is
not getting deoxidised) the values of surface tension and
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 71

viscosity remain unstable. However, in the case of basic oxidised and is metallurgically semi-killed. Hence, sur-
low-hydrogen electrodes, in which the liquid metal is face tension plays a greater part in this type than in acid/
usually well deoxidised, viscosity and surface tension oxide types. The metal transfer is less of the spray type
of the metal itself and at the slag metal interface can and more of the droplet type.
determine the mode of metal transfer to a greater extent.
Metallurgical and gas reactions, which occur in the • Cellulosic type
arc as the core wire and the coating melt, appear to play This contains nearly 30% cellulose by weight, which
a dominant role in the metal and slag transfer across gives rise to large amounts of CO, C02, H 2 0 and their
the arc. Gases make the metal apparently effervesce and dissociated products in the arc. Hence, even if the coat-
boil at lower temperature than its boiling point, and this ing contains sodium and potassium compounds and
makes the metal transfer easier in positional welding. some amount of Ti02, the concentration of their ions in
The rapidly evolving gases under high pressure may the arc atmosphere is greatly reduced. Also, the
actually carry metal droplets with them. These droplets ionisation potential of the evolved gases mentioned
are often very light, because like bubbles, they carry above is four times greater than the ionisation potential
gases in their interior, which are at very high of Na and K. As a result of reduced extent of ionisation
temperature. The more the metal differs from the killed in the arc, electronic emission is impeded. The result is
state in the metallurgical sense, the larger are the forces that the arc voltage is high.
effecting its transfer.
In all types of electrodes except the basic types, and • Basic type
particularly in the oxide and acid types, hydrogen and This contains calcium carbonate, fluoride (CaF2),
oxygen penetrate into the droplets and cause the metal powders and comparatively more powerful
following reactions to take place: deoxidisers, and sometimes small amounts of alumino-
FeO + C = Fe + CO and FeO + 2H = Fe + H 2 0 silicates. Moisture is completely removed from the coat-
These reactions increase the state of effervescence ing to render it low-hydrogen. The molten metal pro-
and aid liquid metal transfer. Coverings containing large duced in the arc is well-deoxidised, killed and low in
amounts of hydrated alumino-silicates and moisture are hydrogen. Therefore, as stated earlier, the metal trans-
even more active. They usually melt faster than they fer is in comparatively large droplets. If, however, the
degas. The result is copious evolution of gas, which electrodes are not thoroughly dried and have moisture
makes the melting slag effervesce and boil and the metal in the coating, the metal transfer tends to be of the spray
transfer all the more easy. type.
Basic coverings are almost passive metallurgically
in regard to metal. Since these are usually designed to Polarity in DC Welding
be low-hydrogen, only a small amount of hydrogen In DC welding, electrodes of the cellulosic and basic
penetrates into the electrode melting tip. At the same types operate more satisfactorily on reverse polarity (i.e.
time, Si also penetrates there and deoxidises the metal. electrode +ve) than on straight polarity (i.e. electrode -
Hence, with these electrodes, metal transfer takes place ve). On the other hand, electrodes of rutile, oxide and
in large droplets. acidic types perform better on straight polarity. These
To summarise metal transfer takes place in various opposite behaviours can be explained as follows:
electrode types as follows: As already mentioned, cellulosic electrodes generate
CO, C02, H 2 0 and their dissociated products in the arc.
• Acid and oxide types Since these gases do not develop a highly conductive
Because the coating contains large amounts of ox- arc plasma, the current distribution is such that the
ides/silicates of Fe and Mn, as also of alumino-silicates, liquid metal is forced away from the arc and weld pool
the melting metal is largely rimming and very active, as massive drops and spatter. These reactions are more
because it contains large quantities of oxygen and hy- intense when the electrode is negative, and are
drogen. This lowers the surface tension of the melt and apparently caused by the concentration of current on
results in spray droplet transfer. the cold cathode. The term cold cathode is explained
later.
• Rutile type In the case of basic electrodes, CaF2, is considered to
In this coating, the Fe and Mn compounds are re- be mainly responsible for causing stable melting, when
placed by Ti02. As a result, the molten metal is not so the electrode is made positive. The explanation put forth
72 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
is that the negative fluorine ions formed in the vicinity
of the electrode anode are attracted by it and get
discharged. At the same time, the number of cations
(positively charged ions) in the anode' area remains
small, because they keep moving towards the cathode
(weld pool). The net result is that the fluorine anions
(negative ions) are not much effective in neutralising
the cations and thereby reducing the degree of arc
ionisation. Hence, the electron emission from the
cathode (weld pool) takes place with relative ease.
On the other hand, with electrode negative, although
the fluorine anions are driven towards the anode (weld
pool), their concentration in the cathode region remains
undiminished, because further amounts of them are
being emitted from the covering. The electron emission
from the cathode into the region which contains a small
quantity of cations is rendered difficult. Also, the
common transfer of an electron stream and fluorine
anions in the arc results in the repulsion of the former
on the material around it and consequent spatter.
Coverings which are predominant in rutile, lime and
iron oxide make the electrode thermionic (i.e. they easily
supply electrons to sustain the arc). Such electrodes
produce a more stable arc, less spatter and form smaller
droplets with electrode negative.
Here, it may be necessary to point out that most
structural metals and their alloys form what is called a
cold cathode: its area is rather small, but great quantities
of energy are generated to release the electrons needed
to support an arc. However, metals having very high
melting points easily supply electrons to sustain the arc
due to their temperature; these metals are called
thermionic. Included in this category are molybdenum
and tungsten. In the cold cathode, low melting point
metals can be made to supply electrons more easily by
coating them with compounds that reduce the surface
work function. They then become thermionic at low
temperatures.
Electrode Core Wire
Core wire is an important component of a manual
electrode, because it significantly influences the
electrode performance and weld metal properties. Both
rimming and non-rimming quality steel is used for the
core wire of mild steel and low alloy steel electrodes all
over the world, although former is preferred. Rimming
% C Si Mn p"
Rimming 0.10 max 0.03 max 0.38-0.62 0.030 max 0.030 max 0.15 max 0.005max 0.003 max 0.012 max
Non-rimming 0.10 max 0.03 max 0.38-0.62 0.025 max 0.025 max 0.15 max 0.005max 0.003 max 0.012 max
steel wire is drawn from cast ingots, whereas non-
rimming steel wire is drawn from billets or blooms.The
characteristic features of rimmed steel are a high oxygen
content (typically 200-400 ppm) and a rim of almost
pure iron on the surface.
It is preferred to semi-killed or fully-killed steel,
because it is cheaper to produce and also because it
confers optimum performance characteristics on the
electrode. Since it is possible to obtain any desired
alloy steel c h e m i s t r y of t h e w e l d m e t a l b y
incorporating suitable alloying elements in the flux
coating, the modern electrode producer uses a single
grade of rimming quality steel to manufacture a wide
range of mild steel, low-alloy steel and hardfacing
electrodes.
American Welding Society's Specification for Carbon
Steel electrodes for shieled metal arc welding (AWS
A5.1- 91) states: "The core wire for the electrodes in this
specification is usually a rimmed or capped steel having
a typical c o m p o s i t i o n of 0.10% carbon, 0.45%
manganese, 0.03% sulphur, 0.02% phosphorus, and
0.01% silicon." Indian Standard on mild steel core wire
(IS:2879-1998) stipulates that the steel shall be of
rimming or non-rimming quality and the chemical
composition (% ) shall be as follows:
Rimming quality steel is best produced in the basic
open-hearth (BOH) furnace. The word basic refers to
the refractory lining used in the furnace and also
indicates that in making the steel, a basic slag is being
used which is predominant in CaO, MgOCaO, FeO and
MnO. Such a slag is capable of removing any reasonable
amount of both phosphorus and sulphur from the
molten bath, an important condition in the production
of steel for electrode core wire.
The t e r m r i m m i n g refers to the m e t h o d of
deoxidising the steel in the final stage of its manufacture.
After the molten steel bath has been refined and the Si,
Mn, C, S and P contents have been reduced to the desired
levels, it is still saturated with oxygen. In making
rimmed steel, the oxygen-bearing metal is poured into
the cast-iron ingot moulds. The ingot commences to
solidify by depositing a crust of nearly pure iron on the
walls and bottoms of the mould. As a result, the
remaining liquid steel is enriched slightly with carbon,
which in turn, reacts with some of the oxygen to form
carbon monoxide gas.
S ~ V Ti Al

Much of the gas rises and escapes from the top of
the ingot with a fiery shower of sparks. The remainder
of the CO gas is trapped in the solidifying metal and
this counteracts the solidification contraction and
eliminates the shrinkage pipe. This cycle of: (1) iron
freezing on the mould walls, and (2) the segregated
carbon reacting with the oxygen, will continue until an
outer skin or rim of iron about 75 mm thick is formed.
Then the rimming action is stopped by the loss of
temperature and completion of solidification. Rimmed
steel is therefore characterised by a skin of nearly pure
iron around the outer periphery of the cross-section and
central segregated core, which contains practically all
of the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur. This peculiar
pattern of segregation persists through forging, rolling,
and wire drawing. The rimming action is facilitated by
the low carbon content specified for the steel for
electrode core wire, since the element carbon is a definite
impediment to the rimming action.
Killing and semi-killing are alternative methods of
deoxidising the steel. The killing operation is commonly
performed by the addition of deoxidisers like silicon (in
the form of ferrosilicon) and aluminium. Killed steel is
dense and homogeneous and has controlled grain size.
In making semi-killed steel, a small amount of ferrosilicon
or aluminium is added to the metal either in the furnace,
the ladle or the mould. The amount is just sufficient to
kill any rimming action, and yet leaves some dissolved
oxygen. The evolution of this oxygen upon solidification
of the metal tends to offset shrinkage and minimises the
shrinkage cavity or pipe in the top of the ingot. The chief
reason for the production of semi-killed steel is the high
yield of usable material from the ingot.
It is possible to distinguish between rimmed, semi-
killed and killed steels by determining the amount of
deoxidiser present. The silicon content of rimmed steels
is 0.030% max., in the semi-killed steel it varies from
0.030 to 0.10% and in killed steel it is over 0.10%. (It is
assumed that Al content is in traces. Al should be
avoided in electrode core wire.) In the selection of
electrode quality wire, it is important, therefore, to make
sure that the silicon content never exceeds 0.030%.
Another method of checking on the rimming quality
steel is to make a sulphur print. The section of a wire of
well-rimmed steel will show an outer rim of pure iron
and a well-defined core, which has all the impurities
including sulphur concentrated in it.
Rimmed steel is susceptible to sulphur segregation.
In other words, sulphur distributes itself unevenly in
the steel at the ingot stage and ultimately in the wire
that the electrode producer receives. The average
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 73
segregation in well-made rimmed steel is ± 3 points,
i.e., if the ladle analysis shows 0.025% sulphur, some
portions of wire will have sulphur as low as 0.022% and
others will have sulphur as high as 0.028%. This means
that when the electrode maker specifies that the steel
for core wire shall have 0.030% max. of sulphur, the
steelmaker must ensure that his heat analysis gives
0.027% max. sulphur and segregation does not exceed
± 0.0030%.
The electrode industry consumes a large tonnage of
core wire. Considering that it is a vital raw material, the
production of core-wire steel in a country like India is
planned at the national level. It must be stressed that
special technological considerations are necessary for
producing this steel. To quote from the relevant research
paper of the Welding Research Council of the U.S.A.:
"Steel wire which is produced for use in gas and arc
w e l d i n g is a special commodity, which requires
restrictive practices in its manufacture, in order that it
will give satisfactory performance during welding. Extra
precautions are taken in the manufacture of the steel, in
the selection of the heats of steel, in the selection and
preparation of the billets and in making tests of the rods
and the finished wire. The chemical composition of the
steel must be closely controlled, and the wire furnished
to restricted chemical limits/'
Rimming quality steel makes an ideal material for
electrode core wire, because it gives to the latter the
characteristic rim/core structure explained earlier. The
outer rim of pure iron helps the finally drawn wire to
get a faultless surface finish and to be less susceptible
to atmospheric corrosion. It also ensures uniform
passage of electric current and heat distribution, and
uniform melting of the electrode in the arc. The result is
good arc stability, spray type or fine globular metal
transfer and a moderate amount of fine spatter from
the weld pool. The impurities concentrated at the core
give rise to gas evolution inside the melting drop and
this gives the liquid metal an impulse in the upward
direction in vertical and overhead welding.
The fact that vaporisation pressure is the main
driving force for the ejecting metal has been confirmed
by Wegrzyn at the Polish Welding Research Institute by
comparing the performance of bare rods of rimmed steel
and killed steel in overhead welding. Moreover,
electrodes made fro m semi-killed or killed steel core
wire have been found to possess inferior operating
characteristics. It is necessary to hold a longer arc to
prevent freezing of the electrode to the workpiece. The
arc is unsteady and the metal transfer is stringy or ropey
and erratic. The spatter is large.
74 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Restriction of carbon, sulphur and phosphorus to
uncommonly low levels in the electrode core wire (as
well as in the flux ingredients) becomes necessary,
because of the extremely severe conditions under which
the weld metal is formed, and also because of its high
susceptibility to hot-cracking and cold-cracking.
Weld metal formed by the fusion of the electrode in
the electric arc is deposited in a molten state in the recess
of the joint. It solidifies and cools down very rapidly, at
rates almost amounting to quenching, because the
a m o u n t of w e l d m e t a l is small a n d the heat is
immediately dissipated into the adjoining parent metal
and air. This quenching effect has a tendency to harden
the weld metal and reduce its ductility. To minimise this
tendency, carbon in the weld metal is kept as low as
possible. The weld metal also contracts appreciably
during solidification and cooling. This is called thermal
contraction or shrinkage of the weld metal, and it is
responsible for the tendency of a welded fabrication to
distort. In practice, the joint assembly is held under great
restraint with the help of tack welds, jigs and fixtures.
The volumetric change in dimensions of mild steel
from its melting t e m p e r a t u r e to a t m o s p h e r i c
temperature is approximately 6.8%, which means that
a cube of molten metal would contract approximately
2.2% in each of its three dimensions. In a welded joint,
the molten weld metal on solidifying becomes attached
to the parts being joined and is restrained by them from
contracting freely in at least one and sometimes two
dimensions. Since the volumetric dimension of any
metal at any one temperature can vary only within its
elastic limit, and since the maximum elastic movement
of steel is approximately only one-tenth of the total
requisite thermal contraction, the weld metal will flow
plastically and triaxially, effecting most of the requisite
volumetric contraction along the axis or axes of least
resistance. In doing this, it will exert considerable force
on the parts being joined, but since the parts are held in
restraint, the weld metal will be greatly strained.
Measurements have shown that residual tension of
yield-point m a g n i t u d e exists in the longitudinal
direction in all welds over 450mm length, and in practice
we deal mostly with welds much longer than 450 mm.
Excessive strain in the weld metal can result in cracking
at some point during the cooling cycle.
Weld metal cracking can be of two types: hot-cracks
and cold-cracks. Hot-cracks take place when the weld
metal is half liquid and half solid and has no tensile
strength. If steel is vibrated, pulled or otherwise
d i s t u r b e d just as the last liquid is u n d e r g o i n g
solidification, it fails at absurdly low stresses and with
scarcely any elongation. The failure, of course, takes
place through the minute proportion of liquid that was
to have solidified last and presumably would have
formed a grain boundary. Instead, a fissure has opened
without visible deformation of the metal, and if the
surfaces of the crack are examined at room temperature,
they will be found temper coloured or scaled. Since the
liquid metal responsible for the cracking is in the spaces
b e t w e e n the g r o w i n g crystals, the fracture is
intercrystalline or intergranular. In the case of the weld
metal, its thermal contraction as explained earlier
imposes stress upon the weld metal, while it is still
solidifying, and this leads to hot-cracks.
Referring to steels in general, we know that sulphur
is one impurity in steel which has a particularly bad
reputation for causing hot-cracking. Sulphur reacts with
iron to form iron sulphide, FeS, which is soluble in
molten steel. A few hundredths of one per cent sulphur
in steel as iron s u l p h i d e increases the r a n g e of
temperature over which solidification occurs from about
20°C to possibly 480°C The last trace of sulphur-rich
liquid between the crystals does not freeze until about
980°C.
The presence of these envelopes of liquid iron
sulphide around the metal crystals or grains at so low a
temperature invariably results in hot cracking. In the
case of w e l d metal, conditions are m u c h m o r e
favourable for hot-cracking to occur than during the
formation of steel ingots or castings, and experience and
research data have shown that it is necessary to restrict
sulphur in the case of wire to 0.030% maximum, to
eliminate hot cracking in welded joints.
It is a well-known metallurgical fact that the hot-
cracking tendency of sulphur can be counteracted by
the element manganese, because manganese has greater
affinity for s u l p h u r t h a n iron, a n d the resultant
manganese sulphide with its high freezing point is a
harmless constituent. The electrode core wire usually
has about 0.40% manganese and it is difficult and
uneconomical for the steel producer to raise this figure.
The electrode producer usually includes u p to 10%
f e r r o m a n g a n e s e p o w d e r in his flux coating to
compensate for manganese losses in the electric arc and
to ensure that the weld metal deposit has sufficient Mn
to take care of sulphur at 0.030%. If the electrode
producer has to deal with substandard core wire having
sulphur as high as 0.040%, it is logical for him to think
of raising the ferromanganese in the flux coating from
10% to 15% to counteract the hot-cracking tendency of
the higher sulphur level. Actual tests show that when
this abnormal adjustment is done, the slag of the

electrode becomes extremely fluid and it is difficult to
use the electrode in vertical and overhead positions. The
spatter also increases.
An important point to remember is that the hot-
cracking t e n d e n c y of s u l p h u r cannot be fully
counteracted with manganese from the flux coating.
According to D. Seferian, the welding cycle is so rapid
that the reaction leading to the formation of manganese
sulphide in preference to iron sulphide does not proceed
to completion. Moreover, experiments have shown that
the influence of sulphur becomes obviously more
marked as the carbon content of the steel is raised. This
is depicted in Fig. 3.14, in which the cracking tendency
is graphically represented as a function of the three
elements, carbon, manganeselind sulphur: It will be
noted that a steel containing 0.10% carbon and 0.60%
manganese can tolerate up to 0.080% sulphur, while a
steel containing 0.12% carbon and the same amount
manganese (0.60) will crack at a sulphur level of 0.060%.
At 0.16% carbon, the sulphur content must not exceed
0.020% if cracking troubles are to be avoided. As will be
explained later, the weld metal can attain as much as
0.18% carbon in a welded joint due to carbon pick-up
from the parent steel plate having 0.25% carbon.
Cold-cracking occurs at a fairly low temperature, and
the path of the crack is intergranular, i.e. it travels across
the grains. While hot-cracks occur during the welding
operation, or at least before the heat has completely left
the joint, cold-cracks develop very slowly and are
sometimes exposed after the weldment has been in
0.4 0 5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
MANGANESE CONTENT %
Fig. 3.14: The influence of sulphur on weld cracking as
a function of C and Mn contents of steel
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 75
service for some time. They are caused by excessive
hardening of the weld metal or the heat-affected zone
and hydrogen present in the arc atmosphere, or by
defects introduced into the weld by bad procedure or
workmanship, or by the many possible combinations
of temperature, stress and rate of loading.
Another adverse condition to which the weld metal
is subjected is the pick-up of carbon and sulphur from
the parent metal. The weld metal, especially the first
pass in a joint groove, may be diluted to the extent of
40-50% by the parent metal. Thus while the pure weld
metal may have carbon as low as 0.10% and sulphur as
low as 0.030%, the weld metal obtained due to dilution
by the parent metal ( C—0.25%, S—0.060%) can in
extreme cases have carbon as high as 0.18% and sulphur
as high as 0.045%. When an electrode producer specifies
electrode core wire with carbon lower than 0.10% and
sulphur lower than 0.030%, he is making allowance for
maximum amount of pick-up of these elements from
the parent metal in practice.
Very interesting results obtained on the measurement
of pick-up of various elements by the weld metal are
given in Table 3.6, which is based on the work carried
out at the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington.
Very significant are cases C and D. In the former, the
core wire had only 0.025% sulphur but the weld metal
had sulphur as high as 0.033%. In the latter, the core
wire had 0.026% sulphur but the weld metal acquired
0.043% sulphur due to pick-up from the parent plate.
Both these cases refer to electrodes with rutile coating.
Uncontrolled sulphur in the core wire not only causes
hot-cracks in the weld metal but it also causes severe
weld pitting and upsets the performance characteristics
of the electrode. As far back as 1950, the American Iron
and Steel Institute in the U.S.A., moved the Welding
Research Council to carry out a research programme to
find out w h y American electrode producers were
insisting upon very low sulphur in the electrode core
wire. The result of this was the publication of a paper
entitled Core wire for electrodes, which appeared in the
Welding Journal of June 1950. Following is one of the
conclusions arrived at by the authors and it supports
the experience of every electrode manufacturer:
"The most important single core-wire variable,
which affected the operating characteristics of covered
electrodes was the average sulphur content. Sulphur
contents of more than 0.040% caused the electrodes to
have deficient operating characteristics and severe weld
pitting tendencies. Sulphur contents of between 0.030
and 0.040% produced electrodes which had severe weld
p i t t i n g tendencies b u t acceptable operating
76 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.6: Study of pick-up of elements in the weld metal from parent plate
Chemical composition Coating
Electrode
C Mn Si S P type
Parent metal 0.18 0.53 0.043 0.042 0.032
A Core wire 0.12 0.49 0.010 0.026 0.017 acid
Weld 0.09 0.50 0.257 0.026 0.035
B Core wire 0.07 0.34 0.010 0.027 0.030 acid
Weld 0.05 0.24 0.220 0.029 0.036
C Core wire 0.07 0.33 0.015 0.025 0.005 rutile
Weld 0.07 0.47 0.160 0.033 0.025
D Core wire 0.12 0.41 0.020 0.026 0.018 rutile
Weld 0.05 -0.23 0.160 0.043 0.026
E Core wire 0.09 0.46 0.010 0.026 0.008 ilmenite
Weld 0.07 0.24 0.243 0.013 0.034
F Core wire 0.05 0.52 0.10 0.022 0.016 rutile
Weld 0.05 0.50 0.31 0.029 0.036

characteristics (see Fig. 3.15). The best results were
obtained with core wires which had an average sulphur
content of about 0.030% or below."
CLASSIFICATION AND CODING OF ELECTRODES
Standardisation of MMA electrodes is techno-
logically as important as that of commercial metals and
alloys. Quite often standardisation of the two goes on
side by side. In some cases the system of specification
adopted is nearly identical. A good example is the
specification for stainless steels and the specification for
stainless steel electrodes.
Electrodes have been standardised by dividing them
into classes depending upon the type of flux covering,
performance characteristics and either weld metal
chemistry or all-weld mechanical properties or both.
Each class is then coded according to a coding system
comprising a group of letters and numbers.
Advantages of codification can be easily appreciated.
It enables one to specify or identify an electrode in the
purchase order or in the drawing, without having to
mention the brand name. It enables one to pick-up
equivalent brands from different electrode producers.
In the absence of a descriptive leaflet, one can know the
main properties of a product by merely looking at the
code number mentioned on the electrode carton or on
the electrode itself. In technical l i t e r a t u r e a n d
discussions, the writer or speaker can use only the
coding to refer to a particular class of electrode.
Various systems of electrode classification operate
in different countries; but the most important is the one
issued by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i s a t i o n for
Standardisation (ISO). Other systems which are of
interest to the Indian welding engineer are described in
the relevant standards issued by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), British Standards Institution (BSI), the
American Welding Society (AWS) and Deutsches
Institut fur Normung (DIN). They cover some or all of
the following groups of electrodes:
1) Mild s.teel electrodes
2) Low-alloy steel electrodes
3) Stainless steel electrodes

Jmf_$$j WW^-

Fig. 3.15: Weld pittings in high-sulphur weld-metal

 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 71

4) Surfacing electrodes These symbols are next followed by one or two letters
5) Electrodes for cast iron indicating the type of covering as follows:
6) Copper and copper-alloy electrodes
7) Nickel and nickel-alloy electrodes A = Acid (iron oxide)
8) Aluminium and aluminium-alloy electrodes AR = Acid (rutile)
They are summarised in the following sections. B = Basic
C = Cellulosic
O = Oxidising
MILD STEEL ELECTRODES
R = Rutile (medium coated)
1) ISO-2560-1973(E): "Covered electrodes for manual RR = Rutile (heavy coated)
arc welding of mild steel and low-alloy steel—Code of sym-
S = Other types
bols for identification"'.
This standard gives a coding system applicable to ISO's description of these coverings (except S) has
mild steel as well as low-alloy steel el ectrodes. It starts been provided earlier. The symbol S is reserved for any
with a prefix E, which indicates covered electrodes for new type of coating, which is not covered by the
manual arc welding. standard symbols. When iron powder is added to a
Next comes the symbol 43 or 51. The number 43 indi- standard coating, the original symbol of the coating is
cates that the all-weld tensile strength is in the range of 430- retained and symbol S is not used.
510 N/mm 2 . The symbols u p to this stage m a k e u p the
The number 51 indicates that the all-weld tensile compulsory section of the codification. The symbols that
strength is in the range of 510-610 N / m m 2 . To make follow make up the optional section of the codification.
allowance for possible variations in welding and test- Next comes the symbol for nominal electrode
ing, the upper limits of 510 and 610 N / m m 2 may be efficiency (i.e. weld deposition efficiency or the ratio of
exceeded by 40 N / m m 2 . In reality, therefore, the two w e l d metal to core wire melted, expressed as a
ranges of tensile strength are 430-550 N / m m 2 and 510- percentage). It can be either of 110,120,130,140,..., etc.
650 N / m m 2 . A value ending with 4 or less is rounded off to the lower
For each range of tensile strength, six groups are multiple of 10, while that ending with 5 or more is
specified on the basis of Charpy-V impact values and rounded off to the higher multiple of 10. Thus 115
elongation (i.e. combination of toughness and ductil- becomes 120, while 134 becomes 130. No symbol is used
ity). for a value less t h a n 105%. Next comes a digit
These groups are given the number 0 , 1 , 2, 3, 4 or 5 designating the general welding positions, for which
as shown in Table 3.7. the electrode is suitable as follows:

Table 3.7: Electrode designation as per ISO-2560

Electrode Tensile strength* Minimum elongation Temp. for minimum
designation on 1 = 5d impact value of 28 J+
N/mm2 % °C
E43 0 430 to 510 — —
E431 430 to 510 20 +20
E43 2 430 to 510 22 0
E43 3 430 to 510 24 -20
E43 4 430 to 510 24 -30
E43 5 430 to 510 24 -40
E510 510 to 610 — —
E511 510 to 610 18 +20
E512 510 to 610 18 0
E513 510 to 610 20 -20
E514 510 to 610 20 -30
E515 510 to 610 20 -40
* Upper limit tolerance: +40 N/mm2
1 1 J = 0.102 kgf-m
78 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1: all positions b) A basic iron powder type electrode gives the fol-
2: all positions, except vertical downward lowing minimum mechanical properties
3: flat butt weld, flat fillet weld, horizontal/vertical • Tensile strength : 560 N / m m 2
fillet weld • Elongation : 22%
4: flat butt weld, flat fillet weld • Impact strength : 47 J at -20°C.
5: as in 3 and recommended for vertical downward • Nominal efficiency: 158%
Next comes the symbol for electrical characteristics,
i.e. whether the electrode operates with DC only or with It may be used for welding in all positions except
AC as well as DC, the polarity on DC, and the minimum vertical downward, direct current only. The complete
open-circuit voltage on AC necessary for sustaining the codification for the electrode will therefore be E 51 3B
arc. It is explained in Table 3.8. 160 20 (H) and the compulsory part will be E 51 3B.
The last symbol is H, which is to be used only for
hydrogen-controlled electrodes, i.e. those giving a 2) BS 639: 1976: "Covered electrodes for the manual
maximum content of 15 ml of diffusible hydrogen per metal arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steel".
100 g of d e p o s i t e d m e t a l w h e n d e t e r m i n e d in This standard effectively combines in revised form
accordance with the standard method explained later. what was previously covered by the separate standards
BS 639 "Covered electrodes for the manual metal-arc
welding of mild steel and medium tensile steel" and BS
EXAMPLES
1719 "Classification, coding and marking of covered
a) A medium-coated rutile type electrode gives electrodes for metal-arc welding" Part 1: "Classification
the following minimum all-weld mechanical proper- and coding". The revised version is based on ISO 2560,
ties: except for a few extensions or modifications which have
Tensile strength 500 N / m m 2 been pointed out in the following paragraphs.
Elongation 23% The coding starts with the prefix E, which is followed
Impact strength 71 J at + 20°C by digits 43 and 51 as in ISO 2560 However, a minimum
3 1 J a t 0°C yield stress value is specified along with tensile strength
20Jat-20°C range as follows:
It may be used for welding in all positions. It welds
satisfactorily on alternating current, minimum open- Designation Tensile strength Min. yield stress
circuit voltage 50 V, and direct current, positive polarity. N/mm2 N/mm2
The complete codification fo^ the electrode will therefore E43 430-550 330
by E 43 2R 13 and the compulsory part will be E 43 2R. E51 510-650 360

Table 3.8: Symbols for electrical characteristics in ISO-2560

Direct current Alternating current
Symbol recommended electrode nominal open-circuit
polarity** voltage
V
0* +
1 + or- 50
2 50
3 + 50
4 + or- 70
5 70
6 + 70
7 + or- 90
8 90
9 + 90
* Symbol reserved for electrodes used exclusively on direct current.
** Positive polarity +, negative polarity -
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 79

Next comes a two-digit figure indicating the b) a figure indicating the welding positions in which
combination of elongation and impact values of the weld the electrode can be used
metal as shown in Tables 3.9 and 3.10. It should be noted c) a figure indicating the welding current and volt-
that the second digit is an additional provision for higher age conditions recommended
elongation and impact values demanded for critical d) the letter (H) for a hydrogen controlled electrode
applications, which is non-existent in ISO 2560. Next (when appropriate).
comes a letter or letters indicating the type of covering All these four parts of the coding are identical to
as given below, which is exactly as in ISO 2560: those in ISO 2560. However, in the case of electrodes
A = Acid (iron oxide) carrying suffix (H), BS 639 additionally stipulates that
AR = Acid (rutile) the manufacturer shall give on the packet and in his
B = Basic literature the recommended drying conditions for
C = Cellulosic achieving hydrogen levels within the following three
O = Oxidising ranges, as appropriate:
R = Rutile (medium coated)
RR = Rutile (heavy coated) over 10 ml, up to and
S = Other types including 15 ml
over 5 ml, up to and per 100 g of deposited
This completes the compulsory part of the coding in
including 10 ml weld metal
the same way as in ISO 2560. Then follows the optional
up to and including 5 ml
part comprising:
a) a three-digit figure (110, 120, 130, 140,...) for the BS 639 gives the following two examples to illustrate
nominal electrode efficiency (when appropriate) the method of expressing the coding:

Table 3.9: First digit for elongation and impact strength in BS 639

First Minimum elongation Temp, for impact value of 28 J

digit
E43 E51

Not specified Not specified

20 18 +20
22 18 0
24 20 -20
24 20 -30
24 20 -40

Table 3.10: Second digit for elongation and impact strength in BS 639
Second Minimum elongation Impact properties
digit Impact value Temperature
E43 E51 E43 E 51
% % J J °C
Not specified* Not specified*
22 22 47 47 +20
22 22 47 47 0
22 22 47 47 -20
Not relevant* 18 Not relevant* 41** -30
There are no electrodes designated by this digit ^0
Not relevant* 18 Not relevant* 47 -50
* There is no E 43 equivalent to an E 51 electrode that could be designated by the second digit 4 or 6.
** No one impact value should be less than 20 ].
80 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

EXAMPLE (A) 3) DIN 1913 (1984): ''Coated electrodes for the welding
Covered electrode for manual metal are welding of unalloyed and low-alloy steels"
having a rutile covering of medium thickness and The German system of coding specified in DIN 1913
deposit weld metal with the following m i n i m u m is based on ISO 2560 with extensions or modifications
mechanical properties: as in the case of BS 639. It starts with prefix E followed
by two digits 43 or 51 which indicate the following:
Tensile strength: 500 N / m m 2 ;
Elongation: 23%
Impact strength: 71J at +20°C, 37 J at 0°C, 20 J at -20°C Symbol Tensile strength range Min. yield stress
It may be used for welding in all positions. It welds N/mm2 N/mm2
satisfactorily on alternating current with a minimum 43 430-550 360*
open-circuit voltage of 50 V and on direct current with 51 510-650 380*
positive polarity. The complete classification for the * Theseare higher than in BS 639.
electrode would therefore be: E4321R13

E 43 21 R 1 3
and the compulsory part would be E 43 21 R
Covered electrode for manual metal-arc welding
Tensile strength
Elongation and impact strength
Covering
Welding positions
Current and Voltage

EXAMPLE (B)
An electrode for manual metal-arc welding having
a basic covering with a high efficiency and depositing
weld metal containing 8 ml of diffusible hydrogen per
100 g of deposited weld metal with the following
minimum mechanical properties:
Yield stress: 380 N / m m 2
Tensile strength: 560 N / m m 2
Elongation: 22%
Impact strength: 47 J at -20°C
Nominal efficiency: 158%
It may be used for welding in all positions except
vertical-down direct current only.
The complete classification for the electrode would
therefore be as depicted below:
They are followed by two digits, the first digit
indicating the combined levels of elongation and
Charpy-V impact strength (28 J) and the second digit
indicating higher Charpy-V impact (47 J). This is
explained in Tables 3.11 and 3.12.
After this, DIN 1913 makes a radical departure from
both ISO 2560 and BS 639. It provides a classification
based on
(a) the type of coating,
(b) welding positions, and
(c) welding current conditions, and then uses the
classification number to designate each type of elec-
trode.
a) Firstly, the types of coating indicated by a letter or
letters are:

E 51 33 B 160 2 0 (H)
and the compulsory part would be E 51 33B
Covered electrode for manual metal-arc welding
Tensile strength*
Elongation and impact strength
Covering
Efficiency
Welding position
Current and voltage
Hydrogen controlled
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 81

Table 3.11: First digit for elongation and impact strength c) Welding current conditions are indicated by code
in DIN 1913 numbers in the same manner as in ISO 2560 and BS 639,
except that in case of 0,
First Min. elongation Temp, for min. impact
0 means DC only, + or - polarity
digit on I=5d (%) value of 28 J at °C
0+ means DC only, + polarity
0 Nil Nil 0" means DC only, - polarity
1 +20 Combining (a), (b) and (c), 12 classification numbers
2 22 0
are given and the electrode types are designated as
3 -20
4 24 -30 shown in Table 3.13.
5 -40 After the coding for the class of electrode as shown
in the above table comes a three-digit number (100,120,
130, 140, . . . etc.) indicating the deposition efficiency,
which' is to be used only when it exceeds 105%. This
Table 3.12 : Second digit for impact strength in DIN
part of the coding in identical to that used in ISO 2560
1913
and BS 639.
Second digit Temp, for min. impact value of EXAMPLES (as given in DIN 1913)
of47Jat°C a) A coated electrode which
0 Nil gives all-weld tensile strength in the range of 430-
1 +20 550 N / m m 2
2 0
3 -20 gives all-weld yield stress of more than 360 N /
4 -30 mm 2
5 -40 gives minimum elongation of 24%
gives minimum Charpy-V value of 28 J at -20°C
A — acidic and 47 J at 0°C, has acid-rutile coating
R — rutile (thin and medium coated)
belongs to class, AR7, and
RR — rutile (heavy coated)
AR ^ - acid-rutile (mixed type) gives a deposition efficiency of less than 105%,
C — cellulosic will have the coding: E43 32 AR7 DIN 1913
R(C) - rutile-cellulose (medium coated) b) A coated electrode which
RR(C) — rutile-cellulose (heavy coated) gives all-weld tensile strength in the range of 510-
B — basic 650 N / m m 2
B(R) - basic-coated with non-basic
gives all-weld yield stress of more than 380 N /
components
mm 2
RR(B) — rutile-basic (heavy coated)
NOTE: DIN 1913 defines thin coated as having a gives minimum elongation of 24%
coating diameter of up to 120% of the core wire size; gives minimum Charpy-V value of 28 J at -20°C
medium coated as having a coating diameter of 120- and 47 J at 0° C, has heavy rutile coating
155% of the core wire size; and heavy coated as having belongs to class RR11, and
a coating diameter over 155% of the core wire size.
gives a deposition efficiency between 155 and
b) The welding positions in which the electrode can
164%,
be used are indicated by a code number as follows:
1 — all positions will have the coding: E51 32 RRII 160 DIN 1913
2' — all positions except vertical DIN 1913 gives the following information on each
downward classification number:
3 — butt weld, flat Class 1: Class 1 includes thin coated acid type A I,
fillet weld, flat without mechanical property requirements, for all-
fillet weld, horizontal position welding.
4 — butt weld, flat Class 2: In this class are included thin coated acid
fillet weld, flat type A2 and rutile type R2. The mechanical property
Number 5 which exists in ISO 2560 and BS 639 is requirements are limited. Both types are for all-position
omitted here. welding.
82 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.13: Classification numbers of electrodes in DIN 1913

Electrode Welding Current Coating Classification
type position code* condition** see (a) above number
see (b) above see (c) above
Al 1 5 thin coated A 1
A2 1 5 thin coated A 2
R2 1 5 thin coated R
R3 2(1) 2 medium coated R 3
R(C)3 1 2 medium coated R(C)
C4 1*** 0+(6) medium coated C 4
A5 2 5 heavy coated A 5
RR6 2 2 heavy coated RR 6
RR(C)6 1 2 heavy coated RR(C)
AR7 2 5 heavy coated AR 7
RR(B)7 2 5 heavy coated RR(B)
RR8 2 2 heavy coated RR 8
RR(B)8 2 5 heavy coated RR(B)
B9 1*** 0+(6) heavy coated B 9
i***
B(R)9 6 heavy coated B(R)
BIO 2 0+(6) heavy coated B 10
B(R)10 2 6 heavy coated B(R)
RR11 4(3) 5 RR with dep. eff. 3 105% 11
AR11 4(3) 5 AR with dep. eff. 3 105%
B12 4(3) 0+(6) B with dep. eff. 3 120% 12
B(R)12 4(3) 0+(6) B (R) with dep. eff. 3 120%
^Bracketed code numbers for welding positions apply only to smaller sizes and/or low levels of deposition efficiency.
**Bracketed code numbers for current conditions mean conditional qualification.
***Favoured for vertical down.

Class 3: This class includes medium coated rutile
type R3 and medium coated rutile-cellulose type R(C)3.
The R(C)3 type is similar to R3, except that it has higher
cellulose content. The R3 type is suitable for all
positions except vertical downward, while the R(C)3
type is suitable for all positions including vertical
downward.
Class 4: The medium coated cellulosic type C4
contains a large proportion of combustible materials,
especially cellulose, in the coating. It is suitable for
welding in all positions and is specially suited for the
vertical downward position.
Class 5: This class includes heavy coated acid type
A5. Its distinguishing feature is a high proportion of
iron ore in the coating. The metal transfer across the arc
is in fine drops. It is used in all positions except vertical
downward.
Class 6: In this class are included heavy coated rutile
type RR6 and heavy coated rutile-cellulose type RR(C)6.
Rutile content in the coating is approximately 50%, more
than in all other electrode varieties. Good are restriking
and a regular smooth weld bead are its special
characteristics. The type RR(C)6 is suitable for all
positions while RR6 type is suitable for all positions
except vertical downward.
Class 7: This class covers the heavy coated acid-rutile
(mixed) type AR7 and rutile-basic type RR(8)7. The
coating of AR7 type contains approximately 35% rutile
and acidic components, preferably iron ore. Its welding
characteristics correspond largely to those of the acid
type of class 5. When the basic components of the AR7
type coating are doubled in quantity (up to nearly 20%)
and the iron ore content is reduced to almost nil, one
arrives at the rutile-basic type RR(B)7. This type gives
very good weld mechanical properties and consistently
favourable welding performance in all positions except
vertical downward. The AR7 type is also suitable for all
positions except vertical downward.

Class 8: In this class, the heavy coated rutile type RR8
and the heavy coated rutile-basic type RR(B)8 are
brought together. The type RR8 differs from the rutile
type of class 6 (RR6) by having a higher proportion of
basic components in the coating, whereby the all-weld
mechanical properties improve as also the deformability
of the weld metal. The type RR(B)8 contains more Mn
in the weld deposit as compared to type RR(B)7 (up to
approximately 0.90%) and thereby gives higher tensile
values. Both RRB and RR(B)8 can be used in all positions
except vertical downward.
Class 9: This class includes the heavy coated types
B9 and B(R)9, whose weld deposit has Mn content of
1.2% or less. B9 has a basic coating, consisting mainly
of alkaline carbonates and fluorspar. Small additions of
non-basic components are made to the coating of B(R)9.
Both the types are suitable for all positions and
especially for vertical downward. When used in dried
condition, both give less than 10 ml of diffusible
hydrogen per 100 g weld deposit. Both have deposition
efficiency of less than 105%.
Class 10: This class includes heavy coated basic types
B10 and B(R) 10. The Mn content in the weld deposit is
1.2% or less as in the types of class 9. Type B10 gives
very good all-weld mechanical properties, particularly
sub-zero impact strength. Type B(R)10 has small
additions of non-basic components, such as rutile and
zircon, just sufficient to improve the welding
performance and not to disturb the basicity of the slag,
which is responsible for the high all-weld mechanical
properties. Both the types are suitable for all positions,
except vertical downward. In dried condition, both give
less than 10 ml of diffusible hydrogen per 100 g weld
deposit. Both have deposition efficiency of less than
120%.
Class 11: This class includes high efficiency electrodes
with iron powder additions to the coating. RR11 is heavy
coated rutile type, while AR11 is heavy coated acid-rutile
type, both giving deposition efficiency of 105% or more.
Mn content in the weld deposit is 1.0% or less. The
positions in which they can be used depend on the
electrode size and the level of deposition efficiency,
though they are primarily designed for butt and fillet
welds in the downward position and for fillet welds in
the horizontal position.
Class 12 : This class includes high efficiency iron
powder types B12 and B(R)12. Type B12 has a basic
coating with appreciable iron powder additions, while
B(R)12 has a basic coating with small additions of non-
basic components and appreciable amount of iron
powder. The deposition efficiency is 120% or more. Mn
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 83
content in the weld deposit is 1.2% or less. In dried
condition, both give less than 10 ml of diffusible
hydrogen per 100 g weld deposit. Regarding welding
positions, remarks given under Class 11 hold good.
4) IS:814-1991 "Covered electrodes for manual metal
arc welding of carbon and carbon manganese steel-
specification".
Main Coding Consists of the following letters and
numerals and is followed in the order stated :
a) a prefix letter 'E' shall indicate a covered elec-
trode for manual metal are welding, manufactured by
extrusion process;
b) a letter indicating the type of covering (see 5.1);
c) first digit indicating ultimate tensile strength in
combination with the yield stress of the weld metal de-
posit (see 5.2);
d) second digit indicating the percentage elongation
in combination with the impact values of the weld metal
deposited (see 5.3);
e) third digit indicating welding position(s) in which
the electrode may be used (see 5.4); and
f) fourth digit indicating the current condition in
which the electrode is to be used (see 5.5)
4.0 Additional Coding
The following letters indicating the additional
properties of the electrodes may be used, if required;
a) letters HI, H2, H3 indicating hydrogen controlled
electrodes (see 5.6)
b) letters J, K and L indicating increased metal re-
covery as 'Effective Electrode Efficiency' as per IS 13043:
1991. Specification in the followings range (see 5.7):
J =110-129 percent;
K = 130 -149 percent; and
L = 150 percent and above.
c) letter X indicating the radiographic quality (see 5.8).
4.1 Type of Covering
Type of covering shall be indicated by the following
letters:
A—Acid
B—Basic
C—Cellulosic
R—Rutile
RR—Rutile, heavy coated
S—Any other type not mentioned above.
4.2 Strength Characteristics
The combination of ultimate tensile strength and
yield strength of the weld metal deposits shall be
indicated by the digits 4 and 5 (see Table 3.14).
84 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

4.3 Elongation and Impact Properties 4.4.1 Where an electrode is coded as suitable for
The combination of percentage elongation and vertical and overhead positions it may be considered
impact properties of all-weld metal deposited for the that sizes larger than 4 mm are not normally used for
two tensile ranges (see Table 3.14) shall be as given in welding in these positions.
Table 3.15. 4.4.2. An electrode shall not be coded as suitable for
a particular welding position unless it is possible to use
Table 3.14: Designation of Strength Characteristics it satisfactorily in the position to comply with test
(Clauses 5.2 and 5.3) requirements of this code.
Designating Ultimate Tensile Yield strength
digit strength 4.5 Welding Current and Voltage Conditions
The w e l d i n g current and open circuit voltage
4 410 - 510 330 conditions on which the electrodes can be operated as
5 510 - 610 360 recommended by the manufacturer shall be indicated
by the appropriate designating digits as given in Table
3.16.
Table 3.15: Combination of percentage elongation 4.5.1 For the purpose of coding an electrode or any
and impact strength (Clause 5.3) of the current conditions under 5.5 shall be of size 4 m m
Designation Percentage Elongation Impact strength or 5 mm and shall be capable of being operated at that
digit (min) on 5.65/So in joules (min) at QC condition satisfactorily within the current range
(1) (?) (3) recommended by the manufacturer.
For tensile range
410 - 510 N/mm 2 4.6 Hydrogen Controlled Electrodes
0 No elongation and impact requirements The letters H I , H2 and H3 shall be included in the
1 20 47J/+27C classification as a suffix for those electrodes which will
2 22 47J/+0UC give diffusible hydrogen per 100 gm when determined
3 24 47J/-20°C in accordance with reference method given in IS 11802 :
4 24 27J/-30°C 1986 as given below:
For tensile range HI = Up to 15 ml diffusible hydrogen
510 - 610 N/mm 2 H2 = Up to 10 ml diffusible hydrogen
0 No elongation and impact requirements H3 = Up to 5 ml diffusible hydrogen
1 18 47J/+27C
2 18 47J/ +0gC 4.7 Increased Metal Recovery
3 20 47J/-20eC
The letters J, K and L, shall be included in the
4 20 27]/ -30UC
5 20 27]/ -40CC classification as a suffix for those electrodes which have
6 20 27J/ -46SC appreciable quantities of metal powder in
5.7.1 The Metal Recovery shall be determined as
4.4 Welding Position Effective Electrode Efficiency (E) as per the method
The welding position or positions in which the given in IS 13043:1991.
electrode can be u s e d as r e c o m m e n d e d by the
manufacturer shall be indicated by the appropriate 4.8 Radiographic Quality Electrodes
designating digits as follows: The letter 'X' shall be included in the classification
as a suffix for those electrodes w h i c h d e p o s i t
1) All positions radiographic quality welds.
2) All positions except vertical down
3) Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld and horizontal/ver- TYPE OF FLUX COVERING
tical fillet weld Type-1 Acid (A)
4) Flat butt weld and flat fillet weld Electrodes of acid type have a medium or thick cov-
ering and produce an iron oxide, manganese oxide, silica
5) Vertical down, flat butt, flat fillet and horizontal
rich slag (with some titania in some cases), the metal-
and vertical fillet weld
lurgical characteristic of which is acidic. The covering
6) Any other position or combination of positions confains, besides oxides, of iron or manganese (with
not classified above. some titania in some cases), a fairly high percentage of

Table 3.16: Welding current and voltage conditions (Clause 4.5)
Digit Direct current recommended
electrode polarity
(1) (2)
00 + Not recommended
1 + or-
2 -
3 +
4 + or-
5 -
6 +
7 + or-
8 -
9 +
1) Symbol 0 reserved for electrodes used exclusively on direct current.
2) Positive polarity+, Negative polarity -.
Notes :
1. The frequency of the alternating current is assumed to be 50 or 60 HI. The open circuit voltage necessary when electrodes are used on direct current
is closely related to the dynamic characteristics of the welding power source. Consequently no indication of the minimum open-circuit voltage for direct
current is given Annex E. of IS 814-1991.
ferro-manganese and / o r other deoxidisers. The slag
generally solidifies in a characteristic honeycomb struc-
ture and is easily detached.
This type of electrode usually has a high fusion rate
and may be used w i t h high current intensities.
Penetration can be good, particularly if the covering is
thick. These electrodes are most suitable for welding in
flat position but can be used in other positions and can
be operated both on A.C. and D.C.
Type-2 Basic (B)
Electrode of basic type usually have a covering
containing appreciable quantities of calcium or other
basic carbonates and fluorspar so that metallurgically
they are basic in character.
There is a medium quantity of dense slag, which
often has a brown to dark-brown colour and a glossy
appearance. It is easily detached, and as it rises to the
surface of the weld very quickly, slag inclusions are not
likely to occur. This type of electrode gives an arc of
average penetration, and is suitable for welding in all
positions. This type of electrode is used both on A.C.
and D.C. where D.C. positive polarity is generally
preferred for critical applications.
As the weld metal is highly resistant to hot and cold
cracking, these electrodes are particularly suitable for
welding heavy sections and very rigid mild steel struc-
tures. They are also recommended for welding low alloy
steels and steels, carbon and sulphur content of which are
higher than those of mild steel of good weldable quality.
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 85
Alternating Current
Open Circuit Voltage,
V
(3)
50
50
50
70
70
70
90
90
90
These electrodes must be stored in a reasonably dry
place and should be dried before use, according to the
recommendation of the manufacturer. This ensures that
the weld metal will have a low hydrogen content and
there is a less risk of underbead cracking when welding
steel likely to show a marked hardening in the heat
affected zone.
Type-3 Cellulosic (C)
Covering of the cellulosic type contains large
quantity of combustible organic substances, so that the
d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the latter in arc p r o d u c e s a
voluminous gas shield. The amount of slag produced is
small and the slag is easily detached.
This type of electrode is characterised by a highly
penetrating arc and fairly high fusion rate. Spatter losses
are fairly high and the weld bead is somewhat coarse,
with unevenly spaced ripples. These electrodes are
usually suitable for welding in all positions. Generally
this type of electrodes are suitable for use on D.C. with
electrode positive, but some electrodes are also available
which are suitable for use on A.C.
Type-4 Rutile (R)
These electrodes have a covering containing a large
quantity of rutile or components derived from titanium
oxide. The electrodes have smooth arc characteristics
and normally produces very little spatter and are
comparatively easy to use. This type of electrode can be
generally used in all positions and can be operated both
86 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

on A.C. and D.C. The slag detachability is generally means 60,000 psi (lbs/sq in). Similarly, 70 means
good. minimum weld metal tensile strength of 70 ksi or 70,000
lbs/sq. in. The actual stipulated minimum tensile
iype-5 Rutile, Heavy Coated (RR) strength values and the associated yield strength values
Generally similar in characteristics to rutile type but vary according to the type of covering as shown in Table
having a higher coating ratio (above 1.5). Application- 3.17. The impact strength requirements are given in
wise it is usually preferred for flat and horizontal vertical Table 3.18. The third digit indicates the position in which
position though welding in other positions can also be the electrode can be used satisfactorily, as follows:
possible.
1 F, V, OH, H
2 F, H-fillet
iype-6 Other Types (S)
4 F, OH, H, V-down
Electrodes with other type of coverings may range
from rarely used types such as oxide or acid fluxes, to The last two digits taken together indicate current
newly developed flux systems. No general guidance on conditions (type of current) and the type of covering.
special covering electrode characteristics is possible, so Table 3.19 shows the complete classification, as also the
potential users should seek the manufacturers advise. significance of the last two digits. Table 3.20 gives the
5) AWS A5.1/5.1M 2004 - "Specification for Carbon chemical composition limits of the weld metal.
Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding ". The AWS standard stands distinctly apart from the
The American coding system starts with the prefix four discussed earlier, especially on the following points:
E, which designates an electrode. Then comes a two- 1) No attempt has been made to follow the pattern
digit number 60 or 70. The number 60 designates tensile of ISO 2560. The traditional system based on foot-pound
strength of at least 60 ksi of the weld deposit. 60 ksi system (60..., 70...) is still maintained.
Table 3.17: Tension test Requirements a,b,c,
AWS classification Tensile s►trength Yield strength at 0.2% Offset Elongation
Percentage in 4x
A5.1 A5.1M A5.1(ksi) A5.1M(MPa) A5.1 (ksi) A5.1M (MPa) Diameter Length
E6010 E4310 60 430 48 330 22
E6011 E4311 60 430 48 330 22
E6012 E4312 60 430 48 330 17
E6013 E4313 60 430 48 330 17
E6018 E4318 60 430 48 330 22
E6019 E4319 60 430 48 330 22
E6020 E4320 60 430 48 330 22
E6022d E4322d 60 430 Not specified Not specified
E6027 E4327 60 430 48 330 22
E7014 E4914 70 490 58 400 17
E7015 E4915 70 490 58 400 22
E7016 E4916 70 490 58 400 22
E7018 E4918 70 490 58 400 22
E7024 E4924 70 490 58 400 17 e
E7027 E4927 70 490 58 400 22
E7028 E4928 70 490 58 400 22
E7048 E4948 70 490 58 400 22
E7018M . E4918M Notef Notef 53-728 370-500* 24
Notes
a. See Table 4 for sizes to be tested.
b. Requirements are in thewelded
as-\ condition with aging as specified 12.2
in ,'.
c. Single values are minimum
d. A transverse tension test,>specified
at in 12.5 ana ' bend test, as specified in Section 13
I a longitudinal guided required.
are
e. Weld metal from electrodesidentified as E7024-1 (E4924-1) shall have elongation of 22% minimum.
/ Tensile strength of this weld metal is a nominal 70 ksi (490 MPa).
g- For 3/32 in (2.4 mm) electrodes, the maximum yield strength shall be 77 ksi (530 Mpa).
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 87

Table 3.18: Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements

AWS classification Limits for 3 out of 5 specimens3
A5.1 A5.1M Average.min Single value, min
E6010, E6011, E6018 E4310, E4311, E4318
E6027, E7015, E4327, E4915 20ft.lbfat-20°F 15ft.lbfat-20°F
E7016b, E7018b E4916b, E4948b (27J at -30°C) (20J at -30°C)
E7027, E7048 E4927, E4948
E6019 E4319 20ft.lbfatO°F 15ft.lbfatO°F
E7028 E4928 (27J at -20°C) (20J at-20°C)
E6012, E6013. E4312, E4313
E6020, E6022. E4320, E4322 Not specified Not specified
E7014, E7024b E4914, E4924b
AWS Classification Limits for 5 out of 5 specimens0
A5.1 A5.1M Average, min Single Value, Min.
E7018M E4918M 50ft.lbfat-20°F 40ft.lbfat-20°F
(67J at-30°C) (54J at-30°C)
Notes:
a. Both the highest and lowest test values obtained shall be disregarded in computing the average. Two of these remaining three values shall equ
exceed 20 ft-lb (27 J).
b. Electrodes with the following optional supplemental designations shall meet the lower temperature impact requirements specified below:
Electrode Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements,
AWS classification Designation Limits for 3 out of 5 specimens (Refer to footnote a above)

A5.1 A5.1M A5.1 A5.1M Average, min Single value, min

E7016 E4916 E7016-1 E4916-1 20ft.lbf at -50°F 15ft.lbfat50°F
E7018 E4918 E7018-1 E4918-1 (27J at -45°C) (20Jat-45°C)
E7024 E4924 E7024-1 E4924-1 20ft.lbfatO°F 15ft.lbfatO°F
(27Jat-20°C) (20J at -20°C)
c. Allfivevalues obtained shall be 'used
in computing the
average. Four of thefivevalues shall equal, or exceeds,
50ft-lbf(67J)

2) Lower limit of tensile strength for 60 series is set
at 420 N/mm 2 , as against 430 in ISO 2560 and 410 in IS
815. No upper limit is specified.
3) Unlike other standards, the AWS standard lays
down the mechanical property requirements for each
class of electrode. Requirements for impact strength are
unusual. Either they are not required or they are quite
stringent: 27 J at -29°C (except 27 J at-18°C for 7028).
No provision is made for impact requirement at -40°C
4) In the types of covering, acid rutile (AR),
oxidising (O) and other types (S) are not included.
5) No separate symbols are provided for deposition
efficiency and for low-hydrogen property, but they are
indicated through distinctive classification numbers.
However, the exact deposition efficiency value is not
conveyed.
6) Under current conditions, OCV values are not in-
dicated for AC.
Apparently, ISO 2560 and the various national stan-
dards based on it have put forward a universal coding
system, in which all possible electrodes could fit. The
AWS standard has, on the other hand, considered the
types which are in general industrial usage in the U.S. A.
and then brought out a system to fit them.
AWS A5.1 has provided description of electrode clas-
sifications in the Appendix. Following are the extracts:
Description and Intended Use of Electrodes
5.1 E6010 [E4310] Classification
5.1.1 E6010 [E4310]electrodes are characterized by
a deeply penetrating, forceful, spray type arc and readily
removable, thin, friable slag which may not seem to
completely cover the weld bead. Fillet welds usually
have a relatively flat weld face and have a rather coarse,
unevenly spaced ripple. The coverings are high in
88 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
cellulose, usually exceeding 30 percent by weight. The
other materials generally used in the covering include
t i t a n i u m dioxide, metallic d e o x i d i z e r s such as
ferromanganese, various types of m a g n e s i u m or
aluminum silicates, and liquid sodium silicate as a
binder. Because of their covering composition, these
electrodes are generally described as the high-cellulose
sodium type.
5.1.2 These electrodes are recommended for all
w e l d i n g positions, particularly on multiple pass
applications in the vertical and overhead welding
positions and where welds of good soundness are
required. They frequently are selected for joining pipe
and generally are capable of welding in the vertical
position with either uphill or downhill progression.
5.1.3 The majority of applications for these
electrodes is in joining carbon steel. However, they have
been used to advantage on galvanized steel and on some
low alloy steels. Typical a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e
shipbuilding, buildings, bridges, storage tanks, piping,
and pressure vessel fittings. Since the applications are
so widespread, a discussion of each is impractical. Sizes
larger than 3/16 in. (5.0 mm) generally have limited use
in other than flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions.
5.1.4 These electrodes have been designed for use
with deep (electrode positive). The maximum amperage
that can generally be used with the larger sizes of these
electrodes is limited in comparison to that for other
classifications due to the high spatter loss that occurs
with high amperage.
5.2 E6011 [E4311] Classification
5.2.1 E6011 [E4311] electrodes are designed to be
used with ac current and to duplicate the usability
characteristics a n d mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of the
E6010[E4310] classification. Although also usable with
deep (electrode positive), a decrease in joint penetration
will be noted when compared to the E6010 [E4310]
electrodes. Arc action, slag, and fillet weld appearance
are similar to those of the E6010 [E4310] electrodes.
5.2.2 The coverings are also high in cellulose and
are described as the high-cellulose potassium type. In
addition to the other ingredients normally found in
E6010 [E4310] coverings, small quantities of calcium and
potassium compounds usually are present.
5.2.3 Sizes larger than 3/16 in [5.0 mm] generally
have limited use in other than flat or horizontal - fillet
welding positions.
5.3 E6012 [E4312]Classification
5.3.1 E6012 [E4312] electrodes are characterized by
low penerating arc and dense slag,which completely
covers the bead. This may result in incomplete root
penetration in fillet welded joints. The coverings are
high in titania, usually exceeding 35 percent by weight,
and usually are referred to as the "titania" or "rutile"
type. The coverings generally also contain small
amounts of cellulose and ferromanganese, and various
siliceous materials such as feldspar and clay with
sodium silicate as a binder. Also, small amounts of
certain calcium compounds may be used to produce
satisfactory arc characteristics on deen (electrode
negative).
5.3.2. Fillet welds tend to have a convex weld face
with s m o o t h even ripples in horizontal w e l d i n g
position, and widely spaced rougher ripples in the
vertical welding position which become smoother and
more uniform as the size of the weld is increased.
Ordinarily, a larger size fillet must be made in the vertical
and overhead welding positions using E6012[E4312]
electrodes compared to welds with E6010[E4310] and
E6011[E4311] electrodes of the same diameter.
5.3.3 The E6012[E4312] electrodes are all-position
electrodes and usually are suitable for welding in the
vertical welding position with either the upward or
downward progression. However, more often the larger
sizes are used in the flat and horizontal welding
positions rather than in the vertical and overhead
welding positions. The larger sizes are often used for
single pass, high-speed, high current fillet welds in the
horizontal welding position. Their ease of handling,
good fillet weld face, and ability to bridge wide root
openings under conditions of poor fit, and to withstand
high amperages make them very well suited to this type
of work. The electrode size used for vertical and
overhead position welding is frequently one size smaller
t h a n w o u l d be u s e d w i t h an E6010[E4310] or
E6011[E4311] electrode.
5.3.4 Weld metal from these electrodes is generally
lower in ductility and may be higher in yield strength
(1 to 2 ksi [0.7 MPa to 1.4 MPa] than weld metal from
the same size of either the E6010 [E4310] or E6011 [E4311]
electrodes.
5.4 E6013[E4313] Classification
5.4.1 E6013[E4313] electrodes, although very simi-
lar to the E6012[E4312] electrodes, have distinct differ-
ences. Their flux covering makes slag removal easier
and gives a smoother arc transfer than E6012[E4312]
electrodes. This is particularly the case for the small
diameters 1/16 in, 5/64 in, and 3/32 in [1.6 mm, 2.0
mm, and 2.5 mm]. This permits satisfactory operation
with lower open-circuit ac voltage. E6013 [E4313] elec-
trodes were designed specifically for light sheet metal
work. However, the larger diameters are used on many
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 89

Table 3.19: Electrode Classification

AWS classification
A5.1 A5.1M Type of covering Welding position3 Type of currentb

E6010 E4310 High cellulose sodium F, V, OH, H-fiUet deep

E6011 E4311 High cellulose potassium F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac or deep
E6012 E4312 High titania sodium F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac or dcen
E6013 E4313 High titania potassium F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac, deep, or dcen
E6018c E4318c Low-hydrogen potassium, iron powder F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac or dcen
E6019 E4319 Iron oxide titania potassium F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac, deep, or dcen
E6020 E4320 High iron oxide H-fiUet ac or dcen
F ac, deep, or dcen
E6022d E4322d High iron oxide F, H-fiUet acor dcen
E7027 E4327 High iron oxide, iron powder H-fiUet ac or dcen
F ac, deep, or dcen
E7014 E4914 Iron powder, titania F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac, deep, or dcen
E7015 E4915 Low hydrogen sodium F, V, OH, H-fiUet deep
E7016c E4916c Low hydrogen potassium F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac or deep
E7018c E4918c Low-hydrogen potassium, iron powder F, V, OH, H-fiUet ac or deep
E7018M E4918M Low-hydrogen iron powder F, V, OH, H-fiUet deep
E7024c E4924c Iron power, titania H-fiUet, F ac, deep, or dcen
E7027 E4927 High iron oxide, iron powder H-fiUet ac or dcen
F ac, deep, or dcen
E7028c E4928c Low -hydrogen potassium, iron powder H-fiUet, F ac or deep
E7048 E4948 Low-hydrogen potassium, iron powder F, OH, H-fiUet, V-down ac or deep
Notes:
a. The abbreviations, F, H-fillet, V, V-down, and OH indicate the welding positions as follows: F = Flat, H-fillets = Horizontal fillet, V = Vertical,
Progression upwards (for electrodes 3/16 in (5.0 mm) and under, except 5/32 in (4.0 mm) and under for classifications E6018 (E4318), E7014 (E4914),
E7015 (E4915), E7016 (E4916), E7018 (E4918), E7018M (E4948M) E7048 (E4948). V-down = Vertical, progression downwards (for electrodes 3/16 in
(5.0 mm) and under, except 5/32 in (4.0 mm) and under for classifications E6018 (E4318); E7014 (E4914), E7015 (E4915), E7016 (E4916), E7018
(E4918), E7018M (E4918M), E7048 (E4948), OH = Overhead (for electrodes 3/16 in (5.0 mm) and under, except 5/32 in (4.0 mm) and under for
classifications E6018 (E4318), E7014 (E4914), E7015 (E4915), E7016 (E4916), E7018 (E4918), E7018M (E4918M), E7048 (E4948).
b. The term "deep" refers to direct current electrode positive (dc, reverse polarity). The term "dcen" refers to direct current electrode negative (dc,
straight polarity).
c. Electrodes with supplemental elongation, notch toughness, absorbed moisture, and diffusible hydrogen requirements may be further identified as
shown in Tables 2, 3,10, and 11 of AWS A5.1/5.1M-2004
d. Electrodes of the E6022 (E4322) classification are intended for single-pass welds only.

of the same applications as E6012[E4312] electrodes and
provide low penetrating arc. The smaller diameters pro-
vide a less penetrating arc than is obtained with
E6012[E4312] electrodes. This may result in incomplete
penetration in fillet welded joints.
5.4.2 Coverings of E6013[E4313] electrodes contain
rutile, cellulose, ferromanganese, potassium silicate as
a binder, and other siliceous materials. The potassium
compounds permit the electrodes to operate with ac at
low amperages and low open-circuit voltages.
5.4.3 E6013[E4313] electrodes are similar to the
E6012[E4312] electrodes in usability characteristics and
bead appearance. The arc action tends to be quieter and
the bead surface smoother with a finer ripple. The us-
ability characteristics of E6013[E4313] electrodes vary
slightly from brand to brand. Some are recommended
for sheet metal applications where their ability to weld
satisfactorily in the vertical welding position with down-
ward progression is an advantage.
Others, with a more fluid slag, are used for horizontal
fillet welds and other general purpose welding. These
electrodes produce a flat fillet weld face rather than the
convex weld face characteristic of E6012[E4312]
electrodes. They are also suitable for making groove
90 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table: 3.20 Chemical Composition Requirements for Weld Metal

Weight Percent b Combined limited for
AWS classification
Mn + Ni +Cr
UNS d
A5.1 A5.1M Number C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo V +Mo +V

E6010 E4310 W06010 \

E6011 E4311 W06011
E6012 E4312 W06012
E6013 E4313 W06013 |\ 0.20 1.20 1.00 N.S. N.S. 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 N.S.
E6019 E4319 W06019
E6020 E4320 W06020
E6027 E4327 W06027 i

E6018 E4318 W06018 0.03 0.60 0.40 0.025 0.015 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 N.S.
E7015 E4915 W07015 0.15 1.25 0.90 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.50
E7016 E4916 W07016 0.15 1.60 0.75 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.75
E7018 E4918 W07018 0.15 1.60 0.75 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.75

E7014 E4914 W07014 0.15 1.25 0.90 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.50
E7024 E4924 W07024 0.15 1.25 0.90 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.50
E7027 E4927 W07027 0.15 1.60 0.75 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.75

E7028 E4928 W070281

0.15 1.60 0.90 0.035 0.035 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.08 1.75

E7018M E4918M W07018 0.12 °' 4 ° 0.80 0.030 0.020 0.25 0.15 0.35 0.05 N.S.
to
L60
NOTES:
a. SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
b. Single values are maximum. N.S. means Not Specified.

welds because of their concave weld face and easily
removable slag. In addition, the weld metal is definitely
freer of slag and oxide inclusions than E6012[E4312]
weld metal and exhibits better soundness. Welds with
the smaller diameter E6013[E4313] electrodes often meet
the G r a d e 1 r a d i o g r a p h i c r e q u i r e m e n t s of this
specification.
5.4.4 E6013[E4313] electrodes usually cannot
withstand the high amperages that can be used with
E6012[E4312] electrodes in the flat and horizontal
welding positions. Amperages in the vertical and
overhead positions, however, are similar to those used
with E6012[E4312] electrodes.
5.5 E7014 [E4914] Classification
5.5.1 E7014 [E4914] electrode coverings are similar
to those of E6012 [E4312] and E6013 [E4313] electrodes,
but with the addition of iron powder for obtaining
higher deposition efficiency. The covering thickness and
the amount of iron powder in E7014 [E4914] are less
than in E7024 [E4924] electrodes (see A7.10).
5.5.2 The iron powder also permits the use of higher
a m p e r a g e s t h a n are u s e d for E6012[E4312] a n d
E6013[E4313] electrodes. The amount and character of
the slag permit E7014[E4914] electrodes to be used in
all positions.
5.5.3 The E7014 [E4914] electrodes are suitable for
welding carbon and low alloy steels. Typical weld beads
are smooth with fine ripples. Joint penetration is
approximately the same as that obtained with E6012
[E4312] electrodes (see A 7.3.1), which is advantageous
when welding over a wide root opening due to poor fit.
The face of fillet welds tends to be flat to slightly convex.
The slag is easy to remove. In many cases, it removes
itself.
5.6 Low Hydrogen Electrodes
5.6.1 Electrodes of the low-hydrogen classifications
E6018 [E4318] , E7015 [E4915], E7016 [E4916], E7018
[E4918], E7018M [E4918M], E7028 [E4928]and E7048
[E4948]) are made with inorganic coverings that contain

minimal moisture The covering moisture test such as
specified in AWS A4.4M, Standard Procedure for
Determination of Moisture Content of Welding Fluxes and
Welding Electrode Flux Coverings, converts hydrogen-
bearing compounds in any form in the covering into
water vapor that is collected and measured. The test
thus assesses the potential hydrogen available from an
electrode covering. All low hydrogen electrodes, in the
as-manufactured condition or after conditioning, are
expected to meet a maximum covering moisture limit
of 0.6 percent or less.
5.6.2 The relative potential of an electrode to
contribute to diffusible hydrogen in the weld metal can
be assessed more directly, but less conveniently, by the
diffusible hydrogen test. The results of this test, using
electrodes in the as-manufactured condition or after
conditioning, permit the addition of an optional
supplemental diffusible hydrogen designator to the
classification designation.
5.6.3 In order to maintain low hydrogen electrodes
with minimal m o i s t u r e in their coverings, these
electrodes should be stored a n d h a n d l e d w i t h
considerable care. Electrodes which have been exposed
to humidity may absorb considerable moisture and their
low hydrogen character may be lost. Then conditioning
can restore their low hydrogen character.
5.6.4 Low hydrogen electrode coverings can be
designed to resist moisture absorption for a considerable
time in a humid environment. The absorbed moisture
test (see Section 17) assesses this characteristic by
determining the covering moisture after nine hours
exposure to 80° F (27°C), 80 percent relative humidity
air. If, after this exposure, the covering moisture does
not exceed 0.4 percent, then the optional supplemental
designator, "R", may be a d d e d to the electrode
classification designation.
5.6.5 E7015 [E4915] Classification
5.6.5.1 E7015 [E4915] electrodes are low hydrogen
electrodes to be used with deep (electrode positive). The
slag is chemically basic.
5.6.5.2 E7015 [E4915] electrodes are commonly
used for making small welds on thick base metal, since
the welds are less susceptible to cracking. They are also
used for welding high sulfur and enamelling steels.
Welds made with E7015 [E4915] electrodes on high
sulfur steels may produce a very tight slag and a very
rough or irregular bead appearance in comparison to
welds with the same electrodes in steels of normal sulfur
content.
5.6.5.3 The arc of E7015 [E4915] electrodes is
moderately penetrating. The slag is heavy, friable, and
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 91
easy to remove. The weld face is convex, although a
fillet weld face may be flat.
5.6.5.4 E7015 [E4915] electrodes u p to and
including the 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) size are used in all
welding positions. Larger electrodes are used for groove
welds in the flat welding position and fillet welds in
the horizontal and flat welding positions.
5.6.5.5 Amperages for E7015 [E4915] electrodes are
higher than those used with E6010 [E4310] electrodes
of the same diameter. The shortest possible arc length
should be maintained for best results with E7015 [E4915]
electrodes. This reduces the risk of porosity. The
necessity for preheating is reduced; therefore, better
welding conditions are provided.
5.6.6 E7016 [E4916] Classification
5.6.6.1 E7016 [E4916] electrodes have all the
characteristics of E7015 [E4915] electrodes, plus the
ability to operate on ac. The core wire and coverings
are very similar to those of E7015 [E4915], except for
the use of a potassium silicate binder or other potassium
salts in the coverings to facilitate their use with ac. Most
of the preceding discussion on E7015 [E4915] electrodes
applies equally well to the E7016 [E4916] electrodes.
5.6.6.2 Electrodes designated as E7016-1 [E4916-
1] have the same usability and weld metal composition
as E7016 [E4916] electrodes except that the managenese
content is set at the high end of the range. They are
i n t e n d e d for w e l d s r e q u i r i n g a lower transition
t e m p e r t a t u r e t h a n is n o r m a l l y available from
E7016[E4916] electrodes.
5.6.7 E6018[E4318] and E7018[E4918]
Classifications.
5.6.7.1 E7018[E4918] electrode coverings are
similar to E7015[E4915] coverings, except for the
addition of a relatively high percentage of iron powder.
The coverings on these electrodes are slightly thicker
than those of the E7016[E4916] electrodes.
5.6.7.2 E7018[E4918] low hydrogen electrodes can
be used with either ac or deep. They are designed for
the same applications as the E7016[E4916] electrodes.
As is common with all low hydrogen electrodes, a short
arc length should be maintained at all times.
5.6.7.3 In addition to their use on carbon steel, the
E7018[E4918] electrodes are also used for joints
involving high-strength, high carbon, or low alloy steels.
The fillet welds made in the horizontal and flat welding
positions have a slightly convex weld face, with a
smooth and finely rippled surface. The electrodes are
characterized by a smooth, quiet arc, very low spatter,
and medium arc penetration. E7018[E4918] electrodes
can be used at high travel speeds.
92 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
5.6.7.4 Electrodes designated as E7018-1[E4918-1]
have the same usability and weld metal composition as
E7018[E4918] electrodes, except that the manganese
content is set at the high end of the range. They are
i n t e n d e d for w e l d s r e q u i r i n g a lower transition
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a n is n o r m a l l y available from
E7018[E4918] electrodes.
5.6.7.5 E6018[E4318] electrodes posssess operating
and mechanical property characteristics similar to
E7018[E4918] except at a lower strength level. The
electrode coating and low hydrogen characteristics are
also similar. This electrode is desirable where matching
or undermatching weld deposit is required. Electrodes
that meet this classification may also be suitable for
buffer layer application in cladding operations.
5.6.8 E7018M[E4918M] Classification
5.6.8.1 E7018M[E4918M] electrodes are similar to
E7018-1H4R[E4918-1H4R] electrodes, except that the
testing for mechanical properties and for classification
is done on a groove weld that has a 60 degree included
angle and, for electrodes up to 5/32 in [4.0mm], welded
in the vertical position with upward progression. The
impact test results are evaluated using all five test values
and higher values are required at -20° F (-30°C). The
maximum allowable moisture-in-coating values in the
"as-received" or reconditioned state are more restrictive
than that r e q u i r e d for E7018R[E4918R]. This
classification closely corresponds to MIL-7018-M in the
United States military s t a n d a r d MIL-E-22200/10
specification, with the exception that the absorbed
moisture limits on the electrode covering and the
diffusible hydrogen limits on the weld metal are not as
restrictive as those in MIL-E-22200/10.
5.6.8.2 E7018M [E4918M] is intended to be used
with deep type current in order to produce the optimum
mechanical properties. However if the manufacturer
desires, the electrode m a y also be classified as
E7018[E4918] provided all the requirements of E7018
[E4918] are met.
5.6.8.3 In addition to their use on carbon steel, the
E7018M[E4918M] electrodes are used for joining carbon
steel to high strength low alloy steels and higher carbon
steels. Fillet welds made in the horizontal and flat
welding positions have a slightly convex weld face, with
a smooth and finely rippled surface. The electrodes are
characterized by a smooth, quiet arc, very low spatter,
and medium arc penetration.
5.6.9 E7028[E4928] Classification
5.6.9.1 E7028[E4928] electrodes are very much like
the E7018[E4918] electrodes. However, E7028[E4928]
electrodes are suitable for fillet welds in the horizontal
welding position and groove welds in the flat welding
position only, whereas E7018 [E4918] electrodes are
suitable for all positions.
5.6.9.2 The E7028[E4928] electrode coverings are
much thicker. They make up approximately 50% of the
weight of the electrodes. The iron content of E7028
[E4928] electrodes is higher (approximately 50 percent
of the weight of the coverings). Consequently, on fillet
welds in the horizontal position and groove welds in
the flat welding position, E7028 [E4928] electrodes give
a higher deposition rate t h a n the E7018 [E4918]
electrodes for a given size of electrode.
5.6.10 E7048[E4948] Classification. Electrodes of the
E7048[E4948] classification have the same usability,
composition, and design characteristics as E7018[E4918]
electrodes, except that E7048[E4948] electrodes are
specifically designed for exceptionally good vertical
welding with downward progression(see Table 3.19).
5.7 E6019[E4319] Classification
5.7.1 E6019[E4319] electrodes, although very similar
to E6013 and E6020[E4313 and E4320] electrodes in their
coverings, have distinct differences. E6019[E4319]
electrodes, with a rather fluid slag system, provide
deeper arc penetration and produce weld metal that
meets a 22 percent minimum elongation requirement,
meets the Grade 1 radiographic standards, and has an
average impact strength of 20 ft-lbf (27 J) when tested
at 0°F (-20°C).
5.7.2 E6019[E4319] electrodes are suitable for
multipass welding of up to 1 in (25 mm) thick steel. They
are designed for use with ac, dcen, or deep. While 3/16
in (5.0 mm) and smaller diameter electrodes can be used
for all welding positions (except vertical welding
position with downward progression), the use of larger
diameter electrodes should be limited to the flat or
horizontal fillet welding position. When welding in the
vertical welding position with upward progression,
weaving should be limited to minimize undercut.
5.8 E6020[E4320] Classification
5.8.1 E6020[E4320] electrodes have a high iron oxide
covering. They are characterized by a spray type arc
produce a smooth and flat, or slightly concave weld face
and have an easily removable slag.
5.8.2 A low viscosity slag limits their usability to
horizontal fillets and flat welding positions. With arc
penetration ranging from medium to deep (depending
upon welding current), E6020[E4320] electrodes are best
suited for thicker base metal.
5.9 E6022 [E4322] Classification. Electrodes of the
E6022 [E4322] classification are recommended for single

pass, high-speed, high current welding of groove welds
in the flat welding position, lap joints in the horizontal
welding position, and fillet welds on sheet metal.
The weld face tends to be more convex and less
uniform, especially since the welding speeds are higher.
5.10 E7024 [E4934] Classification
5.10.1 E7024 [E4924] electrode coverings contain
large amounts of iron powder in combination with
ingredients similar to those used in E6012 and E6013
[E4312 and E4313] electrodes. The coverings on E7024
[E4924] electrodes are very thick and usually amount
to about 50% of the electrode, resulting in higher
deposition efficiency.
5.10.2 The E7024 [E4924] electrodes are well suited
for making fillet welds in the flat or horizontal position.
The weld face is slightly convex to flat, with a very
smooth surface and a very fine ripple. These electrodes
are characterized by a smooth, quiet arc, very low
spatter, and low arc penetration. They can be used with
high travel speeds. Electrodes of these classifications can
be operated on ac, deep, or dcen.
5.10.3 Electrodes designated as E7024-1 [E4924-1]
have the same general usability characteristics as
E7024[E4924] electrodes. They are intended for use in
situations requiring greater ductility and a lower
transition temperature than normally is available from
E7024 [E4924] electrodes.
5.11 E6027 [E4327] Classification
5.11.1 E6027 [E4327] electrode coverings contain
large amounts of iron powder in combination with
ingredients similar to those found in E6020[E4320]
electrodes. The coverings on E6027[E4327] electrodes
are also very thick and usually amount to about 50
percent of the weight of the electrode.
5.11.2 The E6027[E4327] electrodes are designed for
fillet or groove welds in the flat welding position with
ac, deep, or dcen and will produce a flat or slightly
concave weld face on fillet welds in the horizontal
position with either ac or dcen.
5.11.3 E6027[E4327] electrodes have a spray-type
arc. They will operate at high travel speeds. Arc
penetration is m e d i u m . Spatter loss is very low.
E6027[E4327] electrodes produce a heavy slag which is
honeycombed on the underside. The slag is friable and
easily removed.
5.11.4 Welds p r o d u c e d w i t h E6027 [E4327]
electrodes have a flat to slightly concave weld face with
a smooth, fine, even ripple, and good wetting along the
sides of the joint. The weld metal may be slightly inferior
in radiographic soundness to that from E6020[E4320]
electrodes. High amperages can be used, since a
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 93
considerable portion of the electrical energy passing
through the electrode is used to melt the covering and
the iron powder it contains. These electrodes are well
suited for thicker base metal.
5.12 E7027 [E4927] Classification. E7027 [E4927]
electrodes h a v e the same usability and design
characteristics as E6027 [E4327] electrodes, except they
are intended for use in situations requiring slightly
higher tensile and yield strengths than are obtained with
E6027 [E4327] electrodes. They must also meet chemical
composition requirements (see Table 3.20). In other
respects, all previous discussions for E6027 [E4327]
electrodes also apply to E7027 [E4927] electrodes.
Testing of Electrodes
All electrode standards describe in great detail the
procedures for executing all-weld tensile and impact
tests. Some of t h e m also describe m e t h o d s for
determining weld deposition efficiency and hydrogen
in the weld deposit. The tensile strength, yield strength
and elongation values obtained in the tensile test, and
the values obtained in the other two tests provide the
symbols for the coding of an electrode. All-weld metal
means weld deposit which is not diluted by the base
metal. In all-weld tensile and impact tests, the test
specimens are so prepared that the area which is
subjected to test is pure, undiluted weld metal. The
electrode standards also prescribe supplementary tests
which are not related to the code symbols, but are meant
to evaluate the performance of an electrode and its
suitability for welding certain grades of steel. These tests
in various combinations are used for the quality control
of p r o d u c t i o n batches a n d their acceptance by
consumers as indicated in the standards. The various
tests included {^) in each standard are indicated in Table
3.21.
Procedures for all-weld tensile and impact tests laid
down in the five standards are described and compared
in Chapter 11, Testing and Inspection. Transverse tensile,
impact and bend tests are also described in the same
chapter. The remaining tests are described in the
following paragraphs.
Deposition Efficiency
The method for determining this parameter is
described in ISO 2401, "Determination of the efficiency,
metal recovery and deposition coefficient", which is
reproduced in BS:639-1976 and IS:815-1974 with minor
alterations. A test plate of carbon steel (0.25% maximum
carbon), 300 mm x 75 mm x 12 mm thick, is cleaned
and weighed accurately. Welds are deposited on the
94 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.21: Standard tests for electrodes

Type of test ISO 2560 BS639 DIN 1913 IS:814a AWS A5.1
All-weld tensile and :impact ii ii u ii ii
Transverse bend X ii ii ii ii
Transverse tensile X X ii u ii
Deposition efficiency xb ii X ii X
Diffusible hydrogen xc u xe ii xd
Chemical composition of weld metal X X X X ii
Weld soundness test (radiography) X X X X ii
Fillet weld X X X X ii
Deep penetration X X X ii X

" IS : 814 covers classification, coding specification and testing.

b
ISO 2401 describes this test.
c
ISO 3690 describes the method.
d
Quoting moisture test described in AWS is a requirement of the code for all low hydrogen electrodes. Additionally, E 7018M class of electrodes have
to meet the diffusible hydrogen test requirement of 4 ml max.1100 gms of weld metal. For other low hydrogen electrodes, the test is required only whm
diffusible hydrogen designator is added to the AWS code.
e
DIN 8572 describes the method.

plate with five electrodes, until a stub length of
approximately 50 mm remains in each case. All slag and
spatter is removed from the plate after each electrode
has been used. The interpass temperature is not allowed
to exceed 100°C. The plate with welds deposited on it is
weighed after it has cooled to the ambient temperature.
The mass of the core wires of the five electrodes is
obtained by weighing five core wires of the same
diameter and length as used in the electrodes. Covering
is also completely removed from the five stub ends and
they are weighed together accurately.
The nominal deposition efficiency (DE) is calculated
from the formula:
m2-mlx 100
DE%
ra„ mA
where
mx - mass of plate before welding (±lg)
m2 = combined mass of plate and the weld metal
deposited on it (±lg)
m, = mass of the five whole core wires (± lg)
m4 = mass of the five stub ends (±lg)
Determination of Hydrogen in Weld Deposit
The total hydrogen present in the weld joint after
welding is the sum of two distinct fractions: the diffus-
ible hydrogen and the residual hydrogen. The former
fraction escapes from solid metal at or near room tem-
perature and diffuses to the surface. The latter fraction
does not diffuse but remains within the structure of the
solid metal. The method of determining diffusible hy-
drogen in a weld deposit has been detailed in Draft ISO
3690, "Determination of hydrogen in weld metal aris-
ing from the use of covered electrodes for welding mild
and low-alloy steels", and reproduced in the Appendi-
ces of BS:639-1976 and IS814 -1991 with minor alter-
ations.
The principle of the method is as follows: A single
weld bead from an electrode under test is deposited on
a test plate and rapidly quenched. The specimen so
produced is maintained at room temperature for 72
hours to release its content of diffusible hydrogen, which
is collected over mercury and measured volumetrically.
If the test has to be delayed, the test plate is stored at -
78°C or lower until required for preparation and
analysis.
Following materials are required:
a) Test piece assembly prepared from semi-killed
steel having 0.20% maximum carbon and 0.05% maxi-
mum sulphur. These must be degassed at 650°C for one
hour.
b) Electrode of 4 mm size in the case of normal type
and of 3.15 mm size in the case of iron powder type
having deposition efficiency higher than 130%. It must
be dried at 250°C for two hours.
c) A copper jig as shown in Fig. 3.16 for aligning
and clamping the test piece.
d) Hydrogen collecting apparatus. A typical gas
burette for the measurement of cold extracted gas is
shown in Fig. 3.17. It fulfils the following requirements:
• Mercury is used as the confining liquid.
• It is possible to maintain the sample under
vacuum for a brief period to remove last traces
of foreign gases.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 95

M12B0LT

SECTION A-A

-1 MM

COPPER FOIL

QUICK RELEASE CLAMP

50 MM

Fig. 3.16: Test piece assembly for hydrogen determination

9 MM SPHERICAL JOINT
HIGH VACUUM HOLLOW KEY
SINGLE OBLIQUE STOPCOCK 4 MM CORE
ATMOSPHERE
VACUUM
0.10 ML BURETTE GRADUATED TO
0.05 ML. ABOUT 30 MM LENGTH \ | | HIGH VACUUM HOLLOW KEY
PER ML, OR 10-11 MMO.D. DOUBLE OBLIQUE
STOPCOCK 4MM BORE

34/35 JOINT

WELD SPECIMEN
RUBBER BAND

120 MM 140 MM
STRAIGHT
SECTION

PERMANENT MERCURY
MAGNET BOROSILICATE
GLASS

R 80 MM

Fig. 3.17: Diffusible hydrogen collecting apparatus

96 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
• The volume of collected gas can be measured to
an accuracy of 0.05.
Procedure
The test piece assembly consists of run-on and run-
off pieces and a central sample section of 30 m m length,
which may be divided into 7.5 m m x 4 sections as
shown in Fig 3.16 or 15 m m x 2 sections or 15 mm x 1
and 7.5 m m x 2 sections. A bead of 100 m m overall
length is deposited along the centreline of the assembly.
The p a r a m e t e r s for w e l d i n g are d e t a i l e d in the
standard.
Three seconds after the arc is extinguished, the jig is
released and the test piece assembly quenched and
cleaned in a prescribed manner. The sample pieces are
broken apart while still cold and stored at solid carbon
dioxide temperature. All these operations must be
completed within the prescribed limited seconds. The
samples may be stored in this manner for a period of
three days before analysis.
When analysis is to be carried out, the quenched
sample is washed in alcohol, then in ether and then dried
in a blast of dry nitrogen to avoid condensation of
atmospheric humidity. These operations also must be
completed within the prescribed time limit in seconds.
The blanket of dry nitrogen is maintained while the
sample is transferred to the outer limb of the burette
(Fig. 3.17) and held in position clear of the mercury
surface by a magnet. The outer limb of the burette is
then evacuated to make a vacuum. The sample is then
transferred through the mercury air-lock to its final
position in the measuring limb of the burette. Time limit
in seconds is also set for these steps.
The sample is maintained under reduced pressure
at 25 ± 5°C (298 ± 5°K) for a period of 72 hours when
'he final volume is measured. The barometric pressure
is recorded. The sample is removed from the apparatus,
thoroughly brushed so as to remove any oxide skin, and
weighed to the nearest 10 mg. The volume Vh (ml) at
STP of diffusible hydrogen per 100 g of deposited weld
metal is calculated from the following formula:
= Vg (B-H) 273 100 ml per 100 g of depo-
h
760 298 (M2-M1) sited weld metal
where
V is the volume of gas in the burette after 72 hours (ml)
B is the barometric pressure (mm of Hg)
H is the head of mercury at which V is measured
(mm of Hg)
M 2 is the mass of the sample after removal from appa-
ratus (g)
M1 is the mass of the sample before deposition of the
weld (g).
While the above-described method uses mercury for
the collection of diffusible hydrogen, the Japanese
Industrial Standard JIS-Z-3113 uses glycerine and the
German standard DIH 8572 uses paraffin. The Japanese
method of measuring hydrogen under glycerine as
applicable to submerged-arc welds is described in
Chapter 4. AWS also are averse to the use of mercury,
as they consider it a potential health hazard, and are
working on a standard based on glycerine. The French
standard (NFA-A-81-305) uses mercury as a collecting
liquid but the quantity of hydrogen is linked to the total
fused metal (i.e. weld deposit plus fused base metal).
In this method, therefore, one must determine the
weight of fused metal. To do this, the fused metal cross-
section area together with the deposited metal is
measured on the ends of the sample and the weight of
the deposited metal multiplied by the average ratio:
Wt. of fused Wt. of weld fused metal area
_ x
metal area deposit deposited metal area
When the other m e t h o d s are used, it becomes
necessary to calibrate them against the ISO procedure.
The IIW (International Institute of Welding) has
established the following correlation between the
glycerine and mercury methods:
H - K , x 0.79-1.73
g1 H
g
Gas Chromatography Method
Gas chromatography is an instrumental analytical
method, developed in Japan, by which a gas mixture is
separated through separation columns containing an
absorbent. A thermal conductivity detector is also used
to measure the volume of separated gas by means of a
potentiometer. The method can be used within a wide
range of gas volume from 10~2 to 10 ml.
The diffusible hydrogen measurement m e t h o d
makes use of gas chromatography principle. First, the
test piece is surrounded by argon gas in the collector
vessel, then the hydrogen which is released is introduced
into a thermal conductivity detector by carrier gas.
This method may be used over a wide range of
diffusible hydrogen content from 10"1 to 102 ml/100 g.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 97

The IIW has recognised that the gas chromatography process. The radiographic soundness requirements for
method is as reliable as the mercury method for various classes of electrodes are as shown:
determining hydrogen in welds, and the results
obtained are nearly identical. With gas chromatography, AWS classification Radiographic standard
it is possible to measure very accurately even lower E6020
hydrogen contents than 2 ml/100 g, which is not E7015
possible with the mercury or the glycerine method. This E7016 Grade I
method is therefore ideally suited for welds deposited E7018
by the gas-shielded processes, such as MIG/C0 2 , in E7048
which the hydrogen levels can be extremely low. The
gas chromatography instrument is marketed by a E6010
Japanese firm, and it is very expensive. E6011
E6013
The residual hydrogen is determined on the same
E7014 Grade II
specimen after completing the measurement of
E7024
diffusible hydrogen.
E6027
The specimen is carefully cleaned with solvent to E7027
remove the last traces of the collecting fluid and E7028
transferred to the apparatus, which determines the
residual hydrogen by hot extraction in either vacuum E6012 Not required
or inert carrier gas. E6022
An extraction temperature of approximately 700° C
is recommended, while the extraction time depends on Grades I and II are based on the sizes and numbers
the dimensions of the specimen. The specimen can also of porosity and/or inclusions in 150 mm length of weld.
be fused, but in this case a somewhat higher level of They are illustrated and detailed in the AWS standard.
residual hydrogen may be recovered. Residual
hydrogen contents are also expressed in terms of either Fillet Weld Test
deposited metal or fused metal. This test, according to AWS A5.1, "is included as a
means of demonstrating the usability of an electrode.
This test is concerned with the appearance of the weld,
Chemical Composition Test i.e. weld surface contour and smoothness, undercut,
AWS A5.1 describes the procedure of obtaining overlap, size, and resistance to cracking. It also provides
samples of undiluted weld metal for chemical analysis. an excellent and inexpensive method of determining the
A weld pad, 40 x 40 x 13 mm in the case of 4 mm size adequacy of root penetration (one of the important
and 50 x 50 x 13 mm in the case of 6.3 mm size electrode usability considerations for an electrode)."
is built up on a mild steel plate. It is deposited in layers In this test, a fillet weld is deposited in a tee joint
in the flat position. The width of each pass in each layer between two plates 75 mm wide and 300 or 460 mm
is kept within one-and-half to two-and-half times the long, depending on the electrode. The welding is done
diameter of the core wire. in the horizontal, vertical upward or overhead position
After depositing each layer, the pad is immersed in as required. The whole length of the electrode is
water for 30 seconds and then dried before welding is consumed without interruption, leaving a stub end 50
resumed. The surface of each layer is thoroughly mm long. Examined visually, the test specimen shall be
cleaned. Samples are collected by drilling or any other free of cracks, overlap, trapped slag, and surface
mechanical means, their minimum distances from porosity, and shall be substantially free of undercut. An
surface of base plate being 6 mm. infrequent, short undercut, up to 0.8 mm depth is
allowed. A macro-section, 25 mm wide, is removed at a
Weld Soundness Test point approximately 25 mm ahead of the crater end. Its
This test involves radiographic examination of the surface is polished, etched and weld size, leg lengths,
all-weld test assembly, after removal of the backing strip and convexity (if the weld is convex) are determined to
and weld ripples or surface irregularities on both the the nearest 0.5 mm by actual measurement as shown in
face and the root of the weld by any suitable mechanical Fig. 3.18.
98 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Typical dimensional requirements are: throughout the entire length of the weld, provided that
at no point this lack of fusion exceeds 25% of the smaller
leg of the fillet."
Fillet weld Max. Max. difference
size convexity between
Deep Penetration Test
mm mm fillet leg lengths, mm
According to IS:814, deep penetration electrodes
4.0 1.2 1.2 c a r r y i n g the suffix, P m u s t meet the following
6.4 1.6 2.4 requirements:
8.0 2.0 3.2 a) The electrode must provide complete penetration
when deposited in two passes, one from each side, in a
The r e m a i n i n g t w o joint sections are b r o k e n close square butt joint between two plates of thickness
longitudinally through the fillet weld. The fractured equal to twice the core diameter of the electrode.
surfaces are visually examined and they should show b) The electrode must provide a minimum penetra-
no cracks. Lack of root fusion is assessed in the following tion of 4 mm beyond the root when it is deposited in a
manner: "Incomplete fusion at the root of the weld shall close square tee joint between two plates, each of thick-
not be greater than 20% of the total length of weld. There ness equal to twice the core diameter of the electrode,
shall be no continuous area of incomplete fusion greater in the flat and horizontal-vertical positions.
than 25 m m in length as m e a s u r e d along the c) From the butt joint welded as in (a), transverse
longitudinal weld axis, except for electrodes of the bend, tensile and impact specimens must be taken out
E6012, E6013, and E7014 classifications. Fillet welds and subjected to standard tests. The results are assessed
made with electrodes of the E6012, E6013, or E7014 in the same way as in the case of normal penetration
classifications m a y exhibit incomplete fusion electrodes.
As stated before, the deep penetration electrode has
been omitted in the 1976 edition of BS 639, since this
type is hardly used now and is no longer recognised in
ACTUAL THROAT
ISO documents. IS 814 is presently under revision, and
CONVEXITY it is expected that deep penetration electrodes will have
LEG OF no place in the new revision.
FILLET—i
THEORETICAL
Quality Control
THROAT
Specifications such as BS 639, IS 814 and AWS A5.1
specify quality control, testing and other requirements
that have to be satisfied by production batches of
SIZE OF
WELlP
electrodes. IS 814, for example, lays down requirements
in respect of the following:
SIZE OF
a) Tolerance on core wire diameter and length
WELD LEG OF FILLET b) Tolerance for flux covering
CONVEX FILLET c) Initial tests comprising:
i) All-weld tensile test
ii) All-weld impact test
THEORETICAL iii) Transverse tensile test
LEG OF T "
FILLET THROAT iv) Transverse bend test
v) Transverse impact test
vi) Test for determining the quantity of diffusible
SIZE OFl hydrogen for hydrogen controlled electrodes
WELC""^
only
SIZE OF.
d) Periodic check tests comprising all-weld tensile
WELD LEG OF
test and all-weld impact test
"FILLET"7
CONCAVE FILLET e) Production control
f) Packing and storage
Fig. 3.18: Dimensions of fillet welds in fillet weld test g) Test certificate

h) Marking on electrode or bundle or package. This
may include the ISI certification mark, whose signifi-
cance is explained as follows:
"The use of the ISI certification mark is governed by
the provisions of the Bureau of Indian Standards
(certification marks) Act and the rules and regulations
made thereunder. The ISI mark on products covered by
an Indian Standard conveys the assurance that they have
been produced to comply with the requirements of that
standard under a well-defined system of inspection,
testing and quality control, which is devised and
supervised by ISI and operated by the producer. ISI
marked products are also continuously checked by ISI
for conformity to that standard as a further safeguard.
Details of conditions under which a licence for the use
of the ISI certification m a r k m a y be g r a n t e d to
manufacturers or processors, may be obtained from the
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
LOW-ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODES
These electrodes are designed for the welding of low-
alloy steels commonly used in structurals, pipings,
pressure vessels, machinery, and in the form of castings.
They give weld deposits of steel containing small
amounts of alloying elements such as Mo, Cr, Ni and V,
which impart certain special properties to the weld
metal to match those of the base metal as closely as
possible. Weld metal chemistry usually differs markedly
from the composition of the base metal, though in some
cases they come close to each other.
Low-alloy steel electrodes cover a wide tensile range
from 480 N / m m 2 minimum to 830 N / m m 2 maximum.
They are mostly designed with basic low-hydrogen type
covering, with or without the addition of iron powder,
though electrodes in the lower tensile range may also
be made with cellulosic, rutile or acidic type coating.
The standard coverings employed for electrodes of vari-
ous tensile levels are indicated in the following AWS
specification.
The electrodes are normally designed with the
standard low-carbon rimming steel core wire and
alloyed flux covering. This gives the producer the
flexibility to manufacture a wide range of alloy-steel
electrodes, according to the market demand from just
one grade of core wire. Alloyed core wires are being
used by some producers, especially by companies
engaged in the p r o d u c t i o n of steels as well as
electrodes.
1) AWS A5.5-1996, "Specifications for low-alloy steel
electrodes for shielded metal arc welding"
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 99
This is the most comprehensive standard on the
subject among all national standards. The classification
system is the same as for mild steel electrodes, i.e., the
prefix E designates the electrode; the first two digits (or
three digits of a five-digit number) designate the
minimum tensile strength of the weld metal in 1,000
psi.
The third digit (or fourth digit of a five-digit number)
indicates the welding positions. The last two digits,
taken together, indicate the current conditions as well
as the coating type exactly as in the mild steel electrode
classification. In addition, a letter suffix such as Al, Bl,
Cl, etc., designates the chemistry of the deposited metal.
Each classification has to meet specific chemical analysis
as well as certain mechanical properties.
The standard divides the electrodes into nine major
groups as shown in Table 3.22 on the next page.
Mechanical Properties are given in Tables 3.23 and
3.24
2) IS: 1395-1982. "Low and medium alloy steel covered
electrodes for manual metal arc welding"
The standard covers five groups of electrodes
consisting of (a) carbon-molybdenum, (b) chrome-
molybdenum, (c) nickel, (d) manganese-molybdenum,
and (e) all other alloys. The classification starts with the
prefix E, followed by two digits which indicate the
minimum tensile strength of the weld metal as follows:
Digits 41 49 55 63 68 76 83
TS,min. MPa 410 490 550 630 680 760 830
Next comes a letter symbol indicating the type of
flux covering as follows:
Letter Covering type Letter Covering type
C Cellulosic O Oxidising
R Rutile (medium coated) B Basic
Then comes any of the letters A, B, C, D, G and M
followed by a digit a n d / o r a digit and a letter L to
indicate the chemical composition group and sub-group.
The letter L indicates carbon content less than 0.05%.
The lettering system is similar to the one used in AWS
A5.5, except for the following variations:
a) IS includes B6, B7 and B8, which stand for 5 Cr/
VL MO, 7 Cr/Vi Mo and 9 C r / 1 Mo respectively. AWS
standard has included these three types under stainless
steel electrodes in AWS A5.4, and coded them as E502,
E7Cr and E505 respectively.
b) IS does not include NM and D3.
c) In IS, G of the AWS standard is indicated as Gl.
 Table 3.22: Chemical composition requirements for undiluted weld metal, (Wt Per cent ■*)
8
AWS UNSa Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Additional Elements
classification numberd Type Amt.
i
Carbon-molybdenum-steel-electrodes s
3
E7010-A1 W17010 0.12 0.60 0.40 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65
%
E7011-A1 W17011 0.12 0.60 0.40 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65 6
E7015-A1 W17015 0.12 0.60 0.60 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65
E7016-A1 W17016 0.12 0.60 0.60 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65 i
E7018-A1 W17018 0.12 0.60 0.80 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65
E7020-A1 W17020 0.12 0.60 0.40 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65
i
X
E7027-A1 W17027 0.12 1.00 0.40 0.03 0.03 - - 0.40-0.65
5
E8016-B1 W51016 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.60 0.03 0.03 - 0.40-0.65 0.40-0.65 i
E8018-B1 W51018 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.80 0.03 0.03 - 0.40-0.65 0.40-0.65

E8016-B2 W52016 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.60 0.03 0.03 _ 0.40-0.65 0.40-0.65

E8018-B2 W52018 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.80 0.03 0.03 - 0.40-0.65 0.40-0.65

E7015-B2L W52115 0.05 0.90 1.00 0.03 0.03 _ 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.65

E7016-B2L W52116 0.05 0.90 0.60 0.03 0.03 - 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.65
E7018-B2L W52118 0.05 0.90 0.80 0.03 0.03 - 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.65

E7015-B3 W53015 0.05-0.12 0.90 1.00 0.03 0.03 _ 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20

E7016-B3 W53016 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.60 0.03 0.03 - 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20
E7018-B3 W53018 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.80 0.03 0.03 - 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20

E8015-B3L W53115 0.05 0.90 1.00 0.03 0.03 _ 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20

E8018-B3L W53116 0.05 0.90 0.80 0.03 0.03 - 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20

E8015-B4L W53415 0.05 0.90 1.00 0.03 0.03 - 1.75-2.25 0.40-0.65

E8016-B5 W51116 0.05 0.40-0.70 0.30-0.60 0.03 0.03 _ 0.40-0.60 1.00-1.25 0.05
E8015-B6e W50215 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
E8016-B6e W50216 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65

E8015-B61/ W50205 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
E8016-B61/ W50206 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
E8018-B6Le W50208 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65

E8015-B7e W50315 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
E8016-B7e W50316 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
E8018-B7e W50318 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING

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 Table 3.22: (Contd.) o

AWS UNSa C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Additional Elements o

classification number type o
m
a
z
Nickel-Steel Electrodes >
3D
O
E8016-C4 W21916 0.10 1.25 0.60 0.03 0.03 1.10-2.00
m
E8018-C4 W21918 0.10 1.25 0.80 0.03 0.03 1.10-2.00 i-
D
E9015-C5L W25018 0.05 0.40-1.00 0.50 0.03 0.03 6.00-7.25 Z
o
H
Nickel-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes m
o
E8018-NM1 W21118 0.10 0.80-1.25 0.60 0.02 0.02 0.80-1.10 0.10 0.40-0.65 V 0.02 O
Cu 0.10 o
-<
Al 0.05

Manganese-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes

E8018-D1 W18118 0.12 1.00-1.75 0.80 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45

E9015-D1 W19015 0.12 1.00-1.75 0.60 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45
E9018-D1 W19018 0.12 1.00-1.75 0.80 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45
E10015-D2 W10015 0.15 1.65-2.00 - 0.60 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45
E10016-D2 W10016 0.15 1.65-2.00 0.60 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45
E10018-D2 W10018 0.15 1.65-2.00 0.80 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.25-0.45
E8016-D3 W18016 0.12 1.00-1.80 0.60 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.40-0.65
E8018-D3 W18018 0.12 1.00-1.80 0.80 0.03 0.03 0.90 0.40-0.65
E8018-D3 W18018 0.12 1.00-1.80 0.80 0.03 0.03. 0.90 0.40-0.65

General Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes

EXX10-G 1.00 min 0.80 min 0.50 min 0.30 min 0.20 min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
EXX11-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
EXX13-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
EXX15-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
EXX16-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
EXX18-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
E7020-G l.OOmin 0.80min 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min
E7027-G - - l.OOmin 0.80min - - 0.50min 0.30min 0.20min V O.lOmin
Cu 0.20min

Military Similar Electrodes

E9018Mi W21218 0.10 0.60-1.25 0.80 0.030 0.030 1.40-1.80 0.15 0.35 V 0.05
E10018Mi W21318 0.10 0.75-1.70 0.60 0.030 0.030 1.40-2.10 0.35 0.25-0.50 V 0.05
E11018Mi W21418 0.10 1.30-1.80 0.80 0.030 0.030 1.25-2.50 0.40 0.25-0.50 V 0.05
E12018M1 W22218 0.10 1.30-2.25 0.60 0.030 0.Q30 1.75-2.50 0.30-1.50 0.30-0.55 V 0.05
E12018MU W23218 0.10 0.80-1.60 0.65 0.015 0.012 3.00-3.80 0.65 0.20-0.30 V 0.05

Pipeline Electrodes

E7010-P1 W17110 0.20 1.20 0.60 0.03 0.03 1.00 0.30 0.50 V 0.10

E8010-P1 W18110 0.20 1.20 0.60 0.03 0.03 1.00 0.30 0.50 V 0.10

Weathering Steel Electrode

E7018-W1J W20018 0.12 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.40 0.15-0.30 V 0.08
Cu 0.30-0.60
E8018-W2J W20118 0.12 0.50-1.30 0.35-0.80 0.03 0.03 0.40-0.80 0.45-0.70 Cu 0.30-0.75

Notes:
(a) Single values are maximum, except where specified otherwise, (b) Weld metal shall be analysed for those elements for which specific values are shown. Other element
listed without specified values shall be reported, if intentionally added. The total of these latter unspecified elements and all other elements not intentionally added shall n
exceed 0.50%. (c) The suffixes Al, B3, C3 etc. designate the chemical composition of the electrode classification, (d) SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and
Alloys, (e) The E8015-B6 and E8015-B6L electrodes were formerly classified as E502-15 in AWS A5.4-81, Specification for Covered Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
Chromium Nickel Steel Welding Electrodes. The E8016-B6 and E8016-B6L were formerly classified as E502-16 in A5.4-81. The E8018-B6 and E8018-B6L were not
formerly classified but were produced to the E502 composition ranges in A5.4-81 but with the EXX18 covering of this specification. Similarly, the E80XX-B7(L) classifi-
cations were formerly classified as E7Cr-XX in A5.4-81; and the E80XX-B8(L) classifications were formerly classified as E505-XX in A5.4-81. (f) The letter "XX" used in
the classification designation for EXX13-G in this table stand for various tensile-strength levels (80, 90,100,110 and 120 ksi) of weld metal, (g) The letters "XX" used in
the classification designations for all electrodes except EXX13-G in this table stand for the various tensile-strength levels (70, 80, 90,100,110 and 120 ksi) of electrodes, (h)
In order to meet the alloy requirements of the "G" group, the undiluted weld metal shall have the minimum of at least one of the elements listed in this table. Additional
chemical requirements may be agreed to between supplier and purchaser, (i) These classifications are intended to be similar to types of electrodes covered by MIL-E-2220
1 and MIL/E-22200/j. In AWS A5.5-81, E7018-W 1 was designated E7018-W, and E8018-W2 was designated E8018-W.
104 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

d) In IS, E9018-M, E10018-M, El 1018-M and E12018- The complete range of electrodes covered by the
M have been coded as E63 B-Ml, E68 B-M2, E76 B-M3 standard is indicated through the respective IS
and E83 B-M4 respectively. E12018-MI is excluded. classifications is given further in Table 3.25.
e) W is not included in IS. To explain the coding let us take the example
The next is a digit symbol indicating the positions in E55RB2L23Fe, which indicates the following character-
which the electrode can be used. istics:
Symbol Welding positions
1 All positions 3) BS 2493-1971, "Low-alloy steel electrodes for manual
2 All positions except vertical down metal-arc welding"
3 Flat butt, flat fillet, horizontal/vertical This standard deals with four groups of electrodes,
4 Flat butt, flat fillet namely, molybdenum, chromium-molybdenum, nickel
5 Similar to 3, and recommended for and manganese-molybdenum types.
vertical downward
Then comes the digit which indicates the current The electrode coding consists of two codes:
conditions as follows:
1) Composition code
mbol DC, polarity AC, min. • The symbol Mo for molybdenum steel electrodes
0 + • The symbol CrMo for chromium-molybdenum
1 + or- 50 steel electrodes with a prefix figure indicating the
2 - 50 chromium content
3 + 50 • The symbol Ni for nickel steel electrodes with a
4 + or- 70 prefix indicating the nickel content
5 - 70 • The symbol MnMo for manganese-molybdenum
6 + 70 steel electrodes
7 + or- 90
8 - 90
9 + 90 2) Covering code
• The letter B for basic type covering
Finally comes the suffix which indicates the presence • The letter R for rutile type covering
of iron powder and the metal recovery percentage: • The letter C for cellulosic type covering
For hydrogen-controlled electrodes the letter H and
Fe—Iron powder covering giving metal recovery of min.
for iron powder electrodes the letter J or K according to
110%
the definitions in BS1719, Part I, shall be added after
J—Iron powder covering giving a metal recovery of 110
the letter for the type of covering. The letter J indicates
to 130%
metal recovery (i.e. nominal electrode efficiency or
K—Iron powder covering giving a metal recovery of
deposition efficiency) of 110 to 130%. The letter K
130 to 150% indicates metal recovery of more than 130%. Since BS
L—Iron powder covering giving a metal recovery of 1719: Part I is obsolete, these suffixes as also the entire
over 150% coding system is due for revision.

E 55 R B2L 2 3 Fe
Iron powder electrode
Metal recovery 110% minimum
DC (+) or AC 50 V open-circuit voltage
All positions except vertical down
Weld metal composition 0.05 max. C/1.0-1.5 Cr/0.40-0.65 Mo
Rutile coated electrode
Minimum tensile strength 550 MPa
Electrode for manual metal-arc welding
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 0 5

Table 3.23: Tension test requirements a,b

Tensile strength Yield strength, at 0.2% offset Elongation
AWS classification ksi MPa ksi MPa Percent Postweld condition

E7010-P1 70 480 60 415 22 AW

E7010-A1 70 480 57 390 22 PWHT
E7010-G 70 480 57 390 22 AW or PWHT
E7011-A1 70 480 57 390 22 PWHT
E7011-G 70 480 57 390 22 AW or PWHT
E7015-X 70 480 57 390 25 PWHT
E7015-B2L 75 520 57 390 19 PWHT
E7015-G 70 480 57 390 25 AW or PWHT
E7016-X 70 480 57 390 25 PWHT
E7016-B2L 75 520 57 390 19 PWHT
E7016-G 70 480 57 390 25 Aw or PWHT
E7018-X 70 480 57 390 25 PWHT
E7018-B2L 75 520 57 390 19 PWHT
E7018-C3L 70 480 57 390 25 AW
E7018-W1 70 480 60 415 25 AW
E7018-G 70 480 57 390 25 AW or PWHT
E7020-A1 70 480 57 390 25 PWHT
E7020-G 70 480 57 390 25 AW or PWHT
E7027-A1 70 480 57 390 25 PWHT
E7027-G 70 480 57 390 25 AW or PWHT
E8010-P1 80 550 67 460 19 AW
E8010-G 80 550 67 460 19 AW or PWHT
E8011-G 80 550 67 460 19 AW or PWHT
E8013-G 80 550 67 460 16 AW or PWHT
E8015-X 80 550 67 460 19 PWHT
E8015-B3L 80 550 67 460 17 PWHT
E8015-G 80 550 67 460 19 AW or PWHT
E8016-X 80 550 67 460 19 PWHT
E8016-C3 80 550 68 to 80 470 to550 24 AW
E8016-C4 80 550 67 460 19 AW
E8016-G 80 550 67 460 19 AW or PWHT
E8018-X 80 550 67 460 19 PWHT
E8018-B3L 80 550 67 460 17 PWHT
E8018-C3 80 550 68 to 80 470 to 550 24 AW
E8018-C4 80 550 67 460 19 AW
E8018-NM1 80 550 67 460 19 AW
E8018-W2 80 550 67 460 19 AW
E8018-G 80 550 67 460 19 AW or PWHT
E9010-G 90 620 77 530 17 AW or PWHT
E9011-G 90 620 77 530 17 AW or PWHT
E9013-G 90 620 77 530 14 AW or PWHT
E9015-X 90 620 77 530 17 PWHT
E9016-G 90 620 77 530 17 AW or PWHT
E9016-X 90 620 77 530 17 PWHT
E9016-G 90 620 77 530 17 AW or PWHT
E9018M 90 620 78 to 90 550 to 620 24 AW
E9018-X 90 620 77 530 17 PWHT
E9018-G 90 620 77 530 17 AW or PWHT
E10010-G 100 690 87 600 16 AW or PWHT
106 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.23:(Contd.)
AWS classification ksi MPa ksi MPa Per cent Postweld condition
E100U-G 100 690 87 600 16 AW or PWHT
E10013-G 100 690 87 600 16 AW or PWHT
E10015-X 100 690 87 600 16 PWHT
E10015-G 100 690 87 600 16 AW or PWHT
E10018M 100 690 88 to 100 610 to 690 16 AW
E10018-X 100 690 87 600 16 PWHT
E10018-G 100 690 87 600 16 AW or PWHT
E11010-G 110 760 97 670 15 AW or PWHT
E11011-G 110 760 97 670 15 AW or PWHT
E11013-G 110 760 97 670 13 AW or PWHT
E11015-G 110 760 97 670 15 AW or PWHT
E11016-G 110 760 97 670 15 AW or PWHT
E11018-G 110 760 97 670 15 AW or PWHT
E11018M 110 760 98 to 110 680 to 760 20 AW
E12010-G 120 830 107 740 14 AW or PWHT
E12011-G 120 830 107 740 14 AW or PWHT
E12013-G 120 830 107 740 11 AW or PWHT
E12015-G 120 830 107 740 14 AW or PWHT
E12016-G 120 830 107 740 14 AW or PWHT
E12018-G 120 830 107 740 14 AW or PWHT
E12018M 120 830 108 to 120 745 to 830 18 AW
E12018M1 120 830 108 to 120 745 to 830 18 AW
Notes:
(a) See Table 5 for sizes to be tested.
(b) Single values are minimum, except as othenoise specified.
(c) The letter suffix "X" as used in this table represents the suffixes (A1,B1, B2, etc.) except for those classification which are tested in the as-welded condition.
(d) "AW" signifies as-welded with aging when it is specified in 11.2, "PWHT" signifies postzueld heat treated as specified in 8.4.2 and in Table 7, except
that the "G" designated classifications, marked as "AW or PWHT" in this table, may have weld metal tested with or without PWHT as agreed between the
supplier and purchaser. For 3/32 in. (2.4 mm) electrodes, the upper value for the yield strength may be 5 ksi (35 MPa) higher than the indicated value.

Table 3.24: Charpy V-Notch impact requirements

Limits for 3 out of 5 Specimens0
AWS _*assification Average, min.1 Single Value, min.b
E7018-W1 20ft.lbfatO°F 15ftlbfatO°F
E8018-W2 (27J at -18°C) (20J at -18°C)
E12018M1 50ft.lbfatO°F 40ft.lbfatO°F
(67J at -18°C) (54J at -18°C)
E7010-P1 20ft.lbfat20°F 15 ft. lbfat20°F
E8010-P1 (27J at -29°C) (20J at -29°C)
E8018-NM1
E8016-C3 20ft.lbfat40°F 15 ft. lbfat40°F
E8018-C2 (27J at -40°C) (20J at -40°C)
E8016-D3, E8018-D1
E8018-D3, E9015-D1
E9018-D1, E9018-D3 20ft.lbfat60°F a 15 ft. lbfat60°F
E10015-D2, E10016-D2 (27J at -51°C) (20J at -51°C)
E10018-D2
E7018-C3L
E8016-C4 E818-C4
Table 3.24 Contd.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 0 7

Table 3.24: (Contd.)

Limits for 3 out of 5 Specimens0

AWS Classification Average, min.b Single Value, min.b

E9018-M,E10018M 20ft.lbf at 60 °F 15 ft. lbf at 60 °F

E11018M,E12018M (27J at -51°C) (20J at -51°C)
E8016-C1 20ft.lbf at 75 °Fa 15 ft. lbf at 75 °Fa
E8018-C1 (27J at -59°C) (20J at -59°C)
E7015-C1L
E7016-C1L 20ft.lbfatl00°F a 15 ft. lbf at 100 °Fa
E7018-C1L (27J at -73°C) (20J at -73°C)
E8016-C2
E8018-C2
E7015-C2L
E7016-C2L 20ft.lbfatl50°F a 15 ft. lbf at 150 °Fa
E7018-C2L (27J at -10PC) (20Jat-101°C)
E9015-C3L 20ft.lbfatl75°F a 15 ft. lbf at 175 °Fa
(27J at -115°C) (20J at -115°C)

EXXXX-A1
EXXXX-BX
EXXXX-BXL Not specified Not specified
EXXXX-C
Notes :
a. These classifications are tested in the postweld heat treated conditions. No thermal treatment shall be performed on the test specimens ofall other classifications.
b. Impact test values shall be recorded to "nearest whole unit" of energy absorbed in foot-pounds in accordance with the rounding-off method specified
in ASTME29
c. Both the highest and the lowest test values obtained shall be disregarded in computing the average value. Two of these three remaining values shall
equal or exceed the minimum average value listed; one of these three remaining values may be lower than minimum average value, but shall not be less than
the minimum single value listed. The average of the three remaining values shall not be less than the minimum average value listed.

Table 3.25: Range of low-alloy electrode classification in IS 1395

Group I Group II Group III Group IV Group V
C-Mo Cr-Mo Ni Mn-Mo All other alloys

E49C-A1 E55 R-Bl E55 B-Cl E63 B-Dl EX C - G l

E49 R - A l E55 B-Bl E55 B-C2 E68 B-D2 EXR-G1
E49 O - A l E55 R-B2 E55B-C3 ExO-Gl
E49 B-Al E55 R-B2L EXB-G1
E55 B-B2 E63 B-Ml
E55 B-B2L E68 B-M2
E63 R-B3 E76 B-M3
E63 B-B3L E83 B-M4
E63 B-B3
E63 R-B3L
E55 B-B4
E55 B-B4L
E55 B-B5
E55 B-B5L
E41 R-B6
E41 B-B6
E41 R-B7
E41 B-B7
E41 R-B8
E41 B-B8
Note: The letters X under Group V stand to show the strength levels of various electrode types.
108 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

The codings, equivalent AWS classifications, and
weld deposit compositions are specified as shown in
Table 3.26.
Mechanical properties on all-weld specimens must
be in accordance with those specified in Table 3.27.
The values given in Table 3.27 are specified for all-
weld test specimens that have been heat-treated in
accordance with the conditions given in Table 3.28.
Values for welded joints in actual fabrications require
separate consideration.
Testing and Quality Control
AWS A5.5 stipulates chemical analysis of weld metal,
soundness test involving radiography, all-weld tension
test, impact test, fillet weld test, and coating moisture test.
A common test assembly is prepared for soundness
test, all-weld tension test and impact test. Electrodes
under test have to be used in the as-received condition,
except for low-hydrogen electrodes (classes EXX15-X,
EXX16-X and EXX18-X). Low-hydrogen electrodes must
be dried at 260 to 427°C for two hours immediately prior
to testing. During welding of the assembly, preheat and
interpass temperature as indicated in Table 3.30 for the
respective electrode class has to be maintained. After
completion of welding, the assembly has to be stress-
relieved for one hour at the temperatures indicated in
the table. Radiography for the soundness test may be
carried out before or after stress-relief, but tension and
impact tests have to be carried out after stress-relief.
The following classes are subjected to tension and
impact tests in the as-welded condition:
E7010-G, E7018-W, E8010-G, E8016-C3, E8018-C3,
E8018-NM, E8018-W.E9010-G, E9018-M, E10018-M,
E11018-M, E12018-M, E12018-M1
Radiographic requirements are as shown in Table
3.31.
Coating moisture test: This test has been described
fully in AWS A5.1 and AWS A5.5. The method consists
of passing oxygen over the sample of flux coating
(approximately 4 g) in a nickel boat placed in a high-
temperature ceramic type combustion tube, which is
then heated to approximately 1,000° C. Liberated water
is collected in a weighed absorption U-tube filled with
anhydrous magnesium perchlorate and weight of water

Table 3.26: Coding of low alloy steel electrodes as per BS 2493

Composition Nearest Chemical composition
code and equipment
covering AWS Si Mn Ni Cr Mo S P
code classification max. max. max. max.
min. max. mm. max. mm. max. mm. max.
Molybdenum Steel Electrodes
MoB* E70XX-A1 0.10 0.50 0.75 1.20 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
MoC E70XX-A1 0.10 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
MoR E70XX-A1 0.10 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
Chromium-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes
lCrMo B* E80XX-B2 0.10 0.50 0.75 1.20 1.0 1.5 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
lCrMo R— 0.10 0.30 0.35 1.0 1.5 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
2CrMo B* E90XX-B3 0.10 0.50 0.75 1.20 2.0 2.5 0.90 1.20 0.035 0.030
2CrMo R — 0.10 0.30 0.35 2.0 2.5 0.90 1.20 0.035 0.030
5CrMo B E502 0.10 0.50 0.50 1.00 4.0 6.0 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
7CrMo B E7Cr 0.10 0.60 0.50 1.00 6.0 8.0 0.40 0.70 0.035 0.030
9CrMoB E505 0.10 0.60 0.50 1.00 8.0 10.0 0.90 1.20 0.035 0.030
Nickel Steel Electrodes
1MB E80XX-C3 0.10 0.80 1.20 0.80 1.10 0.35 0.030 0.030
2NiB E80XX-C1 0.10 0.80 1.20 2.00 2.75 0.030 0.030
3NiB E80XX-C2 0.10 0.80 1.20 2.80 3.50 0.030 0.030
Manganese-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes
MnMoB E90XX-D1 0.10 0.80 1.20 1.80 0.25 0.45 0.035 0.030
*The Mn : Si ratio shall be at least 2:1.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 0 9

Table 3.27: Mechanical properties as per BS 2493

Composition Tensile 0.2% proof Elongation (min.) Average (min.) of three
code strength (min.) stress (min.) for gauge length impact values
L0 = 5.65OS0, i.e. 5d
N/mm2 N/mm2 % J
Mo 490 400 22
lCrMo 560 470 17
2CrMo 630 540 15
5CrMo 415 210 20
7CrMo 415 210 20
9CrMo 415 210 20
INi 560 470 17 30 at-^0±l°C
2Ni 560 470 17 30 at—60±1°C
3Ni 560 470 17 30 at—75±1°C
MnMo 630 540 15 30 at—50 ±1°C

Table 3.28: Heat treatment conditions as per BS 2493

Composition Minimum Maximum Post-weld tempering conditions
code pre-heating interpass
temperature temperature Temperature range Time at temperature
°C °C °C h
Mo 100 200 630 to 670 1
lCrMo 100 200 630 to 670
2CrMo 200 300 670 to 710
5CrMo 200 300 840 to 870*
7CrMo 200 300 840 to 870*
9CrMo 200 300 840 to 870*
INi 50 100 None None
2Ni 100 150 590 to 620 1
3Ni 100 150 590 to 620 1
MnMo 100 200 600 to 640
* Furnace cool at rate not exceeding 55°C per hour down to 575°C and air cool

Table 3.29: Base metal for weld test assemblies

AWS classification Base metals ASTM specification UNS number*

All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade 1015 or equiv. G10150
All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade 1020 or equiv. G10200
All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade D or equiv. K02702
All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade A or equiv. K01700
All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade B or equiv. K02200
All except E(X)XXYYM(1) Carbon steel A29 Grade C or equiv. K02801
All Carbon steel A36 or equivalent. K02600
All Carbon steel A131 Grade B or equiv. K02102
*SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
110 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
determined by the increase in the weight of the U-tube.
The moisture content is expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the coating. The laboratory apparatus used
for this test is shown in Fig. 3.19.
The limits of coating moisture content permissible
in the case of low-hydrogen electrodes of various classes
are given in Table 3.32.
BS:2493 specifies chemical analysis, all-weld tensile
and impact tests, longitudinal bend test and fillet weld
test. Tensile and impact test assembly as well as the
longitudinal bend test piece have to be subjected to
preheating, interpass t e m p e r a t u r e , and p o s t w e l d
tempering conditions as shown in Table 3.30.
It must be noted that while the AWS standard refers
to the postweld heat treatment of low-alloy steel
w e l d m e n t s as stress-relief, the BS refers to it as
tempering, thus implying that the resulting changes are
not only mechanical but also metallurgical.
IS:1395 includes chemical analysis, radiographic test
all-weld tensile and impact tests, moisture content test
and fillet weld test. Impact tests are required only for
E55 B-Cl, E55 B-C2, E55 B-<:3, E63 B-DI, E68 B-D2,
E63 BMI, E68 B-M2, E76 B-M3 and E83 B-M4 classes. A
few classes are exempted from radiographic test.
All the three above-mentioned standards specify also
the tolerances on electrode size a n d length, on
concentricity of coating, and on the exposed core at the
striking and grip ends. They also refer to requirements
of packing, marking or labelling and identification. The
SPRAY TRAP
If
Fig. 3.19: Apparatus for determining moisture in flux coating
producer or supplier is expected to guarantee that the
electrodes in all sizes conform to the specification. On
the important question of quality control of electrode
production, BS 2493 lays down the following:
"The manufacturer's quality control system shall
e n s u r e that all electrodes s u p p l i e d satisfy the
requirements of this standard. The system shall provide
for the ready detection of discrepancies and for timely
and positive corrective action. The system shall provide
records such that the identification number of each batch
of electrodes shall p r o v i d e references to the
manufacturer's own documented records. From these,
certificates may be available, showing the results of the
various tests and inspections that were performed on
that batch of electrodes during manufacture.
"Tests and inspections shall be performed during
manufacture, so that continuous quality control of
production is maintained and any departure from the
accepted quality will be immediately detected. From
each batch of electrodes, a sufficient quantity of finished
electrodes shall be taken to allow execution of the quality
control tests."
BS 2493 refers to initial tests comprising chemical
analysis, all-weld tensile and impact tests, longitudinal
bend tests and fillet weld tests, to which low-alloy steel
electrodes must be subjected. It further states that the
producer must be able to guarantee that the electrodes
in current production are capable of satisfying all the
test requirements.
"SCHWARTZ" TYPE
ANHYDROUS MAGNESIUM
PERCHLORATE
ABSORPTION TUBE
OXYGEN
FLOW METER
W
^ C0NC. H 2 S0 4
DRYING TOWER
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 111

IMMt 3.30: Preheat, interpass, and postweld heat treatment temperatures

Preheat and interpass temperatures Postweld heat treatment temperatures
AWS classification op oC °F °C
E7010-A1
E70U-A1
E7015-A1
E7016-A1
E7018-A1
E7020-A1
E7027-A1
E8018-D1
200 to 225 93 to 107 1150 ± 25 620 ± 14
E9015-D1
E9018-D1
E10015-D2
E10016-D2
E10018-D2
E8016-D3
E8018-D3
E9018-D3 /
E8016-B1
E8018-B1 \
E8015-B2
E8016-B2
E8018-B2
E7015-B2L
E7016-B2L
325 to 375 163 to 191 1275 ± 25 690 ± 14
E7018-B2L >
E9015-B3
E9016-B3
E9018-B3
E8015-B3L
E8018-B3L
E8015-B4L
L
E8015-B6
E8016-B6
E8018-B6
E8015-B6L
E8016-B6L
E8018-B6L
350 to 450 177 to 232 1375 ± 25 740 ± 14
E8015-B7
E8016-B7
E8018-B7
E8015-B7L
E8016-B7L
E8018-B7L
Table 3.30 Contd.
112 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.30: (Contd.)

Preheat and interpass temperatures Postweld heat treatment temperatures
AWS classification op oC op oQ

E8015-B8
E8016-B8
E8018-B8
400 to 500 205 to 260 1375 ± 25 740 ± 14
E8015-B8L
E8016-B8L
E8018-B8L

E9015-B9
E9016-B9 450 to 550 232 to 288 1375 ± 25 740 ± 14
E9018-B9

E8016-C1
\
E8018-C1
E7015-C1L
E7016-C1L
E7018-C1L
200 to 225 93 to 107 1125 ± 25 605 ± 14
E8016-C2
E8018-C2
E7015-C2L
E7016-C2L
E7018-C2L
/
E9015-C5L 200 to 225 93 to 107 1125 ± 25 605 ± 14

E8010-G
E8011-G \
E8013-G
E9010-G
E9011-G
E9013-G
E10010-G
E10011-G 325 to 375 163 to 191 See Note a
E10013-G
E11010-G
E11011-G
E11013-G
E12010-G
E12011-G
E12013-G /

Table 3.30 Contd.

 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 113

Table 3.30: (Contd.)

Preheat and interpass temperatures Postweld heat treatment temperatures
AWS classification op oQ op oQ

E7010-G
E7011-G
E7015-G
E7016-G
E7018-G
E7020-G
E7027-G
E8015-G
E8016-G
E8018-G
E9015-G
E9016-G
E9018-G 200 to 225 93 to 107 See Note a
E10015-G
E10016-G
E10018-G
E11015-G
E11016-G
E11018-G
E12015-G
E12016-G
E12018-G /
E7010-P1
E7018-C3L
v
E7018-W1
E8016-C3
E8018-C3
E8016-C4
E8018-C4
E8018-NM1 200 to 250 93 to 121 Not Specifiedb
E8018-W2
E9018M
E10018M
E11018M
E12018M
E12018M1
E8010-P1 / 325 to 375 163 to 191 Not specifiedb
Notes:
a. The need and specific valuesforpostweld heat treatment ofweld test assemblies made with these "G" electrodes shall be as agreed between supplier
b. Postweld heat treatment is not required for those classifications listed as "as-welded" in Table 3.23
114 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.31: Radiographic requirements as per AWS A5.5 IS 1395 stipulates the tests to be performed under
(a) initial testing, (b) periodic checking and (c)
AWS classification3 Radiographic standard bc production control. Radiographic test requirements,
EXX15-X, EXX16-X, Grade 1 impact test requirements, covering moisture content
EXX18-X, E7020-X requirements and preheat and stress-relief temperatures
EXX18M, E12018M1 indicated in the standard are similar to those given in
EXX10-X, EXX11-X, Grade 2 AWS A5.5. The methods of moisture determination
XX13-G, E7027-X given in the AWS and Indian standards are identical.
Notes:
a. The letters "XX" used in the classification designations in this table, STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODES
stand for the various strength levels (70, 80, 90, 100,110 and 120) of elec-
trodes. The letter suffix "X" as used in this table stands for the suffixes Al, Stainless steel (S.S.) electrodes are normally used for
Bl, B2 etc. (see Table 2). the welding of corrosion-resisting and heat-resisting Cr
b. See Figure 6. Refer radiographic acceptance standards of AWS A5.5
c. The radiographic soundness obtainable under actual industrial con- and Cr-Ni steels in the form of plates, tubes and castings.
ditions employedfor the various electrode classification is discussed in A6.10.1 Some of them are used also for the welding of austenitic
in the Annexere of AWS A5.5 standards. manganese steel, stainless steel-clad plates and

Table 3.32: Moisture content limits in electrode coverings

AWS classification Electrode designation3 Limit of moisture content, % by wt.max
As-received or reconditionedb As exposedc
E7015-X E7015-X,E7015-X-HZ
E7016-X E7016-X,E7016-X-HZ 0.4 Not specified
E7018-X E7018-X,E7018-X-HZ

E7015-X E7015-X,R,E7015-X-HZR
E7016-X E7016-X,R,E7016-X-HZR 0.3 0.4
E7018-X E7018-X,R,E7018-X-HZR

E8015-X E8015-X,E8015-X-HZ
E8016-X E8016-X,E8016-X-HZ 0.2 Not specified
E8018-X E8018-X,E8018-X-HZ

E8015-X E7015-X,R,E7015-X-HZR
E8016-X E7016-X,R,E7016-X-HZR 0.2 0.4
E8018-X E7018-X,R,E7018-X-HZR

E9015-X E9015-X,E9015-X-HZ
E9016-X E9016-X,E9016-X-HZ 0.15 Not specified
E9018-X E9018-X,E9018-X-HZ
E9018M E9018M,E9018M-HZ

E9015-X E9015-X,R,E9015-X-HZR
E9016-X E9016-X,R,E9016-X-HZR 0.15 0.4
E9018-X E9018-X,R,E9018-X-HZR
E9018M E9018M-R,E9018M-HZ

E10015-X E10015-X,E10015-X-HZR
E10016-X E10016-X,E10016-X-HZR 0.15 Not specified
E10018-X E10018-X,E10018-X-HZR
E10018M E10018M-E10018M-HZ
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 115

E10015-X E10015-X,R,E10015-X-HZR
E10016-X E10016-X,R,E10016-X-HZR
E10018-X E10018-X,R,E10018-X-HZR 0.15 0.4
E10018M E10018M-R,E10018M-HZ

E10015-G E10015-G,E10015-X-HZR
E10016-G E10016-G-E10016-X-HZR
0.15 Not specified
E10018-G E10018-G,E10018-X-HZR
E10018M E10018M-R,E10018M-HZ

E10015-G E10015-G-R,E10015-X-HZR
E10016-G E10016-G-R,E10016-X-HZR
0.15 0.4
E10018-G E10018-G-R,E10018-X-HZR
E10018M E10018M-R,E10018M-HZ

E12015-G E12015-G,E12015-G-HZ
E12016-G E12016-G,E12016-G-HZ
0.15 Not specified
E12018-G E12018-G,E12018-G-HZ
E12018M E12018M,E12018M-HZ

E12015-G E12015-G-R,E12015-G-HZ
E12016-G E12016-G-R,E12016-G-HZ 0.15 0.4
E12018-G E12018-G-R,E12018-G-HZ
E12018M E12018M-R,E12018M-HZ

E12018M1 E12018M1,E12018M1-HZ 0.10 Not specified

E12018M1 E12018M1-R,E12018M1-HZR 0.10 0.4

Notes:
a. 'HZ' in the designation stands for optional Hydrogen designator, where 'Z' stands for 4, 8 or 16 ml ofH2 per 100 g of weld metal, when tested in
accordance with one of the methods given in ANSI/AWS A 4.3. 'R' designates that the electrodes has meet the requirements ofABS moisture test.
b. The electrodes to be tested without reconditioning unless manufacturer recommends otherwise. If electrodes are conditioned, the method used, time
and temperature to be recorded.
c. The electrode samples shall be exposed in a suitably calibrated and controlled environmental chamber for 9 hours minimum at 26:7°C (+2.8, -0) and
80% RM.

dissimilar metal combinations, and for applying This is a very exhaustive standard covering 43 classes
stainless steel sheet linings to carbon steel shells. with chromium in the weld deposit ranging from 4.0 to
Austenitic stainless steel types are often preferred for 32.0% and nickel from nil to 37%. As mentioned earlier,
the welding of critical structures of carbon steel or low-
5 CrMo, 7 CrMo and 9 CrMo types, which have been
alloy steels (as for example, armoured tanks), because placed by the IS and BS under low-alloy steel groups,
of the superior mechanical properties of their weld have been included in this standard.
deposits. Moreover, use of austenitic steel weld metal In this standard, the electrodes are classified on the
in welding of difficult-to-weld steels of large thicknesses
basis of the chemistry and mechanical property require-
under heavy restraint helps prevent hydrogen-induced ments of the weld metal (see Tables 3.33 and 3.34) and
cracking, even when preheating is avoided or used to a the type of current used for welding. The classification
limited degree. This is explained in detail under system consists of suffix letter E (to indicate an
Weldability of Steels, Chapter 10. electrode), followed by various com-binations of digits
and letters to indicate the chemical composition of weld
1) AWS A5.4-92. "Specification for corrosion-resistingmetal as shown in Table 3.33, which are further followed
chromium and chromium-nickel steel covered welding by -15, -16, -17, -25 and -26 to indicate the type of
electrodes" covering type of current and welding position.
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E385-XX W88904 0.03 19.5-21.5 24.0-26.0 4.2-5.2 1.0-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.02 - 1.2-2.0
E410-XX W41010 0.12 11.0-13.5 0.7 0.75 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E410NiMo-XX W41016 0.06 11.0-12.5 4.0-5.0 0.40-0.70 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E430-XX W43010 0.10 15.0-18.0 0.6 0.75 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E502-XX h W50210 0.10 4.0-6.0 0.4 0.45-0.65 1.0 0.04 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E505-XX h W50410 0.10 8.0-10.5 0.4 0.85-1.20 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E630-XX W37410 0.05 16.00-16.75 4.5-5.0 0.75 0.25-0.75 0.75 0.04 0.03 - 3.25-4.00
E16-8-2-XX W36810 0.10 14.5-16.5 7.5-9.5 1.0-2.0 0.5-2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 - 0.75
E7Cr-XX h W50310 0.10 6.0-8.0 0.4 0.45-0.65 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 - 0.75
E2209-XX W39209 0.04 21.5-23.5 8.5-10.5 2.5-3.5 0.5-2.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 0.08-0.20 0.75
E2553-XX W39553 0.06 24.0-27.0 6.5-8.5 2.9-3.9 0.5-1.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 0.10-0.25 1.5-2.5

Notes:
a) Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in the table. If however, the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of routine analysis, further
analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements, except iron, is not present in excess of 0.50 per cent.
b) Single values are maximum percentages.
c) Classification suffix-XX may be -15, -16, -17, -25 or -26, See Section A8 of the Appendix for an explanation.
d) SAF /ASTM Unified Number System for Metals and Alloys.
e) Vanadium shall be 0.15 to 0.30 per cent.
f) Titanium shall be 015 percent max.
g) Tungsten shall be from 1.25 to 1.75 per cent.
h) This grade also will appear in the next revision ofAWS A5.5, Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding. It will be deleted from A5.4 at the first revision
of A5.4 following publication of the revised A5.5.
118 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.34: Mechanical property requirements for all-weld metal as per AWS A5.4
AWS Tensile strength, min Elongation in 2 in. gauge Heat treatment
classification ksi MPa length, min. %
E209-xx 100 690 15 None
E219-xx 90 620 15 None
E240-xx 100 690 15 None
E307-XX 85 590 30 None
E308-XX 80 550 35 None
E308H-XX 80 550 35 None
E308L-XX 75 520 35 None
E308Mo-XX 80 550 35 None
E308MoL-XX 75 520 35 None
E309-XX 80 550 30 None
E309L-XX 75 520 30 None
E309Cb-XX 80 550 30 None
E309Mo-XX 80 550 30 None
E309MoL-XX 75 520 30 None
E310-XX 80 550 30 None
E310H-XX 90 620 10 None
E310Cb-XX 80 550 25 None
E310Mo-XX 80 550 30 None
E312-XX 95 660 22 None
E316-XX 75 520 30 None
E316H-XX 75 520 30 None
E316L-XX 70 490 30 None
E317-XX 80 550 30 None
E317L-XX 75 520 30 None
E318-XX 80 550 25 None
E320-XX 80 550 30 None
E320LR-XX 75 520 30 None
E330-XX 75 520 25 None
E330H-XX 90 620 10 None
E347-XX 75 520 30 None
E349-XX 100 690 25 None
E383-XX 75 520 30 None
E385-XX 75 520 30 None
E410-XX 75 450 20 a
E410NiMo-XX 110 760 15 c
E430-XX 65 450 20 d
E502-XX 60 420 20 b
E505-XX 60 420 20 b
E630-XX 135 930 7 e
E16-8-2-XX 80 550 35 None
E7Cr-XX 60 420 20 b
E2209-XX 100 690 20 None
E2553-XX 110 760 15 None

Notes:
(a) Heat to 1350 to 140& F (730 to 76&C), hold for one hour, furnace cool at a rate ofl00°F (60>C) per hour to 60O>F (315°C) and air cool to ambient.
(b) Heat to 1550 to 160&F (840 to 870°C) hold for two hours, furnace cool at a rate not exceeding 10WF (55°C) per hour to 1100°F (595°C) and air cool to
ambient, (c) Heat to 1100 to 1150>F (595 to 620»C), hold for one hour and air cool to ambient, (d) Heat to 1400 to 145&F (760 to 790PC), hold for two hours,
furnace cool at a rate not exceeding 10&F (55°C) per hour to 1100°F (595°C) and air cool to ambient. (e)Heat to 1875 to 1925°F (1025 to 1050°C), hold for
one hour, and air cool to ambient, and then precipitation harden at 1135 to U65°F (610 to 630°C), hold for four hours, and air cool to ambient.

Classification as to Usability
Five basic usability classifications are provided in
this specification.
The type of covering applied to a core wire to make
a shielded metal arc welding electrode determines the
usability characteristics of the electrode. The following
discussion of covering types is based upon terminology
commonly used by the industry: no attempt has been
made to specifically deifne the composition of the
different covering types.
Usability Designation -15: The electrodes are usable
with deep (electrode positive) only. While use with
alternating current is sometimes accomplished, they are
not intended to qualify for use with this type of current.
Electrode sizes 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) and smaller may be
used in all positions of welding.
Usability Designation -16 : The covering for these
electrodes generally contains readily ionizing elements,
such as potassium, in order to stabilize the arc for
welding with ac Electrodes sizes 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) and
smaller may be used in all positions of welding.
Usability Designation - 17 : The covering of these
electrodes is a modification of the -16 covering in that
considerable silica replaces some of the titania of the -
16 covering. Since both the -16 and the - 17 electrode
coverings permit ac operation, both covering types were
classified as - 16 in the past because there was no
classification alternative untill this revision of ANSI/
AWS A5.4. However, the operational differences
between the two types have become significant enough
to warrant a separate classification.
On horizontal fillet welds, electrodes with a - 17
covering tend to produce more of a spray arc and a finer
rippled weld-bead surface than do those with the -16
coverings. A slower freezing slag of the - 17 covering
also permits improved handling characteristics when
employing drag technique. The bead shape on
horizontal fillets is typically flat to concave with - 17
covered electrodes as compared to flat to slightly convex
with -16 covered electrodes. When making fillet welds
in the vertical position with upward progression the
slower freezing slag of the - 17 covered electrodes
requires a slight weave technique to produce the proper
bead shape. For this reason, the minimum leg-size fillet
that can be properly made with a -17 covered electrode
is larger than that for a - 16 covered electrode. While
these electrodes are designed for all - position operation
electrode sizes 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) and larger are not
recommended for vertical or overhead welding.
Usability Designation - 25: This slag system is very
similar in composition and operating characteristics to
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 119
that of the -15 designation and so that description also
applies here. The electrode differs from the -15 type in
that the core wire may be of a substantially different
composition, such as mild steel, that may require a much
higher welding current. The additional alloys necessary
to obtain the required analysis are contained in the cov-
ering which will be of greater diameter than the corre-
sponding -15 type. These electrodes are recommended
for welding only in the flat and horizontal positions.
Usability Designation - 26: This slag system is very
similar in composition and operating characteristics to
that of the - 16 designation and so that description also
applies here. The electrode differs from the -16 type in
that the core wire may be of a substantially different
composition such as mild steel that may require a mach
higher welding current. The additional alloys necessary
to obtain the required analysis are contained in the
covering which will be of much larger diameter than
the corresponding - 16 type. These electrodes are
recommended for welding only in the flat and horizontal
positions.
In stainless steel electrodes, the core-wire chemistry
and weld-metal chemistry need not necessarily be
identical. For example, an E308 Mo (19/9/2.5 Mo)
electrode or an E310 (25/20) electrode may have 304
S.S. type (18/8) core wire and flux covering alloyed with
requisite proportions of chromium, and nickel, and with
molybdenum if necessary. Hence, it would be incorrect
to verify an electrode class by analysing its core-wire
chemistry: one must get at the undiluted all-weld metal
and determine its composition. •
Three types of flux coverings are generally used as
shown in Table 3.35.
The lime-type works only on DC+, hence it carries
the AWS designation-15. Since the lime slag is viscous,
the bead is more convex, and the electrode can be used
in the vertical down position also. The titania type works
on AC and DC and carries the designation-16. The slag
is fluid and hence the weld bead is flat or concave. The
bead flatness minimises final surface grinding, but then
the electrode is a little more difficult to operate in V and
OH positions. The lime-titania type is a compromise
between the two, and may carry -15 or -16 designation
depending on the particular brand.
In Table 3.33, a few classes carry suffix L, which
indicates that the carbon content in the deposit is
restricted to 0.04% maximum, in order to obtain
resistance to intergranular corrosion caused by carbide
precipitation, which can occur when the carbon content
is higher and the welded joint is exposed to corrosive
media in service. The same end can be achieved by a
120 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.35: Chemical constituents of flux coverings

Covering type CaC0 3 CaF2 Ti02 NaSiO. KSi04 Alloy + other
4
ingredients
Lime 37 33 3 15 12
Lime-titania 30 15 25 5 10 15
Titania 25 20 35 15 5

slight reduction in the carbon level (from 0.15 maximum
to 0.12 maximum) and addition of columbium (also
called niobium) as a stabiliser. Some of the columbium-
stabilised classes carry the suffix Cb. Titanium can also
serve as a stabiliser and is sometimes used in stabilised
S.S. wrought materials. But it cannot be used in
electrodes, because TI gets oxidised in its passage across
the arc. The phenomenon of intercrystalline corrosion
and the mechanism by which C and Cb affect it will be
explained in Chapter 10 while discussing the weldability
of stainless steels. It may be mentioned here that the
low-carbon alloy is not so strong at elevated tempera-
ture, as the Cb-stabilised alloy.
Two classes carry suffix H, indicating high carbon
content. These are meant for the welding of high alloy,
heat and corrosion resistant castings of the same general
composition.
Stainless steel electrodes get rapidly overheated
during welding, hence the recommended welding
currents are about 20 to 30% lower for a given size than
for ordinary mild steel electrodes. This is because of the
high electrical resistivity of stainless steels, which is
nearly 5-6 mil room temperature for martensitic and
ferritic steels and 7-8 mQ for austenitic steels as
compared to about 1-2 mil for mild steel. It is also for
the same reason that stainless steel electrodes are shorter
in length than ordinary steel electrodes.
The practice of using stainless steel electrodes on DC
with electrode positive is also based on sound technical
reasoning. In DC welding, there is high liberation of heat
at the anode, which helps to promote fusion of the
electrode, which would otherwise be slow due to the
low welding currents used. Since the workpiece is made
negative, less heat is generated on it and yet sufficient
penetration is obtained by virtue of the low thermal
conductivity of stainless steels.
Stainless steel electrodes are also manufactured with
the standard low-carbon unalloyed steel core wire, all
the alloying elements being incorporated in the coating.
Unlike normal stainless steel electrodes, which as
explained above have to be operated at low currents
due to the high electrical resistivity of the stainless steel
core, these synthetic electrodes can be operated at high
currents to obtain high deposition rates. However, the
weld deposit of these electrodes can have inconsistent
chemistry on the microscopic and sometimes
macroscopic scale, due to small variations in the coating
thickness or damage to the coating. Also during
welding, drops of ordinary steel given off as spatter can
adhere to the stainless base metal. Both these factors
can reduce the corrosion resistance of welded joint.
These types are therefore recommended only for joining
stainless steel to ordinary steel and for fabricating
stainless steel, which will be exposed to mild corrosion
conditions.Table 3.36 gives comparative data on
electrode sizes and recommended welding currents.
In Table 3.33 chromium-nickel types starting from
E307 down to E349 are austenitic stainless steel
electrodes. The rest are either ferritic or air-hardening
types.
Ferrite in Weld Deposits
Fully austenitic S.S. weld deposits are susceptible to
cracking or Assuring; electrode producer, therefore,

Table 3.36: Welding currents for different electrode types

E6013 type E308-16 E309Mo-16*
S.S. core wire
Size mm Amps Size mm Amps Size mm Amps
5x450 180-250 5x350 150-180 5x450 190-290
4x450 140-190 4x350 100-140 4x450 150-225
3.2 x 450 100-140 3.2 x 350 80-100 3.2 x 350 110-165
2.5x350 60-90 2.5 x 350 50-75 2.5 x 350 70-110
*This synthetic type gives 160% deposition efficienqj.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 121

introduce small controlled quantities of delta ferrite in mm for 6.4 mm size electrode. Minimum distance of
the austenitic by suitably modifying the weld metal sample from the surface of base plate must be 6.4, 8.0
chemistry. Austenite formation is encouraged by nickel, and 9.5 mm respectively. Pads which are too hard for
carbon and manganese. On the other hand, chromium, machining may be annealed as indicated under Table
molybdenum, silicon and columbium are known to be 3.34.
ferrite formers. Nitrogen inclusion lowers the ferrite 2) All-weld tension test
content appreciably. When the proportions of these For all-weld assembly, one may use steel of matching
elements are known, the amount of delta ferrite in the type or any structural/pressure vessel quality steel. In
weld metal can be determined by referring to Schaeffler the latter case, all the fusion faces and backing bar must
diagram or DeLong diagram or WRC-1992 diagram, be buttered with two layers of weld deposit from the
which will be explained in detail in Chapter 10. electrode under test.
Generally, ferrite in austenite is of help when the Some of the electrode classes require preheat and
welds are restrained and the joints are large. Ferrite interpass temperature to be maintained during the
increases the weld strength level. In most cases it has welding of test assembly as indicated:
no significant effect on corrosion resistance, except for
316 and 316L, where it can be detrimental in some media. Interpass temperature
It is generally regarded as detrimental to toughness in °C
cryogenic service, a n d as u n d e s i r a b l e in h i g h AWS classification min. max.
temperature service, where it can transform into the E 200 series 16 150
brittle sigma phase. E 300 series 16 150
Percent ferrite, or ferrite number (FN) to be more E 400 series 150 260
specific, can be measured on a relative scale by means E 500 series 150 260
of various magnetic i n s t r u m e n t s , since ferrite is E 16-8-2 16 150
magnetic and austenite is non-magnetic. For accurate E7Cr 150 260
results it is necessary that the instrument is calibrated E630 16 150
with standards available from a few international
sources. Normally FN is controlled in various classes of The annealing heat treatment required for some
electrodes as shown in Table 3.37. classes is indicated under Table 3.34.
3) Fillet weld test
Test Requirements This is similar to the test described earlier under AWS
1) Chemical analysis A5.1. In the case of 3.2 and 4.0 mm sizes, it has to be
For chemical analysis of all classes with suffix L and carried out in the horizontal, vertical and overhead
E630 class, the base metal must be any steel of 0.03% positions. For 4.8 and 6.4 mm sizes, it has to be done in
maximum carbon. For the rest, it can be a steel with the horizontal position only.
0.25% maximum carbon. The multi-run pad size will 4) Ferrite test
be 25 x 25 x 13 mm for 2.4 mm electrode size and below, The weld pad is built up between two copper bars
40 x 40 x 16 mm for 3.2 to 4.8 mm size and 50 x 50 x 19 laid parallel on the base plate of matching type by

Table 3.37: Ferrite content limits for S.S. weld metals

Class FN Class FN
E308 4 to 10 E312 20 min.
E308L 4 to 10 E16-B-2 5 max.
E308 Mo 4 to 10 E316 2 max.
E308 MoL 4 to 10 E316L 2 max.
E309 4 to 10 E317 2 to 5
E309L 4 to 10 E317L 2 to 5
E309 Mo 4 to 10 E318 4 to 10
E310 Nil E320 Nil
E310H Nil E330 Nil
E310 Cb Nil E347 4 to 10
E310 Mo Nil E349 20 min.
122 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

depositing single weld bead layers, one on top of the obtained must be averaged to a single value for
other to a minimum height of 13 mm. If carbon steel is conversion to ferrite number.
used as a base plate, the minimum height of the pad The Appendix of A5.4 has provided technical notes
should be 16 mm. Other data are given in Table 3.38 on the standard classifications for the guidance of
and Fig. 3.20. electrode users. They are summarised below:
- Each pass must be cleaned prior to depositing the E209. The nominal composition (wt%) of this weld
next weld bead. The maximum interpass temperature metal is 22 Cr, 11 Ni, 5.5 Mn, 2 Mo, and 0.20 N. Electrodes
must be 95°C. Between passes, the weld pad may be of this composition are most often used to weld AISI
cooled by quenching in water not sooner than 20 Type 209 (UNS S20910) base metals. The alloy is a
seconds after the completion of each pass. The last pass nitrogen-strengthened austenitic stainless steel
must be air cooled to below 430°C prior to quenching exhibiting high strength with good toughness over a
in water. The completed weld pad must be draw filed wide range of temperatures. Nitrogen alloying reduces
to provide sufficient finished surface to make the the tendency for intergranular carbide precipitation in
required ferrite reading. A total of six ferrite readings the weld area by inhibiting carbon diffusion and thereby
must be taken on the filed surface along the longitudinal increasing resistance to intergranular corrosion.
axis of the weld pad with an instrument calibrated in Nitrogen alloying coupled with the molybdenum
accordance with the procedures specified in AWS A4.2. content provides superior resistance to pitting and
"Standard Procedures for Calibrating Magnetic crevice corrosion in aqueous chloride-containing media.
Instruments to Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of Type E209 electrodes have sufficient total alloy content
Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal". The six readings for use in joining dissimilar alloys, like mild steel and
the stainless steels and also for direct overly on mild
steel for corrosion applications.
Table 3.38: Welding data for ferrite test E219. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 20 Cr, 6 Ni, 9 Mn, and 0.20 N. Electrodes of this
Electrode Welding Dimensions of deposit composition are most often used to weld AISI Type 219
diameter current (approx. mm) (UNS S21900) base metals. This alloy is a nitrogen-
(mm) (amp) L
w
strengthened austenitic stainless steel exhibiting high
1.6 35-45 6 32 strength with good toughness over a wide range of
2.0 45-55 6 32 temperatures. Nitrogen alloying reduces the tendency
2.4 65-75 8 38 for intergranular carbide precipitation in the weld area
3.2 90-100 10 38 by inhibiting carbon diffusion and thereby, increases
4.0 120-140 13 38
resistance to intergranular corrosion. Nitrogen alloying
4.8 165-185 15 38
6.4 240-260 18 38 also improves resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion
in aqueous chloride containing media. The E219

nmznt SHALL'
BE MEASURED IN|
THIS AREA-

1
FREE OF ARC
STARTS AND
COPPER ICOPPERI COPPER BAR CRATERS
BAR BAR
APPROX
1x1x3
3/8MIN| BASE PLATE W

■—1MIN — _2.1/2 MIN

ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES

Fig. 3.20: Details of weld pad for ferrite test


electrodes have sufficient total alloy content for use in
joining dissimilar alloys, like mild steel and the stainless
steels, and also for direct overlay on mild steel for
corrosion applications.
E240. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 18 Cr, 5 Ni, 12 Mn and 0.02N. Electrodes of this
composition are most often used to weld AISI Type 240
and 241 base metals. These alloys are n i t r o g e n
strengthened austenitic stainless steels exhibiting high
strength with good toughness over a wide range of
temperatures. Significant improvement in resistance to
wear in particle-to-metal and metal-to-metal (galling)
applications is a desirable characteristic when compared
to the more conventional austenitic stainless steels like
Type 304. Nitrogen alloying reduces the tendency for
intergranular carbide precipitation in the weld area by
inhibiting carbon diffusion and thereby increasing
resistance to intergranular corrosion.
Nitrogen alloying also improves resistance to pitting
and crevice corrosion in aqueous chloride-containing
media. In addition, weldments in alloys AISI 240 and
AISI 241 when compared to Type 304, exhibit improved
resistance to transgranular stress corrosion cracking in
hot aqueous chloride-containing media. The E240
electrodes have sufficient total alloy content for use in
joining dissimilar alloys, like mild steel and the stainless
steels, and also for direct overlay on mind steel for
corrosion and wear applications.
E307. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 19 Cr.9.8 Ni, 4 Mn. Electrodes of this
composition are used primarily for moderate strength
welds with good crack resistance between dissimilar
steels such as austenitic manganese steel and carbon
steel forgings or castings.
E308. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 19 Cr, and 10 Ni. Electrodes of this composition
are most often used to weld base metal of similar
composition such as AISI Types 301, 302, 304, and 305.
E308H. These electrodes are the same as E308 except
that the allowable carbon content has been restricted to
the higher portion of the E308 range. Carbon content in
the range of 0.04 - 0.08 provides higher tensile and creep
strengths at elevated temperatures. These electrodes are
used for welding Type 304H base metal.
E308L. The composition of the weld metal is the same
as E308, except for the restricted carbon content. The
0.04 percent max carbon content of weld metal deposited
by these electrodes reduced possibility of intergranular
carbide precipitation a n d thereby increases the
resistance to intergranular corrosion without the use of
stabilizers such as columbium (niobium) or titanium.
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 123
A carbon content of 0.04 percent max has been shown
to be a d e q u a t e in weld metal, even t h o u g h it is
recognized that similar base metal specifications require
a 0.03 percent limitation. This low carbon alloy, however,
is not as strong at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e as the
columbium-stabilised alloys or 304H.
E308Mo. These electrodes are the same as E308,
except for the addition of molybdenum. E308Mo
electrodes are recommended for welding ASTM CF8M
stainless steel castings, as they match the base metal with
regard to chromium, nickel, and molybdenum. They
may also be used for welding wrought materials such
as Type 316 stainless when increased ferrite is desired
beyond that attainable with E316 electrodes.
E308MoL. These electrodes are recommended for
welding ASTM CF3M stainless steel castings, as they
match the base metal with regard to chromium, nickel,
and molybdenum. E308MoL electrodes may also be
used for welding wrought materials such a$ Type 3161
stainless when increased ferrite is desired beyond that
attainable with E3161, electrodes.
E309. The nominal composition (wt.) of this weld
metal is 23.5 Cr, 13 hlL Electrodes of this composition
are commonly used for welding similar alloys in
wrought or cast form. They are used for welding
dissimilar metals, such as joining Type 304 to carbon
steel, welding the clad side of Type 304 clad steels, and
applying stainless steel sheet linings to carbon steel
shells. Occasionally, they are used to weld Type 304 and
similar base metals where severe corrosion conditions
exist requiring higher alloy weld metal.
E309L. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E309 electrodes, except for
the restricted carbon content. The 0.04 percent max
carbon content of these weld deposits reduces the
possibility of intergranular carbide precipitation and
thereby increases the resistance to intergranular
corrosion w i t h o u t the use of stabilizers such as
columbium (niobium) and titanium. This low carbon
alloy, however, is not as strong at elevated temperature
as the columbium-stabilised alloys or high carbon
content Type 309 deposits.
E309Cb. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as Type 309, except for the addition of columbium
(niobium) and a reduction in the carbon limit. The
columbium (niobium) provides resistance to carbide
precipitation and thus increases intergranular corrosion
resistance and also provides higher strength in elevated
temperature service. E309Cb electrodes are used also
for welding Type 347 clad steels or for the overlay of
carbon steel.
124 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
E309Mo. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E309 electrodes, except for
the addition of molybdenum and a small reduction in
the carbon limit. These electrodes are use for welding
Type 316 clad steels or for the overlay of carbon steels.
E309MoL. The composition of these weld metal is
the same as that deposited by E309Mo electrodes, except
for the restricted carbon content. The lower carbon
content of the weld metal reduces the possibility of
intergranular corrosion.
E310. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 26.5 Cr, 21 Ni. Electrodes of this composition
are most often used to weld base metals of similar
composition.
E310H. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E310 electrodes, except that
carbon ranges from 0.35 to 0.45 percent. These electrodes
are used primarily for welding or repairing high alloy
heat and corrosion resistant castings of the same general
composition which are designated as Type HK by the
Alloy Castings Institute. The alloy has high strength at
t e m p e r a t u r e s over 1700° F (930 Q C). It is not
recommended for high sulphur atmospheres or where
severe thermal shock is present. Long time exposure to
temperatures in the approximate range of 1400 to 1600
F (760 to 870QC) may induce formation of sigma and
secondary carbides which may result in reduced
corrosion resistance, reduced ductility, or both.
E310Cb. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E310 electrodes, except for
the addition of columbium (niobium) and a reduction
in carbon limit. These electrodes are used for the welding
of heat resisting casting, Type 347 clad steels, or the
overlay of carbon steels.
E310Mo. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E310 electrodes, except for
the addition of molybdenum and a reduction in carbon
limit. These electrodes are used for the welding of heat
resisting castings, Type 316 clad steels, or for the overlay
of carbon steels.
E312. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 30 Cr, 9 Ni. These electrodes were originally
designed to weld cast alloys of similar composition.
They have been found to be valuable in welding
dissimilar metals, especially if one of them is a stainless
steel, high in nickel. This alloy gives a two-phase weld
deposit with substantial a m o u n t s of ferrite in an
austenitic matrix. Even with considerable dilution by
austenite-forming e l e m e n t s , such as nickel, the
microstructure remains two-phase and thus highly
resistant to weld metal cracks and fissures. Applications
should be limited to service temperature below 800QF
(420QC) to avoid formation of secondary brittle phases.
E316. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 18.5 Cr, 12.5 Ni, 2.5 Mo. These electrodes are used
for welding Type 316 and similar alloys. They have been
used successfully in certain applications involving special
base metals for high-temperature service. The presence
of molybdenum provides creep resistance at elevated
temperatures. Rapid corrosion of Type 316 weld metal
may occur when the following three factors co-exist:
(1) The presence of a continuous or semicontinuous
network of ferrite in the weld metal microstructure
(2) A composition balance of the weld metal giving
a chromium-to-molybdenum ratio of less than 8.2 to 1
(3) Immersion of the weld metal in a corrosive me-
dium
Attempts to classify the media in which accelerated
corrosion will take place by attack on the ferrite phase
have not been entirely successful. Strong oxidizing and
mildly reducing environments have been present where
a number of corrosion failures were investigated and
documented. The literature should be consulted for
latest recommendations.
E316H. These electrodes are the same as E316, except
that the allowable carbon content has been restricted to
the higher portion of the E316 range. Carbon content in
the range of 0.04 to 0.08 provides higher tensile and creep
strengths at elevated temperatures. These electrodes are
used for welding 316H base metal.
E316L. This composition is the same as E316, except
for the restricted carbon content. The 0.04 percent max
carbon content of weld metal deposited by these
electrodes reduces the possibility of intergranular
carbide p r e c i p i t a t i o n a n d thereby increases the
resistance to intrgranular corrosion without the use of
stabilizers such as columbium (niobium) or titanium.
These electrodes are used principally for welding low
carbon, molybdenum-bearing austenitic alloys. Tests
have shown that 0.04 percent carbon limit in the weld
metal given adequate protection against intergranular
corrosion in most cases. This low carbon alloy, however,
is not as strong at elevated temperatures as Type E316H.
E317. The alloy content of weld metal deposited by
these electrodes is somewhat higher than that of E316
electrodes, p a r t i c u l a r l y in m o l y b d e n u m . These
electrodes are usually used for welding alloys of similar
composition and are utilized in severely corrosive
environments (such as those containing halogens) where
crevice and pitting corrosion are of concern.
E317L. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E317 electrodes, except for

the restricted carbon content. The 0.04 percent max
carbon content of weld metal deposited by these
electrodes reduces the possibility of intergranular
carbide precipitation a n d thereby increases the
resistance to intergranular corrosion without the use of
stabilizers such as columbium (niobium) or titanium.
This low carbon alloy, however, is not as strong at
elevated temperatures as the columbium (niobium)-
stabilised alloys or the standard Type 317 weld metal
with a higher carbon content.
E318. The composition of this weld metal is the same
as that deposited by E316 electrodes, except for the
addition of c o l u m b i u m (niobium). C o l u m b i u m
(niobium) provides resistance to intergranular carbide
precipitation and t h u s increased resistance to
intergranular corrosion. These electrodes are used
primarily for w e l d i n g base metals of similar
composition.
E320. The nominal composition (wt. %) of this weld
metal is 20 Cr, 34 Ni, 2.5 Mo, 3.5 Cu, with Cb (Nb) added
to improve resistance to intergranular corrosion. These
electrodes are primarily used to weld base metals of
similar composition for applications where resistance
to severe corrosion is required for a wide range of
chemicals including sulfuric and sulfurous acids and
their salts. These electrodes can be used to weld both
castings and wrought alloys of similar composition
without postweld heat treatment.
A modification of this grade without columbium
(niobium) is available for repairing castings which do
not contain c o l u m b i u m . With this modified
composition, solution annealing is required after
welding.
E320LR (Low Residuals). Weld metal deposited by
E320LR electrodes has the same basis composition as
that deposited by E320 electrodes; however, the
elements C, Si, P, and S are specified at lower maximum
levels, and Cb (Nb) and Mn are controlled within
narrower ranges. These changes reduce the weld metal
fissuring (while maintaining the corrosion resistance)
frequently encountered in fully austenitic stainless steel
weld metals. Consequently, welding practices typically
used to deposit ferrite-containing austenitic stainless
steel weld metals can be used. Type 320LR weld metal
has a lower minimum tensile strength than Type 320
weld metal.
E330. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 35 Ni, 15.5 Cr. These electrodes are commonly
used where hear - and scale-resisting properties above
188 °F (980 °C) are required. However, highsulfur
environments may adversely effect performance at
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 125
elevated temperature. Repairs of defects in alloy castings
and the welding of castings and wrought alloys of
similar composition are the most common applications.
E330H. The composition of this weld metal is the
same as that deposited by E330 electrodes, except that
carbon ranges from 0.35 to 0.45 percent. These electrodes
are used primarily for the welding and repairing of high
alloy heat and corrosion resistant castings of the same
general composition which are designated HY by the
Alloy Castings Institute. This composition can be used
to 2100 F (1160 °C) in oxidizing atmospheres and at 2000
R (1090 °C) in reducing atmospheres. However, high-
s u l p h u r e n v i r o n m e n t s m a y adversely affect
performance at elevated temperature.
E347. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 19.5 Cr, 10 Ni with Cb (Nb) or Cb (Nb) plus TA
added as a stabilizer. Either of these additions reduces
the possibility of intergranular chromium carbide
precipitation and thus increases resistance to
intergranular corrosion.
These electrodes are usually used for welding
c h r o m i u m - n i c k e l alloys of similar composition
stabilized either w i t h c o l u m b i u m (niobium) or
t i t a n i u m . Electrodes d e p o s i t i n g t i t a n i u m and a
stabilizing element are not commercially available
because titanium is not readily transferred across the
are in shielded metal are welding. Although columbium
(niobium) is the stabilizing element usually specified
in Type 347 alloys, it should be recognized that tantalum
also is present. Tantalum and columbium (niobium) are
almost equally effective in stabilizing carbon and in
providing high-temperature strength. This specification
recognizes the usual commercial practice of reporting
c o l u m b i u m (niobium) as the sum of columbium
(niobium) plus tantalum. If dilution by the base metal
produces a low ferrite or fully austenitic weld metal
deposit, crack sensitivity of the weld may increase
substantially.
Some applications, especially those involving high-
temperature service, are adversely affected if the ferrite
content is too high. Consequently, a high ferrite content
should not be specified unless tests prove it to be
absolutely necessary.
E349. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 19.5 Cr, 9 Ni, 1 Cb (Nb), 0.5 Mo, 1.4 W. These
electrodes are used for welding steels of similar
composition such as AISI Type 651 or 652. The
combination of columbium (niobium), molybdenum,
and tungsten with chromium and nickel gives good
h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e r u p t u r e strength. The chemical
composition of the weld metal results in an appreciable
126 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
content of ferrite which increases the crack resistance
of the weld metal.
E383. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 28 Cr, 31.5 Ni, 3.7 Mo, 1 Cu. These electrodes
are used to weld base metal of a similar composition to
itself and to other grades of stainless steel. Type E383
weld metal is r e c o m m e n d e d for s u l p h u r i c and
phosphoric acid environments.
The elements C, Si, P, and S are specified at low
maximum levels to minimize weld metal hot cracking
a n d fissuring (while m a i n t a i n i n g the corrosion
resistance) frequently encountered in fully austenitic
stainless steel weld metals.
E385. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is20.5 Cr, 25 Ni,5 Mo, 1.5 Cu. These electrodes are
used primarily for welding of Type 904L materials for
the handling of sulphuric acid and many chloride-
containing media. E385 electrodes also may be used to
join Type 317L material where improved corrosion
resistance in specific media is needed. E385 electrodes
also can be used for joining Type904L base metal to other
grades of stainless. The elements C, Si, P and S are
specified at lower maximum levels to minimize weld
metal hot cracking and fissuring (while maintaining
corrosion resistance) frequently encountered in fully
austenitic weld metals.
E410. This 12 Cr alloy is an air-hardening steel.
Preheat and postheat treatments are required to achieve
welds of adequate ductility for many engineering
purposes. The most common application of these
electrodes is for welding alloys of similar compositions.
They are also used for surfacing of carbon steels to
resist corrosion, erosion, or abrasion.
E410NIMo. These electrodes are used for welding
ASTM CA6NM castings or similar materials, as well as
light gauge Type 410, 410S, and 405 base metals. Weld
metal deposited by E410 electrodes are modified to
contain less chromium and more nickel than weld metal
deposited by E410 electrodes. The objective is to
eliminate ferrite in the microstructure, as ferrite has a
deleterious effect on mechanical properties of this alloy.
Final post-weld heat treatment should not exceed 1150QF
(620SC). Higher temperatures may result in rehardening
due to untempered martensite in the microstructure
after cooling to room temperature.
E430. The weld metal deposited by these electrodes
contains between 15 and 18 Cr (wt.%). The composition
is balanced by providing sufficient chromium to give
adequate corrosion resistance for the usual applications
and yet retain sufficient ductility in the heat-treated
condition to meet the mechanical requirements of the
specification. (Excessive chromium will result in
lowered ductility.) Welding with E430 electrodes usually
requires preheat and post-heat. Optimum mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance are obtained only
w h e n the w e l d m e n t is heat-treated following the
welding operation.
E502. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 5 Cr, 0.5 Mo. These electrodes are used for
welding base metal of similar composition, usually in
the form of pipe or tubing. The alloy is an air-hardening
material; therefore, when welding with these electrodes,
preheat and postweld heat treatment are required.
E505. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is Cr, 1 Mo. These electrodes are used for welding
base metal of similar composition, usually in the form
of pipe or tubing. The alloy is an air-hardening material
and, therefore, when welding with these electrodes,
preheat and postweld heat treatment are required.
E630. The nominal composition (wt.%) of these
electrodes is 16.4 Cr, 4.7 Ni, 3.6 Cu. These electrodes are
primarily designed for welding ASTM A564, Type 630,
and some other precipitaion-hardening stainless steels.
The weld metal is modified to prevent the formation of
ferrite networks in the martensite microstructure which
could have a deleterious effect on mechanical properties.
Dependent on the application and weld size, the weld
metal may be used either as-welded, welded and
precipitation hardened, or welded, solution treated and
precipitation hardened.
E16-8-2. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this
weld metal is 15.5 Cr, 8.5 Ni, 1.5 Mo. These electrodes
are used primarily for welding stainless steel, such as
Types 16-8-2, 316, and 347, for high-pressure, high-
temperature piping systems. The weld deposit usually
has a Ferrite Number not higher than 5 FN. The deposit
also has good hot ductility properties which offer
relative freedom from weld or crater cracking even
under high-restraint conditions. The weld metal is
usable in either the as-welded or solution-treated
condition. These electrodes depend on a very carefully
balanced chemical composition to develop their fullest
properties. Corrosion tests indicate that Type 16-8-2
weld metal may have less corrosion resistance than Type
316 base metal depending on the corrosive media.
Where the weldment is exposed to severe corrodents,
the surface layers should be deposited with a more
corrosion resistant weld metal.
E7Cr. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 7 Cr, 0.5 Mo. These electrodes are primarily used
in welding base metal of similar composition. The Cr
base metal usually is furnished as tubing, pipe, or

casting. This alloy is an air-hardening material and
requires the use of both preheat and postweld heat
treatment for satisfactory welding and service.
E2209. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 22.5 Cr, 9.5 Ni, 3 Mo, 0.15 N. Electrodes of this
composition are used primarily to weld duplex stainless
steels which contain approximately 22 percent of
chromium. Weld metal deposited by these electrodes
has "duplex" microstructure consisting of an austenite-
ferrite matrix. Weld metal deposited by E2209 electrodes
combines increased tensile strength with improved
resistance to pitting corrosive attack and to stress
corrosion cracking.
E2553. The nominal composition (wt.%) of this weld
metal is 25.5 Cr, 7.5 Ni, 3.5 Mo, 2 Cu and 0.17 N. These
electrodes are used primarily to weld duplex stainless
steels which contain approximately 25 percent of chro-
mium. Weld metal deposited by these electrodes has a
"duplex" microstructure consisting of an austenite-
ferrite matrix. Weld metal deposited by E2553 electrodes
combines increased tensile strength with improved
resistance to pitting corrosive attack and to stress
corrosion cracking.
2) BS: 2926-1970, "Specification for chromium-nickel
austenitic and chromium steel electrodes"
This standard covers 20 types of electrodes as listed
in Table 3.39 which also gives the nearest equivalent
AWS classification and weld metal chemistry for each
type. The first two are straight chrome types, while the
rest are Cr-Ni austenitic types. As pointed out before, 5
Cr, 7 Cr and 9 Cr types are not included, as they are
covered in the standard on low-alloy steel electrodes.
Columbium is referred to as Niobium and is indicated
by the symbol Nb. Wherever it is present, its minimum
content has to be ten times the carbon content, to en-
sure freedom from intercrystalline corrosion, when the
welded joint is exposed to corrosive atmosphere in ser-
vice. A footnote to the table mentions that the maxi-
mum nickel content may be increased when a low-delta
ferrite content is required in the weld deposit to meet
severe corrosive conditions, or to prevent formation of
the sigma phase in high temperature service. The prob-
lem of sigma phase will be explained later.
The BS coding system starts with the composition
code as shown in Table 3.39, which is based on proposals
from the International Institute of Welding and gives
an immediate indication of the chemical composition
of the deposited weld metal. It consists of a figure
indicating Cr content, another figure indicating Ni
content and a third figure indicating Mo content,
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 27
followed by digits L, H, Nb and W. L indicates a low
carbon content version, H indicates a high carbon
content version, Nb indicates the presence of niobium
as a stabiliser and the symbol W indicates the presence
of tungsten.
The composition code must be followed by letter B
or R, the former indicating basic lime-fluorspar covering
for DC+ welding and the latter indicating rutile type
covering for AC or DC+. After this, the letters MP (metal
powder) must be used for those electrode types whose
core wire is not of Cr-Ni austenitic or Cr-steel and in
which the bulk of the alloying elements are supplied
through the coverings.
For chemical analysis, drillings must be taken from
either the fractured parallel portion of the all-weld
tensile test specimen or from the centre-line of the all-
weld test assembly, remote from tile test specimen or
from a weld pad.
For all-weld tensile test, the procedure of making
up the welded assembly is similar to that described
under low-alloy steel electrodes. During welding, the
i n t e r p a s s t e m p e r a t u r e for straight chrome-steel
electrodes has to be controlled between 150 and 260°C
and for all others between 20 and 150°C. While Cr-Ni
types do not require any postweld heat treatment, the
straight chrome-steel types demand that the tensile
specimen be heat-treated as described below:
Composition code Postweld heat treatment
840-870°C for 2 hours
13 Furnace-cool to 600°C at cooling rate
of 55°C/hour (max.) then air cool
760-790°C for 4 hours
17 Furnace-cool to 600°C at cooling rate
of 55°C/hour (max.) then air cool
The all-weld tensile values which must be satisfied
are shown in Table 3.40. It must be noted that the
elongation values are based on the factor 1 = 5d as against
l=4d in the case of the AWS standard.
The standard also prescribes a fillet weld test, more
or less similar to the one described in AWS A5.4.
As in the case of other BS standards on electrodes,
this one lays down the requirements for production
which include, a m o n g other things, initial tests
comprising analysis, all-weld tensile test and fillet weld
test, and production control.
3) IS: 5206-1983: "Specification for covered electrodes
for manual metal arc welding of stainless steel and other simi-
lar high alloy steels"
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 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 129

Table 3.40: All-weld tensile requirements as per BS 2926 symbols for metal recovery (4.1.4) and for welding
characteristics (4.1.5) are also compulsory.
Composition Tensile strength . Elongation on 3.2 First Part - Symbol for the Product - The prefix
code min. ( N / m m 2 ) \=5d (%)
letter 'E' shall indicate the suitability of the covered
13 480 20 electrode for manual metal are welding.
17 480 20 3.3 Second Part - Symbol for Chemical Composition
19.9 560 30 - The symbols use for the chemical composition of the
19.9 L 510 30 deposited weld metal are given in Table 1. (In Appendix
19.9 Nb 560 25 A is given a comparison of classification in American,
19.12.3 560 25 British, German, Japanese and ISO Standards.)
19.12.3 L 510 25 3.4 Third Part - Symbol for Type of Covering - The
19.12.3 Nb 560 25 type of covering is symbolized by a letter as follows:
19.13.4 560 25
19.13.4 L 510 25
a) B for basic,
19.13.4 Nb 560 20 b) R for rutile, and
23.12 560 30 c) S for other types.
23.12 Nb 560 25 3.4.1 Basic (B) - Electrodes of the basic type have a
23.12.2 560 30 rather thick covering containing considerable quantities
23.12 W 560 20 of calcium or other basic carbonates together with
25.20 560 25 fluorspar or other fluor compositions. The slag is very
25.20 H 560 * fluid and rise quickly to the surface of the weld. Slag
25.20 Nb 560 25 inclusions are therefore not likely to occur. After
17.8.2 560 25 solidification, the slag generally has a brown to dark-
20.9.5 620 20 brown colour and a glossy appearance. It is, except for
root-passes, easy to detach. Basic electrodes give a
*This high carbon electrode is intended for service at elevated tempera-
tures, where creep resistance is of primary importance. Room temperature medium penetration and they can, as a rule, be used for
elongation measurements have little meaning in this case. For guidance, an welding in all positions as well as for pipe welding. Basic
elongation of about 5% may be expected. electrodes should be welded with a short are in order
to give good quality welds.
When manufactured, the basic electrodes are baked
The standard covers 32 types, whose requirements at a temperature sufficient to result in low water content
of chemical composition and of all-weld metal test are of the covering. In order to avoid porosity, basic
closely similar to the equivalent types mentioned against electrodes should be stored in such a manner as to
each in Table 3.42. prevent absorption of moisture and be re-dried before
3.1 The electrodes are classified on the basis of use according to the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s of the
chemical analysis of weld metal, type of covering, metal manufacturer. Stainless steel electrodes with basic
recovery, welding characteristics of the electrode and coating are particularly used for the welding of thick
also the special characteristics of the electrode. The plates, highly restrained joints and joints in vertical and
classification is divided into six parts. overhead positions.
3.1.1 First part is a symbol for the type of product. 3.4.2 Rutile (R) - The covering of stainless steel
3.1.2 The second part is a symbol for the chemical electrodes of this type contains large amounts of rutile
composition of the deposited weld metal. or components derived from minimum dioxide, oxides
3.1.3 The third part is a symbol for the type of may include basic components. The electrodes are easy
covering. to ignite, have a stable are and low spatter losses. They
3.1.4 The fourth part is a symbol for metal recovery. are easy to weld in all positions and slag detachability
3.1.5 The fifth part is a symbol for the welding and bead appearance are good. They deposited weld
characteristics of the electrode. metal quality is also good.
3.1.6 The sixth part is a symbol 'X' indicating that When manufactured, stainless steel electrodes with
the electrode has some special properties (synthetic, rutile covering are generally baked at high temperatures.
fully nustenitie, etc.). This part is always compulsory In order to avoid porosity they should be stored under
when the electrode has special feature. In this case the dry conditions or if they have absorbed moisture, before
130 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

use according to the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , of the

Table 3.41: Current condition
manufacturer.
3.4.3 Other Types (S) - This symbol is used for Symbol Direct current Alternating current
electrodes that cannot be defined as basic or rutile ones. recommended minimum open circuit
polarity voltage
3.5 Fourth Part - Symbol for Metal Recovery - If the
recovery is less than 110 percent no symbol is used. The (I) (2) (3)
Of —
higher value found by the method for determining the
1 + or- 50
recovery, rounded to the nearest multiple of 10 are used 2 - 50
as symbol for metal recovery, for example 110,120,130, 3 + 50
140, 150, etc. For the method of determining the 4 + or- 70
recovery of electrode "see Appendix D of IS: 815-1974". 5 - 70
6 - 70
3.6 Fifth Part - Symbols for Welding Characteristics 7 + or - 90
3.6.0 - The w e l d i n g characteristics shall be 8 - 90
symbolized by a two-digit number. The first digit 9 + 90
indicates the welding positions for which the electrode fSymbol reserved for electrodes used exclusively on direct current Posi-
is recommended and the second digit indicates the tive polarity +, negative polarity -
welding current conditions.
3.6.1 The general welding positions for which the
electrode is recommended are symbolized by a digit, as
follows : 3.7 Symbol for Special Properties
3.7.1 The symbol 'X' indicates that the electrode has
Digit Positions
one or more special properties. Synthetic electrodes, for
1 All positions example, could be characterized in this way. There are
2 All positions except vertical downward also other examples. Normally, austenitic deposited
3 Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld, horizontal/ weld metals of the 19.12.2 L type have a ferrite content
vertical fillet weld of 3 to 7 percent. For special purpose, fully austenitic or
4 Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld low ferrite variants are also developed. Such electrodes
5 Same as 3 and recommended for vertical could be marked by the symbol 'X'.
downward 3.7.2 The special properties should not, however, be
Note - Electrodes covered in this standard are not normally used in the codified. The symbol 'X' only recommends the user to
vertical downward position. study the electrode manufacturer's catalogue for further
information.
3.6.2 The welding current and open circuit voltage 3.8 Instructions for use of Classification Symbols -
are symbolized by a digit corresponding to the In order to promote the use of this identification, the
characteristics of the welding equipment required in codification is split into sections.
order to ensure working conditions free of incidents such 3.8.1 Compulsory Section - This section includes the
as instability or interuptions of the arc. Refer Table 3.41. symbols for the type of product, for the chemical
The-open circuit voltage necessary for striking the composition of the deposited weld metal and for the
arc varies according to the diameter of the electrode . A type of covering, and a symbol 'X' indicating that the
reference diameter is required for symbolization. Table electrode has some special properties, that is, the
2 applies to electrode diameters greater than or equal symbols defined in 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.7.
to 2.5 mm. If electrodes of smaller diameter are used, a 3.8.2 Optional Section - This section includes the
higher voltage may be necessary. symbols for the metal recovery and for the welding
The frequency of the alternating current is assumed characteristics of the electrode.
to be 50 or 60 Hz. The open-circut voltage necessary 3.8.3 Examples of Classification
when electrodes are used on direct current is closely re- Example 1 :
lated to the dynamic characterisitcs of the welding power Covered electrode for manual electric are welding,
source. Consequently no indication of the minimum having a rutile covering and depositing weld metal of
open-circuit voltage for direct current can be given. the following chemical analysis.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 131

Constituent Percent Constituent Percent either of 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, etc. Next is the digit
which symbolises the general welding positions as
C 0.8 Max Si 0.9 Max follows:
Cr 18 to 21 S 0.03 Max
Ni . 8 to 11 P 0.04 Max Symbol Positions of welding
Mn 2.5 Max 1 All positions
It may be used for welding in all positions. To be 2 All positions, except vertical downward
connected on direct current to the positive pole; on 3 Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld, horizontal /
alternating current welding, requiring an open-circuit vertical fillet weld
voltage of 70 V. Has metal recovery of 120 percent. 4 Flat butt weld, flat fillet weld
The complete codification for the electrode will be: 5 As 3 and recommended for vertical
E 19.9 R 120 16 downward
and the compulsory part will be The next symbol is a digit indicating the type of
E 19.9 R current and, in the case of AC, the minimum open circuit
Example 2 : voltage (OCV) of the welding equipment necessary to
Covered electrode for manual electric arc welding, ensure a stable arc during welding. This is explained in
having a basic covering and depositing weld metal Table 3.44.
having the following chemical analysis: Referring to this table, it is stated that the OCV
Constituent Percent Constituent Percent necessary for striking the arc varies according to the
electrode diameter. The values given in the table apply
c
Cr
0 04 Max
17 to 20
Si
Mn
0 .9 Max
2.5Max to electrodes of 2.5 mm diameter or larger. For electrodes
Ni 11 to 14 S 0 03 Max of smaller diameters, a higher voltage may be necessary.
Mo 2.0 to 2.5 P 0.04 Max Further, it is stated that "the OCV necessary when
It may be used for welding in all positions except, electrodes are used on direct current is closely related
vertical downward. To be connected on direct current to the dynamic characteristics of the welding power
source. Consequently no indication of the minimum
welding to the positive pole; on alternating current
open-circuit voltage for direct current can be given."
requiring an open circuit voltage of 70 V. Refer to
manufacturer's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for the special Finally, suffix symbol X is to be used to indicate
characteristics of the electrodes. special or abnormal properties. These properties need
The complete codification for the electrode will be : not be codified. X only recommends that the electrode
producer's catalogue be studied for further information.
E 19.12.2.L R 14 X
For example, it could be used for synthetic electrodes
and the compulsory part will be:
and for 19.9 types with nil ferrite.
E19.12.2LRX
The standard has given the following two examples
Fillet weld test similar to that described in the AWS
to illustrate the coding system:
standard is also specified. A guide to the classification
1) Covered electrode for manual electric arc welding,
and selection is provided in the Appendix.
having a rutile covering and depositing weld metal of
4) ISO 3581-1976(E): "Covered electrodes for manual
the following chemical analysis:
arc welding of stainless and other similar high-alloy steels—
Code of symbols for identification" C 0.08
The ISO codification system starts with the letter E Cr 19
and is followed by a symbol for the chemical Ni 10
composition of the deposited weld metal as shown in It may be used for welding in all positions. To be
Table 3.43. Next comes the symbol for the type of connected on direct current welding to the positive pole;
covering, which is B for basic, R for rutile and 5 for other on alternating current welding, requiring an open-circuit
types. These symbols make up the compulsory part of voltage of 70 V Metal recovery: 120%.
the codification. After this comes the symbol for metal The complete codification for the electrode will
recovery (metal recovery is determined by the method therefore be
described in ISO 2401). If the recovery is less than 110%, E 19 9 R 120 16
no symbol is used. The higher values are rounded to and the compulsory part will be
the-nearest multiple of 10. Hence this symbol can be E 19 9 R
132 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.42: Chemical compositions of all-weld metal

Classification Carbon Chromium Nickel Molyb- Niobium Manganese Silicon Phosphur Sulphur Copper
denum Tantalum

E13 0.12 11-14 . 0.5 _ 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 >

E13.4 0.07 12-15 3.5 0.49-0.70 - 1.0 9.90 0.04 0.03 -
E17 0.10 15-18 - 0.5 - 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E17.4 0.10 15-18 3-5 0.9-1.25 - 1.0 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.9 0.03 18-21 8-11 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.9-L 0.04 18-21 8-11 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19-9Nb 0.08 18-21 8-11 0.5 8xCmin to 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
1.2 max
E19.9-LNb 0.04 18-21 8-11 0.5 8xCmin to 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
1.2 max
E19.12.2 0.08 17-20 11-14 2.2-5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.12.2-L 0.04 17-20 11-14 2.2-5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.12.2Nb 0.08 17-20 11-14 2.2.5 8xCmin to 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
1.2 max
E19.12.3 0.08 17-20 10-14 2.5-3.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.12.3-L 0.04 17-20 10-14 2.5-3.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E19.12.3Nb 0.08 17-20 10-14 2.5-3.5 8xC min to 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
1.2 max
E23.12 0.15 22-26 11-15 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E23.12-L 0.04 22-26 11-15 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E23.12-Nb 0.12 22-25 11-15 0.5 8xC min to 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
1.2 max
E23.12.2 0.12 22-25 11-15 2.3 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E16.8.2 0.10 14.5-16.5 7.5-9.5 1.2 - 2.5 0.50 0.03 0.03 -
E18.8Mn 0.20 17-20 7-10 0.5 - 5.8 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E18.15.3 L 0.04 16.5-19.5 13-16 2.5-3.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E25.20 0.20 24-28 18-22 0.5 - 2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 -
E25.20 L 0.04 24-28 18-22 0.5 - 2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 -
EE25.20 Nb 0.12 24-28 18-22 0.5 8xC to min 2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 -
1.2 max
E25.20.2 0.12 25-28 20-22 2-3 - 2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 -
E25.20C 0.25.0.45 24-28 18-22 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.03 0.03 -
E25.25.2 Nb 0.10 24-27 24-26 2-2.5 8xC min to 2.5 0.90 0.03 0.03 -
1.2 max
E20.25.5Lcu 0.04 19-22 24-26 4-6 - 2.5 0.90 0.03 0.03 1-3
E23.27.3 LcuNb 0.04 21-25 25-29 2.5-4.3 8xC min to 2.5 0.90 0.03 0.03 2.5-3.5
1.2 max
E25.4 0.15 24-27 4-6 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.04 -
E29.9 0.15 28-32 8-12 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -
E18.36 0.25 14-19 33-35 0.5 - 2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 -

Note 1: Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specified values are shown in the table. If the however, the presence of other elements is
indicated in the course of routine analysis, further analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements, except iron, is not present in
excess of 0.7 percen t.
Note 2: Single values shown are maximum percentages except where otherwise specified.
*Carbon shall be analysed to the nearest 0.01 percent.
iChromium shall be 1.9 x M min when specified.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 133

Table 3.43: Symbolisation as per ISO 3581

Symbol C max. Cr. Ni Mo Other elements

13 0.12 11 to 14
13.1 0.07 12 to 15 0.8 to 1.5
13.4 0.07 12 to 15 3 to 6 1.0 max
17 0.10 15 to 16
17.0.1 0.25 15 to 18 1 to 1.5
30 0.10 27 to 30
19.9 0.08 18 to 21 8 to 11
19.9 L 0.04 18 to 21 8 to 11
19.9 Nb 0.08 18 to 21 8 to 11 Nb
19.9 L Nb 0.04 18 to 21 8 to 11 Nb
19.12.2 0.08 17 to 20 11 to 14 2 to 2.5
19.12.2.L 0.04 17 to 20 11 to 14 2 to 2.5
19.12.2.Nb 0.08 17 to 20 11 to 14 2 to 2.5 Nb
19.12.3 0.08 17 to 20 10 to 14 2.5 to 3.5
19.12.3 L 0.04 17 to 20 10 to 14 2.5 to 3.5
19.12.3 Nb 0.08 17 to 20 10 to 14 2.5 to 3.5 Nb
19.13.4 0.08 17 to 21 11 to 15 3.5 to 5.5
19.13.4 L 0.04 17 to 21 11 to 15 3.5 to 5.5
19.13.4 Nb 0.08 17 to 21 11 to 15 3.5 to 5.5 Nb
22.12 0.15 20 to 23 10 to 13
23.12 015 22 to 26 11 to 15
23.12 L 0.04 22 to 26 11 to 15
23.12 Nb 012 22 to 25 11 to 15 Nb
23.12 W 0.20 22 to 25 11 to 15 W2to4
23.12.2 0.12 22 to 25 11 to 15 2 to 3
16.8.2 0.10 14.5 to 16.5 7.5 to 9.5 lto2
17.8.2 0.10 16.5 to 18.5 8 to 9.5 1.5 to 2.5
18.8 Mn 0.20 17 to 20 7 to 10 Mn5to8
18.15.3 L 0.04 16.5 to 18.5 13 to 16 2.5 to 3.5
25.20 0.20 24 to 28
25.20 0.04 24 to 28 18 to 22
25.20 Nb 0.12 24 to 28 18 to 22 Nb
25.20.2 0.12 25 to 28 20 to 22 2 to 3
25.20 C 0.25/45 24 to 28 18 to 22
25.25.2 Nb 0.10 24 to 27 24 to 26 2 to 2.5 Nb
18.20.2 CuNb 0.10 17 to 20 19 to 22 2 to 2.5 Cu 1.8 to 2.2, Nb
20.25.5 L Cu 0.04 19 to 20 24 to 26 4 to 6 Cu 1 to 3
23.27.3CCuNb 0.04 21 to 25 25 to 29 2.5 to 4.3 Cu 2.5 to 3.5, Nb
25.16 C Mn 0.25/46 23 to 26 14.5 to 17 Mn5to8
20.9 Nb 0.13 18 to 21 8 to 10 0.35 to 0.65 Nb
29.9.3 0.10 18.5 to 21 8 to 10 2 to 4
25.4 0.15 24 to 27 4 to 6
29.9 0.15 28 to 32 8 to 12
18.36 0.25 14 to 49 33 to 36
17.12 Si 0.15 17 to 19 11 to 13 Si 3.8 to 4.8
24.14 Si 0.12 22 to 25 13 to 15 Si 1.5 to 2.2
16.25.6 0.12 14 to 17 23 to 25 5 to 7
134 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

expansion requirement of 0.38 mm opposite the notch

Table 3.44: Symbol for current conditions as in the Charpy-V notch test at -196°C as specified in
per ISO 3581 Section 8 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Symbol Direct current Minimum open-circuit Weld deposits of E320, E320LR and E330 can also meet
recommended (AC) voltage (V) this lateral expansion requirement.
polarity The note further points out that E308L, E309L and
0 + E316L deposits can also be used at -196°C, provided
1 + or - 50 carbon content is kept very low, nitrogen content is kept
2 50 below 0.06% and ferrite below 3 FN. Fully austenitic
3 + 50 E316L appears to be the preferred composition. Lime-
4 +or- 70 coated electrodes are known to give superior lateral
5 - 70 expansion values as compared to titania covered
6 + 70 electrodes.
7 + or - 90 BS 2926 is not very explicit on the subject of ferrite.
8 - 90 In a footnote to the chemical composition table, it
9 . + 90 mentions that w h e n a low delta-ferrite content is
required for the classes 19.12.3, 19.12.3 L, 19.12.3 Nb,
19.13.4, 19.13.4 Land 19.13.4 Nb, the maximum nickel
2) Covered electrode for manual electric arc welding,
content may be increased. It also carries the following
having a basic covering and depositing weld metal
clause:
having the following chemical analysis:
"Ferrite content At the time of placing the order, the
C 0.1
purchaser shall indicate whether he requires the delta
Cr 17
ferrite content of the deposited weld metal to be
Ni 9
determined. If so, the method to be used and the
Mn 7
acceptable limits shall be the subject of agreement
It may be used for welding in all positions except
between the purchaser and the manufacturer."
the vertical downward one. To be connected on direct
IS:5206 makes no mention of ferrite. ISO 3581 makes
current welding to the positive pole; on alternating
the following reference:
current welding, requiring an open-circuit voltage of
Normally, austenitic deposited weld metals of the
70 V. Nominal efficiency: 150%. Mild steel core wire.
19.9 types have a ferrite content of 5 to 10%. For special
The codification for the electrode will therefore be
purposes, fully austenitic or low ferrite variants are also
E 18 8 Mn B 150 26 X
developed. Such electrodes could be marked by the
In the Annexure, ISO 3581 gives the comparison of
symbol X.
ISO, AWS, BS and DIN symbolisation systems as shown
in Table 3.45.
SURFACING ELECTRODES
Comparison The application of these electrodes is indicated by
Comparing the four standards on stainless steel the word surfacing, which is defined by the American
electrodes discussed above, it will be observed that AWS Welding Society as, the deposition of filler metal
A5.4 is the most exhaustive and up-to-date. Among (material) on a base metal (substrate) to obtain desired
other things, it explains the significance of ferrite in weld properties or dimensions. Since this broad definition can
deposits and the meaning of ferrite number (FN). It include processes like electroplating and metal spraying,
provides detailed procedure for preparing the weld pad the correct term would be, weld surfacing electrodes,
for the ferrite test. It also indicates the FN levels to be because according to the AWS, weld surfacing means,
expected in the various stainless steel weld deposits. deposition of weld metal, composed of one or more
AWS A5.4 has also given a technical note on stringer or weave beads, on a surface to obtain desired
"Stainless Steel Weld Metals for Cryogenic properties or dimensions. The most sought after
Applications" in the Appendix. It points out that E310 properties are resistance to frictional wear, impact,
deposits, which are ferrite-free have been successfully abrasion, erosion, oxidation and corrosion. Electrodes
used to join 9% Ni steel for service temperature of - designed for such wear-resistant applications are
196°C. These deposits are capable of meeting the lateral commonly referred to as, hardfacing electrodes, in spite
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 135

Table 3.45: Comparison of ISO, AWS, BS and DIN symbols

Symbol Corresponding symbolization in national standards
AWS BS DIN
13 410 13 13
13.1
13.4 13.4
17 430 17 17
17.0.1 30
19.9 308 19.9 19.9
19.9 L 308 L 19.9 L 19.9 nC
19.9 Nb ,347 19.9 Nb 19.9 Nb
19.9 L Nb
19.12.2 316
19.12.2 L 316 L
19.12.2 Nb 318
19.12.3 19.12.3 19.12.3
19.12.3 L 19.12.3 L 19.12.3 nC
19.12.3 Nb 19.12.3 Nb 19.12.3 Nb
19.13.4 317 19.13.4 19.13.4
19.13.4 L 19.13.4 L
1913.4 Nb 19.13.4 Nb
22.12 22.12
23.12 309 23.12
23.12 L 23.12 nC
23.12 Nb 309 Cb 23.12 Nb 23.12 Nb
23.12 W 23.12 W
23.12.2 209 23.12.2
16.8.2 16.8.2
17.8.2 17.8.2
18.8 Mn 18.8 Mn 6
18.15.3 L 18.15. nC
25.20 310 25.20 25.20
25.20 L
25.20 Nb 310Cb 25.20 Nb
25.20.2 310 Mo
25.20.C 25.20 H
25.25.2 Nb 25.25.2 Nb
18.20.2 Cu Nb 18.20.2 CuNb
20.25.5 L Cu
23.27.3 Cu Nb
25.16 C Mn
20.9 Nb 349
20.9.3 20.9.3
25.4 25.4
29.9 312
18.36 330 18.36
17.12 Si
24.14 Si
16.25.6
136 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

of the fact that hardness is not always a true measure of b) 2.5% carbon
wear resistance. The metallurgy of hardfaced deposits, c) Very high alloy
and processes and techniques of hardfacing are dealt
with in Chapter 11. II. COBALT BASE ALLOYS
It is apparent that surfacing electrodes are meant to A) Low alloy
be used as much in the design of new components (i.e. B) High alloy
using inexpensive base metals or blanks and applying III. CARBIDES
wear-resistant deposits at suitable points or areas) as in A) Inserts
the reclamation of used or worn-out components in B) Composite
order to reduce their wear and tear in service. C) Powder
Obviously, surfacing electrodes cover an extremely
wide range. A fair idea can be gathered from the IV. COPPER BASE
following list prepared by the AWS (ref. AWS A5.13- A) Copper-zinc
80), which, it must be noted, refers to surfacing filler B) Copper-silicon
metals which can be in the form of bare rods for gas C) Copper-aluminium
and TIG welding, and coated electrodes for arc welding.
V. NICKEL BASE
List of Surfacing Filler Metals A) Nickel-copper (Monel)
B) Nickel-chromium (Nichrome)
I. FERROUS C) N i c k e l - c h r o m i u m - t u n g s t e n molybdenum
A) Hardenable alloys (Hastelloy)
1) Carbon steels D) Nickel-chromium-boron
a) Low (0.19% C max.) The Welding Institute of UK has categorised
b) Medium (0.20-0.60% C) surfacing filler metals and also summarised their mair
c) High (0.61-1.50% C) properties as shown below:
2) Low-alloy steels
a) Low carbon Group 1: Steel
b) Medium carbon 1) Carbon steel: H i g h tensile and compressive
c) High carbon strength. High impact strength. Low abrasion resistance.
d) Cast-iron types Machinable. Heat-treatable.
3) Medium alloy steels 2) Low alloy steels: Wide range of properties varying
a) Medium carbon from low abrasion and high impact resistance to high
b) High carbon abrasion and low impact resistance. Heat-treatable for
c) Cast-iron types softening or hardening. Machinable up to 300 HV
4) Medium-high alloy 3) Martensitic chromium steel: Chromium increases
a) Low carbon heat resistance as compared with low-alloy type. Heat-
b) Medium carbon treatable.
c) High carbon 4) High speed steels: Retain hardness and cutting
d) Cast-iron types (1.5% C min.) properties of tools at temperatures of 500-600° C. Lower
carbon types have greater toughness. Heat treatable for
B) Austenitic steels softening or hardening. Machinable when annealed.
1) Chromium and Cr-Ni 5) Austenitic stainless steel: High impact resistance
a) Low carbon and low abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance in-
b) High carbon, low nickel creased by work hardening. Heat resistant and corro-
c) High carbon, high nickel sion resistant to wide range of media depending on com-
2) High manganese position. Used extensively as buttering layer between
carbon or low-alloy steels and deposit of the austenitic
C) Austenitic—not usually heat-treated manganese type.
1) High chromium iron 6) Austenitic manganese steels: High impact resistance,
2) High-alloy iron greater than that of the austenitic stainless type, and re-
a) 1.7% carbon sistant to crack propagation in service. Work harden.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 137

7) Austenitic chromium-manganese steels: Similar to in corrosion resistant applications. Silicon bronze and
the austenitic manganese type, but can be deposited brasses are used for corrosion resistance only.
directly on carbon or low-alloy steel without an austen-
itic stainless buttering layer. Group 6: Tungsten Carbide
Extremely high wear resistance, where abrasion
Group 2: Irons under high stress occurs, as in rock drill bits and rock
1) Austenitic irons: High abrasion resistance. crushers.
2) Martensitic irons: High abrasion resistance. A close look at the existing standards will provide
3) High-chromium austenitic irons: Very high abrasion thorough understanding of surfacing electrodes. The
resistance. Oxidation resistant. most comprehensive among them is AWS A5.13-2000
4) High-chromium martensitic irons: Very high abra- "Specification for solid surfacing welding rods and
sion resistance. Oxidation resistant. electrodes''. As the title suggests, the standard covers
5) High-chromium complex irons: Very high abrasion rods for use with gas and TIG processes and electrodes
resistance. Oxidation resistant. for use with the manual metal-arc process. The former
carry the prefix JR and the latter the prefix E in their
Group 3: Nickel Alloys classification. We shall restrict our discussion to the
1) Nickel: Welding or surfacing of cast irons also for electrodes.
buttering cast iron. Soft and machinable. The standard covers 44 electrode types divided into
2) Nickel copper: Welding or surfacing of cast irons. six groups. The range is far from exhaustive. This has
Soft and machinable. been explained by stating that, no attempt has been
3) Nickel iron: Welding or surfacing of cast irons, also made to classify all filler metals and that only those
for buttering cast iron. Machinability lower than nickel which have approximate industrial standardisation and
and nickel-copper, but can be improved by use of pre- for which technical data was available have been
heat of 150-300° C. covered. Information on each type made available in
4) Nickel-molybdenum-chromium-tungsten: Oxidation the standard is summarised in the following paragraphs.
and corrosion resistant and resistant to erosion by hot
gases. Iron-Base Electrodes
5) Nickel-chromium-boron: Oxidation resistant. Good EFe1 and EFe2 Electrodes
resistance to corrosion by steam, salt water and salt Characteristics. Deposits made with these electrodes
spray. Low impact resistance. are a machinery grade steel suitable for application on
6) Nickel-molybdenum-iron: Resistant to corrosion by carbon and alloy steels. With care, they can be applied
HCI or salt spray. crack-free. Deposits are machinable with carbide tipped
tools. Deposit hardness generally is in the range of 25 -
Group 4: Cobalt Alloys 50 HRC with EFe2 electrodes providing weld metal with
1) Cobalt-chromium-tungsten low-alloy. Combinatioiy the higher hardness. These deposits contain sufficient
of heat, corrosion and oxidation resistance under im- alloy to attain full hardness without the need of heat
pact stresses, such as occur in exhaust valves. treatment. Abrasion resistance is comparable to heat-
2) Cobalt-chromium-tungsten medium alloy. Higher treated steels of equal hardness.
abrasion resistance than low-alloy type, but IOWCT re- Applications. These electrodes are used for restore
sistance to impact or thermal shock. / worn machinery parts to their original dimensions.
3) Cobalt-chromium-tungsten high alloy. Highest abra- Deposit surfaces are suitable for metal-to-metal rolling
sion resistance and lowest shock resistance of this alloy and sliding contact, such as occurs on large, low speed
group. gear teeth, shafts etc. High compressive strength makes
4) Cobalt-chromium-tungsten nickel: Good corrosion these materials suitable as a base for more abrasion-
resistance and high temperature resistance with excel- resistant materials.
lent thermal shock resistance.
EFe3 Electrodes
Group 5: Copper Alloys Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by these
Copper-aluminium alloys are used for bearing, electrodes is an air-hardening tool steel type with high
corrosion resistant and wear resistant surfaces. Tin room temperature hardness (55-60 HRC). Deposits can
bronzes are used for bearing surfaces and occasionally be applied crack-free with careful procedures. The
138 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
deposits cannot be machined and generally are ground
when finishing is required.
Applications. EFe3 electrodes are used to overlay
surfaces and edges requiring high hardness and crack-
free deposits, such as the edges of tools and dies.
Deposits are compatible w i t h m a n y tool steels.
A l t h o u g h generally u s e d for metal-to-metal
applications, EFe3 weld metal performs well in earth
abrasion applications where high impact is encountered.
EFe4 Electrodes
Characteristics. These electrodes will h a v e a
graphitic (black) coating and are suitable for application
on cast iron. Although the deposited metal is relatively
brittle, crack-free deposits can be made with controlled
procedures. Deposits can be machined providing they
are slow cooled from an annealing temperature.
Applications. EFe4 weld metal is used to rebuild
worn cast iron machinery parts subject to metal-to-metal
rolling or sliding contact. Although EFe4 weld deposits
are compatible with carbon and low alloy steel, EFe2
electrodes generally are preferred for such applications.
EFe5 Electrodes
Characteristics. EFe5 electrodes deposit a cold work
type of tool steel. Hardness as-deposited should be in
the range of 50-55 HRC. Weld metal deposited by EFe5
electrodes is air-hardening and machinable only after
annealing.
Applications. Typical applications include those
requiring high compressive strength with moderate
abrasion and metal-to-metal wear, such as machine
components, shafts, and brake drums.
EFe6 Electrodes
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by EFe6
electrodes is a high-speed tool steel with a hardness in
range of 60 HRC or higher. The deposits maintains a
high degree of hardness to 1100QF (593QC). Weld metal
deposited by EFe6 electrodes is air-hardening and is
machinable only after annealing.
Applications. Weld deposits may be used for metal-
to-metal wear applications at temperatures up to 1100
F (593 C). Typical applications combine high tempera-
ture service with severe abrasion and metal-to-metal
wear and include shear blades, trimming dies, and
punching dies.
EFe7 Electrodes
Characteristics. EFe7 series electrodes are essentially
a higher carbon modification of EFe3 electrodes.
Abrasion resistance of the weld deposit is improved
with some sacrifice in resistance to impact. Deposits air
harden, and a two-layer deposit can be expected to have
a hardness of 60 HRC or higher. Stress-relief cracks
(checks) typically occur through the overlay. Deposits
cannot be machined.
Applications. EFe7 electrodes are u s e d for
overlaying surfaces that require good low-stress
abrasion resistance. Applications include cement chutes,
fan blades, bulldozer blades, and other parts and
equipment used for earthmoving or construction.
Carbon and alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels
are compatible base metals.
EFeMn Series Electrodes. (EFeMn-A through
EFeMn-F)
Characteristics. Deposits made with EfeMn series
electrodes nominally contain 14% manganese, although
they may vary from 12-21%. This is an amount sufficient
to yield austenitic weld deposits. Austenite is a
nonmagnetic, tough form of steel. To preserve the
toughness, excessive heat must be avoided during
welding. Stringer beads and a block sequence are
recommended. The additions of other elements, such
as 4% nickel, are made to give more stability to the
astatine; chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium are
also addedsingly or in combination of 0.5-8% to increase
the yield strength. Abrasion resistance is only a little
better than that of low-carbon steel unless there has been
sufficient impact to cause work hardening. As deposited
surfaces generally are no harder than HRC 20, but can
work harden to HRC 55. Since deposits are difficult to
machine, grinding is preferred for finishing.
Applications. These electrodes are used for the
rebuilding, repair, and joining of Hadfield austenitic
manganese steel. Ability to absorb high impact makes
such deposits ideal for the rebuilding of worn rock
crushing equipment and parts subject to impact loading,
such as railroad frogs.
EFeMnCr Electrodes
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by EFeMnCr
electrodes have characteristics similar to austenitic
manganese deposits. The high chromium content
imparts stainless steel qualities. These deposits cannot
be flame cut. Although care must be taken in application
to avoid hear build-up, deposits are more stable than
FeMn series electrodes.
Applications. Like EFeMn t y p e electrodes,
EFeMnCr electrodes are used for rebuilding, repair and
joining of equipment m a d e of Hadfield austenitic

manganese steel. EFeMnCr electrodes offer the added
advantage of being usable for joining austenitic
manganese steel both to itself and to carbon steel.
EFeMnCr weld metals often are used as a base for
surfacing with EFeCr types for parts subject to both wear
and impact.
EFeCr-A1A and EFeCr-A4 Electrodes
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by these
electrodes will contain massive chromium carbide's in
an austenitic matrix providing excellent wear resistance
and toughness. Surface checks are typical and give some
degree of stress relief. Deposits cannot be machined
and must be ground when finishing is required. To
assure the desired deposit composition, two layers are
recommended. Additional layers invite spalling and
must be applied with caution. Electrodes are suitable
for welding on carbon, alloy, and austenitic steels as well
as cast irons. The weld metal deposited by EFeCr-Al A
electrodes generally provides greater resistance to
impact but slightly less abrasion resistance than weld
metal deposited by EFeCr-AR electrodes.
Applications. Deposits frequently are used to
surface parts and equipment involved in sliding and
crushing of rock, ore, etc; such as bucket lips and teeth,
impact hammers, and conveyors. Very low coefficients
of friction develop as a result of scouring by earth
products.
EFeCr-A2 Electrodes
Characteristics. The weld metal deposit contains
titanium carbide in an austenitic matrix. It is machinable
only by grinding. Build-up should be limited to three
layers to minimize relief check cracking.
Applications. This weld metal group may be
applied to both carbon steel and austenitic manganese
base metal. Deposits frequently are used to hardface
mining, construction, earth moving, and quarrying
equipment subject to abrasion and moderate impact.
EFeCr-A3 Electrodes
Characteristics. Filler metal deposited by EfeCr-A3
electrodes is similar to a deposit made using EFeCr-Al A
electrodes except, due to the lower manganese content,
a martensitic matrix is present, rendering the deposit
somewhat brittle. These deposits are not machinable but
may be finished by grinding where necessary.
Applications. This weld metal is a general purpose
hardfacing alloy for earth abrasion applications and is
suitable for low stress scratching abrasion with low
impact.
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 139
EFeCr-A5 Electrodes
Characteristics. The weld deposit contains chro-
mium carbide in an austenitic matrix. The nonmagnetic
weld metal has fair machinability. Build-up should be
restricted to three layers to minimize stress relief check-
ing.
Applications. Surfaced components frequently are
used for applications involving frictional metal-to-metal
wear or earth scouring under low stress abrasion.
EFeCr-A6 and EFeCr-A7 Electrodes
Characteristics. These are a higher carbon version
of EFeCr-A5 electrodes. The deposit contains hexagonal
chromium carbides in an austenitic carbide matrix and
has a hardness of 50-60 HRC. Deposits develop stress-
relief checks. The addition of molybdenum increases
wear resistance to high stress abrasion. The weld metal
m a y be a p p l i e d on carbon, alloy, or austenitic
manganese steel base metal.
Applications. Weld metal is frequently used for
applications involving low stress abrasive wear
combined with moderate impact.
EFeCr-A8 Electrodes
Characteristics. EFeCr-A8 is a higher chromium
version of EFeCr-A3. The deposit contains hexagonal
chromium carbides in an austenitic matrix and has a
hardness of 50-60 HRC. The increased chromium
content tends to decrease the toughness while increasing
the abrasion resistance. Maximum relief checking can
be expected. The weld metal may be applied to carbon,
alloy, or austenitic manganese base metals.
Applications. Weld metal is frequently used for
applications involving low stress abrasion combined
with minimum impact.
EFeCr-EX Series Electrodes
Characteristics. This family of electrodes deposits
weld metal containing finely dispersed chromium
carbides plus one or more metallic carbides (vanadium,
niobium- columbium, tungsten, or titanium). The
resultant deposits are not machinable, and maintain
their hot hardness and abrasion resistance to 1200QF
(650QC). Deposits stress-relief check readily
Applications. Equipment subjected to severe high
stress abrasion combined with moderate impact may
be surfaced with one of the specific grades. Selection of
the specific grade will be dependent on local service
conditions and the specific application.
140 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Cobalt-Base Surfacing Electrodes
ECoCr-A Electrodes
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by EcoCr-A
electrodes is characterized by a hypereutectic structure
consisting of network of about 13% eutectic chromium
carbides distributed in a cobalt-chromium-tungsten
solid solution matrix. The result is a material with a
combination of overall resistance to low stress abrasive
wear coupled with the necessary toughness to resist
some degree of impact. Cobalt alloys also are inherently
good for resisting metal-to-metal wear, particularly in
high load situations that are prone to galling. The high
alloy content of the matrix also affords excellent
resistance to corrosion, oxidation, a n d elevated
temperature retention of hot hardness up to a maximum
of 1200QF (650QC). These alloys are not subject to
allotropic transformation and therefore do not lose their
properties if the base metal subsequently is heat treated.
Applications. The alloy is recommended for cases
where wear is accompanied by elevated temperatures
and where corrosion is involved, or both. Typical
applications include automotive and fluid flow valves,
chain saw guides, hot punches, shear blades, extruder
screws, etc.
ECoCr-B Electrodes
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by ECoCr-B
electrodes is similar in composition to ECoCr-A depos-
its except for a slightly higher carbide content (approxi-
mately 16 percent). The alloy also has a slightly higher
hardness coupled with better abrasive and metal-to-
metal wear resistance. Impact and corrosion resistance
are lowered slightly. Deposits can be machined with
carbide tools.
Applications. ECoCr-B electrodes are used
interchangeably with ECoCr-A. Choice will depend on
the specific application.
ECoCr-C Electrodes
Characteristics. This alloy's deposits have a higher
carbide content (19%) than those made using either
ECoCr-A or ECoCr-B electrodes. In fact, the composition
is such that primary hypereutectic carbides are found
in the microstructure. This characteristic gives the alloy
higher wear resistance, accompanied by reductions in
the impact and corrosion resistance. The higher hardness
also means a greater tendency to stress crack during
cooling. The cracking tendency may be minimized by
closely monitoring preheating, interpass temperature,
and postheating techniques.
While the c o b a l t - c h r o m i u m deposits soften
somewhat at elevated temperatures, they normally are
considered immune to tempering.
Applications. Weld metal deposited by ECoCr-C
electrodes is used to build up mixer rotors and items
that encounter severe abrasion and low impact.
ECoCr-E Electrodes
Characteristics. Welds made using ECoCr-E electro-
des have very good strength and ductility at tempera-
tures upto 1600QF (871QC). Deposits are resistant to ther-
mal shock, and oxidizing and reducing atmospheres.
Early applications of these types of alloys were found in
jet engine components such as turbine blades and vanes.
The deposit is a solid-solution-strengthened alloy
with a relatively low weight-percent carbide phase in
the microstructure. Hence, the alloy is very tough and
will work harden. Deposits possess excellent self-mated
galling resistance and also are very resistant to cavita-
tion erosion.
Applications. Welds m a d e using ECoCr-E
electrodes are used where resistance to thermal shock
is important. Typical applications, similar to those of
ECoCr-A deposits, include guide rolls, hot extrusion and
forging dies, hot shear blades, tong bits, and valve trim.
Typical hardness values for multilayer welds made
using cobalt base electrodes are :
ECoCr-A 23-47 HRC
ECoCr-B 34-47 HRC
ECoCr-C 43-58 HRC
ECoCr-E 20-32 HRC
Hardness values for single layer deposits will be
lower because of dilution from the base metal.
Nickel-Base Surfacing Electrodes
ENiCr-C Electrodes
Characteristics. Undiluted weld metal of this
composition exhibits a structure consisting of chromium
carbides and chromium borides in a nickel-rich matrix.
The nickel base and high chromium content give these
deposits good heat and corrosion resistance. Care should
be taken when cooling hardfacing deposits because of
a tendency to stress crack. Tr^is alloy possesses excellent
resistance to low stress abrasion/
Applications. ENiC4~C weld metal flows very easily,
has very high abrasion resistance, and normally takes
on a high polish. Typical applications include cultivator
sweeps, plow shares, extrusion screws, pump sleeves,
pistons, and impellers, capstan rings, glass mold faces,
centrifuge filters, sucker p u m p rods, etc. The deposits
have high corrosion resistance and normally require
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 141

grinding for finishing. Single layer deposits typically sheaves, wear plates, dies, etc. These alloys are also used
have a hardness of 35-45 HRC. Multilayer deposits to surface dies that form or draw titanium, low-carbon
typically have a hardness of 49-56 HRC. and stainless steels. These alloys are not recommended
for applications that require resistance to corrosion.
ENiCr-Mo-5A Electrodes The ECuSi electrodes are used primarily for surfac-
Characteristics. Undiluted weld metal deposited by ing corrosion-resistant surfaces. Copper-silicon depos-
ENiCrMo-5A electrodes is a solid-solution-strengthened its generally are not recommended for bearing service.
alloy with relatively low weight-percent carbide phase Copper-tin (ECuSn) electrodes are used primarily
produced through secondary hardening. The resultant to surface bearing surfaces where the lower hardness
deposit is tough and work hardenable. of these alloys is required, for surfacing corrosion-
Deposits have the ability to retain hardness up to resistant surfaces, and, occasionally, for applications
1400QF (760QC). Deposits are machinable with high- requiring wear resistance.
speed tool bits and have excellent resistance to high- Copper-nickel electrodes (ECuNi) are used for
temperature wear and impact. rebuilding 70/30, 80/20, and 90/10% copper-nickel
Applications. These electrodes are used to rebuild alloy or the lead side of copper-nickel clad steel.
and repair hot extrusion dies, hot forging dies, sizing Preheating generally is not necessary.
punches, hot shear blades, guide rolls, tong bits, blast Copper-nickel-aluminum electrodes (ECuNiAl) are
furnace bells, etc. used to rebuild nickel-aluminum-bronze castings or
wrought components. Typical applications are those
ENioCrFeCo Electrodes requiring a high resistance to corrosion, erosion, or
Characteristics. Weld metal deposited by these cavitation in salt or brackish water.
electrodes contain a fairly large volume fraction of ECuMuNiAl electrodes are used to rebuild or
hypereutectic c h r o m i u m carbides d i s t r i b u t e d surface cast manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze
throughout the microstructure. The alloy offers many castings or wrought material. Typical applications
of the same high-performance characteristics of deposits include those requiring excellent resistance to corrosion,
made using ECoCr-C or RNiCr-C electrodes in terms of erosion, and cavitation.
abrasive wear resistance. The reduced nickel or cobalt
content, or both lowers corrosion properties and galling APPLICATIONS
resistance. The high volume fraction of carbides makes Hardness Ranges. See Table 3.46 for typical hardness
this alloy sensitive to cracking during cooling. ranges.
Applications. Welds m a d e using ENiCr-FeCo Hot Hardness. The copper-base alloy filler metals
electrodes are preferred where high abrasion (low are not recommended for use at elevated temperatures.
impact) is a major factor. Typical applications are feed Mechanical properties, especially hardness will tend to
screws, slurry pumps, and mixer components. decrease consistently as the temperature increases
above 400QF (205QC).
Copper-Base Alloy Electrodes
Introduction. The copper-base alloy electrodes Table 3.46: Approximate Weld Deposit Hardness
classified by this specification are used to deposit (SMAW)
overlays and inlays for bearing, corrosion-resistant, or Brinell Hardness
wear-resistant surfaces. AWS classification 3000 kg load 500 kg load
ECuAl-A2 electrodes are used for surfacing bearing EcuAl-A2 130-150
EcuAl-B 140-180
surfaces between the hardness ranges of 130 to 150 HB
EcuAl-C 180-220
as well as corrosion-resistant surfaces. EcuAl-D 230-270
ECuAl-B and E C u A l - C electrodes are used EcuAl-E 280-320
primarily for surfacing bearing surfaces requiring EcuSi - 80-100
hardness in the range of 140-220 HB. These alloys are EcuSn-A - 70-85
not r e c o m m e n d e d for applications that require EcuSn-C - 85-100
resistance to corrosion. EcuNi - 60-80
ECuAl-D and ECuAl-E electrodes are used to EcuNiAl 160-200
surface bearing and wear-resistant surfaces requiring EcuMnNiAl 160-200 -
hardness in the range of 230-320 HB, such as gears, cams, Note: A As-welded condition
142 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Impact. In general, as the a l u m i n i u m content
increases, impact resistance decreases rapidly. The
impact resistance of deposits made by using ECuAl-
A2 electrodes will be the highest of the copper-base alloy
classifications. Deposits made using ECuSi electrodes
have good impact properties. Deposits made using
ECuSn electrodes have tew impact values.
Oxidation Resistance. Weld metal deposited by any
of the ECuAl family of electrodes forms a protective
oxide coatingf u p o n exposure to the a t m o s p h e r e .
Oxidation resistance of the copper-silicon deposit is fair,
while that of copper tin deposits is comparable to the
oxidation resistance of pure copper.
Corrosion Resistance. Several copper-base alloy
filler- metals are used rather extensively to surface areas
subject to corrosion from reducing type acids, mild
alkalies, and salt water. They should not be used in the
presence of oxidizing acids, such as H N 0 3 , or when
sulphur compounds are present. Filler metals producing
deposits of higher hardness may be used to surface areas
subject to corrosive action as well as erosion from liquid
flow for such applications as condenser heads and
turbine runners.
Abrasion. None of Jfte copper-base alloy deposits is
r e c o m m e n d e d for* use w h e r e severe abrasion is
encountered in serv^e.
Metal-to-Metal JMear. Copper-aluminum deposits
with hardnesses of 130 to approximately 320 HB are
used to overlay surfaces subjected to excessive wear
from metal-to-metal contact. For example, ECu-Al-E
electrodes are used to surface dies, and to draw and
form stainless and carbon steels and aluminum.
All of the copper-base alloy filler metals classified
by this specification are used to deposit overlays and
inlays for bearing surfaces, with the exception of the
CuSi filler metals. Silicon bronzes are considered poor
bearing alloys. Copper-base alloy filler metals selected
for a bearing surface should produce a deposit of 50-75
HB under that of the mating part.
Mechanical Properties in Compression. Deposits of
the ECuAl filler metals have high elastic limits and
ultimate strengths in compression ranging from 25 00 -
65 000 psi (172-448 MPa) and 120 000-171 000 psi (827-
1179 MPa), respectively. The elastic limit of ECuSi
deposits is around 22 000 psi (152 MPa) with an ultimate
strength in compression of 60 000 psi (414 MPa). The
ECuSn deposits will have an elastic limit of 11 000 psi
(76 MPa) and an ultimate strength of 32 000 psi (221
MPa).
Machinability. All of these copper-base alloy
deposits are machinable.
Heat Treatment. Ordinarily, no heat treatment is
needed in surfacing with copper-base alloy filler
metals.
Welding Characteristics. To minimize dilution from
the base metal w h e n surfacing with copper base
electrodes, the first layer should be deposited using as
low an amperage as practical. Excessive base metal
dilution can result in reduced machinability and service
performance. The manufacturer should be consulted for
specific welding parameters.
Preheat. Generally, a preheat is not necessary unless
the part is exceptionally large; in this case, a 200QF (93eC)
preheat may be desirable to facilitate the smooth flow
of the weld metal. At no time should the preheat
temperature be above 400QF (205QC) when applying the
first layer. On s u b s e q u e n t layers, an i n t e r p a s s
temperature of approximately 200 - 600QF (93-316QC) will
simplify deposition of the weld metal.
Tungsten Carbide Electrodes
Characteristics. Tungsten carbide covered electrodes
contain 60 percent by weight tungsten carbide granules.
The WCI carbide is a mixture of WC and W2C. The WC2
carbide is macrocrystalline WC. Hardness of the matrix
of the deposit can be varied from 30 HRC to 60 HRC
d e p e n d i n g on w e l d i n g technique. H a r d n e s s of
individual carbide particles typically is about 2400
HV20. The abrasion resistance of tungsten carbide
deposits is outstanding.
Applications. Tungsten carbide deposits are applied
on surfaces subjected to sliding abrasion combined with
limited impact. Such applications are encountered in
earth drilling, digging, and farming. Specific tools that
may require this type of a surfacing overlay include oil
drill bits and tool joints, earth handling augers, excavator
teeth, farm fertilizer applicator knives, and cultivator
shares.
Discontinued Classifications
Some classifications have been discontinued from
one revision of this specification to another. This results
either from charges in commercial practice or changes
in the classification system used in the specification. The
classifications that have been discontinued are listed in
Table 3.47, along with the year in which they were last
included in the specification.
Composite Surfacing Electrodes
Surfacing electrodes are sometimes designed to have
mild steel tubular core wire, filled internally with metal
and alloy powders and coated with flux. They are called
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 143

composite electrodes. In rare cases, uncoated composite
electrodes are used for surfacing.
AWS A5.21-80 describes seven standard classes of
composite electrodes: EFe5-A, EFe5-B,EFe5-C,EFeMn-
A,EFeMn-B, EFeCr-Al and a tungsten carbide type. The
first six are equivalents of those h a v i n g similar
classification in AWS A5.13-80, which have already been
dealt with in the preceding section. The tungsten carbide
type needs elaboration.
According to AWS A5.21-80, the tungsten carbide
(WC) composite electrode consists of a rimming quality
steel tube (0.1 OC/0.45 Mn/0.01 Si) filled with fused
tungsten carbide granules of controlled mesh size in
such a manner that they make up 60% of the weight of
the core wire. The chemical requirements of the granules
are 3.6 to 4.2% carbon and 94% minimum tungsten.
There are five distinct classifications depending on the
mesh size of the granules. They are: EWC-12/30, EWC-
20/30, EWC-30/40, EWC-40 and EWC-40/120. These
various grades underline the fact that the size (and shape
also) of the carbide granules has significant influence
on weld deposit properties including surface roughness
when abraded.
Weld overlays from WC electrodes offer highest
abrasion resistance among all available hardfacing
materials. They are typically used to armour the cutting
teeth and gauge holding surfaces of rock drill bits; the
wearing surfaces of mining, quarrying, digging and
earth moving equipment; and a multitude of parts,
where the roughness of the weld deposit (as it wears) is
not a handicap, but where the high abrasion resistance
is needed.
WC deposit has a hard matrix, formed when the
mild steel sheath melts and dissolves high amounts of
tungsten and carbon. The matrix serves as a compe-
tent support for the hard granules, which it anchors in
place. This matrix has characteristics that range from
those of air hardening tungsten steels to cast iron struc-
tures containing considerable secondary tungsten iron
carbides.
Because of tungsten, the matrix of WC deposits
retains its hardness up to 538°C, considerably better than
ordinary hardened steels as shown in Fig. 3.21.
The deposits are relatively brittle and vulnerable
to sudden impact and tensile stresses. However, they
have high compression strength. When exposed to
temperatures above 538°C, the WC granules will
oxidise to form yellow tungstic oxide. The matrix
can rust and corrode like ordinary steel. The deposits
are not applicable to metal-to-metal wear conditions.
They are unmachinable and have to be finished,
w h e n required, using silicon carbide or diamond
grinding wheels. Their response to heat treatment
is poor.

Table 3.47: Discontinued Electrode and Rod Classifications, a

Last A5.13(ASTM A 399) LastA5.13(ASTMA399)
AWS classification publication date AWS classificatic publication date
RFeCr-A2 1956 ERCuAl-A3C 1980
EFeCr-A2 1956 RCuAl-Ch 1980
ECuZn-E 1956 RCuAl-Dh 1980
RCuAl-B 1970 RCuAl-Eh 1980
RCuSn-E 1970 ERCuSn-A 1980
ECuSn-E 1970 RCuSn-Dh 1980
RFe5-A 1980 RNiCr-Ah 1980
RFe5-B 1980 RNiCr-Bh 1980
RFeCr-Al 1980 RNiCr-Ch 1980
RCoCr-Ab 1980 EFe5-A 1980
RCoCr-B 1980 EFe5-B 1980
RCoCr-Ch 1980 EFe5-C 1980
RCuZn-E 1980 EfeCr-Al 1980
ERCuSi-Ac 1980 ENiCr-A 1980
ERCuAl-A2c 1980 ENiCr-B 1980
Notes:
a. See A8. discontinued Classifications (in Annex A) for information on discontinued classification.
b. These AWS classifications have been transferred to AWS A5.21.2001 with the revised prefix of "ER" for electrode/rod made from solid
stock or prefix of'ERC"for electrode/rod made from metal or flux cored composite stock.
c. These AWS classification have been transferred to AWS A5.21.2001 without a change in the classification designation for solid bare
electrodes and rods or with the prefix "ERC" for electrodes/rod made from metal offlux cored stock.
144 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

IS: 7303-1974 "Specification for covered electrodes for E F e - l C h a s a high p e r c e n t a g e of carbon a n d

surfacing of metal by manual metal arc welding" chromium to give air-hardening martensitic deposit
The Indian standard covers 26 types classified into having excellent resistance to abrasion, friction and
eight groups as shown in Table 3.48. The equivalent AWS moderate impact. The typical deposit chemistry is 0.50
class had been indicated wherever it exists. Weld metal C/0.30 Mn/7.0 Cr/0.70 Mo/0.60 V and hardness is in
chemistry is indicated only for the types which have no the 550-600 Brinell range. Typical applications are metal
AWS equivalents. cutting and forming tools, punches, dies, drilling bits,
The following notes cover the types for which no shears and croppers, oil expellers, crusher hammers,
AWS equivalents exist, the others having been covered mine rails, caterpillar treads, crane wheels, conveyor
earlier. bucket, mixer blades, dipper teeth, cane cutting knives,
etc. The electrode can have a rutile or basic low-
hydrogen type coating, the latter being preferred for
iHlNDICATES LOSS OF HARDNESS DURING 2 MINUTES UNDER LOAD hardenable base metals and where sudden impact
loading may be anticipated.
The above three types together constitute the bulk
of the hardfacing electrode demand in India.
EFe-3C, 4C and 5C are variations of EFe-lC and are
i n t e n d e d for similar a p p l i c a t i o n s . EFe-6C is an
interesting alloy. With 12% Cr content and high carbon
level, the air-hardened deposit is wear-resistant and also
corrosion-resistant to many atmospheric and industrial
process environments. Typical applications are surfacing
of turbine blades and valve seats.
EFeCr-A electrodes are suitable for surfacing appli-
cations on mild steel, carbon steels, low-alloy steels and
austenitic manganese steels, where resistance to the com-
bined effects of abrasion, impact and corrosion is neces-
sary. The weld, as deposited, has a Brinell hardness of
about 250 HB, which rapidly rises to 500 HB under im-
Fig. 3.21: Apparent hot hardness of hard surfacing pact in service. They are used for surfacing application
alloys at 1000°F (540°C) on shovel tracks, coal mining cutters, dipper teeth, rock
crushers, tractor grousers, mill hammers, sand and
EFe-A is designed to give a moderately hard, wear- p u m p impellers, valve seats, etc. EFeCr-B and C are
resistant alloy steel deposit of 250 Brinell, which is easily basically similar, and hence the description of EFeCr-
machinable. Typical deposit chemistry is 0.12 C/0.35 Al under AWS A5.13-70 will more or less apply to both.
Mn/0.6 C r / 1.1 Mo. Typical applications are gears, ECrNi-Mn-A weld deposit is semi-austenitic and
shafts, pinion teeth, pulleys, couplings, spindles and work-hardens under impact. Its high compressive
axles. Rutile coating is generally preferred for this type. strength and its ability to withstand repeated impacts
EFe-B has higher carbon and alloy contents and gives with minimum deformation and no cracking make it
a harder deposit of 350 Brinell. Typical chemistry is 0.20 an excellent build-up material. Weld metal as deposited,
C/0.65 Mn/3.0 Cr. The electrode can have rutile or basic has a hardness of 250 Brinell, which rises to 400 Brinell
low-hydrogen coating, the latter being preferred for with heavy peening. Under repeated heavy impact in
surfacing of hardenable base metals, such as rails. The service, it increases further to 500 Brinell. Typical
weld is machinable w i t h carbide tools. Typical applications are rebuilding of dipper teeth, shovel
applications are conveyor parts, cams, crawler parts, tracks, rock crushers, coal mining cutters, charging rams,
brake shoes, latch bars and plates, drive sprockets and tractor grousers dipper lips, pump housings, conveyor
rails. Indian Railways have been using this type rolls, conveyor buckets, crusher mantles, screw flights,
regularly for resurfacing rail ends. In this application, a truck chains, mill hammers, scrapper blades, dredger
buffer layer from a basic low-hydrogen type mild steel cutter teeth, ploughshares, shovel drive sprockets,
electrode (E7016 class) is provided to reduce the scarifier teeth, pulveriser plows, sand p u m p impellers,
brittleness of the EFe-B deposit. ingot lifting tongs etc.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 145

Table 3.48: Classification of hardfacing electrodes as per IS 7303

IS class Equivalent AWS class Weld metal chemistry*
EFe-A x 0.2 C/3.0 Mn/3.0 Cr/1.5 Mo
EFe-B x 0.2 C/3.0 Mn/5.0 Cr/1.5 Mo
Efe-lC x 0.3-0.6 C/0.6-1 Mn/5-9 Cr/0.5 V/0.5 Mo
EFe-2C EFe5-B
EFe-3C x 0.6-1.0 C/3.0 Mm/5.0 Cr/1.5 Mo
EFe-4C x 0.3-0.6 C/3.0 Mn/3-9 Cr/1.5 Mo
EFe-5C X 0.6-1.5 C/3.0 Mn/3-9 Cr/2.0 Mo
EFe-6C X
0.3-0.7 C/4.0 Mn/9-14 Cr/2.0 Mo
EFeMn-A EFeMn-B but
without Mo
EFeMn-B EFeMn-A
EFeMn-C EFeMn-B
EFeCr-A x 0.15 C/2.0-3.5 Mn/2-4 Ni/16-19 Cr
EFeCr-B EFeCr-Al
EFeCr-C x 3-5 C/1.0 Mn/2.5-4.5 Ni/26-32 Cr
ECrNiMn-A x 0.15 C/2-4 Mn/4-6 Ni/17-19 Cr
ECrNiMn-B X 0.15 C/4-6 Mn/8-11 Ni/18-20 Cr
ECoCr-A ECoCr-A
ECoCr-B ECoCr-B
ECoCr-C ECoCr-C
ENiCr-A ENiCr-A
ENiCr-B ENiCr-B
ENiCr-C ENiCr-C
ECuAl-A ECiAl-A
ECuAl-B ECuAl-D
ECuAl-C ECuAl-E
ECuSn-A ECuSn-A
*Single values are the maximum percentage

ECrNiMn-B austenitic stainless steel deposit has
excellent heat resistance up to 900°C It is also resistant
to corrosion by the atmosphere, sea water and weak
acids. It is specially suited for making weld joints and
repairing cracks in austenitic manganese .steel and for
joining austenitic manganese steel to mild steel. Another
important application is the building up of railway
points and crossings. It is also used for depositing buffer
layers on hardenable steels before hardfacing.
Non-Standard Types * base electrodes of ECoCr classification have been
As stated earlier, the range of surfacing electrodes
used in industry is very wide and many of them are not
covered by national standards. A few outstanding ones
among them need to be described here.
A 14 Mn/14 Cr steel electrode is fairly popular in
the U.S.A. as capable of providing deposits having
maximum service life under conditions of extreme
abrasion and impact. The weld deposit is austenitic and
work hardens to 50-55 Re. The range of applications is
similar to that of ECrNi Mn-B mentioned above.
Another interesting development is the incorporation
of titanium carbide (up to 11% by volume) into the
deposits of high chromium cast iron for outstanding
abrasion resistance and improved resistance to impact.
TiC is one of the hardest carbides that can be
incorporated in manual electrode, and has been claimed
to provide exceptionally long wear-life to parts under
severe abrasion conditions.
Owing to steeply rising cost of cobalt, several cobalt-
modified with Ni substitution for replacement on some
applications. For example, an electrode having deposit
chemistry of 23 Ni/12Co/26Cr/3 Mo/29Fe/3.5 W has
been developed, which compares well with the well-
established cobalt-based electrode having deposit
chemistry of 60 Co/28 Cr/W 4 (Stellite 6) in abrasive
wear and hot hardness. At room temperature, the
hardness of the new version is lower, but metal-to-metal
wear resistance is superior. Typical uses suggested for
146 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
the new alloy are fluid valves, extruder screws, mixers
and bearing surfaces. Similarly, a 50 Co/30 Cr/12 W
(Stellite 1) is being replaced in many applications, such
as high-abrasion extruder screws, rock bits, bearing
surfaces, slurry pumps and low-impact forming dies
by an alloy 12 Co/27 C r / 7 Mo/23 Fe/3 W/bal. Ni.
Wear Resistance Tests
There are no standard tests for evaluating and
comparing the wear-resistant properties of deposits,
except the conventional hardness test(Brinell, Rockwell,
etc.), but producers of surfacing alloys have devised
their own tests. For metal-to-metal wear resistance test,
a weld specimen is fixed in a jig and rests on a ring of
case-hardened 4620 steel. In the test, the wheel spins at
80 revolutions per minute.
When a sliding distance of 220 metres is covered,
the test is completed. The difference in weights of the
specimen before and after the test is a measure of wear.
To determine the resistance of weld deposits to
scratching abrasion, one may use the test described in
ASTM G65-81; "Standard Practice for Conducting Dry
Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests".The standardised
test equipment and materials include the rubber wheel
(a steel disc covered by a layer of chloro-butyl rubber;
Durometer A58-62 h a r d n e s s ) , abrasive ( r o u n d e d
particles of quartz grain sand, AFS 50/70 Test Sand with
less than 0.5% moisture) and specimen size 25.4 m m x
76.2 mm x 12.7 mm.
After cleaning and weighing the test specimen, it is
seated firmly in the holder, while weights are added to
the lever arm [see Fig. 3.22(A)] which will press the
specimen against the wheel. Next, the revolution
counter is set to the number prescribed in the procedure:
A for hard materials; B, C and D for softer alloys. The
sand flow, preset to 0.25 to 0.35 kg per minute is then
started, the wheel rotation is actuated, and the lever arm
is lowered to force the specimen against the wheel. After
the wheel has completed the preset n u m b e r of
revolutions, the specimen is removed and weighed. The
loss of weight in grams is converted to volume loss,
giving the extent of abrasion in cubic millimetres.
To determine the resistance to metal-to-metal wear,
the specimen is held in contact with a rotating ring. The
test block and ring can be of the same or dissimilar
materials. Specimens attain sliding velocities up to 22
metre/min. Load can vary from 4.5 to 95 kg in 4.5 kg
increments. During testing, a friction-force load cell
connected to a recorder records the force. At the end of
the test, technicians wipe wear particles from the
specimens, degrease, and weigh the specimens. One can
also determine volume loss due to wear from the
measured weight loss. The test set-up is explained in
Fig. 3.22(B).
For the cavitation-erosion test, which is detailed in
ASTM G-32, a horn vibrator with a small bolt-like
sample is immersed in deionised water as shown in Fig.
3.22(C). The ultrasonic horn moves the sample 0.05 m m
at 20 kHz.
ELECTRODES FOR CAST IRON
1) AWS A5.15-90: "Specification for welding electrodes
and rods for cast irons"
This standard covers gas welding rods as well as
MMA welding electrodes for welding cast iron, but we
shall restrict our discussion to the latter. The standard
has four distinct groups of electrodes, depending on the
core wire chemistry, and a total of nine types. The
Appendix describes in detail the characteristics of each
electrode type. The following is a summary of the
Appendix:
Group 1: Cast Iron
The electrode, designated ECI, uses as core wire the
standard cast iron rod specified for gas welding, whose
composition is 3.5 C/3.0 Sl/0.70 Mn/0.60 P. The heavy
flux covering gives a light slag, which is easily
removeable. Preheating in the temperature range of 150-
750°C, depending on the size of the casting, is necessary
to ensure a machinable deposit of around 200 Brinell
hardness, which has a refined close-grained structure.
Group 2: Steel
The electrode, designated ESt, uses the standard core
wire of mild steel electrodes, whose chemistry 0.10C/
0.45 Mn/0.03 Si. The coating usually is the basic low-
hydrogen type, though the standard does not mention
this. The electrode is used without preheat to repair
small cracks and pits in castings. Low current is used to
minimise weld dilution; the beads should be short and
widely separated to distribute the heat. Each bead
should be peened lightly. The deposit is mild steel, but
it h a r d e n s from carbon p i c k - u p a n d becomes
unmachinable. In using this electrode for repairing large
cracks on sizeable castings, it is advisable to employ
studs which key the weld to the unaffected base metal
below the fusion zone. Studs are usually 6 to 16 mm in
diameter, projecting 5 to 6.5 m m above the surface to be
welded, and screwed in to a depth, at least equal to their
diameter. The cross-sectibnal area of the studs should
be 25 to 35% of the area of the weld surface.
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 147

Group 3: Copper Alloy

SAND Three types are included here. ECuSn-A and ECuSn-

y
rs2sas^
C have core wires of tin bronze, the former having 4-
6% tin and the latter having 7-9% tin. The third,
designated ECuAl-A2, has aluminium bronze core wire
with Al content of 9-11%. All the three, with the same
designations, are mentioned in AWS A5.6 as electrodes
RUBBER WHEEL
designed for welding copper alloys.
ECuSn types are based on the concept of braze
TEST SPECIMEN welding of cast irons, which employs an oxyacetylene
flame and copper-zinc alloys. If, in arc welding, copper-
zinc alloy is used, zinc would evaporate and cause
"~~|^-—-— F excessive weld porosity. Hence CuSn alloys are
@ preferred. These electrodes can be used at very low

W ^ ^ yr
w
£ * ^ S A N D PARTICLES,
METAL WATER DEBRIS
currents and high travel speeds, resulting in minimum
distortion and least fusion zone cracking due to the fact
that less hard, brittle white cast iron is formed in this
critical area. For best results, preheat and interpass
temperatures of 200°C are recommended. The A-type

I. J
gives a deposit hardness of 70-85 Brinell, and the C-
type 85-100 Brinell. The desposits can provide good
bearing and corrosion resistanct surfaces.
ECuAI-A2 electrode has a relatively low melting
■^TEST SPECIMEN
point and high deposition rate at lower amperage, while
the UTS and YS of the deposit is almost double those of
® the copper-tin deposits. These properties are an
advantage in joining new higher strength cast irons
-TEST RING successfully. The electrode is also well suited for
(B) building on bearing, corrosion-resistant and wear-
resistant surfaces. Preheat temperatures similar to CuSn
electrodes are recommended.

Group 4: Nickel Alloy

ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER There are four types in this group, and they are
classified on the basis of weld deposit chemistry and
not on the basis of core wire chemistry, as done in the
earlier three groups. The details are:
HORN VIBRATOR
AWS class Weld deposit chemistry
ENi-CI2.0 max. C/85 min. Ni/8.0 max. Fe/2.5 max. Cu

TEST ETWe-CI 2.0 max. C/45-60 Ni/2.5 max. Cu/bal. Fe

ISPECIME! ENiCU-A 0.45 C/ 3-6 Fe/ 50-60 Ni/35-45 Cu
ENiCU-B 0.45 C/ 3-6 Fe/60-70 Ni/ 25-35 Cu

(O These four types are widely used for welding cast

PEtpNigEfr WATER
Fig. 3.22. Sketches of standard wear-resistance tests: (A)
Scratching abrasion test; (B) Metal-to-metal wear test; (C)
Cavltation-erosion test.
iron without preheating. Welds are usually machinable.
ENi-Cl produced with pure nickel core wire is
widely used for reclamation and repair of castings, as
also for joining cast iron to other ferrous and non-ferrous
148 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
materials. Satisfactory welds can be produced when the
P content of the cast iron is not high.
ENiFe-Cl which has ferro-nickel alloy core wire, has
the same applications as the above-mentioned type, and
is to be preferred for welding nodular cast iron and
castings having phosphorus levels higher than 0.20%.
It must also be preferred for making welds on heavy
and highly restrained sections, and on high strength and
engineering grades of cast iron.
ENi-Cu types have monel core wire, and are used in
m a n y of the same applications as the t w o types
mentioned above.
The hardness of nickel and nickel alloy deposits
depends largely on the dilution by base metal, and can
be controlled within reasonable limits by using low
currents and directing the arc on the molten puddle.
Single layer welds may have a hardness as high as 350
Brinell but multi-layer welds can be controlled to give
hardness within 175-200 Brinell range.
The standard does not call for any tests, but only for
the chemical analysis of the core wire or the weld deposit
as the case may be. The 1956 edition contained a
usability test, but it was withdrawn from the present
edition, because the test was not searching enough and
created a false impression regarding the merits of the
various filler metals. A new test is under consideration
by the AWS-AFS Committee on Welding Iron Castings.
2) IS: 5511-1991 "Specification for covered electrodes for
manual metal arc welding of cast iron"
This Indian standard has the same range as the AWS
standard, except that there are two versions of the cast
iron type, designated Fe C-l and Fe C-2. The first one
has the cast iron core similar to that of ECI of the AWS
specification, while the latter has a mild steel core-wire
and a coating rich in graphite and ferro-silicon, so that
the weld deposit is nearly cast iron, but with lower levels
of carbon and silicon.
All the types are classified on the basis of core-wire
composition. The standard also provides a complete
coding system, which starts with a prefix letter M (to
denote metal-arc welding electrode), followed by three
digits. The first digit specifies the type of covering, the
second digit the welding positions and the third digit
the welding current conditions. Four types of coverings
are specified:
(1) basic lime-fluorspar type, (2) graphite type, (3)
alkali and alkaline earth chlorides and fluorides, (4) any
other type.
(1) is meant for steel electrode; (2) is for cast iron
types and nickel alloys; (3) is for copper alloys.
COPPER AND COPPER-ALLOY ELECTRODES
1) AWS A5.6-84 "Specification for copper and copper-
alloy arc-welding electrodes"
This is a comprehensive standard covering nine
classes based on the chemistry of undiluted weld metal
as shown in Table 3.49.
The s t a n d a r d stipulates all-weld tension test,
transverse guided side-bend test and groove usability
test. The tensile requirements are given in Table 3.50.
Hardness test is not specified but the Appendix
provides typical hardness values of the weld deposits
as reproduced in Table 3.51.
The following descriptions and intended uses of the
various classes have been extracted from the Appendix:
• ECu: The core wire is deoxidised copper. The
electrode is used for welding all commercial
grades of copper and for overlaying. It may be
used for clad restoration on copper clad vessels,
but care must be taken to minimise dilution.
Preheats up to 540°C maybe required, depending
on the mass of the copper material.
• ECuSi: This electrode has already been described
as a surfacing electrode under AWS A5.13. It is
used primarily for welding brasses and copper,
and occasionally for joining of copper with
dissimilar metals including ferrous alloys and for
the fabrication of silicon bronze.
• ECuSn-A & C: These two classes also have been
discussed as surfacing electrodes under AWS
A5.13, and as electrodes for welding cast iron
under AWS A5.15. They are primarily meant for
welding phosphor bronze, but are also useful for
welding brasses and for joining brasses to car-
bon steel and cast iron. The weld metal has a ten-
dency to flow sluggishly and hence preheat and
interpass temperature of 200°C is recommended
on heavy sections. Grade C is superior to grade
A in respect of deposit hardness and tensile and
yield strengths.
• ECuNi: This electrode is primarily meant for
welding 70/30, 80/20 and 90/10 copper-nickel
alloys in wrought or cast form, and are also use-
ful for welding clad side of CuNi clad steel and
for welding nickel or NiCu alloys.
• ECuAl-A2 (iron bearing): This electrode is men-
tioned as a surfacing electrode under AWS A5.13
and as an electrode for welding cast iron under
AWS A5.15. It is designed primarily for joining
aluminium bronzes of similar composition, high
 Table 3.49 Chemical composition requirements for undiluted metal
Composition, weight, percent ab
AWS UNS Common Cu Zn Sn Mn Fe Si Ni d P AI Ph TI Total
classification number 0 name including other
Ag elements
Ecu W60189 Copper Remainder f f 0.10 0.20 0.10 f f 0.10 0.02 0.50
ECuSi W60656 Silicon Remainder f 1.5 1.5 0.50 2.4 f f 0.10 0.02 0.50
bronze to
(copper 4.0
silicon)
EcuSn-A W60518 Phosphor Remainder f 4.0-6.0 f 0.25 f f 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.50
bronze to 0.35
(copper-tin)
EcuSn-C W60521 .... do — Remainder f 7.0-9.0 f 0.25 f f 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.50
to 0.35
ECuNi e W60715 Copper Remainder f f 1.00- 0.40- 0.50 29.0 0.020 - 0.02 0.50 0.50
nickel 2.50 0.75 -33.0
(70/30)
EcuAl-A2 W60614 Aluminium Remainder f f f 0.50- 1.5 f - 6.5 to 0.02 0.50
bronze 5.0 9.0
EcuAl-B W60619 Aluminium Remainder f f f 2.5- 1.5 f - 7.5to 0.02 0.50
bronze 5.0 10.0
ECuiNiAl W60632 Nickel Remainder f f 0.50- 3.0- 1.5 4.0- - 6.0 to 0.02 0.50
Aluminium 3.5 6.0 6.0 8.5
bronze
ECuMnNiAl W60633 Manganese Remainder f f 11.0- 2.0- 1.5 1.0- 5.0 to 0.02 0.50
Nickel 13.0 6.0 2.5 75
Aluminium
bronze
Notes:
a. Analysis shall be made for the elements fir which specific values or an "f are shown in this table. If however, the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of routine analysis,
further analysis, shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements is not present in excess of the limited for total other elements in the last column in the table.
b. Single values shown are maximum.
c. SAE/ASTM Unified Number System for Metals and Alloys.
d. Includes cobalt.
e. Sulphur shall be restricted to 0.015 percent for the EcuNi classification.
f. Those elements must be included in total of other elements.
150 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

based on the aforementioned AWS standard and in-

Table 3.50 Mechanical property requirements
cludes the following classifications: ECu, ECuSi, ECuSn-
AWS Tensile strength, min Elongation in 4 x D A, ECuSn-B, ECuNi, ECuAI-Al, E C u A l - A 2 and
classification ksi MPa gauge length, Percent, min ECuAl-B. Under ECuAl, it covers three types, namely
Ecu 25 170 20 Al (iron free), A2 and B with Al contents of 8-9%, 9-
EcuSi 50 350 20 11% and 11-12% respectively.
EcuSn-A 35 240 20 Al-type is meant primarily for the fabrication of an-
EcuSn-C 40 280 20
nealed aluminium-bronze plate, sheet, and strip and for
EcuNi 50 350 20
the repair of castings having a similar compostion. It
EcuAI-A2 60 410 20
does not include ECuNiAl and ECuMnNiAI. The stan-
EcuAI-B 65 450 10
EcuNiAI 72 500 10 dard does not specify all-weld metal tension test or us-
ECuMnNiAI 75 520 15 ability test. The only tests called for are chemical analy-
sis, transverse tension test and transverse guided bend
test (root and face).
Table 3.51: Hardness range of weld deposits
as per AWS A5.6 NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY ELECTRODES
AWS classification Brinell hardness AWS A5.11-97 "Specification for nickel and nickel alloy
ECu 20 to 40 Rockwell F covered welding electrodes"
ECuSi 80 to 100 (500 Kg load) This is a comprehensive standard covering six
ECuSn-A 70 to 75 (500 Kg load) groups of electrodes, namely, ENi (pure nickel), ENiCu
ECuSn-C 85 to 100 (500 Kg load) (Monel), ENiCrFe (Inconel), ENiMo (Hastelloy) and
ECuNi 60 to 80 (500 Kg load) ENiCrMo (Hastelloy with high Cr) and EniCrCoMo
(Hastelloy with high Cr and Co). Details are given in
ECA1-A2 130 to 150 (3,000 Kg load)
Table 3.52.
ECuAl-B 140 to 180 (3,000 Kg load)
ENi-1 is a pure nickel electrode with approximately
ECuNiAl 160 to 200 (3,000 Kg load)
2.5% Ti addition to deoxidise the weld metal and
ECuMnNiAI 160 to 200 (3,000 Kg load)
eliminate porosity. It is primarily designed to weld pure
nickel used in food-processing equipment, caustic
strength copper-zinc alloys, silicon bronzes, man- handling equipment and piping, chemical containers
ganese bronzes, some nickel alloys, many ferrous for shipping, and electrical parts. Nickel is highly
metals and alloys, and combinations of dissimi- corrosion-resistant to caustic alkalis, dry halogen gases,
lar metals. halogen hydrides and organic compounds generally. It
ECuAl-B: This type also is mentioned as a sur- is also used for joining nickel to steel and surfacing steel
facing electrode under AWS A5.13. Its deposit has with nickel. In dissimilar metal application, dilution of
weld metal with steel must be kept minimum by
higher hardness and tensile and yield strengths
directing the arc on the weld puddle or towards the
than A2 type. It is mainly used for repairing cast-
nickel-base metal rather than the steel member. The
ings besides being used for obtaining wear-resis-
electrode is used with DC+. Electrodes of 3.2 mm and
tant and corrosion-resistant bearing surfaces.
smaller sizes can be used in all positions. Higher sizes
ECuNiAl: It is used for joining or repair welding are suitable only for flat and horizontal positions
of cast or wrought nickel-aluminium bronze ma- (Typical: Huntington Alloys' Nickel 141).
terials. It is also used as surfacing electrode for
ENiCu-7 is a monel electrode designed to weld all
high resistance to corrosion, erosion and cavita-
grades of NiCu alloys widely used for chemical plant
tion from salt brackish waters.
and in engineering generally, where a combination of
ECuMnNiAI: It is used for joining or repair weld- corrosion-resistance, good strength and toughness is
ing of cast or wrought manganese-nickel-alu- required. The alloys have excellent resistance to sea or
minium bronze materials. It is also used as a sur- brackish water, chlorinated solvents, glass-etching
facing electrode for excellent resistance to corro- agents, sulphuric and many other acids, and alkalis.
sion, erosion and cavitation. They are also well suited to join NiCu alloys to steel, to
3) IS: 8666-1977 "Specification for copper and copper- weld the clad side of NiCu alloy clad steel and to surface
alloy covered electrodes for manual metal-arc welding" is steel with monel. For these applications, the electrode
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 151

3.52.A: All-weld metal tension test requirements DC electrode + (Typical: Huntington Alloys' Inconel
132).
Tensile Strength, min ENiCrFe-2 is primarily designed for welding of
AWS ksi MPa Elongation* dissimilar alloys, such as austenitic and ferritic steels to
Classification percent, min each other or to high-nickel alloys. It is also used for
welding Incoloy 800 to itself. Incoloy 800 is used
ENi-I 60 410 20
extensively for high-temperature applications, because
ENiCu-7 70 480 30
ENiCrFe-1 80 550 30 of its strength and its excellent oxidation and
ENiCrFe-2 80 550 30 carburisation resistance. For example, it is used for the
ENiCrFe-3 80 550 30 pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, as in cracking or reforming
ENiCrFe-7 80 550 30 operations in the petroleum industry. DC electrode +
ENiCrFe-4 95 650 20 (Typical: Huntington Alloys' Incoweld A).
EniCrFe-9 95 650 25 ENiCrFe-3 is a high-Mn version of ENiCrFe-2,
EniCrFe-10 95 650 25 specifically meant for use in nuclear applications. The
EniMo-1 100 690 25
high Mn content lowers corrosion resistance of the
EniMo-3 100 690 25
deposit in environments other than hot water, but
EniMo-7 100 690 25
EniMo-10 100 690 25 imparts cracking resistance to heavy, highly restrained
EniMo-8 95 650 25 welds. It is specially designed for overlaying of Inconel
EniMo-9 95 650 25 deposit onto steel to nuclear energy standards, with
EniCrCoMo-1 90 620 25 particular reference to radiographic quality. It is also
EniCrMo-1 90 620 20 used for welding Inconel 600 to itself or to carbon or
EniCrMo-2 95 650 20 stainless steels, and for welding the clad side of Inconel-
EniCrMo-3 110 760 30 clad steel. DC electrode + (Typical: Huntington Alloys'
EniCrMo-4 100 690 25 Inconel 182).
EniCrMo-5 100 690 25
25
ENiCrFe-4 is an AC/DC electrode with higher yield
EniCrMo-7 100 690
EniCrMo-10 100 690 25 and tensile strengths than the earlier classes, and is
EniCrMo-13 100 690 25 meant for welding 9% nickel steel. (Typical: Huntington
EniCrMo-6 90 620 35 Alloys' Incoweld B.)
EniCrMo-9 90 620 25 It should be noted that all ENiCrFe classes contain
EniCrMo-11 85 585 25 small amounts of niobium (Nb) in the weld deposit,
EniCrMo-12 95 650 35 which are added to control the harmful effects of sulphur
EniCrMo-14 100 690 30 on ductility.
*The elongation the guage length equal to
shall bedetermined from ENiCrFe-2 and ENiCrFe-3 are ideal electrodes for
four times the guage diameter. welding dissimilar alloys (as compared to 25/20,25/12
stainless steels), because with their high Ni content, the
weld deposit solid solution is capable of accepting heavy
is suitable in the as-welded and stress-relieved dilution of iron and chromium without the danger of
conditions. Welding positions, suitable for ENi-1 apply duplex structures being formed. Also, elements such as
to this electrode also. A well designed electrode can meet Cu, Ni, Mn, Mo, Co, C, Si, V, etc., are taken into solution
stringent radiographic requirements in all positions. DC without the danger of separate phases being formed.
electrode + (Typical: Huntington Alloys' Monel 190). Thus the diluted weld metal has excellent stability at
ENiCrFe-1 is meant for welding Inconel alloy 600 to all temperatures. The weld metal is extremely resistant
itself. This alloy resists oxidation at elevated to "hot shortness", and does not suffer from carbon
temperatures and has good high-temperature migration effects. Moreover, because Inconel type weld
mechanical properties. It also has useful resistance to metal has coefficients of thermal expansion intermediate
corrosion by many chemical products, especially food between those of austenitic stainless steels and ferritic
acids. For these reasons it is widely used for heat- steels, minimum thermal stresses are generated in the
treatment and furnace equipment as well as for chemical joints in elevated temperature service.
and food-processing plant. Because of its resistance to ENiMo-1 and ENiMo-2 are meant for the welding
Cl-ion, stress-corrosion cracking and corrosion by high of NiMo alloys, among which the best known are the
purity water, alloy 600 is often used in nuclear reactors. so-called Hastelloy alloys. Hastelloy-B is typical of this
 Table 3.52: Chemical composition requirements for undiluted weld metal
Weight percent k
Nb(cb) Other
AWS UNS C Mn Fe Si Cu Ni d Co AI Ti Cr plus Mo W Elements
classification number 0 Ta Total

ENi-1 W82141 0.10 0.75 0.75 0.03 0.02 1.25 0.25 92.0 ~ 1.0 1.0 0.50
min to 4
ENiCu-7 W84190 0.15 4.0 2.5 0.02 0.015 1.5 Rem 62 - 0.75 1.0 0.50
to 69
ENiCrFe-1 W86132 0.08 3.5 11.0 0.03 0.015 0.75 0.50 62 - 13 1.5- - 0.50
min to 17 to4
ENiCrFe-2 W86133 0.10 1.0 12.0 0.03 0.02 0.75 0.50 62 (e) 13 0.5 0.5 0.50
to 3.5 min to 17 to 3 to 2.5
ENiCrFe-3 W86182 0.10 5.0 10.0 0.03 0.015 1.0 0.50 59 (e) 1.0 13 1 - 0.50
to9.5 min to 17 to 2.5
ENiCrFe-4 W86134 0.20 1.0 12.0 0.03 0.02 1.0 0.50 60 - 13 1.0 1.0 0.50
to 3.5 min to 17 to 3.5 to 3.5
ENiCrFe-7 W86152 0.05 5.0 7.0 0.03 0.015 0.75 0.50 Rem (e) 0.50 0.50 28.0 1.0 0.5 0.50
tol2.0 to31.5 to2.5
ENiCrFe-9 W86094 0.15 1.0 12.0 0.02 0.015 0.75 0.50 55.0 - - - 12.0 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.50
to4.5 min tol7.0 to3.0 to 5.5
ENiCrFe-10 W86095 0.20 1.5 12.0 0.02 0.015 0.75 0.50 55.0 - - - 13.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.50
to3.5 min tol7.0 to3.5 to 3.5 to3.5
EniMo-1 W80001 0.07 1.0 4.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 2.5 - - 1.0 26.0 0.60
to 7.0 to 30.0 1.0 0.50

EniMo-3 W80004 0.12 1.0 4.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 2.5 - - 2.5 23.0 0.60
to 7.0 to 5.5 to 27.0 1.0 0.50

EniMo-7 W80665 0.02 1.75 2.25 0.04 0.03 0.2 0.50 Rem 1.0 - - 1.0 26.0 -
to 30.0 1.0 0.50

EniMo-8 W80008 0.10 1.5 10.0 0.02 0.015 0.75 0.50 60.0 - - - 0.5 17.0 -
min to 3.5 to 20.0 2.0 0.50
18.0 - to 4.0
EniMo-9 W80009 0.10 1.5 7.0 0.02 0.015 0.75 0.3 62.0 -
2.0 0.50
to 1.3 min to 22.0
to 4.0
EniMo-10 W80675 0.02 2.0 1.0 0.04 0.03 0.2 0.50 Rem 3.0 1.0 27.0 -
3.0 0.50
to 3.0 to 3.0 to 32.0
EniCrCoMol W86117 0.05 0.3 5.0 0.03 0.015 0.75 0.50 Rem 9.0 21.0 1.0 8.0 - 0.50
to 0.15 to 2.5 to 15.0 to 26.0 to 10.0

EniCrMo-1 W86007 0.05 1.0 18.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 1.5 Rem 2.5 21.0 1.75 5.5 1.0 0.50
to 2.0 to 21.0 to 2.5 to 23.5 to 2.50 to 7.5

EniCrMo-2 W86002 0.05 1.0 17.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 0.50to 20.5 - 8.0 0.2 0.50
to 0.15 to 20.0 to 2.50 to 23.0 to 10.0 to 1.0

EniCrMo-3 W86112 0.10 1.0 7.0 0.03 0.02 0.75 0.50 55.0 (e) 20.0 3.15 8.0 - 0.50
min to 23.0 to 4.15 to 10.0

EniCrMo-4 W80276 0.02 1.0 4.0 0.04 0.03 0.2 0.50 Rem 2.5 14.5 - 15.0 0.35 3.0 0.50
to 7.0 to 16.5 to 17.0 to 4.5

ENiCrMo-5 W80002 0.10 1.0 4.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 2.5 14.5 - 15.0 0.35 3.0 0.50
to 7.0 to 16.5 to 17.0 to 4.5

ENiCrMo-6 W86620 0.10 2.0 10.0 0.03 0.02 1.0 0.50 55.0 - 12.0 0.5 5.0 1.0 0.50
to 4.0 min to 17.0 to 2.0 to 9.0 to 2.0

ENiCrMo-7 W86455 0.015 1.5 3.0 0.04 0.03 0.2 0.50 Rem 2.0 0.70 14.0 - 14. 0.5 0.50
to 18.0 to 17.0

ENiCrMo-9 W86985 0.02 1.0 18.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 1.5 Rem 5.0 21.0 0.5 6.0 1.5 0.50
to 21.0 to 2.5 to 23.5 to 8.0

ENiCrMo-10 W86022 0.02 1.0 2.0 0.03 0.015 0.2 0.50 Rem 2.5 20.0 - 12.5 0.35 2.5 0.50
to 6.0 to 22.5 to 14.5 to 3.5

ENiCrMo-11 W86030 0.03 1.5 13.0 0.04 0.02 1.0 1.0 Rem 5.0 28.0 0.3 4.0 1.5 0.50
to 17.0 to 2.4 to 31.5 to 1.5 to 6.0 to 4.0

ENiCrMo-12 W86032g 0.03 2.2 5.0 0.03 0.02 0.7 0.50 Rem - 20.5 1.0 8.8 - 0.50
to 22.5 to 2.8 to 10.0

ENiCrMo-13 W86059 0.02 1.0 1.5 0.015 0.01 0.2 Rem 22.0 - 15.0 - - 0.5
to 24.0 to 16.5

ENiCrMo-14 W86026 0.02 1.0 5.0 0.02 0.02 0.25 0.50 Rem 0.25 19.0 - 15.0 - 3.0 0.50
to 23.0 to 17.0 4.4
Notes:
(a) The weld metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of the work, the amount of those
elements, shall be determined to ensure tliat their total does not exceed the limit specified for "other elements total" in the last column of the table, (b) Single values are maximum, except where
otherwise specified. .Rem - remainder, (c) ASTM/SAE Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys, (d) Including incidental cobalt. Rem = remainder, (e) Cobalt—0.22 Maximum, when
specified by the purchaser, (ft Tantalum—0.30 maximum when specified by the purchaser (g) UNS number formerly was W86040.
154 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
group (0.05 C/61 Ni/2.5 Co/28 M o / 1 C r / 5 Fe), which
is primarily used for its excellent corrosion resistance,
especially to hydrochloric and other acids. ENiMo-1 is
designed for the welding of Hastelloy-B, but is also used
for welding the clad side of Hastelloy-clad steel and for
welding Hastelloy alloys td other metals. ENiMo-3 is
designed to match Hastelloy alloy W and is also used
for welding of dissimilar metal combinations of Ni-base,
Co-base and Fe-base alloys. Both the classes are
normally used in the flat position.
ENiCrMo group of electrodes is used for the welding
of NiCrMo alloys, represented by Hastelloy alloys C, F,
G and X. Alloy C has good corrosion resistance and high-
temperature properties. Alloy C-276 is similar to alloy
C, but has lower carbon and silicon contents to reduce
the formation of grain-boundary precipitates and enable
the alloy to be used in the as-welded condition. Alloy F
resists corrosion by both oxidising and reducing agents.
Alloy G has excellent resistance to hot sulphuric,
phosphoric and nitric acids. Alloy X has high strength
and oxidation resistance at temperatures up to 1,200°C.
ENiCrMo-1,-2 and -5 are also used for welding the
clad side of NiCrMo clad steel and for welding the alloy
to other metals. Classes 1 and 2 are designed to weld
Hastelloy G and X respectively. Class 3 has similar
applications but is better suited for surfacing steel with
NiCrMo alloy. It may also be used for welding dissimilar
combinations of iron- and nickel-base alloys. Class 4 is
the extra-low carbon variety meant to be used for
welding low-carbon NiCrMo alloys, such as Hastelloy
alloy C-276, to themselves and to other metals and clad
side of low-carbon NiCrMo clad steel. Class 6 is intended
for welding cryogenic grades of steel but can also be
used in other applications.
Electrodes with ENiCrCoMo-1 classification are
used for w e l d i n g Nickel-Chromium-Cobalt-
Molybdenum alloys to themselves and to steel and for
surfacing steel w i t h N i c k e l - C h r o m i u m - C o b a l t -
Molybdenum weld metal. The electrodes are also used
for applications where optimum strength and oxidation
resistance is required above 820°C u p t o 1150°C,
especially when welding on base metals of Ni-Fe-Cr
alloys.
The AWS standard stipulates the following tests:
chemical analysis, all-weld tension test, transverse
guided bend test and radiography test (termed usability
test). Surfacing weld bend test is demanded for ENi-1,
ENiCrFe-2, ENiFeCr-3, ENiFeCr-4, ENiCrMo-3 and
E n i C r M o - 6 . A d d i t i o n a l tests such as corrosion
resistance, scaling resistance, or strength at elevated or
sub-zero temperatures may be required for certain
special applications, but they are outside the scope of
the standard.
Ni and Ni-alloy electrodes call for special
consideration in use. Ni-alloy weld metal has less
fluidity and does not spread. Hence, it must be placed
where required and weaving must not exceed three
times the electrode diameter. Wider beads may expose
the molten metal to the atmosphere. Normally lower
currents are necessary. Use of excessive current to
promote fluidity may overheat the electrodes and result
in poor arc stability and loss of protection of the weld
puddle towards the end of the weld run, due to spalling
of the coating. It is advisable to bake the electrode in an
oven before use,
ALUMINIUM AND AL-AUOY ELECTRODES
AWS A5.3-99 deals with Al and Al-alloy electrodes.
It covers three classes of electrodes as shown in Table
3.53.
The standard stipulates chemical analysis of core
wire, reduced section tension test and transverse guided
root- and face-bend tests.
The covering consists mainly of alkaline chlorides
and fluorides, which are hygroscopic. Absorption of
moisture from the air can be quite rapid and the
deterioration of the covering can occur alter only a few
hours exposure to atmospheric humidity. For this
reason, original cartons must be stored in a dry, clean
room. Electrodes in an open carton or exposed otherwise
must be reconditioned by heating in an oven at 175-
200° C for one hour prior to use. Even traces of moisture
in the coating or on the base plate can cause weld
porosity. Dirt, grease or other contamination on the
electrode or joint surface can also contribute to porosity.
The slag formed over the weld bead is not easily
removable. Though a major portion can be removed by
mechanical means, such as a rotary wire brush or slag
hammer, the final traces can only be removed by
steaming or hot water rinse. Complete removal of the
slag is absolutely necessary, because it is corrosive and
can cause pittings in the joint area. Multiple-pass
welding should therefore be avoided as far as possible.
It is usually advisable to preheat the joint area to 150-
200° C. Since aluminium has high heat conductivity,
preheating helps to maintain the fluidity of the weld
p u d d l e a n d to avoid porosity d u e to too r a p i d
solidification of the weld. Preheating also reduces
distortion. One difficulty encountered in metal arc
welding, caused by interruption of the arc, is the
formation of a fused flux coating over the end of the
electrode. Re-establishing a satisfactory arc is impossible
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 55

Table: 3.53 Chemical composition requirements for core wire

ab
Weight ]Percent

AWS UNS Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ti Be Other Elements Al

classification designation 0 Each Total
EllOO A91100 (d) (d) 0.05-.0 20 0.05 0.10 0.0008 0.05 0.15 99.00 min e
E3003 A93003 0.6 0.7 0.05-0.20 1.0-1.5 0.10 0.0008 0.05 0.15 Reminder
E4043 A94043 4.5-6.0 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.0008 0.05 0.15 Reminder
Notes:
a) The core wire, or the stock from which it is made, shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence
of other elements is indicated in the course of work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that they do not exceed the limits specified for
"Other Elements." b) Single values are maximum, except where otherwise specified, c) SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys, d)
Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.95 percent, e) The aluminium content for unalloyed aluminium is the difference 100.00 percent and the sum of all other
metallic elements present in amounts of 0.010 percent or more each, expressed to the second decimal before determining the sum.

during the welding operation. Hence an electrode needs

Table 3.53 A tension test requirements
Tensile strength, min. £
AWS Psi MPa
classification
EllOO 12 000 80
E3003 14 000 95
E4043 14 000 95
Note: a. Fracture may occur either the base metal or the weld metal
until this formation is r e m o v e d ; this is usually
accomplished by striking the electrode against the work
or any other surface.
El 100 class electrodes produce weld metal of high
ductility, good conductivity and slightly lower tensile
strength compared to the other two. It is used for
welding pure aluminium.
E3003 class electrodes also produce weld metal of
high ductility and higher tensile strength than El 100.
They are used to weld aluminium alloys 1100 and 3003.
E4043 class electrodes p r o d u c e weld metal
containing approximately 5% Si, which provides
superior fluidity. They are, therefore, preferred for
general purpose welding. They can be used to weld the
6XXX series Al alloys, the 5XXX series Al alloys (up to
2.5% Mg content), and Al-Si alloy castings, as well as Al
alloys 1100,1350 (EC), and 3003. With the advent of gas-
shielded arc welding processes (TIG and MIG), use of
aluminium MMA electrodes is restricted to minor
structural and repair work.
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF ELECTRODES
Weight for weight, an electrode is several times more
expensive than the corresponding alloy in wrought
form. Its cost rises further due to stub and spatter loss
to be handled and operated with care.
Bending the electrode and hitting its striking end
hard against the base plate to strike the arc, must be
discouraged. These actions may cause the flux to peel
off, more so in the case of basic low-hydrogen types,
w h i c h are b a k e d at high t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g
m a n u f a c t u r e . Use of currents higher than those
recommended by the manufacturer will overheat the
electrodes and cause the coating to decompose or
disintegrate. Cellulosic electrodes (E6010, E6011, E6012)
are markedly sensitive to overheating. The coating gets
charred and in this condition it cannot provide adequate
gaseous shielding; this results in porosity, reduced
penetration, higher nitrogen contents in the weld metal
and reduced ductility and toughness. When very high
currents are used, welders are compelled to discard
longer lengths of stubs, thereby further increasing
electrode cost. Contamination of electrodes by oil, grease
and shop-floor dirt must be avoided, as they promote
weld metal porosity and cracking.
Special care is necessary in the storage of electrodes.
Sometimes they need to be re-dried or re-baked in an
oven before use, according to the recommendations of
the electrode producer. Moisture and water contents of
electrode coatings have an important bearing on
performance and weld metal quality, and the electrode
producer's recommendations are intended to ensure
that these are maintained at optimum levels. It is
i m p o r t a n t , therefore, to k n o w the desirable and
undesirable effects of water in coatings, and the
influence of storage under different climatic conditions.
All classes of electrodes except the basic low-
hydrogen types, as a rule, carry varying amounts of
water in the flux coating. A part of the water may be
156 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
present in a chemically- combined form (as water of
crystallisation) with certain coating ingredients such as
clay, which cannot be driven out by the normal drying
procedures used by the electrode maker. The rest is
present as hygroscopic water, partly retained by the
alkaline silicate used as the binder, and partly as free
moisture, which has originated from the atmosphere
and settled into the pores of the coating. Hygroscopic
water can be driven out mostly by heating the electrode
at 150-450° C for half an hour, while chemically
combined water can only be released by heating to
1,000-1,200° C. The chemically-combined water is
constant for a coating, while the hygroscopic water
varies as the relative humidity of the atmosphere in the
storage area.
The electrode designer deliberately introduces a
controlled quantity of water in the flux coating partly
through certain hydroxides and silicates, which contain
"water of crystallisation", and partly as moisture
physically bonded with the silicate binder, which is
contrived by restoring to not-too-severe drying of the
finished electrode. This water plays a critical role in the
electrodes of the AWS classes E6010, E6011, E6012 and
E6013, which contain significant amounts of organic
compounds (mainly cellulose) in the coating. The first
two classes may contain 25 to 40% by weight, and the
last two 5 to 10% by weight. These organic compounds
make the slag quick-freezing and the electrode easy to
manipulate in all positions. They further give adequate
protection to the arc stream by forming an inert
atmosphere by their combustion, and also provide the
necessary drive for ease of manipulation and good
penetration. Being fully combustible, they reduce the
total quantity of slag formed. This is the reason why
such electrodes are popular as general-purpose all-
position electrodes.
For the instantaneous and complete combustion of
these organic compounds in the arc, oxygen is necessary
and this gas is provided by the dissociation of the water.
The oxygen released by the water oxidises the carbon
of the organic compounds to the inert carbon monoxide
gas, in the familiar water-gas reaction. But for this
oxygen, the weld metal and the slag would be sluggish
and the arc would carry no force. The oxygen from the
water further oxidises a part of the ferromanganese
added to the flux as a deoxidiser, and also a portion of
iron from core, weld and base metal. The oxides of
manganese and iron so formed then enter the slag and
influence its fluidity. A fluid slag ensures that it does
not get entrapped in the weld metal and that it spreads
out evenly on the entire weld metal bead.
In organic (or cellulosic) types of coating, therefore,
a moderate moisture content is held to be beneficial. If
these coatings are baked too dry, the weld is very likely
to contain pits and holes, especially along the edge of
the weld. If these are not removed by chipping, they
often result in weld defects which are readily observed
in radiographs. According to one investigator, this
difficulty can be prevented by re-humidifying, or in
some cases by immersing the electrodes in water for a
few minutes. However, porosity also occurs in the weld
if the coating absorbs too much moisture as in storage
in a damp place. Although such welds may appear
perfect on the surface, radiographs w o u l d reveal
porosity in the weld deposits. The difficulty can be
overcome by re-drying the electrodes according to the
manufacturer's recommendations.
The above observations illustrate the fact that for best
performance and weld metal quality, the electrode
should neither be too dry nor too moist. Cellulosic type
electrodes of AWS class E6010/E6011 are made to carry
about 5 to 10% water by the electrode maker, before they
are packed and sealed. Electrodes of the class E6012 may
carry with advantage 3 to 5% water. This water, of
course, refers to the total water content, chemically-
combined plus hygroscopic, and is expressed as a
percentage of the weight of the flux coating.
Influence of Atmospheric Humidity
Electrodes which are exposed to the atmosphere
have been found to absorb and give u p moisture
according as the relative humidity in the air rises and
falls. The relative humidity is the percentage of moisture
in the air, compared with the quantity necessary to
saturate it. When this value is high, the coating absorbs
water vapour from the atmosphere, which is held by
the binder and in the capillary spaces between the
powdered grains. This action takes place until the
equilibrium is reached between the coating and the
atmosphere surrounding it and may proceed in either
direction. It is possible to demonstrate this by weighing
an electrode periodically with a delicate balance, when
its weight will be found to fluctuate with the change in
atmospheric humidity.
An investigation was carried out a few years ago at
the Material Laboratory, New York Naval Shipyard, in
the U.S.A. on the variations of moisture content in
electrode coatings due to the atmospheric humidity over
a period of months. The values of moisture content (%)
in the coating have been graphically represented, against
variations in the relative humidity, as reproduced in Fig.
3.23. The electrodes investigated here are the cellulosic

type, class AWS E6011. The electrodes, as received, were
found to contain water in the range of 2.5-7.5% by
weight, existing both as free water and as combined
water of crystallisation. The graph clearly indicates that
the six sample electrodes, exhibited similar tendencies
to gain or lose weight throughout the two-month period.
In addition, there appeared to be a significant agreement
between the covering moisture content and the storage
area humidity conditions.
The normal effects of varying moisture contents are
not visible on the electrode, nor are they permanent,
and can be counteracted by restoring the stock of
electrodes to the p r o p e r moisture content range
originally designed by the manufacturer. Alternately,
the stocks may be maintained in sealed, air-tight
containers. However, this severe and costly mode of
packing has hardly been found necessary on technical
grounds, except in the case of basic low-hydrogen
electrodes, because the permissible moisture content
range for ordinary commercially produced electrodes
is sufficiently wide to meet the conditions found in the
stores, which are dry and afford free ventilation.
co r^ r- 10 _,
*- «-
CD
CM
CD
CN
CO
£J az
« <
cc
ui ui ^ 5
U_
UJ
u. U. "- ^-
Fig. 3.23: Variation of moisture percentage in electrode
coatings with atmospheric humidity
ADOR"WELDING f
Vacuum packed electrodes-limits
the influence of atmospheric humidity
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 157
However, there is a form of attack which can take place
on electrode coating due to continuous moist storage
conditions over a period of months, and which results
in the formation of a white or crystalline fur on the
surface of the coating. This fur is produced by a chemical
reaction between the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
and the sodium silicate of the binder, producing crystals
of sodium carbonate and silica powder. The rate of
reaction appears to be extremely slow in the absence of
water, and is favoured by conditions of fluctuating
humidity.
In the continuous presence of excessive moisture,
sodium carbonate and silica will be formed, and as the
reaction is irreversible under these conditions, these will
remain as a deposit. Further additions to the deposit
will be made every time moisture is present in excess.
The deposit so accumulated does not appear to have
any serious effect on the welding quality of most
electrodes, but its presence in excess may lead to rusting
of the core wire and disruption of the coating. The
presence of the deposit may, however, be taken as an
indication of unsatisfactory storage conditions.
One of the inevitable results of the introduction of
organic compounds and water-bearing compounds into
the electrode coatings, is the formation of hydrogen in
the arc as a result of their decomposition. This hydrogen
is absorbed by the weld metal in the molten state, and
is released under pressure as the weld metal cools and
contracts. All the hydrogen may not be released, but a
part of it may collect at suitable voids or slag inclusions
in the weld metal, causing minute invisible cracks in
such regions. There is consequently an overall reduction
in the ductility and toughness of the weld metal and
the phenomenon is termed Hydrogen Embrittlement.
It is generally believed that hydrogen, which is
evolved from substances in the electrode coating, is
dissociated into atomic hydrogen by the intense heat of
<
the arc atmosphere. In this state, hydrogen is readily
5
^ soluble in iron and thus diffuses into the molten weld
metal from the arc atmosphere. The diffusion rates of
atomic hydrogen are higher in ferrite than in austenite
and depend also upon the permeability characteristics
of each particular steel. In the absence of phase changes,
the diffusion rates tend to increase with temperature.
However, they are noticeable even at ordinary-room
temperature. When the atomic hydrogen enters porosity,
cavities, microcracks, etc., which although often
extremely small, are present in cast steels and weld
deposits, it tends to change into the molecular form. In
this state, hydrogen does not diffuse because of the large
size of the molecule, and thus it remains in the steel.
158 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
This so-called precipitation of molecular hydrogen is
believed to cause severe multi-axial stresses.
If the stress system permits ductility, the steel can
withstand these severe internal stress concentrations.
However, if the steel is hard and brittle, or if the stress
system does not permit plastic deformation, failure may
occur, particularly if a high degree of restraint has in-
troduced severe shrinkage stresses. Thus the degree of
embrittlement is a function of the amount and nature
of the hydrogen present, and the magnitude, distribu-
tion and nature of the internal stresses in the weldment.
Therefore, classes of electrodes other than the low-
hydrogen ones should not be used on high-carbon and
low-alloy steels, as the hydrogen causes what is called
underbead cracking at the junction of the weld metal
and the base metal, which is referred to as the heat-
affected zone. This will be dealt with in depth while
discussing the weldability of steels.
Low-Hydrogen Electrodes and Their Storage
Low-hydrogen electrodes, as the name implies, are
those in which the coatings are absolutely free from
organic and water-bearing compounds or any other
ingredients which can be a source of hydrogen. Even
the electrodes are finally baked at a temperature
between 350-425°C to remove the last traces of moisture
adhering to the silicate binder.
The low-hydrogen electrodes must be stored under
conditions which will prevent the absorption of mois-
ture. Objectionable quantities of moisture can be ab-
sorbed by low-hydrogen electrode coating during hu-
mid weather, even in a 24-hour period, if the electrodes
are unprotected. The manufacturers, being aware of this
problem, usually pack their electrodes in small hermeti-
cally sealed containers (cans). Electrodes packed other-
wise need to be stored in a heated room. In fact, even
when low-hydrogen electrodes have just been removed
from hermetically sealed containers, pinholes and po-
rosity may occur unless they are re-baked.
Excessively long e x p o s u r e of l o w - h y d r o g e n
electrodes to h u m i d a t m o s p h e r e m a y result in
impairment of the electrode beyond the mere absorption
of m o i s t u r e . P r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e to the h u m i d
atmosphere will ultimately destroy the binder through
the reaction of carbon dioxide.
Determination of Moisture in Coating
Determination of hygroscopic water in an electrode
coating is simple. A quantity of flux is dislodged by bend-
ing the electrode 180°C across the middle and weighed
immediately. The flux is then powdered and heated to
120°C for one hour and weighed again. The difference in
weight indicates the water content in the flux. By simple
calculation, this can be expressed as a percentage.
Determination of total moisture content (hygroscopic
plus chemically combined) calls for elaborate apparatus
and procedure, such as that described in AWS A5.5
"Specification for low-alloy steel covered arc-welding
electrodes". This method was summarised earlier while
discussing this standard. It was also mentioned, that
the standard stipulates that the maximum moisture
content of coverings of low-hydrogen electrodes, when
supplied in hermetically sealed containers only, shall
be 0.4% by weight for E70XX class, 0.2% for E80 class
and some of the E90 class and 0.15% for E90, E100 and
other higher tensile classes. No reference is made to
eletrodes packed otherwise, but it would not be incorrect
to state that such electrodes be held at a temperature of
350 to 425° C for two hours prior to testing (as stipulated
for other tests in the standard).
Electrode Storage
Electrodes packed effectively in hermetically sealed
tin containers or plastic bags can be stored for any length
of time without fear of deterioration. But electrodes,
especially the non-low-hydrogen types, are often
supplied in simple cardboard cartons or in plastic bags
which may not be perfectly air-tight. Such electrodes
have a minimum shelf-life of six months under normal
storage, which can be extended up to two years and
longer through correct dry storage and special care. It
has been pointed out that the equilibrium moisture
content of the coating varies with the relative humidity
(RH) of the atmosphere. The moisture pick-up is rapid
when the relative humidity exceeds 70%.
The RH is the percentage of moisture in the air,
compared with the quantity required to saturate it at
the same temperature. The quantity of moisture that the
air can hold rises as its temperature rises, so that if there
is no change in the total moisture content of the air, the
relative humidity falls as the temperature rises, and
increases as the temperature falls. When the temperature
falls below the point where the relatives humidity
becomes 100%, moisture is deposited. The temperature
at which this happens is known as the dew point.
In many places the RH of the air during certain
months or the whole year is around 80-90%. In such
conditions, it is imperative that the electrodes are stored
in a continuously heated storage room to bring down
the RH percentage. The importance of maintaining heat
all the time may be illustrated by pointing out that air
at 25QC and RH 70% will deposit moisture, if it is cooled

to below 18°C On the other hand, if its temperature is
raised to 32°C its RH falls to 50%.
Regular consumers of electrodes are advised to
maintain special electrode storage rooms, which are
dehumidified to 50% triaxdifiiirn RH or are kept heated
5 to 10°C above the ambient terhperature. When
electrodes are received in wooden cases, only the cartons
removed from them must be stored in the room aftd not
the cases, considering that wood retains moisture or
water picked up during transit and idkes longer to dry.
Sometimes, and especially under site conditions,
electrodes taken out from a container or from a drying
oven may lie exposed to moist air for several minutes
or hours. Electrode producers therefore strive to design
their coatings in such a way that moisture pick-up, even
under highly humid conditions is low. This factor is
mainly determined by the grade of silicate binder (often
a combination of several alkaline silicates) and the
baking temperature employed during production.
Moisture pick-up rate of low-hydrogett electrodes,
therefore, varies from brand to brand. Marty electrode
producers have successfully developed low-hydrogen
coatings, which are practicality insensitive to
atmospheric humidity; and they produce data on the
actual moisture pick-up after exposure for several hours
or days to the combination of low temperature and high
RH.
Redrying of Electrodes
As pointed out earlier, electrddes other than low-
hydrogen types need re-drying; only if they have
become moist or wet in transit or during storage. This
abnormal condition can be checked by holding four or
five electrodes horizontally between the two palms and
rattling them. Moist electrodes will give a dull sound
while dry ones will emit a metallic tinkle. A surer
method is to weld and observe the performance. A moist
electrode will give a weak arc and more spatter than
usual and the metal will transfer in large globules across
the arc. Low-hydrogen dee'tfddes, Uftless they have been
packed in hermetically sealed containers, must be re-
dried as a rule according to the schedule prescribed by
the electrode manufacturer. Attempting to dry an
electrode by short-circuiting it with the base plate is not
advisable. It hardly removes any moisture, but overheats
the core wire. The correct method is to heat or bake small
quantities of electrodes at a time in ait electric oven, such
as the one shown in Fig. 3.24.
The t e m p e r a t u r e / t i m e schedules generally
prescribed for various electrode types are given in Table
3.54.
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 159
Fig. 3.24: Electrically heated electrode drying oven
The following points should be noted:
1) It is obvious that the same electrode drying oven
cannot be Used for non-hydrogen-controlled electrodes
and hydrogen-controlled electrodes, because the tem-
perature ranges are quite different.
2) If hydrogen-controlled electrodes of different
strength levels are being dried in the same oven, one
should naturally select the highest temperature appli-
cable. This means that electrodes which are meant to be
dried at 250°C can be dried at 380°C and those to be
dried at 380°C can be dried at 425°C However, for con-
venience and economy, one may wisely have different
ovens for different grades of electrodes, in order to en-
sure correct drying and avoid possible mix-up.
3) Baking beyond 350°C for more than two hours
and baking beyond 400°C for more than one hour should
be avoided, because this causes oxidation of the ferro-
alloys and makes the coating brittle. In addition, the
oxygen content of the weld deposit is increased and the
manganese and silicon levels are decreased.
4) The time limit given in the redrying schedule
should not be exceeded, because otherwise the strength
of the coating deteriorates. Hence the necessity of having
a holding oven, in which the electrodes are transferred
after the time limit. There is no limit to the time for
holding the electrodes at 150°C.
5) It should be borne in mind that if the door of the
oven is opened every now and then, either for inserting
or taking out the electrodes, they will not get dried to
the extent desired. Here also, the holding oven plays a
useful part, because once the electrodes are transferred
160 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.54: Redrying schedules for electrodes

Electrode class/type Temperature / time Holding temperature
Mild steel/low-alloy steels
Cellulosic type (E6010/6011) 70-80°C/l hour
Rutile-cellulose types (E6012/6013) 100/110°C/1 hour
Acid types (E6020) 150/180°C/ 1 hour
Low-hydrogen types (E7016/7018)
To reach 0.6% moisture content 230/260°C/2 hours Then transferred to
To reach 0.4% moisture content 370/400°C/l hour a holding oven at
or 125-150°C
300/350°C/2 hours

To reach 0.2% moisture content 425°C/ lhour

Stainless steels
Rutile type 120/150°C/2 hours
Semi-basis 180/200°C/2 hours
Copper and its alloys
Basic type 200/250°C/2 hours
Aluminium 175/200°C/1 hour
Cast iron
Nickel or Monel core 150/180°C/1 hour
Mild steel core 150/200°C/1 hour
Nickel and its alloys 200/250°C/2 hours

to this oven, it can be opened repeatedly for drawing
out the required electrodes for use.
6) Electrodes which have become very moist or wet
should not be transferred at once into the oven, which
is at a high temperature. The sudden expulsion of mois-
ture from the coating will result in its cracking. It is ad-
visable that such electrodes are first dried at about 100°C
for half-hour or so, before they are shifted to the baking
oven.
7) One should never use these ovens for drying
things other than electrodes. It is important to set a time
limit for the exposure of LH electrodes to the atmosphere
after they have been taken out of the primary or hold-
ing oven and before they are used up on the job. This is
necessary, because the electrodes keep on picking up
moisture from the air, more so in humid weather, un-
less the coating has been designed to be moisture-resis-
tant. The following guidelines may be followed:
Class of electrode Humid weather Dry weather
(90% RH) (50% RH)
E70XX 4 hours 8 hours
E80XX 2 hours 8 hours
E90XX 1 hour 4 hours
E100XX/110XX 0.5 hour 2 hours
WELDING PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES
AWS defines welding procedure, as the detailed
methods and practices including all joint welding
procedures involved in the production of a weldment.
It is very important that before starting to weld, a
welding procedure is drawn up, which will ensure
acceptable quality welds at the lowest overall cost.
Procedures become more stringent and costly as
criticality of the job increases. For example, fabrication
of a pressure vessel conforming to ASME code requires
defect-free welds capable of meeting special mechanical
and non-destructive testing requirements demanded by
the code. This will mean use of high quality electrodes,
skilled and certified welders, moderate currents and
travel speeds and welds with little or no porosity or
undercut. A commercial quality vessel on the other hand
may be fabricated with a more liberal procedure and
less skilled welders.
To define and draw u p a welding procedure, one
may use a standard procedure sheet such as shown
below. The sheet can be best prepared by the welding
engineer in consultation with the welding foreman or
shop-floor supervisor. It simplifies the welders' tasks
and prevents last minute confusion and faulty work.
The preparation of such a sheet provides an opportunity

to check on what means and materials are available in
the shop, or have to be specially provided to meet the
job requirements. The sheet also helps to qualify the
welders before they are put on the job. Such sheets serve
as references for the future. Important codes demand
that such procedure sheets are p r e p a r e d and the
procedures qualified by completing representative
w e l d e d joints a n d subjecting t h e m to r e q u i r e d
destructive and non-destructive tests.
Typical Procedure Sheet for MMA Welding
a) Welding procedure number
b) Related specification a n d / o r drawing number
c) Material to be welded; specification number or
composition
d) Metallurgical condition of material
e) Type of weld
f) Preparation of parts:
(i) Angle of bevel
(ii) Root face
(iii) Root radius
g) Cleaning before welding
h) Set-up of joint (gap, included angle, tolerance on
alignment, etc.)
i) Particulars of backing strip or bar
j) Welding position and direction
k) Make, type and classification of electrode
1) Electrical supply and electrode polarity
m) Size of electrode for each run
n) Length of run per electrode
o) Current for each run
p) Open circuit voltage
q) Arc voltage
r) Preheating procedure
s) Time between runs
t) Number and arrangement of runs
u) Welding sequence
v) Technique for depositing each run
w) Method of inter-run cleaning
x) Mechanical working of runs
y) Preparation of root before welding reverse side
z) Postweld heat treatment.
Types of Joints
There are six common types of joint, namely, butt,
tee, cruciform, lap, corner and edge. These are illustrated
in Fig. 3.25, which also illustrates three main types of
weld, namely, butt, fillet, and edge. A typical butt weld
is shown in the butt joint. A fillet weld is approximately
triangular in transverse cross-section, and is used in tee,
cruciform, lap and corner joints. An edge weld is a weld
MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 161
in an edge joint, and it covers a part or the whole of the
edge widths.
Design of w e l d joints is based on several
considerations, some of which are:
a) Manner of stress—tension, shear, bend, torsion
b) Whether loading is static or dynamic; whether
fatigue is involved
c) Whether subjected to corrosion or erosion
d) Joint efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of
the strength of the joint to that of the base metal, ex-
pressed as a percentage
e) Economy: amount of weld metal required to com-
plete the joint and whether high deposition processes
and procedures can be used
f) Construction factors: accessibility, control of dis-
tortion and shrinkage cracking, production of sound
welds.
Tables 3.55-3.60, reproduced from BS: 499: Part 1:
1965, explain and illustrate the various types of joints
and welds used in welded structures.
Some common terms pertaining to joints and welds
which must be clearly understood are defined below,
(A) (B)
6 ^
=m
(D) (C)
A1\ ib
t TV
(E)
(F)
-4 J(
Fig. 3.25: Main types of joints and welds: (A) Square butt
joint and butt weld; (B) Square tee-joint and fillet welds;
(C) Cruciform joint with four fillet welds; (D) Lap joint with
single fillet weld; (E) Full-open corner joint with fillet welds;
(F) Edge joint with edge weld
162 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

and some of them are illustrated in Figs. 3.26-3.29, which Root radius: The radius used to form the shape of a J-
are reproduced from BS: 499. or V- groove weld joint.
Root of joint: That portion of a joint to be welded, Angle of bevel: The angle formed between the
where the members approach closest to each other. In prepared edge of a tneinber and a plane perpendicular
cross-section, the root of the joint may be either a point, to the surface of the member.
a line or an area (see Fig. 3.26). Included arigle: The total included angle of the groove
Root of weld: The points, as shown in cross-section, between parts to be joined by a groove weld.
at which the back of the weld intersects the base metal Land: It means root face.
surfaces. Tde of weld: The junction between the face of a weld
Root opening (gap): The separation between the and the base metal (see Fig. 3.28).
members to be joined at the root of the joint; Weld face: The exposed surface of a weld on the side
Root face: That portion of the groove face adjacent to from which welding was done (see Fig. 3.28).
the root of the joint (see Fig. 3.27). Leg of a fillet weld: The distance from the root of the
Root penetration: The depth that a weld extends into joint to the toe of the fillet weld (see Fig. 3.28).
the root of a joint, measured on the center line of the Throat of a fillet weld (see Fig. 3.29).
root cross-section. Theoretical throat: The distance from the beginning
Root reinforcement: Reinforcement of weld at the side of the root of the joint perpendicular to the hypotenuse
other than that from which welding was done. of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within
the fillet weld cross-section.
Actual throat: The shortest distance from the root of
a fillet weld to its face.

WELD W I D T H

Fig. 3.26: Roots of typical weld preparations WELD WIDTH

ELD F A C |
TOES

TOES

WELD FACE. LENGTH)

Fig. 3.28: Terms pertaining to welds

ROOT RADIUS

ESIGN THROAT THICKNESS—t

| ROOT FACE

GAP-

+5*
INCLUDED ANGLE

ANGLE OF BEVflTCl

ROOT FACE

GAP*JL- GAP
=dlU
ROOT RADIUS
-LAND

Fig. 3.27: Terms pertaining to weld preparations Fig. 3.29: Actual and design throat thicknesses of welds
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 163

Effective throat (design throat): The minimum distance b) Current-type and amount: The various factors which
minus any reinforcement from the root of a weld to its must be considered in choosing AC or DC, and the
face. polarity in DC, are explained in earlier chapter. Current
values to be used are indicated under Welding Currents
Welding Parameters in this chapter earlier.
To devise a welding procedure, one must choose Where previous experience is not available, the safest
correct welding parameters, i.e. electrode size, current course is to follow the manufacturer's recommendation
characteristics and value, welding speed, arc length, regarding the type of current, polarity in the case of DC
angle of electrode, welding position and welding and the amount of current to be used.
technique. The following notes are meant to help one to c) Welding speed: By welding speed is meant the arc
arrive at an acceptable procedure. travel speed. For a given electrode size and current, the
a) Electrode size: Each size has a specific current speed is higher with the stringer bead and lower with
capacity range, which is indicated on the package by the weave bead. The wider the weave, lesser is the speed.
the electrode producer. Use of currents above the range In the case of a stringer bead, increase of welding
will cause the covering to overheat and break down, speed under constant arc voltage and current makes the
resulting in increased spatter and inferior weld quality. bead narrower and increases penetration until an
Use of currents below the recommended range will give optimum speed is reached at which penetration is
a weak arc and insufficient penetration. maximum. Increasing the speed further will cause a
The size of electrode to be used is determined by reduction in the penetration. Too high a speed of travel
joint thickness, edge preparation and welding positions also results in undercutting, more so when this is
Thicker materials call for larger diameter electrodes to coupled with current on the high side. Too low a speed
ensure efficient melting of the base plate and the may cause overlapping and overwelding. The travel
electrode and proper fusion. The largest possible size speed should be somewhere between the maximum
which produces a weld of the required quality and she without underwelding and the minimum without
at the highest possible speed should always be used to overwelding. Fillet welding affords a wider latitude with
get high productivity. regard to travel speed, but it should be suitably adjusted
For vertical and overhead welding, smaller diameter to obtain the required size of fillet weld.
electrodes have to be used to restrict the size of the weld Electrode melt-off rate is one of the most important
puddle, since there is a tendency for the molten metal factors influencing arc speed. With high-deposition iron
to flow out of it due to the force of gravity. The largest powder type electrodes, one can use higher currents to
size which an average welder can manage in these obtain higher melt-off, and considerably increase the
positions is 4 mm diameter in the case of non-iron- speed of travel to obtain a weld bead of a given definite
powder type electrode (say E6013), and 3.15 m m size. In sheet metal welding, the speed of travel is kept
diameter in the case of an iron-powder type (E7018). A fairly high to avoid burn-through, but filling the crater
skilled welder can weld satisfactorily in vertical and p r o p e r l y as the electrode progresses, d e m a n d s
overhead positions with 5 mm diameter electrodes of additional skill from the welder.
E6013 as well as E7018 class. d) Arc length: Generally speaking, arc length should
The electrode size is also dictated by the be as short as possible. Too long an arc dissipates the
consideration of accessibility to the root of the joint. In heat into the air, increases spatter and slows down the
a V-groove for example, electrodes small enough to give speed of welding. It also results in nitrogen pick-up by
correct arc length and to reach the root have to be used the weld metal. In DC welding, a long arc is r^iore
for the initial passes, followed by larger sizes to complete susceptible to arc blow than a short arc. It is also
the weld. In a T-joint, on the other hand, a larger important that the arc length is maintained consistently.
diameter electrode (6 mm or 8 mm) can be used for the Arc control depends entirely on the welder's skill,
initial pass, since the access to the root is easy. manual dexterity and stamina.
In some cases, the electrode size has to be restricted An average welder usually develops enough skill to
to avoid the possibility of burn-through, caused either control one particular type of electrode. To be able to
by bad fit-up (large gap at the root) or thinness of the use various types, he must have an all-round knowledge
material. In some metals and alloys, the weldability about electrodes and the effect of different arc lengths
considerations require that the heat input is restricted on weld deposit quality. For example, cellulosic types
by using electrodes of smaller sizes than normally used. require slightly longer arc than the rutile types, and the
164 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.55 : Types of butt joints and welds

Sketch Type of Type of Preparation Remarks
joint weld(s)
^•^.
<
u2—— l Butt Bull Close square Full penetration

Butt Butt Close square Full penetration

135* to
inclusive

5G: Butt Butt Raised edges

Butt Butt Close square Partial penetration

i <P i
L Butt Butt Open square with
backing bar
Full penetration

W Butt Butt Close square Full penetration.

Welded from both
sides

Butt Butt Single-V with root Full penetration

faces

rx/n
ML

Butt Butt Single-V with Full penetration

backing strip

V Butt Butt Single-V with root

faces
Full penetration.
Sealing run used

Butt Butt Double-V with Full penetration.

root faces Welded from both
sides

Butt Butt Double-V with Partial penetration.

wide or deep Welded from both
root faces sides
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 165

V Butt Butt and Single-V with Partial penetration.

fillet wide or deep Welded from both
root faces sides

Butt Butt Double-V with Full penetration.

root faces Welded from both
sides
1 I
1 \r J
1
Butt Fillet Close square Welded from both
sides
1
/ /
i r'
r/
o> - Butt Butt Single-bevel with Full penetration
root face

Butt Butt Single-bevel with Full penetration.

root face, thicker Sealing run used
plate tapered

Butt Compound Single-bevel with Full penetration.

of butt root face Sealing run used
and fillet

Butt Compound Single-bevel with Full penetration.

of butt root face Welding from both
and fillet sides

basic low-hydrogen types require extremely short arc.
In vertical and overhead welding, the welder constantly
varies the arc length to control the weld puddle under
the prevailing conditions. In the case of heavy-coated
iron powder type electrodes, the tip of the coating can
be dragged along the joint without the danger of short-
circuiting. The heavy coating causes a sleeve to form at
the burning end. The arc length is then automatically
controlled by the sleeve depth and not by the welder.
Electrode manipulation and welder fatigue are thus
reduced to a minimum.
e) Angle of'electrode: The angle at which the electrode
is held with respect to the w o r k d e t e r m i n e s the
uniformity of fusion and weld bead contour, and
freedom from undercut and slag inclusions. This is more
so in vertical and overhead welding and in girth welding
of pipes. Welders should receive training u n d e r
experienced welding instructors in controlling the
electrode angle a n d other aspects of electrode
manipulation, to attain the standard demanded by
important fabrications.
Welding Positions
The four recognised positions of welding are: Flat or
downhand, horizontal, vertical and overhead. They are
shown in Fig. 3.30. The four sketches on the left refer to
fillet welds made in tee joints, while the four sketches
on the right refer to butt welds. The angle and direction
166 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.56: Types of T-joint and welds

a
Sketch Type of Type of Preparation Remarks
joint weld(s)

T Butt Single-bevel with Full penetration

root face

Fillet Close square Welded from both

L—iX sides

Butt Double-bevel Full penetration.

Welded from both
sides

Compound Double-bevel Full penetration.

of butt Welded from both
and fillets sides

Butt Double-bevel both Partial penetration.

wide or deep Welded from both
root face sides

45 # to 90# Butt Single-bevel Full penetration

inclusive

over 5* and less than 45V //

Fillet Edge prepared as
necessary
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 167

Table 3.57 : Types of erucifqrm joints and welds

Sketch Type of Type pf Preparation Remarks

joint weld(s)

Butt

czsu;i=3
Cruciform Double-bevel Welded from both
sides

Cruciform Fillet Close square Welded from both

^ - * \ sides

X7

Table 3.58: Types of lap joints and welds

Sketch Type of Type of Preparation Remarks
joint weld(s)

± Lap Fillet Square edge

r
0* to 5*

Lap Plug Hole(s) of any

shape in one
plate

L3ap Fillet Hole(s) of any Welded all round

shape in one
plate

Lap Fusion spot None

^

in which the electrode is held is also indicated in each
ease.
Definitions of welding positions are not as simple
as they appear to be. They involve the terms weld slope
and weld rotation. Weld slope is defined as the angle
between the line of the root of a weld and the horizontal.
It is shown in Fig. 3.31. Weld rotation is defined as the
angle between the u p p e r p o r t i o n of the vertical
reference plane passing through the line of a weld root,
and a line drawn through the same root intersecting
the weld surface at a point equidistant from either toe
of the weld. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.32. Example of slope
and rotation are given in Fig. 3.33.
The welding positions are defined as follows:
• Downhand or flat: A position in which the weld
slope does not exceed 10° and the weld rotation
does not exceed 10°. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.34.
168 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 3.59: Types of corner joints and welds

Sketch Type of Type of Preparation Remarks

joint weld(s)

u
mft J\ Corner Butt Single-bevel with Full penetration
root face

Corner Fillet Edges prepared as

TT" necessary
OVER 30" A
AND LESS THAN 135*

Corner Fillet Square edge Welded from both

fVi sides

Corner Fillet Square edge Partially-lapped

J*-^ corner. Welded
-M from both sides

Table 3.60: Edge joint and weld

Sketch Type of Type of Preparation Remarks

joint weld(s)

Edge Edge Square edge Edges fully

0 # to 30*
covered
INCLUSIVE

Inclined: A position in which the weld slope ex-
ceeds 10° but not 45° and in which the weld rota-
tion does not exceed 90°. It is illustrated in Fig.
3.35.
Horizontal-Vertical: A position in which the weld
slopes does not exceed 10° and the weld rotation
is greater than 10°, but does not exceed 90°. It is
illustrated in Fig. 3.36.
Vertical: Any position in which the weld slope
exceeds 45° and the weld rotation is greater than
90°. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.37.
• Overhead: A position in which the weld slope does
not exceed 45° and the weld rotation is greater
than 90°. It is illustrated in Fig. 3.38.
WELDING TECHNIQUES
A welder's skill in performing a satisfactory weld
involves: striking the arc, maintaining short and steady
arc length, making a suitable weaving motion when
required and traversing the joint at correct speed of arc
travel. The arc is struck by hitting or scratching the
striking end of the electrode against the joint surface.
The electrode is held at a suitable angle with respect to
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 169

FLAT HORIZONTAL FLAT VERTICAL

VERTICAL OVERHEAD OVERHEAD HORIZONTAL

Fig. 3.30: Welding positions for butt and fillet welds

motion, or it may be weaved sideways. A bead deposited

LINE OF ROOT
Fig. 3.31: Diagram to illustrate weld slope
the work and the line of the joint, depending on the type
of joint and position of welding. The arc may be
traversed along a straight line without a weaving
without weaving is termed a stringer bead, while that
deposited with weaving is termed a weave bead. At the
end of the weld run, the arc is made to linger
momentarily to fill up the arc crater, and the electrode
withdrawn suddenly to extinguish the arc.
A welder's competence to produce defect-free welds
depends largely on his ability to maintain a correct
weaving motion according to the type of electrode, type
of joint and position of welding. The commonly used
weaving patterns for various welding positions are
shown in Figs. 3.39-3.42.

ROTATION OF WELD 0°
V
ROTATION OF WELD 150°

^ 3
ROTATION OF WELD 45* ROTATION OF WELD 90*
ROTATION OF WELD 180°

Fig. 3.32: Diagrams to illustrate weld rotation

170 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

i\°°

zx <=*=i -0
SECTION XX SECTION XX ELEVATION

SLOPE 0°, ROTATION 0° „ ^

SLOPE 35°, ROTATION 90*

SECTION
TIONXX XX [L 7^ SECTION XX L
_-...---_-_-• A S r% _**.-» « —T'— _. . __•
SLOPE 0°. ROTATION90° SLOPE 0 ° . ROTATION 60°
Fig. 3.33: Examples of slope and rotation

1/ o*toio:

0*tq 10° OMo 10#

^ SIDE VIEW" END VIEW
LIMITS OF SLOPE LIMITS OF ROTATION
SIDE VIEW
LIMITS OF SLOPE
Fig. 3.34: Downhand (flat) position of welding

PLAN VIEW
LIMITS OF ROTATION

0 # to4& # ^ ^ FW 0*to45*
Fig. 3.37: Vertical position of welding

SIDE VIEW LIMITS OF SLOPE END VIEW LIMITS OF ROTATION

Fig. 3.35: Inclined position of welding

0 # to 45'

i END VIEW
Fig. 3.36: Horizontal-vertical positions of welding: (A) LIMITS OF ROTATION
Horizontal-vertical fillet weld; (B) Overhead fillet weld;
(C) Horizontal-vertical butt weld
Fig. 3.38: Overhead position of welding
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 171

TACK

Fig. 3.40: Methods of weaving for horizontal weld beads

^^<^<^->w-^^4Nr^
WEAVING BACKWARD AND
FORWARD

STRINGER A

WEAVING WITH A CRESCENT

MOTION

Fig. 3.41: Methods of weaving for vertical upwards weld

beads

WEAVING MOTION WITH

LINGERING AT THE EDGES
Fig. 3.39: Methods of weaving in flat position
STRINGER A

A correctly executed weaving motion takes care of

penetration; sidewall fusion; shape, size and profile of
the bead; freedom from undercut, overlap and slag
inclusions; ease of slag removal. Weaving also reduces
or eliminates weld-metal porosity by giving a stirring
motion to the molten weld pool and releasing the
entrapped gases.

Butt Welds
Flat position: The procedure of making a butt weld
Fig. 3.42: Methods of weaving in overhead position
varies with joint thickness. For plates of thickness 1.6
172 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 3.43: Butt weld on thin plate in flat position
mm and less, it is preferable to have a square butt joint
and provide a backing strip as shown in Fig. 3.43 to
prevent burn-through caused by excessive penetration,
which is difficult to avoid even with a 1.6 mm diameter
electrode used at 30 amps. If the backing strip is mild
steel, it gets welded to the joint by the penetrated weld
bead. The strip may be retained as an integral part of
the joint or removed by machining. The backing strip
can be of copper, which does not fuse with the
penetrated weld metal and can be easily detached
later. Thin sheets are better welded by the oxy-
acetylene or argon-arc process, if use of backing strip
is to be avoided, because with these processes the
welder has better control on weld penetration.
For plates in the thickness range 3-15 mm, one
usually provides a single-V joint as shown at A in Fig.
3.44. The sequence of weld passes with specified
electrode sizes and currents for various thicknesses up
to 12.5 mm is indicated at B to E in Fig. 3.44. In each
case, after the V has been filled up, the joint is turned
1.5 MM
. 4/180 A
Fig. 3.44: Butt welds on 3-15 mm thick plates in flat position
over and the root is machined or gouged out by an oxy-
acetylene gouging torch, or by a carbon electrode using
the air-arc process, till sound metal is reached. The root
is then covered with a sealing pass deposited with a 4
mm electrode at 180 amps.
These are typical procedures carried out with
general-purpose rutile type electrodes. Electrodes with
larger diameter than indicated may be used wherever
convenient. For example, the root pass could be executed
with a 5 mm electrode at 210 amps to get deeper
penetration and a better guarantee that slag inclusions
are completely dissolved out.
Butt joints in 3-12.5 mm range can also be made
with the deep penetration technique, provided the
excessive weld metal dilution is harmless and the
specified mechanical requirements can be met.
Procedures for two typical thicknesses are shown in
Fig. 3.45. In A, the square butt joint (maximum joint
gap 1mm) is welded from each side with a 4 mm
cellulosic type electrode at 160 Amps. In B, the two
j 3.15/110A
f
at
T
) {
1 .3 MM \
B. 3 15/110 A
5/210 A
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 73

gouged out to sound metal from the second side and

the sealing pass deposited.
For thickness range between 8 and 25 mm, one uses
l I3MM /fy4/160A I the joint design shown at D. Sequence of passes for one-
(A) sided welding of 12.5 mm and 25 mm thick joints are
shown at E. For two-sided welding of 12.5 mm thick
joint, the sequence would be the same as at E, except
,
12.5 MM M V
n
R^ > 5/326 A 1 that the root is gouged out and a sealing pass is
deposited on the second side with 3.15 mm diameter
LI L\ tt_
(B) electrode at 120 A. For 25 mm thick joint to be welded
from both sides, it is preferable to have double-V joint
Fig. 3.45: Deep penetration butt welds in flat position preparation as shown at F. The welding sequence for
the larger V is shown at G. For welding the smaller V,
the root is gouged out to sound metal and the V is filled
passes have been deposited with a 5 mm diameter up with three passes of 3.15 mm/120 Amps., and three
super-heavy coated deep-penetration iron powder passes of 4 mm/190 Amps.
electrode at 300-325 Amps. It is very important that the Vertical position: The joint is commonly a single-V
penetrations of the two beads overlap at the centre of with 60° included angle, root face 1.5 mm and root gap
the joint thickness, indicating that the slag entrapped 1.5 mm. Welding proceeds from bottom to top. It may
beneath the first bead has been dissolved out by the be completed either from one side only or from both
second pass. the sides. The former procedure demands special skill
For thicknesses of 20 mm and above, one usually from the welder to obtain uniformly good root
prefers a double-V butt joint to a single-V joint to reduce penetration.
the total weld metal content and minimise angular When welding from one side, a 10 mm thick joint
distortion. A typical sequence for a 25 mm T joint with can be completed with two passes of 3.15/110 Amps.
rutile type electrode is shown in Fig. 3.46 (root gap 1.5 and a third and final pass of 4/140 Amps. For 25 mm
mm, root face =1.5 mm). thick joint, two passes of 3.15/110 Amps., two passes of
Horizontal-vertical position: Butt joints in the 3-6 mm4/140 A and five passes of 5/170 Amps, are required.
thickness range in HV position are usually prepared as For welding a 10 mm thick butt joint from both sides,
shown at A in Fig. 3.47. Procedure depends on whether the same sequence as above is used, but the root is
welding is done only from one side or from both sides. gouged out and a sealing pass with 3.15/110 Amps, is
The sequence of passes for 3 mm and 6 mm thicknesses deposited from the second side. In the case of a 25 mm
deposited from one side are shown at B and those thick joint, the double-V preparation similar to that
deposited from both sides are shown at C in Fig. 3.47. It adopted for H/V welding is used (see F in Fig. 3.47).
must be pointed out that in welding from one side, the The larger V is filled with two passes of 3.15/110 Amps.,
welder has to use special skill to achieve uniformly good two passes of 4/140 Amps, and two passes of 5/170
penetration at the root. When welding from both sides, Amps. The root is gouged out and the smaller V is filled
the root penetration is not important, because it is up with two passes of 3.15/110 Amps, and a third and
final pass of 4.140 Amps.
It may be noted that in vertical welding, currents on
6 3/290 A the lower side of the range are used for 4 and 5 mm
electrodes. Also, a welder is able to deposit a bead of
<Ta3h-5/210A
1 4/180A much larger cross-section for a given electrode size, than
2
I T^p^ " 1 8 0 A is possible in other positions. This explains the
&.« JH£--"4/
I /£Z^S 4/1-80 A comparatively smaller number of passes required to
1 /5^*Jp%~~ 5/210 A complete a joint in spite of using smaller diameter
electrodes. The arc travel speed is also comparatively
3/290 A low and this means a correspondingly high heat input
rate, which in some cases has deleterious effect on weld
Fig. 3.46: Sequence of passes for 25.4 mm t double-V
butt joint in flat position
toughness. This point is elaborated elsewhere in the
book.
1 74 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

(E) 4-5 4/170 A

6-15 5/190 A
Fig. 3.47: Sequence of passes for butt welds of various thicknesses in HV position

Vertical down welding (i.e. top-to-bottom) is used The first pass is deposited with minimum weaving, the
on cross-country pipelines using special technique and arc being concentrated at the root as shown at A to
electrodes. It is described in Chapter 18. ensure good fusion. For a given electrode size, the bead
Overhead position: For overhead welding, the joint size (i.e. leg length) can be varied over a range by
form is similar to that for vertical welding. When single- varying the speed of arc travel, bearing in mind that
sided unbacked procedure is used, 8 mm thick joint may
be completed with two passes of 3.15/110 Amps, and
one pass of 4/150 Amps.; a 12.5 mm thick joint with
3 MM
two passes of 3.15/110 Amps., two passes of 4/140
Amps, and two passes of 5/170 Amps.; and a 25 mm
thick joint with two passes of 3.15/110 Amsp., two
passes of 4/140 Amps, and ten passes of 5/170 Amps.
Overhead butt welds are often made with the aid of
permanent steel backing strips. The joint fit-up in this
case is as shown in Fig. 3.48. The 5 mm thick joint shown
at A is completed with two passes of 3.15/110 Amps.
and one pass of 4/150 Amps. The 25 mm thick joint
shown at B is completed with two passes of 3.15/110
Amps., two passes of 4/150 Amps, and two passes of
5/170 Amps. Overhead welding also demands that 4
m m and 5 m m diameter electrodes are used with
currents on the lower side of the range.

Fillet Welds
Flat position: For making a fillet weld in the flat
position, the T-joint is positioned as shown in Fig. 3.49. Fig. 3.48: Butt joint preparations for overhead welding
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 75

as shown in Fig. 3.50 to ensure good root penetration.

Subsequent passes are also laid with minimum weaving
and in the sequence shown in the same figure. The
welding data are given in Table 3.62.
Vertical position: High efficiency joints in vertical
welding are achieved by welding from bottom to top.
In this case, weaving is done for all the passes including
the first one. The techniques of weaving are shown in
Fig. 3.51, and the welding data are given in Table 3.63.
Top-to-bottom welding is done in some cases by
using a rutile-iron powder type or basic iron powder
type electrode. In this technique, the electrode tip is held
in contact with the root and drawn downwards. No
weaving is possible. The weld size is limited and root
penetration is partial. Hence the technique is used where
joint strength is not important.
Overhead position: The placement of passes is shown
in Fig. 3.52, and the welding data are given in Table 3.64.

Effect of Deposition Efficiency

The procedures so far described relate to a general-
purpose rutile type electrode with deposition efficiency
Fig. 3.49: Fillet welds in flat position:
(A) Single-pass weld; (B) Multi-pass weld (DE) of approximately 93%. With electrodes of higher
DE, the sequence and number of runs for a given weld
size do not change in some cases, and only slightly in
too low a speed causes overlapping, while too high a others. The advantageous features of these electrodes
speed results in undercut. Subsequent passes are laid are (a) longer weld run per electrode, (b) less number of
with weaving, and with split passes when the width electrodes per metre of weld, (c) less time to complete
becomes very large as shown at B. The sequence of the weld.
passes for a range of fillet sizes is given in Table 3.61 For completing a 25 mm thick 60°-V butt weld in the
Horizontal position: The first pass is deposited without flat position/the number of runs required with different
weaving, the arc being directed at the root all the time electrode types is indicated in Table 3.65.

Table 3.61: Sequence of passes for fillet welds in flat Table 3.62: Sequence of passes for fillet welds in
position horizontal position
Leg length Pass Electrode size/ Leg length Pass Electrode size/
(mm) numbers current (mm) numbers current
1 4/180 A 1 4/180 A
5.0 or 5.0 or
1 5/220 A 1 5/220 A
1 5/220 A 1 4/180 A
6.0 or 6.0 or
1 6.3/300 A 1 5/220 A
1 5/220 A 3 passes 4/180 A
8.0 or 8.0 or
1 6.3/300 A 2 passes 5/220 A
1 5/220 A 4 passes 4/180 A
10.0 or 10.0 or
1 6.3/300 A 3 passes 5/220 A

12.0 1 &2 6.3/300 A 12.0 3 passes 6.3/275 A

176 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

3\

Fig. 3.50: Sequence of passes for fillet welds in horizontal position

Table 3.63 : Sequence of passes for fillet welds in

vertical-up welding
Leg length Pass Electrode size/
(mm) numbers current
1 3.15/115 A
5.0 or
1 4/145 A
1 3.15/115 A
6.0 or
1 4/145 A
2 passes 3.15/115 A
8.0 or
2 passes 4/145 A
3 passes 3.15/115 A
10.0 or
2 passes 4/145 A
1 pass 4/145 A
12.0 plus
1 pass 5/170 A Fig. 3.51: Weaving techniques for multi-pass fillet
welding in vertical postion
For completing a fillet weld of 12 mm leg length in
the H / V position, three runs are required with all the
above electrodes, when the largest compatible sizes (5 Table 3.64: Pass sequence for fillet welds in
mm or 6.3 mm) are used.
overhead position
For welding in V and O positions, the largest Leg length Pass Electrode size/
electrode size that can be used depends on its DE. mm numbers current
Electrodes of DE more than 130% are generally not 1 4/170 A
suitable for these positions. Table 3.66 gives a general 5.0 or
indication. 1 5/200 A
2 passes 4/170 A
WELDING SEQUENCE 6.0 or
In a complex job involving a number of welds, it is 2 passes 5/200 A
important to know the correct sequence in v/hich the 3 passes 4/170 A
welds are made, and the direction in which each weld 8.0 or
2 passes 5/200 A
is made. An incorrect sequence of welding causes
distortion and sometimes cracks in the weld metal 4 passes 4/170 A
10.0 or
due to stress concentration at some point in the fabrication.
3 passes 5/200 A
A correct welding sequence distributes and balances
the forces and stresses produced by weld contraction. 12.0 6 passes 5/200 A
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 177

Table 3.65: Relation between deposition efficiency and

number of runs
Electrode type DE (%) No. of runs I
Cellulosic 93 11
Rutile 93 ^
12 ^
Rutile 130 10
Rutile 140 10
Rutile 150 11
Rutile 160 8
Basic 103 11
Basic 115 12

"^n
To prevent angular distortion in a double-V or
double-U b u t t joint, the s e q u e n c e generally
r e c o m m e n d e d consists of laying w e l d i n g r u n s
alternately in opposite side of the joint. However,
strictly speaking, this sequence will give a distortion-
free welded joint only when the operation of gouging
out the root and placing a root run R is not specified as
in the case of second quality w e l d s . W h e r e the
procedure demands gouging out the root and placing a
root pass R, a distortion-free joint can be guaranteed
only by starting with a double-V or double-U, in which Fig. 3.52: Sequence of passes for fillet welds in
one V or U groove is deeper than the other as in Fig. overhead position
3.53. This is called an asymmetrical double-V joint. First

Table 3.66: Relation between deposition efficiency and largest electrode size for positional welding

Electrode Welding Weld type Largest size Current

type DE (%) position F = fillet dia. (mm) Amps.
B =Butt
Cellulosic 93 V F 5 155
B 5 140
O F 6.3 170
B 5 140
Rutile 93 V F 5 170
B 5 170
O F 5 200
B 5 170
Rutile 130 V F 4 150
B 4 150
O F 5 200
B 4 150
Basic 103 V F 5 160
B 5 170
O F 5 170
B 5 170
Basic 115 V F 4 140
B 5 185
O F 5 190
B 4 150
178 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
two runs are made in the major groove as in Fig. 3.53
(a). Then the platen turned over, and the weld run No.l
is completely gouged out as shown in Fig. 3.53 (b).
Runs 3 and 4 are made in this minor groove to fill it
completely. Then the plate is again turned over and
runs 5 and 6 are made in the major groove to fill it up.
Sequence for making very long butt joints is shown
in Fig. 3.54. The whole length of joint is divided into
two equal parts with a centre line. Then two welders
start at the centre and simultaneously make welds 1, 2,
3, 4, etc., as shown by the arrows. It will be observed
that while the general direction of welding is from the
centre towards the opposite free ends, each individual
weld run is made in a direction towards the centre. This
is called back-step welding. If only one welder is on the
job, he can make weld No. 1 on one side, then weld No.
1 on the other side, then weld No. 2 on one side, then
weld No. 2 on the other side, and so on. A variation of
the back-step welding is skip-welding, which is shown
in Fig. 3.55.
In Fig. 3.56, we have shown the welding sequence
generally recommended for making a long double-fillet
weld without distorting the vertical member A. Short
welds 1, 2 and 3 are first made on one side, and then
long welds 4 and 5 are made on the opposite side. Then
MAJOR GROOVE (2)
(a)
MINOR GROOVE (1) PLATE TURNED OVER FOR ROOT
GOUGING
/
(b)
N.
Fig. 3.53: Welding sequence for double-V joint
V- ■I .1 .1 6
(((((((((Mr ((([(((((((((((^^
i i > i
GENERAL DIRECTION OF WELDING
lung welds 6 and 7 are made on the first side, followed
by short welds 8, 9 and 10. The welds 4, 5, 6 and 7 arc
three times longer than the welds 1, 2, 3 and 8, 9,10.
In the fabrication of large storage tanks and ships,
where a number of plates die butt welded together, the
welder comes across an arrangement of joints as shown
in Fig. 3.57. In such a case, it is wrong to weld the
longitudinal joint first as in (a), because then this weld
will have hairline cracks at points where the longitudinal
joint meets the transverse joint. The correct welding
sequence is shown at (b). All the transverse joints are
welded first, and the ends of the welds are ground
properly, so that the V or any other groove preparation
of the longitudinal joint remains intact. Then the
longitudinal joint is welded.
An interesting example of welding sequence is
shown in Fig. 3.58. Here, two 150 m m channels of 3
metre length are welded together to form a rectangular
box. Light tack welds are first made in the centre as
indicated by 17 and 18, and then at the two ends
indicated by 1,2 and 11,12. The welding sequence with
back-step method is then in the regular order of 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6. . . . 22. With such a sequence, the welding
distortion is less than 3 mm.
A simple sequence for welding a square patch to a
plate without causing distortion or cracking is shown
in Fig. 3.59. The patching plate is so dimensioned and
inserted that gaps at 1 and 2 are wider than at the other
two sides. Welds 1 and 2 are made in the directions
indicated by the arrows at A. Due to contraction of the
welds, the patching plate is moved correctly into the
centre as shown at B. Welds 3 and 4 are then made as
shown by arrows at C to complete the job.
A German welding magazine has described the
sequence of welding that was used successfully in the
repair of a steam piston head. The head of 350 mm
diameter had the grooves on the outer face broken at
places. It was decided to build up the surface by welding
CENTRE LINE
s
4
■! 3 - l 2 - ! 1 ■ ' I. 2 I . 3 I . 4 I . 5 I . 6 I - 7 I - 8
i i i I I l l I I I
GENERAL DIRECTION OF WELDING
CENTRE LINE
I
Fig. 3.54: Back-step welding
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 1 79

CENTRE LINE

1
V . | 7 . | 3 . I 6 . I 2 . I 5 . I 1 . 1 i. I.5I.2 i.vn.4i.8
((((((((((((((((((
M M ! GENERAL DIRECTION OF WELDING.
GENERAL DIRECTION OF WELDING

Fig. 3.55: Skip-welding

6
m
»iiii»i»ft»fl]jflwm»»M»m»iiiJj]))j)^»))])nmHflMi»uwnn»i}miHiu]]

iLk
8 t 3x"
&a
h]iHBn)»|iiiiiiiiiMiJinminin»H»HiJ»H»iiiflJMmiiu»iwiVH)i)iijroiiir
wmftm 10

Fig. 3.56: Welding sequence for double-fillet welds

TACK WELD WELD END

RACK( GROUND
CRACK
to JtmrnmrfrMniffl!
rcp
gnnnnnmnffrMnnnninni
CRACK
TACK WELD

INCORRECT CORRECT

Fig. 3.57: Welding sequence for plate channels

3 0M
21
" 9 19 Z_JL2 5 JL5 2 L3 L

\/777>\ersss'A
12 22 10 20 8 18 6 16 4 14 ~~T

Fig. 3.58: Sequence for butt welding two long channels

and then reforming the grooves by machining as shown
in Fig. 3.60.
The job was not as simple as it looked. It was
important to ensure that the distortion following
welding was negligible as any change in dimensions
would mean scrapping the entire part. Also, it was
important to distribute contraction stresses evenly
around the circumference. To achieve this, the rim was
divided into eight parts as shown in Fig. 3.61. A weld
on area 1 was followed by another on area 2 diagonally
opposite. The weld on area 3 was next followed by a
weld on area 4, and so on. The repaired part has been in
service for over a year.
Sometimes a welder is called upon to build up a
cutting edge on a long guillotine blade, which may be
up to 3 metre long. A hardfacing electrode is generally
used for this purpose. Unless a correct welding sequence
is used/the blade will distort and the weld will crack at
several places. The correct procedure for preparing two
parallel cutting edges on one blade is as follows:
180 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

D
^

INSERTING (A) SIDES 1 $ 2 WELDED (B) FINISHING THE WELDING (C)

Fig. 3.59: Sequence for welding a patch

The blade is fixed in the pre-setting jig and clamped GRAVITY WELDING
down with the G clamps as illustrated in Fig. 3.62. A Gravity welding is a variation of MMA welding, in
gas burner is used to maintain a gentle heat, which is which a long, large-diameter heavy coated electrode
distributed throughout the full length of the blade before (usually 700 mm long, 5.5 mm or 6.3 mm diameter) is
commencing welding. It is inserted inside the channel
bar as shown in Fig. 3.63. The work is not allowed to be
overheated and all welding is carried out in easy stages.
Figure 3.63 illustrates the sequence of welding runs
to avoid cracking and undue distortion. The first runs
are commenced from the centre and worked outwards,
as indicated, until the blade is buttered with a 2.5 mm
electrode using approximately 98 to 110 amps. After
buttering is completed, all traces of slag are removed
and any excess lumps ground off. Fig. 3.60: Repair of piston head whose grooves at A and
B were broken
The second and final runs are commenced as before
for buttering from the centre, working outwards in
stages, until the entire buttering runs have been covered.
This step-back procedure is continued until each
successive run has completed the work. The welding is
gradually built in stages and not completed in any one
part, otherwise the unequal heat distribution will cause
surface cracking. When the welding has been completed,
the gas burner is left at half-cock for about 30 minutes
and gradually turned down. Finally, the job is covered
up and allowed to cool off slowly.
When too blades are fabricated (one for the top a n d
one for the bottom) the securing holes can be drilled,
the two plates bolted together back-to-back (welded
part outwards) and the blade can then be machined
or g r o u n d flush. If g r i n d i n g is u s e d , it is m o s t
important to use a wet grinder working slowly, avoiding
overheating during this last and important operation.

Preheating and Postweld Heating

Heat treatment of a joint before and after welding,
whenever called for, is an important step in a welding Fig. 3.61: Direction and sequence of welding for
procedure. It is dealt with in detail in Chapter 20. repairing piston head
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 181

1/2" DIA BAR 1NG

; THICK BLADE IN SLOT
L3- TUBE IN SLOT

I SECTION
OF CHANNEL
I SECTION OF
I SHEAR BLADE.
l
il ■ » I I CUTTING EDGES
PREPARED FOR
HARDFACING
8'0" —

Fig. 3.62: The set-up for hardfacing the cutting edges of a shear blade

completed the weld. This leads to increased

« i £ +1SL «-&- ?! 4» 8 » JL2» U+ productivity. Welds of consistent size and quality are
obtained. Capital investment is small.

"13' ^11 " 7 ^&\ I 5 9 16 ELECTRODE HOLDER

Fig. 3.63: Recommended sequence of weld runs ARC WELDING

ELECTRODE SLIDING BAR

operated in conjunction with a tripod gravity electrode

feeder or a spring-loaded feeder to make automatic
horizontal filler welds. With the spring-loaded feeder,
one can also make groove or fillet welds in the flat
position. In Japan, the process using the spring-loaded
feeder is called Auto-Contact Welding.
The principle of the tripod-type gravity feeder is Fig. 3.64: Sketch showing the principle of gravity
explained in Fig. 3.64. The electrode is clamped in the welding
electrode holder while the arcing end remains in contact
with the joint seam all the time. In the welding operation
the electrode gets consumed and the electrode holder
slides down along the bar The length of the fillet weld
deposited by an electrode is the sum of the projection
of the electrode (minus the stub length) on the weld
seam and the projection on the seam of the part of sliding
bar along which the electrode holder descends. The
tripod type feeder in operation is shown in Fig. 3.65.
Figure 3.66 shows the principle of the spring-loaded
feeder, in which the holder moves on a hinged joint
during the welding operation. Here the length of the
fillet weld is equal only to the projection of the electrode
(minus the stub length) on the seam. This means that
the weld length is shorter than the electrode length.
The main feature of the process is that the electrode
operates by itself without the need of a welder. This
enables the operator to start the second, third or even
fourth tripod before the electrode in the first tripod has Fig. 3.65: Tripod-type gravity feeder in operation
182 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
The idea of a gravity feed systems was developed
by K.K. Marsden, an engineer in Elsinore Shipyard,
Denmark, in 1938. It did not catch on then, because
electrode manufacturers at that time were busy finding
ways to produce normal electrodes speedily a n d
efficiently to meet the market demand, which w a s
increasing at a rate of approximately 50% a year. Gravity
welding needed longer a n d more heavily coated
electrodes, which electrode companies were least
interested in developing. However, gravity welding was
being used to a limited extent during the 40's in the
Scandinavian countries, in England and Japan and in
the U.S.A. It was left to the Japanese shipbuilders to
perfect the gravity welding system and utilise it on a
large scale in t h e p o s t w a r years. By then, high
deposition-iron p o w d e r electrodes h a d come into
general use, which were better suited for gravity
welding than the large-diameter non-iron p o w d e r
electrodes used in the pre-war days. Today gravity
w e l d i n g is used all over t h e w o r l d , m a i n l y in
shipbuilding and railway wagon shops.
A conventional constant current AC or DC welding
machine normally used for MMA welding is used for
gravity welding. However, currents u p to 350 amps are
commonly used and a duty cycle of 90% may be attained
at the highest production level. The power sources must
therefore be adequately rated. The conventional 60%
duty cycle welding power source must be derated to
allow for the 90% duty cycle.
Gravity welding needs heavy-coated electrodes for
at least two reasons. The heavy coating produces a deep
sleeve at the arc end, which prevents short-circuiting of
the arc while the electrode end remains in contact with
the plate. Secondly, the heavy coating provides sufficient
stiffness to the electrode and prevents it from sagging
due to resistance heating.
700 mm is the usual length of the gravity electrode.
Longer lengths may cause differences in weld between
the beginning of the deposit, when the electrode is cold
i ELECTRODE HOLDER
ARC WELDING ELECTRODE Jt-»
_^^ZZZ^~' U X
^ 0 « — HINGED JOINT
FILLET LENGTH PER ELECTRODE-
Fig. 3.66: Sketch showing the principle of spring-loaded
feeder for gravity welding
and the end when the electrode is hot. Common sizes
are 5.5 mm and 6.3 mm, but higher sizes of 7.00 or 8.00
mm may be used for special applications.
The E6027 and E7024 class electrodes have been
found to be well-suited for gravity welding, though
E7018 types have also been employed.
Tripod Feeder
There are two versions of the tripod feeder. One
provides for adjustment of the angle of the inclined
track. With this type, fillet welds of different sizes can
be produced with a given size of electrode operating at
the same welding current. For example, welds of lengths
between 500 and 1,000 mm can be produced with a 700
mm long electrode.
The other version is preset for a definite incline of
the track and for producing a weld of constant length,
though by varying the welding current, the weld size
and length obtainable from a given electrode can be
varied slightly.
For production work, the preset type adjusted for a
specific fillet weld size is preferred. This gives no room
to the operator to set the tripod wrongly, and it ensures
production of consistent welds.
Tripod feeders are designed to be as light as possible,
since they have to be lifted and carried to different
locations every few minutes. At the same time, they are
robustly constructed, so that no displacement can occur
d u r i n g w e l d i n g . A typical t r i p o d feeder w e i g h s
approximately 5 kg.
The tripod is not provided with a current switch as
this would make it heavy. But it is so designed that the
electrode holder automatically turns over at the end of
the operation, and this action breaks the arc. At this
point, the arc voltage is switched off. When the tripod
is relocated and a new electrode has been inserted and
it is set against the weld seam, the voltage is switched
on again w i t h t h e same switch a n d w e l d i n g
recommences. The switching on and off of the arc
voltage between the runs ensures that the operator is
not exposed to arc flash, provided he looks away from
the arcing point when switching on the current.
Procedure with Tripod Feeder
Table 3.67 gives details of a typical w e l d i n g
procedure, using preset type of tripod feeder and 700
mm long electrodes, employed in a shipbuilding yard
in the U.S.A.
The fillet size refers to the leg length. According to
an European manufacturer of gravity welding systems
and electrodes, the process is used mainly for making
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 183

Table 3.67: Procedure for gravity welding with tripod feeder

Electrode Welding current Fillet weld

Class Size Amps. Size Length
(mm) (mm) (mm)
E6027 5.6 260 7.1 686
E6027 5.6 290 6.4 787
E6027 6.4 260/ 8.7 686
E6027 6.4 2ft) 8.0 787
E7024 5.6 290 7.1 686
E7024 5.6 /350 6.4 787
E7024 6.4 / 290 8.7 686
E7024 6.4 / 350 8.0 787

fillet welds of 8 mm leg length and smaller. They state
that their gravity electrode of 700 mm length gives a
weld length of 900 mm in 180 seconds. They also market
a Mini-Gravity system designed for 450 mm long
electrodes, which produces 620 mm long fillets with leg
lengths varying between 3.5 and 6 mm.
Spring-loaded Feeder
The construction of a spring-loaded feeder is
explained in Fig. 3.67. In this equipment, a spring
actuated by a lever pushes the electrode to the welding
line at a low angle (10°-50°). As the electrode is
consumed, the angle between the electrode and the
welding line increases and finally the arc is cut off
automatically with a stub end of about 60 mm, by a
simple trip mechanism. During this process, the angle
between the workpiece and the plane in which the
electrode moves, remains unchanged. The welding unit
is held against the work piece with the help of a
permanent magnet. A typical feeder weighs about 4 kg.
When using this type of feeder, the fillet weld size
as also the root penetration varies slightly from the start
to the end. This is due to the change in the approach
angle that occurs during the melting of the electrode.
The low angle of the electrode with the welding line
may result in poor root fusion. In the case of DC, there
is also a variation in weld appearance and spatter levels,
depending on whether the weld is progressing toward
or away from the work lead connection. Also, when
using large electrodes at currents above 300 amps,
blowholes often appear at the root of the fillet weld,
which is sometimes attributed to the arc blow associated
with DC welding. A typical procedure followed in an
American shipyard is given in Table 3.68.
Productivity
Gravity welding is an excellent low-investment
method of applying MMA welding to obtain maximum
productivity, when a large number of fillet welds are to
be made in a concentrated area. The work must be laid

ELECTRODE LEVER
HOLDER

PERMANENT
MAGNET

DRIVING
ARM PASE FRAME
£PRiNfi_CASE

Fig. 3.67: Construction of spring-loaded feeder

184 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

out and a logical progression established, so that the x 50 mm cross-section and are 300-500 mm long. Several
operator moves from feeder to feeder with minimum of them are lined up in a series. Sometimes one
non-arcing time and without causing the cables to cross continuous length is used. The copper blocks serve to
each other and without being exposed to the arc flash. absorb the heat and to prevent the electrodes from
Table 3.69 gives a comparison of weld metal bending and shifting by overheating. The adhering
deposition rates using one electrode manually versus spatter can also be easily removed from the copper
two, three, four and five gravity welders to make 8 mm material. The heat may be further contained by using
size fillet weld. continuous water-cooled copper blocks.
Some users of gravity welding in Europe have The process possesses many of the advantageous
experienced the following disadvantages: features of gravity welding. Additionally, in this process,
1) Less root penetration the arc is invisible and one can execute long joints in
2) Does not satisfy some of today's ergonomic narrow confined places, which are not possible with any
demands of the conventional processes.
3) Can be monotonous to use The process has been used to make butt joints in
4) The open arc causes smoke and slight atmospheric plates 0.8-3.5 mm T using single pass; lap joints in plates
contamination. 0.8-1.5 mm T, wherein the upper plate is fully melted;
corner joints in plates 1.5-3 mm T, fillet welds in tee
Fire Cracker Welding joints 4 mm T, in the flat as well as vertical positions;
This is a simple semi-automatic welding process and edge joints in the thickness range of 4-6 mm only.
known as Elin-Hafergut process, on the European For butt welds, the electrodes are generally 2.5 to 4 mm
continent and is claimed to have been developed by Elin in diameter, for fillet welds they are 4 to 8 mm. Smaller
of Austria in 1939. and larger electrodes have been used in special cases.
It uses a heavy-coated manual electrode of The fire cracker process has been successfully applied
considerable length up to 3,000 mm. As shown in Fig. to the automatic welding of longitudinal joints of small
3.68, the electrode A is placed horizontally along the diameter pipes by a Swiss inventor through a device
seam, covered with paper B and a heavy copper block named CITOMAT.
C. The bare end of the electrode is held in an ordinary Like gravity welding, fire cracker welding has vast
electrode holder connected to an AC or DC power potential in developing countries owing to its simplicity,
source. The arc is initiated by short-circuiting the striking low investment requirement and high productivity.
end of the electrode to the workpiece by means of a
carbon rod. The arc then travels automatically until the Table 3.69 : Deposition rates with one and more gravity
entire electrode is consumed. arcs
To ensure a successful weld, the electrode must have
excellent arc stability and give spray-type metal transfer. Process Deposition rate
This is achieved with a specially formulated acidic type (E6027) kg h
coating. The power source must also supply steady Manual-one are 4.5
Gravity—two arcs 77
current and arc voltage. Equally important is the joint
Gravity—three arcs 11.8
and electrode fit-up. In most cases, suitable jigs and Gravity—four arcs 15.4
fixtures are used to ensure that the work pieces do not Gravity—five arcs 29.4
shift or buckle. The copper blocks generally have 50 mm

Table 3.68: Procedure for gravity welding using spring-loaded feeder

Electrode Welding current Fillet weld

Class Size (Amps.) Type Size Length
(mm) (mm) (mm)
E6027 5.6 240 AC 6.4 686
E6027 6.4 270 AC 8.0 686
E7024 5.6 240 AC 6.4 686
E7024 6.4 270 AC 8.0 686
 MANUAL METAL-ARC WELDING 185

Pipe Welding
Special techniques have been developed over the
years for the circumferential welding of cross-country
pipelines in the field, using manual electrodes. These C COPPER BLOCK
are discussed in the chapter on Welding Applications. B. PAPER

Weld Defects
It is not easy to get absolutely defect-free welds by
the MMA process, especially when they are multi-pass
welds. Small imperfections, such as minute slag
inclusions or stray porosities are often present and
revealed in non-destructive testing. As long as they are
not damaging to the function of the weldment they are
referred to as discontinuities, and ignored. However,
when they are serious enough to lower the joint
efficiency and interfere with the joint performance in
service, they are looked upon as defects. Until recently,
the practice was to repair all defective welds revealed Fig. 3.68: Sketch of Elin-Hafergut process
by radiography in important welded structures, often (fire cracker welding)
at exhorbitant costs. Lately, with the development of
fracture mechanics, especially linear elastic fracture the welding fabricator must strive to produce
mechanics, and COD testing, the engineer is able to weldments as nearly perfect as possible using normal
determine the significance of defects in terms of procedures and techniques.
susceptibility to fracture and decide on the size and Weld defects which commonly occur due to incorrect
extent of defects that can be tolerated in a given structure welding procedures or faulty manipulation of the
under given service conditions. Yet, the fact remains that electrode are dealt with in Chapter 12.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th Ed., published 1973 by The Lincoln Electric Company, U.S.A.
Welding Process Technology by Houldcroft.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6. 8th Ed., published 1971 by American Society for Metals.
Welding Technology by J.W. Giachino. W. Weeks and G.S. Johnson, published 1968 by American Technical Society.
Metal Transfer from Coated Electrodes by W.G. Essers et al. Met. Construction, Apr. 1971.
The Transfer of Metal from Coated Electrodes by .I.E. Lancaster. Met. Construction, Oct. 1971.
Arc Properties in Manual Welding with Coated Electrodes by J. Wegrzyn. Met. Construction, July 1980.
Some Aspects of Welding in Modern Ship Construction by V.P. Nair, Indian Wielding Journal, Oct. 1977.
Gravity Welding in the Shipbuilding Industry by G. Zoethout, Weld. & Met. Fabr. Nov. 1975.
Gravity Welding—A Variation of Shielded Metal Arc Welding by H.B. Gary, Weld.-Journal, Nov. 1979.
The Fematic Gravity Welding System by ESAB. Weld. & Met. Fabr. Nov. 1975.
Moisture Loss and Regain by Some Basic Electrodes AWS. Weld. Journal, May 1976.
Role of H2 in Arc Welding with Coated Electrodes AWS. Weld. Journal. Apr. 1961.
Weld Metal H2 Level and the Definition of Hydrogen-Controlled Electrodes published 1974 by Weld, in the World.
H2 Content of Welds by Evans and Baach. Met. Constr. Oct. 1975.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Submerged
Arc
Welding
DURING the 1930's, having recognised the potential In fully a u t o m a t i c w e l d i n g , the flux is fed
advantages of mechanised welding, several attempts mechanically to the joint ahead of the arc, the wire is
were made to mechanize the arc welding process. De- fed automatically to the welding head, the arc length is
veloping a continuous coated electrode as an extension automatically controlled and the traverse of the arc or
of the manual metal-arc welding electrode was ruled the work piece is mechanized.
out for the following reasons: (a) Since the coating is In the semi-automatic version, the wire feed and arc
non-conducting, arranging electrical contact with the length control are automatic, while the welder moves
electrode is not practicable, (b) the coating is likely to the welding gun, usually equipped with a flux-feeding
peel off when the electrode is coiled, and (c) the coating device, along the joint at a controlled rate of travel. Flux
is also likely to get crushed when fed through the feed feed may be by gravity flow, through a nozzle concentric
rolls. with the electrode from a small hopper atop the gun, or
In one of the methods attempted, the work piece was it may be through a concentric nozzle connected to an
painted with a thin slag flux, while feeding of the bare air-pressurized flux tank. Flux may also be applied in
wire and arc travel were mechanized. In another case, advance of the welding operation or ahead of the arc
automatic carbon-arc welding was tried out, in which a from a hopper run along the joint.
paper impregnated with flux was delivered to the arc D u r i n g w e l d i n g , the intense heat of the arc
as it travelled. simultaneously melts the tip of the bare wire electrode
All such methods proved unsuccessful, because they and part of the flux as shown in Fig. 4.1. The electrode
failed to provide adequate shielding to the arc. Then in tip and the welding zone are always surrounded and
1932, the idea of placing a thick layer of dry granular
flux on the joint ahead of the carbon electrode was
conceived and successfully developed in the U.S.A. and
later applied to the welding of penstocks and water
conduits in California. Submerged-arc welding was the
next logical step and the process became a commercial
success both in the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. by the middle
and late 1930's.
The modern submerged-arc (SA) welding is an arc
welding process, in which one or more arcs formed
between one or more bare wire electrodes and the work
piece provides the heat for coalescence. The arc is
completely submerged under a blanket of granular,
fusible flux, which adequately shields the arc from
\BASE METAL
atmospheric contamination. The process can be fully
Fig. 4.1: Mechanism of SA welding
automatic or semi-automatic.
188 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
protected by molten flux, while all of them are covered
by the top layer of unfused flux. As the arc progresses
along the joint, the molten metal settles down while the
lighter molten flux rises from the puddle in the form of
slag. The weld metal, having a higher melting point,
solidifies first while the slag above it takes some more
time to freeze. The solidified slag continues to protect
the weld metal while it is still hot, and is capable of
reacting with atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
Figure 4.2 explains the operation of the automatic
SA process while welding a single-V butt joint. Electric
current from a welding transformer, generator or
rectifier passes t h r o u g h the contact tube to the
consumable electrode wire. The wire is fed continuously
through the contact tube (nozzle) and through the flux
blanket to the joint by mechanically powered guide rolls.
The wire is coiled on a reel or in a drum. The flux, stored
in a hopper, is deposited on the joint ahead of the arc
through a tube. After the weld metal has solidified, the
unfused flux is removed manually or by a vacuum pick-
up system, to be screened and reused. The weld backing
plate serves to prevent burn-through; starting and run-
off tabs eliminate defects likely to occur during the start
and finish of a weld run.
In the early years, it was supposed that SAW is an
electric resistance process like the modern electro-slag
process, since the molten slag, which is electrically
conducting, surrounds the electrode tip. Voltage records
of the process, however, have shown short circuits, re-
ignition peaks and other features that are typical of a
true arc. In recent years, presence of an arc cavity
beneath the electrode tip has been recognized (as shown
in Fig. 4.1) and modes of metal transfer across the arc
TO AUTOMATIC WIRE FEEO
TO POWER S U P P L Y ^
CONNECTOR
FLUX DAM (10F 2;
o0l CONTACT]
USED ONLY IN SPECIAL
APPUCATIONS) '**
SOLIDIFIED SLAG4
WELDING
GROOVE
GROUNI
Fig. 4.2: SA welding operation in a single-V butt joint
have been studied in spite of it being submerged. The
findings have been detailed in the section on fluxes.
Advantages and Applications
The process is extensively used in heavy steel plate
fabrication, because of the following advantageous
features:
• Absence of smoke and arc flash, hence minimum
need for protective clothing
• High weld metal quality
• Smooth and uniform weld finish with no spatter
• Extremely high deposition rate and welding speed
• High electrode deposition efficiency
• High arc time can be achieved through automa-
tion
• Welder's manipulative skill not needed; mini-
mum operator fatigue.
Applications cover pressure vessels, line pipe,
storage tanks, heavy structural, ships, railway wagons
and coaches, and surfacing and build-up work.
BASIC EQUIPMENT
The SAW equipment essentially consists of:
a) A wire feeder to drive the electrode to the work
through the contact tube of a welding gun or welding
head
b) A welding power source to supply electric cur-
rent to the electrode at the contact tube
c) An arrangement for holding the flux and feed-
ing it ahead of the arc
d) A means of traversing the weld joint.
TO FLUX HOPPER
^DIRECTION OF TfcAVEL
FLUX-DELIVERY TUBE
GRANULAR RUNOFF TAB
BASE
GROUND METAL
METAL WELD BACKING PLATE

POWER SOURCES
The welding power source can be either of the
following: (a) an AC transformer of the constant current
type; (b) a DC generator of the constant voltage or
constant current type; or (c) a DC rectifier of the constant
voltage or constant current type.
AC power calls for more elaborate and complicated
controls and the arc starting is not easy. The main
advantage is that it minimizes arc blow, which can
become quite troublesome with DC at welding currents
above 900 Amps. In SAW with multiple wires and
multiple power sources (which is described later), the
trailing arc or arcs are derived from AC because two
DC arcs 100 mm or less apart are deflected by each
other's magnetic field. Combination of one DC and one
AC arc is often used, because their deflections can be
controlled and the combination can be easily applied to
a variety of fabrication jobs.
Use of DC p o w e r for SAW has the following
advantages: (a) easy and accurate arc start; (b) good
control of the weld bead profile, depth of penetration
and welding speed; (c) difficult contours can be
negotiated at high welding speeds.
In using DC, electrode positive (i.e. reverse polarity)
gives an extremely stable arc and smaller weld puddle,
which lead to better control of the weld bead profile.
The weld penetration is also deeper. Electrode negative
(i.e. straight polarity) gives highest metal deposition
rates, but shallower penetration. Penetration with AC
is more than that obtained with DC electrode negative,
but less than that with DC electrode positive. DC can
present the problem of arc blow, as stated earlier. When
two DC arcs operate in proximity, they flare together if
their polarity is the same, and they flare apart if their
polarity is different.
Whether AC or DC, the power source should be rated
at 100% duty cycle and not at 60% as required for manual
welding. This is because SAW is generally a fully
automatic process, for which the rating is usually 100%
duty cycle. This means that the power source should be
designed to deliver its rated output continuously,
without exceeding the prescribed temperature limits of
its components. Most SAW is done in the current range
of 200-1,000 Amps.s (single-wire). In rare cases, the
current can go up to 4,000 Amps.s at 55V and be as low
as 150 Amps.s at 18 V. For common applications, it is
convenient to have a power source giving a maximum
current output of 500 or 1,000 Amps, at 100% duty cycle.
DCf constant current type: The power source is either
a motor-generator or a rectifier. Two or more generators
or rectifiers of the same type can be connected in parallel,
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 189
if the current required is higher than the maximum
output of a single machine.
When a constant current power source is used
together with an automatic wire feeder, it is necessary
to maintain the arc voltage (i.e. arc length) as nearly
constant as practicable, in order to obtain a steady
welding current. This is achieved by monitoring the arc
voltage to control the electrode feed speed. When the
arc voltage (arc length) exceeds a set value, the control
circuit simply increases the speed of the wire-feed
motor, so that the arc length is reduced. When the arc
voltage and hence the arc length decreases, the control
circuit decreases the speed of the wire-feed motor,
whereby the arc is lengthened. The net result is a
reasonably constant arc length and welding current,
though minor voltage and current fluctuations caused
by the inertia (i.e. lack of instantaneous response) of this
system cannot be avoided.
DC, constant voltage type: As explained in Chapter 2,
the constant voltage power source differs from the
constant current type, in that the characteristic V-A curve
is nearly flat. In SAW, this type of power source is used
together with a constant speed wire feeder, whose drive
operates independently from the welding circuit. With
this system, arc length control is more precise and rapid.
As soon as the arc length increases ever so slightly (i.e.
arc voltage increases), there is a relatively large decrease
in amperage, which decreases the melting rate of the
electrode. Conversely, when the arc shortens even a bit
(i.e. arc voltage decreases), the current registers a big
jump and increases the melting rate of the electrode.
The net result is constant arc length and arc voltage
without fluctuations, since the response is almost
instantaneous. Since the arc is thus inherently self-
regulating and can be easily started and stopped, the
control circuits are much simpler than with the constant
current power source.
With this type of power source, short-circuit current
is very high. The welding current is determined by the
wire-feed rate. The current increases as the wire speed
increases and vice versa. The high short-circuit current
makes arc striking easier than with constant current
types. Crater filling at the end of the weld run also
becomes easier, because the welding current can be
gradually reduced by gradually decreasing the wire-
feed rate.
For welding thinner sections (3.6 mm and lower),
this type of power source has a distinct advantage over
the constant current type, because the uniformity of
voltage permits higher w e l d i n g speeds. Such an
advantage is not evident when welding thicker sections.
190 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
In fact, for heavy welds, a power source with more
drooping characteristics is to be preferred.
AC, constant current type: AC power for SAW is
derived from high capacity welding transformers
having minimum open-circuit voltage of 80 V to ensure
that the arc is not extinguished during current reversal
at every half-cycle. Small capacity transformers may be
connected in parallel to get current output greater than
the maximum obtainable from a single unit, care being
taken that the output voltages and currents are in phase.
In AC w e l d i n g , w e l d quality often suffers from
fluctuations in the primary voltage, unless steps are
taken to maintain it constant. The advantages of using
AC for the trailing arcs in multiple-arc welding have
been mentioned earlier.
Arc Start
Unlike in manual welding, arc starting can be difficult
in SAW, because of the flux cover. There are several
methods available and the choice is dictated by the
design of the power source, the time required for starting
as compared to the total welding time, the frequency of
starts demanded by production, and the importance of
starting the weld at a specific point on the joint.
WITH STEEL WOOL OR IRON POWDER
A rolled ball of steel wool, approximately 10 mm in
diameter, is placed at the required spot on the joint and
the electrode wire is lowered onto it till it is tightly
compressed. Alternately, fine iron powder is sprayed
in the gap between the electrode wire tip and the work
piece. The flux is then applied and the welding is
commenced. The steel wool or iron powder conducts
the current from the wire to the work piece and at the
same time melts away rapidly as the arc is formed.
SHARP WIRE START
The electrode wire tip is cut mechanically to form a
sharp, chisel-like configuration, so that the current
density at the tip increases. The electrode is then lowered
to make a superficial contact with the work piece. The
flux is applied and the welding is commenced. The sharp
point melts away rapidly and starts the arc.
SCRATCH START
The electrode wire is lowered until the tip makes a
superficial contact with the work piece, and the flux is
fed. The carriage is started and immediately afterwards
the current is switched on. The motion of the wire
prevents the electrode wire from short-circuiting with
the work piece.
MOLTEN FLUX START
Arc starting is easy when a molten puddle is present.
One has simply to insert the electrode into it and switch
the welding current on. This method is always used in
multi-wire welding. Only one electrode is started to
establish the molten puddle. Then the other electrodes
start automatically when they are fed into it.
WIRE RETRACT START
This method is useful and economical when frequent
starts have to be made and when the start must be made
at a definite point. It can be used only with the constant-
current type system.
In this method, the electrode wire is lowered until it
makes a superficial contact with the work piece. The
flux is applied and the welding current switched on.
The low voltage between the electrode and the work
piece signals the wire feeder to withdraw the electrode
tip from the work piece. The arc starts as this action
taken place. As the wire w i t h d r a w a l c o n t i n u e s
momentarily and the arc voltage increases, the wire feed
motor quickly reverses direction to feed the electrode
into the arc. The wire feed rate increases until the wire
melting rate and arc voltage stabilize to the pre-set
values.
HIGH FREQUENCY START
In this method, a high frequency, high voltage
generator introduced in the welding circuit causes a
spark to jump between the electrode tip and the work
piece when the gap between the two is reduced to
approximately 1.6 mm. The spark produces an ionized
path, through which the welding current can flow. This
technique is commonly used as a starting method for
intermittent welding or for welding at high production
rates, where a large number of starts are required.
Stopping the Arc
Normally for terminating the arc, the carriage travel
is first stopped, then the wire feed is switched off and a
couple of seconds later, the current is switched off. The
brief pause between the second and the third step
prevents the wire from moving forward into the molten
pool and from sticking to the molten p u d d l e as it
solidifies. It also helps to fill up the crater.
TYPICAL WELDING OUTFITS
As stated earlier, SAW can be fully automatic or
semi-automatic. In the automatic version, the wire-feed
rate and arc length are automatically controlled. The
travel of the arc at desired speed along the seam is also
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 191

automatically controlled, either by (a) keeping the job

stationary and making the welding head travel along
the seam or (b) keeping the welding head stationary
and making the seam travel across the point of the arc.
In the semi-automatic version, the wire-feed rate and
the arc length are automatically controlled. The
electrode, however, is fed through a flexible cable to
the welding gun or torch. The advance of the welding
torch along the seam is manipulated by the operator.
The semi-automatic process can be effectively applied
on jobs of repetitive nature, where manual welding
operations tend to become unprofitable, provided the
relevant procedures and techniques are properly
worked out.
This process scores over the fully automatic
submerged-arc welding process by virtue of its
flexibility, which enables it to be used on complicated
work shapes without the need for tooling and fixturing Fig. 4.3: Wire feeder of a semi-automatic SAW unit
demanded by the latter. Over the years, however, the
usage of semi-automatic SAW has reduced in the wire feeder. The wire sizes are 1.6, 2.0 and 2.4
substantially. One of the main reasons appears to be mm.
the higher operator fatigue in manipulating the heavy c) Torch with flux hopper. It is a self-contained unit
welding head. with bent torch head, 3 m long hose, a flux hopper that
A typical semi-automatic outfit consists of: can take up 1 kg of flux, and a suitable coupler for con-
a) Power source nection to the wire feeder. It is shown in Fig. 4.4.
b) Wire feeder A typical tractor-mounted fully automatic SAW unit
c) Torch with flux hopper shown in Fig. 4.5 consists of:
a) Power source
d) Set of cables for connecting wire feeder to power
source, comprising control cable, welding cable b) Self-propelled tractor or carriage
with end lugs, welding cable with end lug and c) Welding head arm with wire reel
ground clAmps.. d) Welding head assembly.
e) Set of accessories for wire feeder. e) Control unit.
a) Power source: It is a DC welding rectifier giving
maximum welding current of 600 Amps.s at 60% duty
cycle and 500 Amps.s at 100% duty cycle. It has con-
stant potential characteristics, giving a constant arc volt-
age, while the current is determined by the wire-feed
rate. The exceptionally high short-circuit current makes
arc striking very simple. The rectifier has a drip-proof
casing with the following built-in components: trans-
former, silicon rectifier, reactance coil, fan, safety de-
vice against ventilation failure, control transformer and
welding contactor. All controls are arranged on the front
panel for convenient handling.
b) Wire feeder: As shown in Fig. 4.3, it consists of a
DC wire drive motor, reduction gearbox, four-roll drive
mechanism and a wire spool holder. Wire-feed rate is
continuously variable in the range of 1.2-7.5 m/min.
For infinitely step-less variation of the wire-feed speed, Fig. 4.4: Torch with flux hopper for a semi-automatic
a special solid-state thyristorised circuitry is provided SAW unit
192 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

made to swivel by approximately 270° and locked in

that position. The carriage speed is controlled by means
of solid-state thyristorised circuitry fitted in the control
unit.
c) Welding head arm: The arm, supporting the weld-
ing head, consists of vertical slide and universal clamp
assembly. The welding head can be accurately posi-
tioned by means of vertical slide adjustment. The uni-
versal clamp assembly is used to tilt the welding head
to the desired angle. The welding head can be swung
round up to maximum 45° for fillet welding, and then
locked in the desired position. The two reel flanges are
designed for standardized spool size of 300 mm ID and
100 mm width.
d) Welding head assembly: One of the main compo-
nents of the welding head assembly is the wire straight-
ening and wire-feed device, designed to straighten the
wire unwinding from the spool, and to feed it to the
jaws/nozzle via wire guide. The wire is fed forward by
Fig. 4.5: Fully automatic SAW unit comprising (a) power a DC motor (1) by means of four-roll wire-feed drive,
source, (b) tractor mounted welding head (2) a reduction gearbox, (3) a wire-feed roller. The speed
of the wire-feed roller can be infinitely varied by a knob
a) Power source: The 600-Amps.s DC constant-volt- on the control unit, to provide any desired speed from
age rectifier meant for semi-automatic welding and de- 0.1 to 7.5 m / m i n . The speed is controlled by means of a
scribed above can be used, provided the welding cur- solid-state thyristorised circuitry. After the wire has
rents used on the job are within its capacity. If currents been pulled from the reel and straightened, it reaches
higher than 600-amps are to be used, two such rectifi- the wire guide tube, on the rear end of which a jaw
ers can be connected in parallel. For heavy fabrication holder and contact jaws nozzle are fitted. The pressure
jobs, it is more convenient to use a single 1200-amps of the current-carrying jaws on the wire can be adjusted
DC rectifier having maximum current capacity of 1,200 by a regulating screw. Also mounted on the rear end of
amps at 60% and 1,000 amps at 100% duty cycle, which the wire guide tube is the flux dispenser with hopper.
like the 600-amps model, gives a constant arc voltage, The elevation between the wire tip and consequently
while the current is determined by the wire-feed rate. the hopper and the work piece, can be adjusted.
Fabricators, today, also have a choice of 800, 1000 A When welding with two wires, the lower part of the
models also. The exceptionally high short-circuit cur- welding head (wire guide tube, jaw holder, contact jaws)
rent makes arc striking very simple. The rectifier (see can be swung 90°, so as to make it possible to feed the
Fig. 4.5 a) has a drip-proof casing with built-in trans- wires either parallel or in tandem. The flux is poured
former, silicon rectifier, reactance coil, fan safety device into the flux container through a built-in sieve, from
against ventilation failure, control transformer and where it is supplied through a flexible tube to the flux
welding contactor. All controls are arranged on the front dispenser. The flux supply can be stopped at the lower
panel. end of flux container by a stopcock-tapered handle. The
b) Carriage: The four-wheeled carriage houses a DC entire wire-feed system can be s w u n g forward
motor with speed reduction gearbox, which drives the approximately 45° around the axis of the wire-feed roller
rear wheels by means of a clutch engageable in any po- (parallel to the axis of the arm). For fillet welding, the
sition. The clutch is actuated by two-position lever (two arm is in transverse position.
limit stops). The front wheels run idle. The carriage e) Control unit: This is mounted on the tractor and all
speed is adjusted by the hand wheel within a range of the controls are brought on the front panel for easy
0.2-1.5 m/min. The travel direction is pre-selected by a setting of w e l d i n g p a r a m e t e r s . The front panel
change-over switch. The mounting bracket bearing the incorporates:
welding head arm can be shifted by approximately 110 1) Digital meters to read carriage speed (m/min),
mm transverse to travel direction. The arm tube can be voltmeter and ammeter

2) Potentiometers for carriage speed and wire-feed
speed setting
3) Reverse /forward switch for carriage
4) Inching u p / d o w n for wire setting
5) Start/stop push buttons for weld sequence.
Control unit incorporates the electronic speed control
circuitry and weld sequence circuitry for wire feed and
carriage drive.
SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS/ACCESSORIES
a) Fabricated rail track: The carriage assembly is
placed on this track for welding straight seams.
b) Pilot needle/spotlight projector: In SAW, the opera-
tor cannot see whether the arc is traveling exactly along
the line of the seam, because both are covered with flux.
The pilot needle is therefore provided to check the weld-
ing head position with respect to the line of the seam.
Use of pilot needle entails slight inaccuracy, since its
tip is unavoidably at a small distance from the refer-
ence edge. Alternately, a spotlight projector is supplied,
which indicates the correct path to be traced. This is
fitted into a special socket on the split transformer box.
c) Fillet welding attachment: When the automatic unit
travels directly on the work piece instead of on a track,
the standard welding head proves to be too short for
fillet welds. In this case, a special attachment has to be
mounted on the welding head as shown in Fig. 4.6.
d) Flux recovery unit: In SAW, only a small portion
of the flux fed to the seam is fused by the heat of the arc.
The rest remains on the seam in its original condition.
The excess cloth-type filter, complete filtration precedes
vacuum producer as shown Fig. 4.7.
Fig. 4.6: Fillet welding attachment
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 193
Fig. 4.7: Flux recovery unit
Modifications
Boom mounted unit: The tractor mounted automatic
unit can be suitably smodified to facilitate mounting on
a welding column and boom or a similar fixture. The
b o o m - m o u n t e d unit is specially suited for the
longitudinal and circumferential welding of cylindrical
objects like, boiler shells, pressure vessels and penstock
pipes. A typical unit is shown in Fig. 4.8(a). The welding
head is mounted on an arm, which is capable of being
moved in the horizontal, vertical and longitudinal
directions. This enables exact adjustment of the electrode
tip on the joint. These adjustments are done by means
of a compound slide, which is mounted on the vertical
face of the boom. The welding head consists of guides
and rollers for the wire and current collection system,
using split jaws or solid nozzle, and hopper for flux
storage. The wire-feed mechanism consists of a wire-
feed drive operating on a low-voltage, three-phase
supply that is obtained through a control transformer
housed in a separate casing, which can be placed on the
power source. A control panel houses the ammeter,
voltmeter and control switches. The spool holder can
be mounted on the boom and is capable of taking two
spools.
The power source remains the same, i.e. a constant
voltage rectifier giving the maximum output of 1,000
amps at 100% duty cycle. The unit uses electrode wires
of 2,2.5,3 and 4 mm diameter. Using special accessories,
one can weld with 5 mm diameter single wire.
Side-beam carriage unit: In this case, the carriage
carrying the welding head, wire supply, flux if required
and controls for the operator, is mounted on an I-beam
194 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 4 8: (a) Boom mounted SAW unit
Fig. 4 8: (b) Side beam carriage unit
of desired length, which is fixed horizontally between
two columns at a suitable height in relation to the job
size (see Fig. 4.8b). The welding head on the carriage
can also be adjusted for different heights, and for
transverse dimensional requirements. This device
performs only one function and that is to provide
horizontal travel of the welding head. The welding head
is monitored by the operator and can be adjusted to
follow joints, which may not have been perfectly
aligned. Typical applications are longitudinal joints of
cylindrical vessels, p e n s t o c k shells a n d trailer
assemblies.
Weld seamer: This standardized machine shown in
Fig. 4.9(a) combines a welding head travel device with
a work-holding device. It is meant for making one-sided
l o n g i t u d i n a l b u t t w e l d s in cylinders of v a r i o u s
thicknesses and lengths. The welding head is carried
by a carriage, which traverses a long side-beam. It is
positioned over a special nold down fixture, which
pneumatically clamps and aligns the joint edges, and is
provided with a permanent copper backing (with water-
cooling if necessary) over which the joint is clamped.
Seamers are often designed to dispense with tacking.
The cylinder is centred and aligned by means of a
pneumatically swiveled blade stop. First, the left side
of the shell plate is pressed and clamped against the
blade stop. Then the stop swings out and the right plate
edge is pressed and clamped against the edge previously
clamped.
Internal welding unit: Another modification suitable
for internal welding of cylindrical jobs of diameter as
small as 300 mm is shown in Fig. 4.9(b). In this unit,
dimensions of the flux hopper are suitably modified.
The welding head is also suitably modified. The arm
on which it is mounted is extended from the carriage to
reach a maximum length of two metres inside the
cylinder. The wire spool is mounted above the carriage
and the wire travels from the spool to the head, through
a tube. This modified welding head has a maximum
Fig. 4.9: (a) Weld seamer
Fig. 4.9 (b): Internal SAW unit
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDINQ 195

capacity of 600 amps as compared to 1,200 amps of the the uniform feeding of the electrode in automatic and
original head. semi-automatic equipment. The electrode must be
wound to avoid kinks, waves, or sharp bends that would
SAW CONSUMABLES interfere with feeding. The outside end of the electrode
Continuous bare wires in the form of coils and dry, (the end from which welding is begun) must be secured
granular fluxes are used in combination as consumables and identified.
for the SAW welding of mild steel, low-alloy steels, This standard also gives the classification system for
stainless steels, non-ferrous alloys and for surfacing fluxes based on the mechanical properties of the weld
applications. The bare wires are mostly solid wires, metal they deposit in combination with certain
although flux-cored wires (i.e. tubular wires carrying classifications of electrodes. The mechanical tests, in
flux in the core) are also used, either of which have to effect, evaluate the quality of a flux-wire combination.
be used in combination with fluxes. Hence, these have been taken up later under
"classification of fluxes".
ELECTRODE WIRES
As with manual electrodes, SAW wires are best 2) AWS A5.23-1980, "Specification for low-alloy steel
understood by going through the standards. electrodes and fluxes for submerged-arc welding"
1) AWS A5.17-1997. "Specification for carbon steel elec- This standard covers a wide range of low-alloy wires
trodes and fluxes for submerged-arc welding" divided into five groups as shown in Table 4.3. The
This standard gives eight classifications based on classification consists of the prefix 'E' to indicate an
wire chemistry and divided into three groups according electrode and a combination of letters and digits. The
to the Mn levels as shown in Table 4.1. first two classes, namely EL12 and EM12K, are identical
In the classification system, the prefix E designates to those same classifications in AWS A5.17-97. They are
an electrode. The letters L, M and H indicate low, included here, because they are sometimes used with
medium and high Mn contents respectively. The letter alloyed fluxes to deposit weld metals of low-alloy steel
K, that appears in some classes indicates that the compositions. In the rest of the classes, the prefixes after
electrode is made from a heat of silicon-killed steel (as E agree with those used in AWS A5.5-80, "Specification
is obvious from the Si levels). The digits 8, 12, etc., for low-alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes" for
indicate in points, the nominal carbon content of the those chemical compositions, which are similar. Suffix
electrode (for example, 8 means 0.08%). N is to be used additionally, when the electrode is
Standard electrode diameters in mm are 1.6,2.0,2.5, intended for welds in the core belt region of nuclear
3.2,4.0, 5.6 and 6.4. reactor vessels. Such an electrode must have lower limits
Since SAW electrodes are mechanically driven at high of phosphorus, vanadium and copper as follows:
speeds, they need to be correctly tempered. The standard
states, "the temper of the electrodes shall be such that P= 0.012% max. V= 0.05% max. Cu= 0.08% max.
the electrodes will feed in an uninterrupted manner in
automatic and semi-automatic welding equipment." It is not allowed to be copper-coated. EF5 and EW
SAW electrodes are supplied in the form of coils with classes are not permitted to carry the suffix N.
or without liner. When supplied without liners, the It must be pointed out that this standard deals with
dimensions and net weight are decided by mutual solid electrodes as well as flux-cored electrodes, the
agreement between purchaser and supplier. Coils with latter being referred to as composite electrodes. In the
liners must meet the standard requirements given in classification system, letter C is to be used after E to
Table 4.2. indicate a composite electrode. Composite electrodes
The usage of drums for supply of SAW wire is are classified by the chemical composition of the weld
gaining popularity, especially in the pipe-mill segment. metal they deposit with a specific flux, unlike in the case
No specific dimensions are mandated for drums. of solid electrodes. This is done, because there is no
The cast and helix of the electrodes should be such standard method for analyzing the composite electrode
that they will feed in an uninterrupted manner in the itself. The standard designations for composite
welding equipment. The electrode in each coil and drum electrodes are shown in Table 4.4. The weld metal
should be of one continuous length of material. Butt joint compositions indicated herein are also applicable to the
welds are permitted, but they must be made and solid electrodes classified in Table 4.3. Additional suffix
finished in such a manner that they do not interfere with N can be used in the same way as with solid electrodes.
196 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.1: Composition requirements for electrodes as per AWS A5.17

Electrode Chemical composition, wt. per cent3

classification Mn Si Cub

Low manganese steel electrodes

EL8 0.10 0.25/0.60 0.07 0.035 0.035 0.35
EL8K 0.10 0.25/0.60 0.10/0.25 0.035 0.035 0.35
EL12 0.05/0.15 0.25/0.60 0.07 0.035 0.035 0.35

Medium manganese steel electrodes

EM12 0.06/0.15 0.80/1.25 0.10 0.035 0.035 0.35
EM12K 0.05/0.15 0.80/1.25 0.10/0.35 0.035 0.035 0.35
EM13K 0.07/0.19 0.90/1.40 0.35/0.75 0.035 0.035 0.35
EM15K 0.10/0.20 0.80/1.25 0.10/0.35 0.035 0.035 0.35

High manganese steel electrodes

EH14 0.10/0.20 1.70/2.20 0.10 0.035 0.035 0.35

a. Single values are maximums.

b. The copper limit includes any copper coating that may be applied to the electrode

Table 4.2: Coil with liner—standard dimensions and weights as per AWS A5.17

Electrode dia. Net wt. of coil Inside dia. of liner Width of coil, max. Outside dia. of coil, max.
mm kg mm mm mm

11 65 420
1.6 to 6.4 23 305 ± 3 120 430
27
45
2.4 to 6.4 68 as mutually 125 800
91 agreed

Standard electrode sizes (except for an additional
size of 2.8 mm) and requirements for cast, helix and
winding are the same as for carbon steel electrodes.
3) BS 4165:1971, "Specification for electrode wires and
fluxes for the submerged-arc welding of carbon steel and me-
dium-tensile steel"
This standard specifies requirements for electrode
wires, solid or cored (i.e. flux-cored), for the SAW of
carbon steel and medium-tensile steel.
For wires, no chemical requirements are specified.
The foreword of the standard suggests that this has been
done in order not to inhibit developments in flux-wire
combinations. The standard wire sizes are (in mm): 1.6,
2.0,2.5,3.2,4.0,5.0,6.0,6.3 and 8.0. The wire must have
a smooth finish, free from surface imperfections,
corrosion products, grease or other substances, which
would adversely affect the quality of the weld or the
operation of the welding equipment. If the wire has a
copper coating, it must be a uniform, well bonded,
smooth coating applied over a thoroughly clean surface.
The copper content of the coated wire expressed as a
percentage of the wire plus the coating must not exceed
0.4% by weight. Unless otherwise agreed between the
purchaser and the manufacturer, the tensile strength of
the wire must not exceed 930 N / m m 2 for carbon steel
and must not exceed 1,080 N / m m 2 for medium-tensile
steel.
The wire m u s t be s u p p l i e d in coils h a v i n g
dimensions and weights given in Table 4.5. The wire
 Table 4.3: Composition requirements for solid electrodes as per AWS A5.23

Electrode Chemical composition wt. per cent a - b - c

classifi-
cation C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo Cu V Al Ti Zr

Carbon steel
EL12 0.05/0.15 0.25/0.60 0.07 0.035 0.035 — — — 0.35 — — — —
EM12K 0.05/0.15 0.80/1.25 0.10/0.35 0.035 0.035 — — — 0.35 — — — —
Carbon-molybdenum steel
EA1 0.07/0.17 0.65/1.00 0.20 0.035 0.025 — — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EA2 0.07/0.17 0.95/1.35 0.20 0.035 0.025 — — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EA3 0.10/0.18 1.65/2.15 0.20 0.035 0.025 — — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EA4 0.10/0.18 1.25/1.65 0.20 0.035 0.025 — — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
Chromium-molybd enum steel
EB2 0.07/0.15 0.45/0.80 0.05/0.30 0.030 0.025 1.00/1.75 — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EB2H 0.28/0.33 0.45/0.65 0.55/0.75 0.015 0.015 1.00/1.50 — 0.45/0.65 0.30 0.20/0.30 — — —
EB3 0.07/0.15 0.45/0.80 0.05/0.30 0.030 0.025 2.25/3.00 — 0.90/1.10 0.35 — — — —
EB5 0.18/0.23 0.40/0.70 0.40/0.60 0.025 0.025 0.45/0.65 — 0.90/1.10 0.30 — — — —
EB6 0.10 0.40/0.65 0.20/0.50 0.025 0.025 4.50/6.00 — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EB6H 0.25/0.40 0.75/1.00 0.25/0.50 0.030 0.025 4.80/6.00 — 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
Nickel steel
ENil 0.10 0.75/1.25 0.05/0.25 0.010 0.010 0.15 0.80/1.20 0.30 0.35 — — — —
ENi2 0.10 0.75/1.25 0.05/0.25 0.010 0.010 — 2.10/2.90 — 0.35 — — — —
ENi3 0.13 0.60/1.20 0.05/0.25 0.012 0.012 0.15 3.10/3.80 — 0.35 — — — —
ENi4 0.12/0.19 0.60/1.00 0.10/0.30 0.020 0.015 — 1.60/2.10 0.10/0.30 0.35 — — — —
Other low-alloy steel
EF1 0.07/0.15 0.90/1.70 0.15/0.35 0.025 0.025 — 0.95/1.60 0.25/0.55 0.35 — — — —
EF2 0.10/0.18 1.70/2.40 0.20 0.025 0.025 — 0.40/0.80 0.40/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EF3 0.10/0.18 1.70/2.40 0.20 0.025 0.025 — 0.70/1.10 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EF4 0.16/0.23 0.60/0.90 0.15/0.35 0.035 0.025 0.40/0.60 0.40/0.80 0.15/0.30 0.35 — — — —
EF5 0.10/0.17 1.70/2.20 0.20 0.010 0.010 0.25/0.50 2.30/2.80 0.45/0.65 0.35 — — — —
EF6 0.07/0.15 1.45/1.90 0.10/0.30 0.015 0.015 0.20/0.55 1.75/2.25 0.40/0.65 0.35 — — — —
CO
EM2 0.10 1.25/1.80 0.20/0.60 0.010 0.010 0.30 1.40/2.10 0.25/0.55 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.10 c
09
EM3 0.10 1.40/1.80 0.20/0.60 0.010 0.010 0.55 1.90/2.60 0.25/0.65 0.25 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.10 m
EM4 0.10 1.40/2.80 0.20/0.60 0.010 0.010 0.60 2.00/2.80 0.30/0.65 0.25 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.10 3D
©
EW 0.12 0.35/0.65 0.20/0.35 0.040 0.030 0.50/0.80 0.40/0.80 — 0.30/0.80 — — — —
EG No requirements specified >
30
O
a) Single values are maxima, b) The copper limit includes any copper coating, which may be applied to the electrode, c) The EB6 classification is similar to, but not identical with, the ER502
classification in A5.9-81, "Specification for corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel bare, and composite metal cored and stranded welding electrodes and welding rods". m

CO
198 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.4: Composition requirements for weld metal (both solid and composite electrodes)

Electrode Chemical composition wt. per cent a - b ' c

classifi-
cation C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo Cu W, Ti, Zr
(total)
Carbon-molybdenum steel
Al 0.12 1.00 0.80 0.040 0.030 — — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
A2 0.12 1.40 0.80 0.040 0.030 — — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
A3 0.15 2.10 0.80 0.040 0.030 — — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
A4 0.15 1.60 0.80 0.040 0.030 — — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
Chromium-molybdenum steel
B2 0.15 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 1.00/1.50 — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
B2H 0.25 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 1.00/1.50 — 0.40/0.65 0.35 0.30 V
B3 0.15 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 2.00/2.50 — 0.90/1.20 0.35 —
B4 0.12 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 1.75/2.25 — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
B5 0.18 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.40/0.65 — 0.90/1.20 0.35 —
B6 0.12 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 4.50/6.00 — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
B6H 0.25 1.20 0.80 0.040 0.030 4.50/6.00 — 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
Nickel steel
Nil 0.10 1.60 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.15 0.80/1.10 0.35 0.35 0.05
Ni2 0.128 1.60 0.80 0.030 0.030 — 2.00/2.90 — 0.35 —
Ni3 0.12 1.60 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.15 2.80/3.75 — 0.35 —
Ni4 0.14 1.60 0.80 0.030 0.030 — 1.40/2.10 0.35 0.35 —
Other low-alloy steel
Fl 0.12 0.70/1.50 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.15 0.90/1.70 0.55 0.35 —
F2 0.17 1.25/2.25 0.80 0.040 0.030 — 0.40/0.80 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
F3 0.17 1.25/2.25 0.80 0.040 0.030 — 0.70/1.10 0.40/0.65 0.35 —
F4 0.17 1.60 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.60 0.40/0.80 0.25 0.35 0.03
F5 0.17 1.20/1.80 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.65 2.00/2.80 0.30/0.80 0.50 —
F6 0.14 0.80/1.85 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.65 1.50/2.25 0.60 0.40 —
Ml 0.10 0.60/1.60 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.15 1.25/2.00 0.35 0.30 0.03
M2 0.10 0.90/1.80 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.35 1.40/2.10 0.25/0.65 0.30 0.03
M3 0.10 0.90/1.80 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.65 1.80/2.60 0.20/0.70 0.30 0.03
M4 0.10 1.30/2.25 0.80 0.030 0.030 0.80 2.00/2.80 0.30/0.80 0.30 0.03
W 0.12 0.50/1.60 0.80 0.040 0.030 0.45/0.70 0.40/0.80 — 0.30/0.75 —
G No requirements specified
a) Single values are maxima.
b) The designation for composite electrodes is obtained by placing an EC before the appropriate weld metal classification in the table above.
c) The copper limit includes any copper in the coating on the electrode the weld was deposited with.

must be wound evenly in one continuous length and
should be freefromkinks, waves, sharp bends or twists,
so that it is free to unwind without restriction. The
starting end of the wire on each coil must be clearly
indicated.
Wire must be suitably packed to guard against dam-
age, including that during transportation. When stored,
the wire should be kept in the original bundle or pack-
age in a dry storeroom and tinder such conditions the
wire shall, for a period of at least 12 months, be capable
of giving results similar to those that it would have given
on the date of its dispatch from the manufacturer.
Each coil or reel of wire and its outer packing must
state (1) the name of the manufacturer, (2) trade
designation of wire, (3) size and weight, (4) batch
number, and (5) recommendations for special storage,
if required.
The standard details the tensile and impact
requirements for flux-wire combinations. These have
been discussed later.
Since there is no British standard giving chemical
compositions of SA wires, the welding companies in
that country usually use IIS/IIW symbdls with the
modification that SD is substituted for SA. Typical wires
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 199

marketed by Oerlikon of UK are listed in Tables 4.6 and
4.7 with their compositions:
4) Doc. IIS/IIW-545-78 "Classification and symbolization
of bare steel wire electrodes and fluxes for submerged-arc weld-
ing of structural steels"
This standard prescribes the requirements of solid
filler wires for submerged-arc welding of structural
steels in the yield strength range of 270-490 N / m m 2 and
the ultimate tensile strength range of 300-690 N/mm 2 .
The wires are classified based on their chemical
composition as shown in Table 4.8. They comprise

Table 4.5: Dimensions of coils and weights of wire as per BS 4165

Outer Inner diameter Inner diameter Width Weight

diameter of bound coil with of bound max., mm of wire
max., mm no former mm former, mm max., kg

300 200+5 200+1 90 13

-o
-o
420 300+5 300+1 80 25
-0
-o
420 300+5 300+1 100 30
-o
420 300+5 300+5 115 30
-0 -0

760 610±10 610±10 100 70

760 610±10 610±10 100 100
760 610±10 610±10 150 100

of carbon-manganese submerged are wires (main elements only) marketed in UK

Table 4.6: Typical chemical analysis <
Weight %
Wire
C Mn Si S (max.) P (max.) A l (max.) N (max.)

S2ULTRA 0.12 1.1 0.15 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012

SD3 0.09 1.6 0.25 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
S4ULTRA 0.10 2.0 0.15 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
Total S and P 0.02 wt% maximum

Table 4.7: Typical chemical analysis of low-alloy wires (wt.%) marketed in UK

Wire C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo S (max.) P (max.) A l (max.) N (max.)
S2Mo 0.10 1.0 0.15 — — 0.5
SD2 2Ni 0.10 1.1 0.2 — 2.2 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD2 3Ni 0.10 1.0 0.2 — 2.7 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD2 1 Ni Cr Mo 0.11 1.1 0.2 1.0 0.1 0.5 0.015 • 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD2 1 1/4 Cr Mo 0.10 1.1 0.2 1.5 0.6 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD2 2 1/2 Cr Mo 0.10 1.0 0.2 2.4 1.0 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD2 5 Cr Mo 0.09 0.6 0.4 5.0 0.5 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD3Mo 0.10 1.5 0.2 — 0.5 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD3 INi 0.10 1.4 0.2 — 1.2 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.012
SD3 lNi 1/2 Mo 0.10 1.5 0.2 — 1.3 0.5 0.015 0.015 002 0.012
TIBOR 22* 0.09 1.2 0.10 — — 0.3 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.010
*Ti—0.04% B—0.003% **Total S and P 0.02 Wt. % maximum.
Note: Refer "Toughness Properties ofS. A. welds for applications of TIBOR 22 wire in this chapter.
200 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.8: Chemical composition requirements for finished wire electrodes in SAW as per IIS/IIW -545

Symbol AWS C Si Mn P S Mo Ni
SA1 EL12 0.06-0.15 <0.15 0.35-0.65 — —
SAIL EL8 <0.10 <0.15 0.35-0.65 — —
SA2 EM12 0.07-0.15 <0.15 0.70-1.20 — —
SA3 0.07-0.15 <0.25 1.30-1.70 — —
SA4 EH14 0.08-0.18 <0.25 1.70-2.25 — —
SA6 0.08-0.18 <0.35 2.80-3.20 <0.03 <0.03 — —
SAISi 0.06-0.14 0.15-0.50 0.35-0.65 — —
SAlLiSi EL8K <0.10 0.15-0.50 0.35-0.65 — ■ —

SA2Si EM12K 0.07 0.15 0.15-0.50 0.70-1.20 — —

SA2LSi EM5K <0.10 0.15-0.50 0.70-1.20 — —
SA2HSi EM15K 0.15-0.20 0.15-0.50 0.70-1.20 — —
SA2Si2 EM13K 0.07-0.15 0.50-0.80 0.70-1.20 — —
SA3Si 0.07-0.15 0.25-0.50 1.30-1.70 — —
SAlMo 0.06-0.14 <0.15 0.35-0.65 0.45-0.65 —
SA2Mo EA1/EA2 0.07-0.15 < 0.15 ' 0.70-1.20 0.45-0.65 —
SA3Mo 0.07-0.15 <0.25 1.30-1.70 0.45-0.65 —
SA4Mo ED1/EA3 0.08-0.18 <0.25 1.75-2.25 0.45-0.65 —
SA5Mo ED2 0.08-0.18 <0.30 2.25-2.80 0.45-0.65 —
SA6M0 0.08-0.18 <0.35 2.80-3.20 0.45-0.65 —
SA3MoSi 0.07-0.15 0.15/0.50 1.30-1.70 0.45-0.65 —
SA3MoSiNil EF1 0.07-0.15 0.15/0.50 1.30-1.70 <0.02 <0.02 0.45-0.65 0.80-1.60
SA4Mo Nio.5 EF2 0.08-0.18 <0.25 1.75-2.25 <0.02 <0.02 0.45-0.65 0.40-0.80
SA4MoNil EF3 0.08-0.18 <0.25 1.75-2.25 <0.02 <0.02 0.45-0.65 0.80-0.60
SA2M1 ENil 0.07-0.15 <0.15 1.70-1.20 <0.02 <0.02 — 0.80-1.60
SA2N12 ENi2 0.07-0.15 <0.15 1.70-1.20 <0.01 <0.01 — 1.60-2.80
SA2NJ3 ENi3 0.07-0.15 <0.15 1.70-1.20 <0.01 <0.01 — 2.80-3.80
Note: Copper, including the
zopper
c coating, if present, should not exceed 0.35. A maximum of 0.2% chromium is
recommended

carbon steels, C-Mn steels and low-alloy steels. The table
also gives the equivalent AWS classes w h e r e v e r
applicable.
The wire diameters are (in mm): 1.2,1.6,2.0,2.5,3.20,
4.0, 5.0, 6.3, and 8.0. Standard dimensions and weights
of coils are given in Table 4.9.
Reeling conditions and conditions of wire finish are
similar to those mentioned in the AWS and British
Standards. The Cu content of the copper-coated wire
should not exceed 0.3% by weight. The tensile strength
of the wire should not exceed 930 N / m m 2 for carbon
steel and 1,080 N / m m 2 for medium tensile steel, unless
otherwise agreed between the manufacturer and the
purchaser.
5) IS:7280-1974, " Specification for bare wire electrodes
for submerged arc welding of structural steels"
In preparing this standard, assistance has been
derived from Doc. IIS/IIW-385-72, which is an earlier
version of the IIS/IIW document described above. It
prescribes the requirements of solid wires for the SAW
of structural steels in the yield strength range of 275-
490 N / m m 2 and the ultimate tensile strength range of
335-685 N / m m 2 . The classifications covered by the
standard are given in Table 4.10 with their chemical
compositions, and they include C-steel, C-Mn steels and
low-alloy steels. Standard dimensions of rims and coils
are given in Table 4.11.
In the classification, 'A' indicates the wire for
submerged-arc welding and 'S' stands for solid bare
wire. The digit that follows is equal to twice the Mn
content of the wire. The presence of alloying elements
is indicated by further suffixes like Mo, Si, Ni, etc.
FLUXES
SAW flux performs the same functions as the coating
of a manual electrode; additionally, it must satisfy
certain special conditions demanded by the nature of
the process. The flux protects the molten pool and the
arc against atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen by creating
an envelope of molten slag. The slag also cleanses the
weld metal (i.e. deoxidizes it and removes impurities
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 201

Table 4.9: Wire dimensions and weights as per IIS/IIW-545

Coil type Wire dia. Coil wt. Coil width Inside dia. Outside dia.
mm kg mm mm mm
10 4.0 m a x . 10 a p p r o x . 50+5 200!05 250 approx.

25 1.2 m i n . 25 a p p r o x . 100tf 300^ 450 approx.

50 2.0 m i n . 50 a p p r o x . 100+10 300^5 600 approx.

50 3.20 m i n . 100 a p p r o x . 120 +10 600

:020 800 approx.

Table 4.10: Chemical composition of filler wires as per IS 7280

IS Chemical composition%
Classification
Carbon Silicon Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Phosphorus Sulphur
(max.) (max.)

AS-1 0.10 (Max.) 0.03 (Max.) 0.40-0.60 0.03 0.03

AS-1 Si 0.08-0.15 0.10-0.40 0.40-0.60 — — 0.03 0.03
AS-2 0.08-0.15 0.05-0.15 0.80-1.20 — — 0.03 0.03
AS-2Si 0.08-0.15 0.15-0.40 0.80-1.20 — ■ —
0.03 0.03
AS-2Mo 0.08-0.15 0.05-0.15 0.80-1.20 0.45-0.60 — 0.03 0.03
AS-2Ni 0.06-0.12 0.05-0.15 0.80-1.20 — 0.80-1.20 0.02 0.02
AS^3 0.08-0.15 0.05-0.25 1.30-1.70 — — 0.03 0.03
AS-3Mo 0.08-0.15 0.05-0.25 1.30-1.70 0.45-0.60 — 0.03 0.03
AS-3M0Ni 0.08-0.12 0.05-0.25 1.30-1.70 0.45-0.60 1.30-1.70 0.02 0.02
AS-4 0.08-0.16 0.05-0.25 1.80-2.20 — — 0.03 0.03
AS-4Mo 0.08-0.17 0.15-0.30 1.80-2.20 0.45-0.60 — 0.03 0.03
AS-6 0.08-0.17 0.20-0.30 2.80-3.20 — — 0.03 0.03
AS-6M0 0.08-0.17 0.15-0.30 2.80-3.20 0.45-0.60 — 0.03 0.03

' coating, if present, must not exceed 0.4%.

Note: Copper, including the coppei

Table 4.11: Dimensions of rims and coils as per IS 7280

Rims Coils
Internal diameter Width Net weight, Internal diameter Net weight,
mm mm max. kg mm max. kg
300 ± 5 100 ± 3 12.5 ± 1 300 ± 25 12.5 ± 1
300 ± 5 100 ± 3 25 ± 2 300 ± 25 25 ± 2
600 ± 5 100 ± 3 80 ± 5 600 ± 25 80 ± 5

such as sulphur), modifies its chemical composition and
controls the profile of the weld bead. Like the manual
electrode coating, the SA flux can incorporate alloying
elements, so that in combination with an unalloyed wire,
it will yield suitably alloyed weld metal. The molten
slag also provides favourable conditions for very high
current densities, which, together with the insulating
properties of the flux, concentrate intense heat into a
relatively small welding zone. This results in a deeply
penetrating arc, which makes narrower and shallower
welding grooves practicable, thus reducing the amount
of weld metal required to complete the joint. It also
results in higher welding speeds. The properties of the
flux enable SA welds to be made over a wide range of
welding currents, voltage and speeds, each of which can
be controlled independently of the other. Thus, one can
202 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
obtain welded joints of desired shape, chemistry and
mechanical and metallurgical properties by using an
appropriate welding procedure.
The SA flux should be so formulated that it does not
evolve appreciable amounts of gases under intense heat
of the welding zone. It should be granular in form and
should be capable of flowing freely through the flux
feeding tubes, valves and nozzles of standard welding
equipment. Its particle size should be controlled.
The flux in its solid state is a non-conductor of
electricity, but w h e n molten it becomes a highly
conducting m e d i u m . It is, therefore, necessary to
initiate the arc by special means, which have been
described in "Welding Arc." Once the arc is struck and
the surrounding flux becomes molten, the welding
current continues to flow across the arc, while the arc
provides a c o n d u c t i n g p a t h of moljten flux as it
advances. The flux contains elements capable of
assisting in the initial striking of the arc a n d of
stabilizing it after initiation.
Manufacture
The welding characteristics of a flux are determined
to a considerable extent by its method of manufacture.
Hence, it is important to know the general techniques
of flux production.
Today two main types of SA fluxes are available,
depending on the method of manufacture: fused and
agglomerated. Sintered fluxes have been produced in
some countries b u t their properties and w e l d i n g
characteristics h a v e been rarely r e p o r t e d in the
literature. While the first two types will be dealt with at
great length in this chapter, only brief production details
will be given about sintered fluxes.
• Fused fluxes: Typical ingredients are quartz,
manganese ore or slag, dolomite, potassium
feldspar and clay. These minerals are ground
and mixed in a definite proportion and melted.
Melting is carried out in a magnesia or fireclay
crucible if heating is by gas or in a graphite cru-
cible if electricity is used. Electric melting is
started by heating with an arc between the elec-
trode and crucible and continued by resistance
heating with the electrode submerged in the
molten flux, which is an electrical conductor.
For small charges, induction heating in a graph-
ite crucible is used. After fusion, the melt is
solidified rapidly by quenching into water or
pouring into cold steel chills to produce small
fragments of flux. These are dried and crushed
to the required size; sieved, sized and packed
in bags or drums.
• Agglomerated fluxes: For producing an agglomer-
ated flux, finely powdered ingredients are mixed
and ground dry in a mixer. The mix is steadily
moistened by spraying with a solution of alka-
line silicate and the mixing is continued. The
mixer blades are suitably designed to assist ag-
glomeration. The silicate solution initially fills the
spaces between the pores of the particles. When
subsequently dried, the water evaporates, leav-
ing the binder as bridges between particles. Like
low-hydrogen electrodes, agglomerated fluxes
have to be baked at high temperatures to remove
the last traces of water clinging to the silicate
binder. After baking, the flux is graded to a speci-
fied granule size by sieving, and packed in wa-
terproof containers.
• Sintered fluxes: They are produced by grinding the
dry charge together, pressing into small balls, and
heating to 1,000-1,100°C (just below melting
point) in gas-fired furnaces. The solid mass pro-
duced then has the characteristics of a fused flux.
It is crushed to the desired fineness, sieved, sized
and packed in suitable containers.
Classification
Like electrode coatings, SA fluxes h a v e been
s t a n d a r d i z e d by classifying t h e m based on their
chemical c o m p o s i t i o n s . Doc. IIS/IIW-545-78,
"Classification and syrr^bolization of bare steel wire
electrodes and fluxes for submerged arc welding of
structural steels", in this chapter, has classified and
symbolized fluxes as shown in Table 4.12. The two
lettered symbols are preceded by a letter, F, B or M
indicating the method of manufacture as follows:
F — Fused
B — Bonded
M— Mechanically mixed.
The symbols MS, CS, ZS, AR, AB and FB are to be
applied to all non-alloying fluxes. Non-alloying fluxes
are defined as those which contain any amount of man-
ganese and silicon as deemed appropriate; if other al-
loying elements are present, they should not be assimi-
lated into the weld metal to an extent greater than 0.25%
of any one element or more than 0.40% of the total of all
alloying elements other than manganese and silicon.
Fluxes with metallic additions not meeting this re-
quirement are classified as special type fluxes and carry
the symbol ST.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 203

A more practical and useful classification is
given below. It includes all the IIW classes except
ZS and ST. Zirconium (Zr) silicate type flux is
excluded because it is scarcely used. It is also felt
that a separate class is not strictly necessary to
indicate that the flux contains alloying additions.
Through letters A and F, the method by which each
type of flux is manufactured is indicated. Table
4.13 gives composition ranges of various flux types
along with their chemical character and basicity
index range. The term basicity has been explained
under "Agglomerated Fluxes."

F = Fused A = Agglomerated

Flux Types
r I
Mn - Silicate Ca - Silicate Aluminate Flouride -
Type Type Type basic Type
F A
I
X 1
Aluminate Aluminate
T i 0 2 Type Basic T y p e
A/F A/F
High Mec i u m Low
Silica Silica Silica
F F/'A A

FLUX CLASSIFICATION

Table 4.12: Symbols indicating main chemical components in the flux as per IIS/IIW-545

Symbol Main chemical components Flux type

MS MnO + Si0 2 50% min. Mn silicate
CS CaO + MgO + Si0 2 60% min. Ca silicate
ZS Zr02+Si02 30% min. Zr silicate
AR A1203 + Ti0 2 45% min. Alumina-rutile
AB A1203 + CaO + MgO 45% min. Alumina-basic
A1 2 0 3 20% min.
FB CaO + MgO + MnO + CaF2 50% min.
Si0 2 20% max. Basic fluoride
CaF 2 15% min.
ST Fluxes with metallic additions Special type

Table 4.13: Composition ranges of various flux types

Type Character Composition ranges expressed as oxides Basicity
index
Si0 2 TiO, ZrO. A1 20 00,3 MnO CaO MgO CaF 2
Mn-silicate Acid 30-40 00.10 35-45 00.10 — 00.10 0.5-1.0
Ca-silicate high silica Acid 50-60 0.3-0.5 — 25-30 0.8-12 00.02 0.5-0.8
Ca-silicate medium silica Neutral 30-40 10-15 00-05 25-30 10-15 0.5-10 0.8-1.2
Ca-silicate low silica Basic 30-40 03-05 — 35^5 00-05 10-15 1.2-1.7
Aluminate Ti0 2 Neutral 10-20 05-15 00-10 20-50 10-20 00-05 — 05-15 0.5-1.0
Aluminate basic Basic A1 2 0 3 + CaO + MgO 45% min. A1 2 0 3 = 20% min. 1.2-2.0
Fluoride basic Basic 05-12 10-15 10-15 30-40 20-30 2.5-3.5
204 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fused Fluxes
Fused fluxes are usually complex silicates with a high
percentage of Si0 2 , which makes them acidic in
character. While the formulation is based largely on
empirical approach, certain broad chemical properties
are made use of. For example, in the case of Mn-Silicate
type flux, the composition can be carefully balanced
using the MnO-Si02 phase diagram shown in Fig. 4.10
as a guide to proper slag composition. Melting point of
the flux is an important property.
The flux must remain molten until after the weld
metal has solidified, so that the weld bead has a good
surface appearance. To ensure this, the melting point of
the flux must be controlled at about 1300°C This is often
done by adding another oxide to a binary-oxide-system.
For example, the melting range of CaO.Si02 can be
reduced from 1544°C to less than 1300°C by adding
approximately 10% A1203.
Viscosity control is another important aspect of flux
formulation. The slag formed during welding must be
sufficiently viscous to prevent the ingress of atmospheric
oxygen and nitrogen, and to prevent it from running
away from the molten weld metal. At the same time,
the viscosity must be low enough to allow the gases to
rise from the molten puddle as it cools down. Silica-
rich slags show high levels of viscosity at all
temperatures, which is why they give good weld surface
quality and absence of undercut even at very high
welding currents (up to 2,000 amps). However, they
need to be chemically balanced to attain the slag
viscosity of 200 poises in the temperature range of 1,000-
1,200°C and of around five poises at 1,400°C. Fluorspar
(CaF2) is the most effective reagent for reducing
viscosity, and most commercial fused fluxes contain 5
to 7% of it. Higher levels of fluorspar have to be avoided
because they affect arc stability. Titania, manganese
oxide (MnO) and lime are also effective in reducing
viscosity, but lime addition also results in a marked rise
LIQUID
.u 1800b / T W O IMMISCIBLE\ H 3272
7
LIQUIDS \^
CRISTOBOLITE + LIQUID
TRIDYMITE + LIQUID
£1400| 2552 UJ
2 RHODONITE + LIQUID
RHODONITE + TRIDYMITE
100i -L. ■ * ■ 1832
PERCENT 20 I 40. [ 60
MnO 2Mn0-Si0 2 MnO-Si0 2 Si0 2
Fig. 4.10: Phase diagram of MnO-Si02 system
in melting temperature. This may explain why high-
silica Ca-Silicate type flux can withstand very high
welding currents. MnO is excluded in fluxes meant for
high current applications, but is a welcome addition in
applications requiring high fluidity such as high speed
longitudinal welding of line pipe. When MnO is around
35^i5%, the resulting flux becomes a Mn-Silicate type,
which is well suited for the deposition of butt and fillet
welds at moderate currents and high speeds. It is also
tolerant to rust.
Fused fluxes have excellent chemical homogeneity
and are unaffected by moisture. Their main
disadvantage is the inability to take up deoxidizers or
ferro-alloy additions due to the high temperatures
involved in their processing, which result in their
segregation and high losses. A further explanation for
this behaviour is the chemically unstable nature of MnO
and Si0 2 , i.e. they are easily reducible by alloying
elements. When one or both of these oxides predominate
a flux, the resultant slag contains a high concentration
of molecular oxygen, which causes the oxidation of the
alloying elements. The products of the reaction are
metallic Mn or Si and oxides of the alloying elements,
the former being added to the weld metal and the latter
dissolving into the slag. Relations between Si0 2 and
MnO contents in the flux and Si and Mn pick-up by the
weld metal are depicted in Figs. 4.11 and 4.12. Fig. 4.12
indicates a rapid pick-up of Si when Si0 2 content of the
flux exceeds 40%. The oxidation of alloying elements
also results in increased amounts of non-metallic
inclusions in the weld metal. High levels of Si and non-
metallic inclusions are responsible for the low toughness
of weld metals obtained from fused fluxes.
Agglomerated Fluxes
The agglomeration technique of manufacturing
fluxes has led to the development of fluxes with low
Si02 content and high CaO, MgO and CaF2 contents.
ft
D
<
Q.
5
10 20 30 40
Si0 2 IN FLUX-%
Fig. 4.11: Relation of Si02 in flux to Si in weld deposit
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 205

oxygen and sulphur contents of the weld metal and

higher its notch toughness value. The oxygen contents
in welds obtained from different flux types are shown
in Fig. 4.13. Agglomerated basic fluxes of good
performance characteristics have maximum basicity
between 2.6 and 3.2. Basicity higher than 3.2 makes the
flux unworkable, mainly because of very high
solidification range and very low viscosity. A
compromise is achieved through additions of acidic
oxides. Appreciable CaF2 additions are also made to
lower the melting point. When CaF2 dissociates in the
arc, the resulting CaO neutralizes the more active Si02
through the reaction CaO + Si02 = CaSi03.
Metallic deoxidizers and ferro-alloys can be
10 20 30 40 50
incorporated into agglomerated basic fluxes, since low
MnO IN FLUX-% temperatures are involved in their manufacture. In
Fig. 4.12: Relation of MnO in flux to Mn in weld deposit addition, the chemical stability of CaO and MgO
combined with the basic nature of the slag ensures
efficient transfer of the alloying elements into the weld
metal. Use of alloyed flux (also termed active flux)
CaO and MgO are chemically stable oxides. The ratio
demands a closer control of the welding parameters,
of these oxides along with other basic oxides to acidic
especially the arc voltage, to ensure consistent weld
oxides like Si02 and A1203 is termed as basicity.
metal chemistry. An increase in arc voltage increases
Basicity of a molten flux =
the flux-wire consumption ratio and thereby results in
Basic oxides CaO+MgO+CaF2+ Na20+K20+V*(MnO+FeO) increased alloy transfer to the weld metal.
Acidic oxides Si0 2 + V*(A120_ + TiQ2 + ZrQ2) Agglomerated fluxes, normally baked at 500-600°C
have a tendency to pick up moisture when stored under
Basicity index range for each flux type is shown in humid atmosphere due to the hygroscopic properties of
Table 4.13. The higher the flux basicity, lower are the CaO and MgO. Experience has shown that by baking the

0.15 KEYS
H-HIGH DILUTION WELD
# L-LOW DILUTION WELD
ARABIC NUMERALS INDICATE
NO.OFWELD ANALYSES
o.io h

i
0.05

# # * ?6
0F15F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F16 F17 F18 F13
HIGH Si02. MEDIUM Sit>2. LOW Si02
CALCIUM SILICATE .MAWGANESE SILICATE , ALUMINIUM . J A S I C .OTHER

Fig. 4.13: Ranges of 0 2 content from welds with different fluxes

206 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

flux at 800°C during manufacture, the flux becomes
insensitive to moisture. Then metallic component
additions cannot be made to such fluxes as they will be
oxidized. Hence, the trend today is to use 800°C-baked,
mineral (i.e. unalloyed) fluxes and alloyed wire for the
welding of high tensile and low-alloy steels, so that the
hydrogen-induced cracking tendency is minimized. It has
also been established that with such combinations,
changes in arc voltage do not affect weld metal chemistry.
A g g l o m e r a t e d flux b a k e d at 800°C w o u l d be
expected to crumble due to the formation of complex
carbonates by chemical reaction between the silicate
binder and atmospheric C0 2 . But this has not been found
to occur. The explanation p u t forth is that the Si0 2
resulting from the same reaction strengthens the bond
as in the case of C 0 2 sands for foundry moulding, and
this bond retains its strength at elevated temperatures.
The basic nature of agglomerated fluxes enables one
to control Si and Mn pick-up. The pick-up of these
elements in six successive layers in the case of a popular
agglomerated flux combined with three grades of wire
is shown in Fig. 4.14. It is seen that with the inexpensive
rimmed quality steel wire (0.50% Mn, 0.03% Si), the Mn
level rises to 1.0% and Si to 0.45% and then levels off
after the sixth p a s s . With h i g h e r M n w i r e s ,
corresponding rises are registered, but the highest Mn
level reached is approximately 1.8%, and in all cases, a
high Mn/Si ratio is maintained. This high Mn/Si ratio
c o m b i n e d w i t h very l o w levels of non-metallic
inclusions confer excellent notch toughness properties
on weld metals of basic agglomerated fluxes.
Agglomerated fluxes have lower bulk density than
fused fluxes. This h a s the a d v a n t a g e that u n d e r
identical conditions of current and voltage, less flux
is melted a n d forms a slag as compared to fused
fluxes. Comparative figures for agglomerated flux
c o n s u m p t i o n a n d fused flux c o n s u m p t i o n for
different current and voltage settings are indicated
in Fig. 4.15.
A misconception exists in some quarters that an
agglomerated flux separates out and consistent results
cannot be obtained. A team of German researchers has
concluded, after extensive research that, even in
multilayer welds with as many as 75 runs, the weld
deposit reveals a very consistent deposit analysis in
various layers.

1.80
^ ^ (WIRE WITH Mn 1.5%
1.70 1 i
i
" | Si 0.1%)

1.60 ^ \ (WIRE WITH Mn

1
I
1 j 1.0%. Si 0.1%)
1.50 1 1y
1 1
#

y
1.40 1
1 1

J
z 1.30 1 i 1
UJ 1
i 1
1.20 i 1
1
O
U 1.10 l / r 1
i
1 1
t (WIRE WITH Mn 1
1.00 i j 0.6%. Si p. 1%)

<
0.90 i I
z 0.80 1 i
< i i 1
5
i
0,70 1 | (Mn IN BASE PLATE
i 1 0.5%)
0.60 1

1
1
i
0.50
i !
1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH 6TH 1

0.80
1 (WIRE WITH Mn
0.70 1 3 - 4 l . 5 % Si 0.1%)
0.60
1 1 T (WIRE WITH Mn
1 1
z 1 [l.0%, SiO 1%) I
o 0.50 ""—{(WIRE WITH Mn
u 0.40 I 1
jO.5%. Si0 1%)
z
o
a
0.30
1 1
1 1
1
j (Si IN BASE PLATE
•0.26%)
I

_L
0.20 1 1
1 1
1 I
\ 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 NUMBER OF LAYERS

Fig. 4.14: Mn and Si recovery with various agglomerated fluxes and wires of various compositions
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 207

microstructure. The free Al to form A1N particles may

become available from the reaction:
K
UJ 600
A1A + 3 Fe -> 2 Al + 3 FeO
560
< 520 The level of non-metallic inclusions in the welds
o generated from aluminate fluxes is lower than in the
480 FUSED FLUX A i case of acidic fluxes, but higher than those produced by
X
440 / | 49%! highly basic fluxes.
u. / \ * 1
u. 400
O / 52<H{ i
Particle Size
/32 i ! /
Z
o 360 Particle size is an important property of a SA flux.
£
5
D
</>
320
280 S
4 ,
1 ^
^2%i^ ^^ G L 0 M E H A T E 0 FLUX
1
During welding, a finer flux produces a denser and
compact burden over the flux cavity, thereby reducing
Z
o |24013%l its volume. Evolution and escape of gases from the weld
o
AMPERES 400 500 600 700 800 bead then becomes more difficult and thus results in a
VOLTS 28 30 32 34 36
characteristic aerated slag. Finer fluxes are also less
SPEED
ICM/MIN. 45 45 45 45 45 | tolerant to oil and rust, because of the inability of the
Fig. 4.15: Comparative consumption of fused and resultant gases to escape. A large increase of sub-size
agglomerated fluxes particles in a flux can give rise to a humped peaky weld
bead with increased penetration.
Fluxes for currents higher than 800 amps or for multi-
The use of agglomerated fluxes affords the greatest wire applications are supplied to a finer grain size than
advantage for hard facing applications. Since ferro- similar fluxes for lower current levels. Using coarse flux
alloys can be very easily incorporated into agglomerated at very high current can result in considerable arc
fluxes and significant alloying effects obtained, deposits instability and inferior weld bead surface. The reasons
of varying hardnesses and wear-resistant properties can for such interrelation between flux particle size and
be obtained by using a simple mild steel wire in welding current cannot be accurately explained but may
combination with variously alloyed agglomerated have something to do with the arc cavity behaviour. At
fluxes. H o w e v e r , w i t h fused fluxes, alloy w i r e s high currents, there is increased flux melting and gas
invariably have to be used, which are expensive and evolution while the viscosity of the slag is very low;
not readily obtainable. under these conditions a coarse, low density flux burden
Basic agglomerated fluxes tend to produce a highly would cause violent eruptions in the are cavity which
fluid slag of low viscosity above the current range of sometimes would rise above the flux cover, leading to
800-900 amps, which tends to flood the arc cavity the defects mentioned above.
(shown in Fig. 4.1) and extinguish the arc, and to flow
away from the joint, thus affecting the bead shape. Metal Transfer
Hence, while some fused fluxes can operate even at How does metal transfer take place in SA welding?
1,500-2,000 amps; maximum current level for basic To get at the answer, researchers have used various
agglomerated fluxes is 800 amps. novel techniques including the use of a consumable
ceramic sight tube under the flux, pointing along the
Aluminate Fluxes weld axis towards the arc to allow its direct high-speed
Aluminate type fluxes came into limelight in 1969, photography. One such study revealed that at low
when Tuliani and Boniszewski established that fluxes currents, large droplets formed on the electrode tip,
high in A1203, (40 to 50%) produced a microstructure of which was transferred to the weld pool via the slag at
good notch toughness in as-deposited weld metal as the periphery of the arc cavity. Above a critical current
opposed to other flux compositions. A theoretical (for example, 400 amps at 31C V for a 3 mm wire size
explanation for this is that small particles of aluminum w i t h electrode positive), the d r o p s began to be
nitride (A1N) are present in the molten metal in a sub- transferred directly through the arc cavity into the weld
microscopic state, which during solidification restrict pool. At 450 amps, the arc forces deformed the electrode
austenite grain growth, thus promoting the formation tip to a point from which liquid metal and slag particles
of fine acicular ferrite, which is observed in the flowed down to form spherical drops, which transferred
208 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
directly to the weld puddle. The detachment of droplets
appeared to be mainly due to electromagnetic forces
rather than due to gases released at the arc tip (for
example, CO generated by the reaction between the
carbon in the wire and the oxygen coming from MnO
and Si0 2 inclusions).
Though flux formulation has been found to exert
little influence on the mechanism of metal transfer
compared to current density, differences in their surface
tension and electrical conductivity do have some effects.
For example, basic fluxes having high CaF 2 content and
generating little oxygen in the arc have higher electrical
conductivity and tend to give a smaller droplet rate but
greater droplet mass. In addition, such a flux changes
from metal transfer through the slag to free flight
transfer at a lower current than a fused flux.
In cases where alloyed fluxes are used, the recovery
of elements from them is higher when metal transfer
takes place through the slag than when it is free flight;
on the other hand, when alloyed wires are used, the
recovery of elements from such wire is higher with free
flight transfer than with transfer through the slag. This
may explain why sometimes the recovery of elements
with a given flux formulation changes with different
welding parameters.
The mechanism of metal transfer has been vividly
observed by using X-ray cinematography in the same
manner as high-speed cine method has been used for
the open arc systems. Figures 4.16 and 4.17 show
longitudinal and transverse sections of the arc region
as revealed by X-ray cinematography, which confirm
that slag-coated metal droplets are transferred through
i-rV ?v I*.: 1 •" • 7 £*;i V "7:/ • *"• •".*» * •'• - •"' *• - • V*. «• - * ; c
SLAG
50 mm 4(3
MOLTEN POOL'
, SOLIDIFICATION SURFACE
I - 700 A
U«30V
V-30CM/M1N
Fig. 4.16: Longitudinal section during SAW showing arc cavity and typical dimensions
a gas-filled arc cavern into the molten weld pool. It is,
therefore, likely that the droplet lifetimes and volumes
are similar to those estimated for open arc systems, and
that the submerged arc system differs principally in
having larger volume and longer duration weld pools.
Much interest has centered around the composition of
the gases in the cavern during submerged-arc welding,
because of the influence they will have on slag-metal
reactions. Recent work has demonstrated that this gas
is principally carbon m o n o x i d e w h e n using
agglomerated basic fluxes, and that the ratio P co /P co
decreases with increasing basicity. Slag-metal reactions
in submerged-arc welding thus resemble those in the
MMA process more closely than might have been
imagined and the Fe-C-O reaction plays an important
role. As with covered electrodes, the reactions of silicon
and manganese have received most attention in such
studies, and several attempts have been made to apply
mass action theory. Efforts have also been made to
quantify the reactions of oxygen, silicon and manganese
in order to devise classification systems for submerged-
arc fluxes and wires.
Classification of Fluxes
Like SAW wires, fluxes are better understood by
studying the classification systems given in the relevant
standards.
AWS A5.17-97, referred to on page 198, specifies a
classification system for SA fluxes based on the
mechanical properties of the weld metal they deposit
with a specific classification of electrode given in Table
4.1. The system is explained further.
FLUX
^ B A S E METAL SURFACE
-ARC CAVITY
r
MELTING SURFACE
DIRECTION OF WELDING
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 209

ELECTRODE-

(A)
FLUX SLAG MOLTEN STEEL

ELECTRODE

(B)

(C)

Fig. 4.17: Schematic diagrams showing mechanism of metal transfer: (A) Low current, transfer through slag,
droplet travels towards the earth; (B) Higher current, smaller droplets, transfer through arc cavity; (C) High current,
very small drops of metal and slag run down pointed electrode

Based on the results of the impact tests of the weld
metal, the appropriate digit from Table 4.15 is inserted
in the flux classification of Table 4.14. Weld metal from
a specific flux-electrode combination that meets
impact requirements at a given temperature also
meets the requirements at all higher temperatures in
Table 4.15 (i.e., weld metal meeting the requirements
for digit 5 also meets the requirements for digits 4, 2,
0, and Z).
Example: F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It
refers to a flux that will produce weld metal, which in
the as-welded condition, will have a tensile strength no
lower than 70,000 psi and Charpy-V notch impact
strength of at least 27 J at -51 °C, when deposited with
an EM12K electrode under the conditions called for in
this specification.
T h o u g h the specification states that this is a
classification system for fluxes, it is in reality a system
for flux-wire combinations.
AWS A5.23-97, (see in this chapter), gives a similar
system of classification for SA fluxes suitable for welding
low-alloy steels when used in combination with the
electrode wires classified in Table 4.3. Refer the diagram
for the detail.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR SA FLUXES

SUITABLE FOR CARBON STEEL WELDING
Indicates flux.
Indicates the minimum tensile strength (in increments of 10,000 psi [69 MPa]) of weld metal with the flux and
some specific classification of electrode deposited according to the welding conditions specified herein (see
Table 4.14).
Designates the condition of heat treatment in which the tests were conducted: "A" for as-welded and "P"
for postweld heat-treated. The time and temperature of the PWHT are specified as 610-635°C for I hour.
Indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact strength of the weld metal referred to above
meet' or exceeds 20 ft. lb (27 J). (See Table 4.15).
I Indicates electrode
FXXX-EXXX
Classification of the electrode used in depositing the weld metal referred to above (see Table 4.1).
210 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.14: Mechanical property requirements as per AWS A5.17

Yield strength
Flux Tensile strength min.2 Elongation
classification1 psi MPa psi MPa %min2
F6XX-EXXX 60,000-80,000 430-560 48,000 330 22
F7XX-EXXX 70,000-95,000 480-660 58,000 400 22
1
The letter "X" used in various places in the classification in this table stands for, respectively, the condition of heat treatment, the toughness of the weld
metal, and the classification of the electrode as explained in the above diagram. 2 Yield strength at 0.2% offset and elongation in 2 in. (51 mm) gage length.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR SA FLUXES

SUITABLE FOR LOW-ALLOY STEEL WELDING
Indicates flux.
i— Indicates the, minimum tensile strength (in increments of 10,000 psi [69 MPa]) of weld metal with the flux and
some specific classification of electrode deposited according to the welding conditions specified. Two digits are
used for weld metal of 100,000 psi (690 MPa) tensile strength and higher (See Table 4.16).
I Designates the condition of heat treatment in which the tests were conducted: "A" for as-welded and "P" for
postweld heat-treated. The time and temperature of the PWHT are specified (Time 1 hour, temperature as in
Table 4.18).
I Indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact strength of the weld metal referred to above meets
or exceeds 20 ft. lb (27 J). (See Table 4.17).
I Indicates electrode.
I Indicates composite electrode. Omission of "C" indicates solid electrode.
I Classification of the electrode used in depositing the weld metal referred to above (see Table
4.3).
I Indicates the chemical composition of the weld metal. One or more letters or digits are
used (see Table 4.4).
FXXX — ECXXXN — XN
I 1 The 'N' is used only when limits for P, V and Cu are satisfied as pointed
out in this chpter and footnote b of Table 4.17 applies.

Table 4.15: Impact strength requirements as per AWS A5.17

Test temperature
Digit °C Energy level min.
Z — No impact requirement
0 -18
2 -29
4 -40
5 -46 27J
6 -51
8 -62

Example: F9P0-EB3-B3 is a complete designation. It
refers to a flux that will produce weld metal, which in
the post-weld heat treated condition, will have a tensile
strength higher than 90,000 psi and Charpy-V notch
impact strength of at least 27 J at -18°C when deposited
with an EB3 electrode under the conditions called for
in this specification. The composition of the weld metal
will be B3 (see Table 4.4).
BS 4165-1971, earlier in the chapter, classifies flux-
wire combinations based on tensile and impact values.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 211

Table 4.16: Mechanical property requirements as per AWS A5.23

Yield strength
Flux Tensile strength min.a Elongation
classification psi MPa psi MPa % min.a
F7XX-EXXX-X 70,000-95,000 480-660 58,000 400 22
F8XX-EXXX-X 80,000-1,00,000 550-700 68,000 470 20
F9XX-EXXX-X 90,000-1,10,000 620-760 78,000 540
FIOXX-EXXX-X 1,00,000-1,20,000 690-830 88,000 610 16
FllXX-EXXX-X 1,10,000-1,30,000 760-900 98,000 680 15b
F12XX-EXXX-X 1,20.000-1,40,000 820-970 1,08,000 750 14b
a. Yield strength at 0.2% offset and elongation in 2 in. (51 mm) gauge length.
b. Elongation may be reduced by one percentage point for FllXX-EXXX-X and F12XX-EXXX-X weld metals in the upper 25% of the
strength range.

Table 4.17: Impact strength requirements8 as per AWS A5.23

Digit Test temperature °C Energy level min.
Z — No impact requirement
0 -18
2 -29
4 -40
5 -46
6 -51 27J
8 -62
10 -73
15 -101
a. Based on the results of the impact tests of the weld metal, the manufacturer shall insert in the classification (Table 4.16) the appropriate digit from
the table above as indicated in the diagram.
Weld metal from a specific flux-electrode combination that meets the impact requirements at a given temperature also meets the requirements at
all higher temperatures in this table (i.e., weld metal meeting the requirements of digit 5 also meets the requirements of digits 4, 2, 0, and Z).
b. Weld metals with the "N" suffix shall also have a Charpy V-notch energy level of at least 102] at 21°C.

The standard makes a distinction between values IIS/IIW-545-78, "Classification and symbolisation of
obtained by multi-run welding technique and those bare steel wire electrodes and fluxes for submerged-arc
obtained by two-run welding technique (indicated by welding of structural steels", referred to on page 225
letters M and T respectively). and page 229, provides the classification system for a
The classification system is explained by Table 4.19. flux-wire combination as follows:
IS: 3613-1974, "Acceptance tests for wire-flux com- 1) Letter F, B or M indicating the m e t h o d of
binations for submerged-arc welding of structural steels". manufacture of the flux (In Chapter 4.)
This standard is largely based on BS: 4165-1971, 2) Two letters MS, CS, ZS, AR, AB, FB or ST
except for the fact that the prefix S is replaced by the indicating main chemical composition of the flux (see
prefix SA, and the group SX T 450 is modified and Table 4.12)
extended as follows: 3) Two letters SA indicating a wire electrode for the
SAW process (see Table 4.8).
Class Impact valu eat °C 4) Combination of digits and letters indicating the
SA 1 T 450 20 chemistry of the wire (see Table 4.8)
SA 2 T 450 0 5) A two-digit number indicating the tensile strength,
SA 3 T 450 -20 min.
IT 47 J yield strength and elongation of the weld metal as given
SA 4 T 450 -40 in Table 4.20
6) A one-digit number indicating the impact strength
Also for the group SA X M 450, the IS has specified of the weld metal as given in Table 4.21
47 J instead of 45 J minimum impact value. 7) Number 0 or a combination of a digit and a letter
212 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.18: Temperatures for preheat, interpass, and postweld heat-treatment of test assemblies*

Weld metal Preheat and interpassb Postweld heat-treatmentc

classification temperature, temperature
° F ± 25 °C ± 14 ° F ± 25 °C ± 14

Al
A2 300 149 1150 621
A3
A4
B2 300 149 1150 621
B2H 300 149 1150 621
B3 400 204 1275 691
B4 400 204 1275 691
B5 300 149 1150 621
B6 600 316 1600 732
B6H 600 316 1600 871
Nil 300 149 1150 621
Ni2 300 149 1150 621
Ni3 300 149 1125 607
Ni4 300 149 1100 593
Fl 300 149 1150 621
F2 300 149 1150 621
F3 300 149 1150 621
F4 300 149 1050d 566d
F5 300 149 1050d 566d
F6 300 149 1050d 566d
Ml
M2
M3 300 149 1125d 607d
M4
W 300 149 1150d 621d
G 300 149 1150 621
a. These temperatures are specified for materials tested and classified under this specification and are not recommendations for production use. The
specific requirements for production welding must be determined by the user. They may or may not differ from those called for here.
b. The preheat and interpass temperatures listed here shall be used for the test assemblies regardless of whether the materials are classified in the as-
welded or postweld heat-treated condition. They are required for purposes of uniformity and may or may not be indicative of those that might be
satisfactory for fabrication of any particular weldment. The fabricator must determine for himself what is required there.
c. Materials classified in the postweld heat-treated condition shall be heat-treated for 1 hour at the temperature shown for each classification. No
welding shall be done after the heat treatment.
d. These classifications normally are used in the as-welded condition.

indicating the impact strength obtained and the plate 1) Symbol: FCS-SA3-51-2-1B
thickness used in the two-run technique as given in A fused calcium-silicate-type flux used with a wire
Table 4.22. This is optional and must be used only where electrode SA3 reached a tensile strength of 520 N /mm2
applicable. and an impact value of 35 J at 0°C in an all-weld-metal
The following three examples will help to better test and an impact value of 32 J at+ 20°C in a two-run
explain the coding of flux-wire combinations: test (plate thickness 20 mm).
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 213

Table 4.19: Coding of flux-wire combination as per BS 4165

Class T.S. range Y.S. min. Eln% Impact value at °C
N/mm 2 N/mm 2 min.
SIM 300 400-600 300 22 20 1
S2M300 400-600 300 22 0 Imin. 35 J
S3M300 400-600 300 22 -20 f
S4M300 400-600 300 22 -40 J
SI M 350 460-650 350 22 20
1 min. 40 J
S2 M 350 460-650 350 22 0 I
Jf
S3 M 350 460-650 350 22 -20
S4M350 460-650 350 22 -40
SI M 450 520-700 450 19 20
1
S2M450
S3 M 450
520-700
520-700
450
450
19
19
0
-20 f
I
min. 45 J
S4M450 520-700 450 19 -40 J
SIT 300 400-600 300 22 20
1
S2T300 400-600 300 22 0 I
min. 35 J
S3T300 400-600 300 22 -20 f
S4T300 400-600 300 22 ^40 J
SIT 350 500-650 350 22 20
1
S2T350
S3 T 350
500-650
500-650
350
350
22
22
0
-20 f
I
min. 40 J
S4T350 500-650 350 22 -40 J
SI T 450 • 550-700 450 19 20 min. 45 J
S2T450 550-700 450 19 0 >
(Note: Tensile specimens are heated at 200/250°C for 8/16 hours.)

Table 4.20: Symbol for tensile properties as per IIS/IIW-545

Symbol Tensile strength* Yield stress* Elongation
N / mm2 (min.) N / mm2 (min.) (L = 5d) %
43 430-510 360 22
51 510-570 380 22
57 570-650 420 20
65 more than 650 480 18
*Upper limit tolerance: + 40 N/mm2

Table 4.21: Symbol for impact value as per IIS/IIW-545

Symbol Min. impact value of 28 J (ISO-V-notch)«jt°C
0 Not required
1 +20
2 0
3 -20
4 -30
5 -40

2) Symbol: BAB-SA2-43-2-2C 3) Symbol: BFB-SA2-51-4-3A-SA2Ni2-57-5

A bonded aluminate-basic-typefluxused with a wire
electrode SA2 reached a tensile strength of 460 N/mm 2
and an impact value of 40 J at -20°C in an all-weld-metal
test and an impact value of 39 J at 0° C in a two-run test
(plate thickness 36 mm).
A bonded basic-fluoride-type flux used with a wire
electrode SA2 reached a tensile strength of 530 N/mm2
and an impact value of 36 J at -30°C in an all-weld-metal
test and an impact value of 38 J at -20°C in a two-run
test (plate thickness 12 mm). The same flux used with a
214 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 4.22: Symbol for impact values (two-run technique) as per IIS/IIW-545
Symbol Plate thickness
mm
0 not required
1A 11-13
IB 20-26
1C 35 min.
2A
2B
2C
3A
3B
3C
4A
4B
4C
5A
5B
5C
wire electrode SA2Ni2 reached a tensile strength of 580
N / m m 2 and an impact value of 60 J at -40°C in an all-
weld-metal test.
CONSUMABLES FOR STAINLESS STEEL WELDING
AWS A5.9-81, "Specification for corrosion riesisting
c h r o m i u m a n d c h r o m i u m - n i c k e l steel: b a r e a n d
composite metal cored and stranded arc welding
electrodes and welding rods" covers corrosion or heat-
resisting chrome and chrome-nickel steel wires for use
with submerged-arc or gas metal-arc welding. The
specification includes steels with 4% minimum Cr and
50% maximum Ni. In the classification of these wires,
prefixes ER are used to indicate that they can be used
both as electrodes in SAW and MIG welding, and as
rods in TIG welding. These prefixes are followed by a
three-digit number such as 308, 316 and 410, similar to
the n u m b e r i n g system for S.S. m a n u a l electrodes
indicated in Table 3.36.
In SAW, these wires undergo a change in chemistry
due to interaction with the flux. Since in stainless steel
welding, the weld metal chemistry vis-a-vis its ferrite
content (ferrite n u m b e r — FN) have to be closely
controlled, one must have a clear understanding of how
fluxes influence the weld deposit composition. The
following note from the Appendix of A5.9-81 explains
this:
"Submerged arc welds show variable gains a n d / o r
losses of alloying elements depending on the flux used.
All fluxes p r o d u c e some changes in the chemical
Min. impact value of 28 J
(ISO-V-notch) at °C
+20
11-13
20-26 +0
35 min.
11-13
20-26 -20
35 min.
11-13
20-26 -30
35 min.
11-13
20-26 -40
35 min.
composition as the electrode is melted and deposited
as weld metal. Some fluxes add deliberate alloying
elements such as columbium and molybdenum; others
are very active in the sense that they deplete significant
amounts of certain elements that are readily oxidized,
such as chromium. Other fluxes are less active and may
contain small amounts of alloys to offset any losses and
thereby p r o d u c e a weld deposit with a chemical
composition close to the composition of the electrode.
If the flux is active or alloyed, changes in the welding
parameters, particularly voltage, will result in significant
changes in the chemical composition of the deposit.
Higher voltages produce greater flux/metal interactions
and, for example, in the case of an alloy flux, greater
alloy pickup.
"The range of change of various alloying elements
for several commercial fluxes and the corresponding
changes in FN are shown in Table 4.23.
"Due to the variability in the change as shown in
Table 4.23, when close control of ferrite content is re-
quired, the effects of particular flux should be evalu-
ated before any production welding is undertaken."
The specification also gives details of finish, cast and
helix as also dimensions and weights of coils and spools.
CONSUMABLES FOR NI AND NI-ALLOY WELDING
Standard Ni and Ni-alloy electrode wires are covered
in AWS A5.14-76, "Specification for nickel and nickel-
alloy b a r e w e l d i n g r o d s a n d e l e c t r o d e s " . The
classification system consists of prefixes ER followed
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 215

Table 4.23 : Variation of alloying elements and FN

Typical change from Corresponding
Element wire to deposit change in FN
Carbon Varies: on "L" grades usually a gain, + 0.01 to + 0.02%; on "L" -1 to -2
regular grades usually a loss, up to -0.02%
Silicon Always a gain: + 0.3 to + 06% +1 to + 2
Chromium Varies: -3.0 to + 1.0% -6 to + 4
Nickel Usually a loss: -3.0 to -1.0% +1 to + 3
Manganese Varies: -0.5 to + 0.5% -0.5 to + 0.5
Molybdenum Little change a deliberate addition is made to the flux
Columbium Usually a loss unless a deliberate addition: -0.2 to -0.5% up to -1

by the chemical symbol Ni to identify the electrodes as 3 and Ch. 11). The consumables are either alloyed wires
nickel base alloys, and by additional chemical symbols used in combination with neutral fluxes or low-carbon
indicating the principal alloying elements of the unalloyed wires used in combination with alloyed
classification. fluxes. There is a limitation on the use of alloyed
The wires covered in this specification are meant for hardfacing wires, because rolling and drawing of such
either of the following processes: submerged-arc, gas- hardenable alloys is not simple. The trend therefore has
shielded arc (i.e. TIG/MIG) and plasma-arc. Out of the been to use a simple low-carbon low-Mn or medium-
18 classifications covered, only the following six are Mn wire (SI or S2) and alloyed fluxes to get weld metal
indicated in the Appendix as being used with the SA compositions containing higher Mn level and varying
process: percentages of Mo, Cr and V. Such deposits have a
hardness range of 250-500 brinell. Typical compositions
Class Approx. chemistry are given in Table 4.24.
ERNiCu-7 66Ni/Cu bal. For getting weld deposits of higher alloy content,
ERNiCr-3 70 Ni/20 Cr/2.5 Cb and in fact for the entire hardfacing range, tubular flux-
ERNiCrFe-5 75 Ni/15 C r / 8 Fe cored wires suitably designed for SAW are now
ERNiCrFe-6 70 Ni/15 C r / 8 Fe available. The technology of flux-cored wire
ERNiMo-3 25Mo/5Cr/5Fe/Nibal. manufacture has extended the use of the SA process in
ERNiCrMo-3 60 Ni/22 C r / 9 Mo/3.5 Cb hardfacing applications. Hardfacing wires will be
discussed in detail in the chapter on 'Flux-cored Wire
Description and application of some of the above Welding'.
alloys or of those closely allied to them are given in
Chapter 3.
The specification also gives details of finish, cast and PROCESS PARAMETERS
helix as also dimensions and weights of coils and spools. In SAW, the weld deposit quality is determined by
the type of flux, grade of wire and the following
CONSUMABLES FOR HARDFACING parameters:
SAW is often used for hard facing, i.e. for building a) Welding current
up wear-resistant surfaces on metallic parts (see in Ch. b) Arc voltage

Table 4.24: Typical compositions of SA hard facing alloys

Weld deposit chemistry (%) Brinell value of
C Mn Si Cr Mo V weld deposit
0.10 1.94 0.60 — 0.76 — 250
0.10 2.25 0.65 — 0.76 — 300
0.10 2.10 0.63 1.06 0.54 — 350
0.13 2.02 0.65 1.78 0.36 0.18 400
0.19 2.22 0.72 2.69 0.60 0.31 450
0.22 2.26 0.85 2.85 1.10 0.32 500
216 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
c) Speed of arc travel
d) Size of electrode
e) Electrode stick-out
f) Heat input rate.
To get optimum results, one must know their effects
and how to select and control them properly.
a) Welding current
It controls the melting rate of the electrode and
thereby the weld deposition rate. It also controls the
depth of penetration and thereby the extent of dilution
of the weld metal by the base metal. Too high a current
causes excessive weld reinforcement, which is wasteful,
and burn-through in the case of thinner plates or in badly
fitted joints, which are not provided with proper
backing. Excessive current also produces a high narrow
bead and undercut. Excessively low current gives an
unstable arc, inadequate penetration and overlapping.
SAW equipment is usually provided with an ammeter
to monitor and control the welding current.
b) Arc voltage
Arc voltage, also called welding voltage, means the
electrical potential difference between the electrode wire
tip and the surface of the molten weld puddle. It is
indicated by the voltmeter provided on the equipment.
It hardly affects the electrode melting rate, but it
determines the profile and surface appearance of the
weld bead. As arc voltage increases, the weld bead
becomes wider and flatter, and the penetration
decreases. The effects of changing voltage are explained
as follows:
1) Increasing voltage:
a) Produces a flatter and wider bead
b) Increases flux consumption
c) Increases resistance to porosity caused by rust or
scale
d) Helps bridge gaps when fit-up is poor
e) Increases pickup of alloy from the flux: this can
be used to advantage to raise the alloy content of the
weld when welding is performed with alloy or
hardsurfacing fluxes. If excessive, it can reduce ductility
and increase crack sensitivity, particularly in the making
of multiple-pass welds.
2) Excessively high voltage:
a) Produces a hat-shaped bead that is subject to
cracking
b) Produces poor slag removal in groove welds
c) In multiple-pass welds, increases the normal alloy
pickup from the flux
d) Produces a concave fillet weld that may be subject
to cracking
e) Increases undercut on fillet welds.
3) Lowering the voltage produces a stiffer arc needed
for getting penetration in a deep groove and to resist
arc blow on high-speed work.
4) An excessively low voltage produces a high,
narrow bead with poor slag removal.
c) Speed of arc travel
For a given combination of welding current and
voltage, increase in the welding speed or the speed of
arc travel results in lesser penetration, lesser weld
reinforcement and lower heat input per unit length of
weld. Excessively high travel speeds decrease fusion
between the weld deposit and the parent metal, and
increase tendencies for undercut, arc blow, porosity and
irregular bead shape. As the travel speed is decreased,
penetration and weld reinforcement increase. But too slow
a speed results in poor penetration, because under this
condition, the weld puddle is directly under the electrode
tip and the force of the arc is cushioned by the weld puddle.
Excessively slow speeds also produce a convex bead shape
that is amenable to cracking, cause the arc to break out of
the flux layer which can hurt the operator's eye, and give
a large uncontrolled weld puddle, which results in an
uneven weld bead with slag inclusions.
d) Size of electrode
As in the case of MMA welding, the electrode size is
selected according to the plate thickness and the desired
size of weld. With increase in electrode size, welding
current can be increased to get higher deposition rates,
deeper penetration and increased weld size.
At a given welding current, changing over to a larger
electrode results in a wider, less penetrating bead.
Hence, in joints with poor fit-up, a larger electrode is
preferred to a smaller one for bridging the root gap. For
a given electrode size, a high current density (i.e.
welding current in Amps, divided by the cross-section
of the wire, expressed in Amps./mm 2 ) results in a
strong, penetrating arc, while a lower current density
gives a soft arc which is less penetrating.
e) Electrode stick-out
It is also termed electrode extension. It refers to the
length of the electrode, between the end of contact tube
and the arc, which is subject to resistance heating (also
called PR heating) at the high current densities used
in the process. The longer the stick-out, the greater the
amount of heating and the higher the deposition rate.
Increased electrode stick-out reduces to some extent
the energy supplied to the arc, resulting in lower arc
voltage and a different bead shape. Hence, when the
electrode stick-out is increased to obtain higher
deposition rate, the voltage setting on the equipment
must be increased to maintain correct arc length.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 217

However, with longer stick-outs, the increase in
deposition rate is accompanied by a decrease in
penetration. Hence, longer stick-outs must be avoided
when deep penetration is desired. On the contrary, it
can be used with advantage when melt-through is a
problem while welding thin sections. It can also be used
to advantage in build-up and hard facing applications.
It must be borne in mind that with long electrode stick-
outs, it becomes more difficult to maintain the electrode
tip correctly in line with the joint.
Maximum electrode stick-outs recommended are:
75 mm for 2.0, 2.4 and 3.2 mm wire diameters
125 mm for 4.0, 4.8 and 5.6 mm wire diameters
Deposition rates can be increased by as much as 2 5 -
50% by increasing electrode stick-out, but the technique
is little used in industry. This may be due to the
following factors: (a) insulated guide is needed to direct
the hot wire to the weld pool; (b) penetration is reduced
by about 10%, (c) excessive overheating of the wire leads
to electrode pulsation, arc instability and stubbing.
The effect of increasing electrode extension has been
experimentally s t u d i e d at Cranfield Institute of
Technology, using a standard controlled arc SA welding
unit together with a 1,200 Amps, drooping characteristic
rectifier. The results are shown in Table 4.25. In Series 1
the head voltage was kept constant, in Series 2 the arc
voltage was kept constant, while in Series 3 the polarity
of the electrode was changed to positive while the
welding parameters and energy expenditure are nearly
similar.
For a fixed energy expenditure, an increase in
electrode extension from 40 to 120 m m gave 37%
increase in deposition rate for both negative and positive
polarity. With a fixed arc voltage the increase was
somewhat less, even t h o u g h energy e x p e n d i t u r e
increased by 7%. For negative polarity, flux
consumption decreased by 13% as electrode extension
was increased with constant head voltage (Series 1), but
remained virtually static for a constant arc voltage
(Series 2). Surprisingly the results for positive polarity
(Series 3) indicated a 15% increase in flux consumption
with the same increase in stick-out.
Regarding weld bead shape, reinforcement was
found to increase with increased electrode extension.
Regarding weld metal properties, increased electrode
extension at a constant head voltage (and energy)
resulted in an increase in yield (12%) and tensile
strengths (5%), but with inconsistent changes in Charpy
behaviour. With constant arc voltage (Series 2) changes
in strength were small and inconsistent, and the Charpy
transition behaviour deteriorated slightly with increased
electrode extension and energy expenditure. Macro
examination did not reveal any defects in the weld.
f) Heat input rate
Also termed arc energy, it is calculated by using the
formula:
HIR = V x A x 60
S x 1000
where HIR = heat input rate in kilojoules per mm
(kj/mm)
V = arc voltage A = welding current
S = arc travel speed in mm/min.
SAW PROCEDURES
SAW, semi-automatic and fully-automatic, is used
for making butt joints in the downhand position and
for making fillet welds in T and lap joints in the
downhand and horizontal-vertical positions as shown
in Fig. 4.18. Normally this process cannot be used in
vertical and overhead positions, because of the difficulty
of pre-placing the flux.

Table 4.25: Influence of electrode extension on deposition rate and flux consumption
Electrode Deposition Flux
Series extension, Electrode Energy, Operating Current, rate, consumption,
mm polarity KJ/mm voltage Amps. kg/hr kg/hr
1 40 Negative 3.60 38 V head 600 11.05 11.88
80 3.60 12.49 10.62
120 3.60 15.12 10.26
2 40 Negative 3.32 33 V arc 600 11.66 10.10
80 3.41 13.28 10.12
120 3.60 15.12
3 40 Positive 3.24 36 V head 600 8.70 10.45
80 3.24 10.75 11.20
120 3.24 12.00 12.00
160 3.24 14.10 12.90
218 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
i£
Fig. 4.18: Joints and positions suitable for SAW
It is important to bear in mind that the SAW process
demands accurate edge preparation and fit-up. In
MMAW, irregularities in this regard are taken care of
by the m a n u a l welder, t h o u g h they do result in
increased welding time and a larger consumption of
electrodes. In SAW, on the other hand, the operation is
automatic, welding currents are high and the arc is
deeply p e n e t r a t i n g . Moreover, since the joint is
submerged under the flux, the operator is unable to
adjust the procedure to accommodate joint irregularities.
A poor fit-up in a butt joint can cause the granular flux
to spill through the root gap. It can also give rise to burn-
through and slag inclusions.
Shops u s i n g SAW are a d v i s e d to m a k e e d g e
preparations with automatic thermal cutting equipment
(oxy-acetylene or plasma-arc), or by machining. In the
absence of such facilities, SAW becomes a slow and
unproductive operation with frequent interruptions and
increased proportion of weld rectification.
In SAW, the weld puddle is of large size and remains
in a molten condition for a long time. The welding
procedure must ensure that this molten p u d d l e is
supported and contained until it has solidified at the
root of the weld. This precaution is a must when full
joint penetration has to be achieved in a butt joint. The
technique used for this purpose is termed weld backing.
SECOND PASS
ACKING PASS!
^BACKING PASS
Fig. 4.19: Base metal backing for SAW
Weld Backing Techniques
The various commonly used techniques involve
use of the following: (1) base metal backing; (2)
structural backing; (3) weld backing; (4) backing
strip; (5) copper backing; (6) flux backing; (7) backing
tapes.
1) BASE METAL BACKING
The root face is kept sufficiently thick as shown in
Fig. 4.19, to support the weld pool without burn-
through. This technique is used for square or partially
bevelled butt joints, for fillet welds and for plug or slot
welds. Care has to be taken that the root faces of groove
welds are in close contact. The first pass, deposited
sometimes with lower current, acts as a backing for the
second pass deposited with higher current to get
through penetration.
2) STRUCTURAL BACKING
In certain cases where design permits, another
structural member can serve as a backing for the weld,
as shown in Fig. 4.20. It is very important that the contact
surfaces of the joint are clean and the contact is intimate
in order to avoid porosity and slag inclusions. The weld
must also provide sufficient depth of fusion in the
backing member.
Fig. 4.20: Structural backing for SAW
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 219

3) WELD BACKING
The backing weld is deposited at lower current and
with a moderately penetrating arc using the manual
metal arc, C0 2 -shielded arc or flux-cored arc process
I
(see Fig. 4.21). It may be in one or more passes to obtain ^ ^ (B)

sufficient depth to support the submerged-arc weld. The

backing weld may be retained in the joint if it is of Fig. 4.23: Copper backing for SAW: (A) V groove butt;
(B) Square butt
suitable quality. If otherwise, it may be removed by
oxygen or arc gouging, by chipping or by machining
For high production applications, the copper bar is
after the submerged-arc welds have been deposited. The
provided with internal water circulation to maintain it
resulting groove is filled up with a submerged-arc weld.
relatively cool. The bar is usually grooved as shown in
the figure to obtain weld reinforcement on the underside
4) BACKING STRIP
of the joint. It is important to ensure that the copper bar
The backing strip is of metal that is compatible with
has sufficient mass to prevent melting of the copper
the metal being welded. The weld metal fuses into the
material, which can result in contamination of the weld
backing strip, so that it becomes an integral part of the
with copper. It must be borne in mind that mechanical
joint as shown in Fig. 4.22. In this case, it is termed a
properties of steel weld metal deteriorate when the Cu
permanent backing. In case it is intended to be a
content exceeds a certain limit.
temporary backing, it may be removed finally by
machining. Suitable root opening must be kept to ensure
6) FLUX BACKING
full penetration. It varies between 1.6 and 4.8 mm,
depending on joint thickness. It is important that the As shown in Fig. 4.24, dry granular SA flux is placed
contact surfaces between the plates and the strip are in a trough on flexible sheet material. This sheet material
clean and the contact is intimate; otherwise porosity and rests on a rubberised canvas hose, which can be inflated
leakage of molten weld metal may occur. to hold the flux tightly against the back of the joint. This
technique will be discussed in detail while describing
the one-side SAW used in Japanese shipyards.
5) COPPER BACKING
Copper backing shown in Fig. 4.23 has several
7) BACKING TAPES
advantages. Its high thermal conductivity enables it to
Ceramic back-up tapes consisting of a ceramic
extract the heat rapidly from the molten weld pool. In
material on an aluminum foil backing are available from
addition, the molten steel weld metal does not fuse with
various sources. The exposed aluminium foil edges are
the copper material. Hence, it only serves as a temporary
covered with a pressure sensitive adhesive covered with
backing. The copper backing bar is either as long as the
a removable liner. Lengths of strips are 0.5 to 1.0 metre.
joint; or it is of short length and designed to slide
These can be easily applied to joints or seams to provide
underneath the travelling arc. In still other applications,
shielding or back-up for one-side welding and root pass
it may be in the form of a rotating wheel.
back-up for two-side welds to be deposited by TIG, MIG
and other arc processes. By using these tapes, arc
gouging and further backside joint operations such as

' • 'I &\ I

Fig. 4.21: Weld backing for SAW

T
PAPER
PLATE

FLEXIBLE INSERT
SHEET (OPTIONAL)
MATERIA
TROUGH
INFLATED
BACKING STRIP HOSE

Fig. 4.22: Backing strip for SAW Fig. 4.24: A method of providing flux backing for SAW
220 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

grinding are eliminated or minimised. They avoid the

use of expensive and clumsy fixtures, back-up bars and
gas purging of weld.

Butt Welds
To make a full penetration butt weld in sheet metal kS<//STEELBACK-UP
without burn-through, steel or copper backing bar must
be used. The joint is then completed with a single weld Fig. 4.25: Joint fit-up for butt welds in sheet metal
pass deposited from one side.
With copper backing, a square butt joint without root
gap is used. The procedure data are given in Table 4.26. Plates in the thickness range of 6.4-15.9 mm and with
Joint fit-up with steel backing is shown in Fig. 4.25 square edges butted together tightly, can be
which shows that a small root opening is helpful. The conveniently butt welded with two passes, one from
procedure data are given in Table 4.27. each side as shown in Fig. 4.26. The first pass deposited
Plates up to 12.7 mm thickness and with square edges at a lower current serves as a backing for the second
can be butt welded with a single pass using a steel pass. It is important that the two passes penetrate into
backing strip. It is advisable to keep a root opening, each other sufficiently to prevent lack of fusion and slag
because when the edges are butted together tightly, the inclusions in the central region. Procedure data are
resultant weld has a high build-up. Alternatively, a provided in Table 4.29.
groove can be provided. Procedure data are given in
Table 4.28. A>*
#
,*<•
cv°'
Table 4.26: Data for SA butt welds with copper backing
Plate
thickness
Electrode
dia.
Current
amps
Voltage
V
Speed
mm/sec. T SECOND PASS

t, mm m m Electrode + ve t
BACKING PASS
1.6 2.4 350 23 50 A.
2.0 2.4 400 24 42
2.4 3.2 500 30 40 Fig. 4.26: Square butt weld in two passes, one from
3.6 3.2 650 31 30 each side

Table 4.27: Data for SA butt welds with steel backing

Plate Root Electrode Current Voltage Speed
thickness opening dia. amps V mm/sec.
t, mm g, mm mm Electrode + ve
1.6 0-0.8 3.2 450 25 45
2.0 0-08 3.2 500 27 33
2.4 0-1.6 3.2 550 27 25
3.6 0-1.6 3.2 650 28 20

Table 4.28: Extension of Table 4.27 to thicker plates

Plate Root Electrode Current Voltage Speed
thickness opening dia. amps . V mm/sec.
t, mm g, mm mm Electrode + ve
4.8 1.6 5 850 32 15
6.4 3.2 5 900 33 11
9.5 3.2 56 950 33 10
2.7 4.8 5.6 1,000 34 8
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 221

The above-described procedure can be extended to
plates of 19 mm and 25.4 mm thicknesses by providing
60° V-grooves on both the sides and sufficiently large
root face as shown in Fig. 4.27. Procedure data are given
in Table 4.30.
When plate thickness increases further, it becomes
necessary to increase the V-groove and deposit three
passes, one from the first side and two from the second
side as shown in Fig. 4.28. Typical procedure data for
32 mm and 38 mm plates are given in Table 4.31.
It must be pointed out that the above procedures are
valid for fused silicate type fluxes, which are capable of
taking high welding currents. These procedures are very
economical and they result in minimum number of
passes of large cross-sections and considerable dilution
of the w e l d metal by the base metal. They are
recommended for steels of good weldability having
low carbon equivalent and in cases where special impact
requirements for the weld metal are not specified.
For welding steels of difficult weldability, or where
stringent weld metal impact requirements are specified,
procedures involving basic type of flux, multiple passes
of limited cross-sections deposited with low currents,
a n d m i n i m u m dilution by the base metal are
r e c o m m e n d e d . For plates of 16, 25.4 and 38 mm
thicknesses, for example, the joint fit-up is made as
shown in Fig. 4.29. First two passes are deposited
manually with a 4 m m basic low-hydrogen type

r—T^i >, *
TPASS
2ND V _\ /
T Y 4 »
/ 9.5 MM 7
12ND PASS V
x t-X / T
Y — /
9.5 MM
JfT
.19 MM
™- .• r , 4 M M yjy' I
i1ST PASS l\ \ I I 1 , 1M. nice / X.-V*

S - l f A - T * 3-2MM / 'STPASS^AJ „ MM
L
T -*—:—*£—>^
Fig. 4.27: Parameters for two-pass 19 mm and 25.4 mm t butt welds
Table 4.29: Data for two-pass square butt weld, one from each side
Backing pass Second pass
Plate Electrode Current Voltage Speed Electrode Current Voltage Speed
Thickness dia. amps V mm / sec. dia. amps V mm / sec.
t, mm mm mm
6.4 4.0 475 29 20 4.0 575 32 20
9.5 4.0 500 33 14 4.0 850 35 14
12.7 5.0 700 35 11 5.0 950 36 11
15.9 5.0 900 36 9 5.0 950 36 9

Table 4.30: Data for 19 mm and 25.4 mm 1I butt welds

19mmf 25.4 mm t
First pass
Electrode dia., mm 5 5
Current (DC+), Amps. 700 850
Voltage, V 35 35
Speed, mm/sec 12 5.5
Second pass
Electrode dia., mm 5 5
Current (DC+), Amps. 950 1000
Voltage, V 36 36
Speed, mm/sec 6 7
222 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

:T7f7CvA

^ ^ Y
Fig. 4.28: Parameters for three-pass 32 mm and 38 mm t butt welds

6 4 MM i
Fig. 4.29: Joint fit -up for multi-pass butt weld

Table 4.31: Data for 32 mm and 38 mm t butt welds

Plate First pass Seconc pass

Thickness Electrode Current Voltage Speed Electrode Current Voltage Speed
t, mm dia. mm amps V mm/sec dia., mm amps V mm/sec.
32 5 850 35 5.5 5 1,000 36 5
38 5 1,000 36 4 5 1,000 36 4

Third pass
Electrode Current Voltage Speed
Dia., mm amps V mm/sec
5 850 35 4
5 950 34 3
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 223

electrode. With these passes serving as a backing, SA because then it is easier to get a symmetrical flat-faced
weld passes are deposited at a speed of 7 mm/sec using weld with sound root penetration. In addition, a weld of
4 mm diameter electrode, 550 Amps., 28 V. The number much larger size (19 mm maximum as against 8 mm maxi-
of SA passes for 16,25.4 and 38 mm thick joints are 5,12 mum in the horizontal position) can be deposited in a
and 26 respectively. After the vee is filled up, the manual single pass. Normally, the electrode is positioned in such
weld at the root is completely gouged out and the groove a way that its centre-line passes through the root. For
is filled up with a SA pass. increased penetration, the work can be posit-ioned at 60°
and the electrode may be slightly tilled as shown in Fig.
Fillet Welds in Tee Joints 4.30 (b). Procedure data are given in Table 4.32.
Flat position: Whenever possible, one must deposit a Welds of larger sizes require multiple passes as
fillet weld in the flat position as shown in Fig. 4.30 (a), shown in Fig. 4.31. They are deposited with 5 mm

Table 4.32: Data for downhand fillet weld in tee joint

Weld size Electrode Current Voltage Travel speed
L, nun dia. (DC-) V mm/sec
mm Amps.
4.8 3.2 525 31 23
6.4 4 625 31 17
8.0 5 725 34 11
9.5 5 800 36 9
12.7 5 875 38 6
15.9 5 925 39 4
19.0 5 975 40 3

CORRECT EXCEPTION

CENTRE LINE OF ANGLE OF TILT

WELDING ELECTRODE
CENTRE LINE OF
AND JOINT
WELDING ELECTRODE
CENTRE LINE^
OF JOINT

OFF-CENTRE
DISTANCE

Fig. 4.30: Downhand SA fillet weld in tee joint: (A) Normal alignment; (B) Special alignment for deeper penetration

Fig. 4.31: Arrangement of passes in downhand fillet welds

224 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

diameter electrode at 900-1,000 Amps., 38 V and arc 1) TWIN-WIRE SAW

speed of 4-5 mm/sec.
Horizontal position: Normally fillet welds up to 8 mm
leg length (L in Fig. 4.32) can be deposited with a single
pass in the horizontal position. Positioning of the
electrode w i t h respect to the joint d e t e r m i n e s
penetration and leg size as shown in Fig. 4.32. The
welding parameters are given in Table 4.33.
Process Variations
SAW has been described so far mainly as a single
wire process, but several modifications involving the
use of two or more wires are in industrial use, because
of their special advantages. They are:
1) Twin-wire SAW having two versions:
i) Twin-wire parallel power
ii) Twin-wire series power
2) Multiple-wire, multiple-power SAW (two or more
wires each with its own power source).
3) Single-wire SAW with auxiliary currentless wire
feeding
4) Single-wire SAW with auxiliary hot wire feeding
5) Single-wire SAW with metal power addition
6) SA cladding with one or more wires or strip.
i) Twin-wire parallel power: The system differs slightly
from the conventional one, in that two electrodes are
fed at the same rate through a common tip or set of jaws
by means of the double set of rolls and guides provided
in the equipment, the current from the single power
source being split between them. The electrodes also
share the drive motor and control of the equipment and
therefore carry identical arc voltage. Electrode diameters
range from 1.6 to 3.2 mm, and the spacing between them
varies from 8 to 16 mm. DC power source with flat
characteristics (constant voltage type) has been found
to be most suitable.
For surfacing work w h e r e least penetration is
desired, the two electrodes are made negative, while
for structural applications they are made positive,
because then they give better penetration and improved
arc stability. For a given welding current, the twin-wire
procedure using two smaller diameter wires gives 30-
50% higher weld deposition rate as compared to the
conventional procedure, using a single larger diameter
wire. This is ascribed partly to resistance heating on the
thinner electrodes and partly to the crowding of the two
arcs (caused by attraction, since they are of the same
polarity), whereby they function as one single long arc
(see Fig. 4.33).

Table 4.33: Data for horizontal fillet welds

Weld size Electrode Current Voltage Travel speed

L, mm dia. (DC+) V mm/sec
mm Amps.
. 3.2 3.2 400 24 27
4.8 4.0 500 26 18
6.4 4.0 650 30 14
8.0 4.0 700 33 10

I
l.
L(
T
A
^ *• £^*&r
3
ffi
Fig. 4.32: Effects of electrode angle on weld size and
penetration Fig. 4.33: Twin arcs of same polarity in action
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 225

Longer stick-outs can be employed in twin-wire
welding to get faster melting of the electrodes due to
fR-heating effect. With 2 mm diameter electrodes (DC-),
stick-outs up to 50 mm have been used without
additional insulating guiding equipment to get
deposition rates much higher than those obtainable with
a single larger conventional electrode using 130 mm
stick-out.
Tables 4.34 and 4.35 provide comparison between
the conventional single-wire system and the twin-wire
system.
Further welding trials on the lines of Table 4.35 have
indicated that with the twin-electrode system used on
electrode negative and with longer stick-outs up to 50
mm, one can control heat input as required in the welding
of quenched and tempered steels and other alloy steels
with improved impact requirements, and at the same
time get very high deposition rates and travel speeds.
In this system, the nozzle carrying the two electrodes
can be rotated and locked, so that the two arcs are either
in tandem (one behind the other) or side-by side. Typical
applications of each are shown in Fig. 4.34.

Table 4.34: Comparative data of single- and twin-electrode SAW

Weld System Wire Amps. Volts Stick- Travel
size out
mm mm

ft— 1.6 mm Single 3.2 550 + 27 19 28

3 Electrode
l — 2.5 mm
Twin 1.6x2 850 + 27 19 63
Electrode
W— 6.3 mn1 Single 4 600 + 29 19 18
Electrode
1 \ LJ.
1 j \ T4 J mm"2 Twin 2x2 950 + 29 19 30
1 Electrode
Single 3.2 575 + 30 19 30
Electrode
* 6.3 mm
Twin 1.6x2 925 + 26 16 55
Electrode

I—j.2mm 1
Table 4.35: Comparative data of single- and twin-electrode SAW
Weld System G Wire Stick- Travel Deposit
mm size Amps Volts out speed rate
mm mm mm/sec kg/hr

IHt
I t i i i
Single
electrode
4.8 4.8 1,000* 35 32 7 13.2

r-\J Twin
electrode
5.5 2x2 1,250- 44 32 13 30

—»n L, mm
Single 8 4 575- 34 25.4 9 9.5
1 9 5 mm f
electrode
T Twin 8 2x2 850- 32 25.4 1/ 17
electrode
\ Single 12.5 4.8 950+ 36 32 5 13
/ electrode
Twin 12.5 2x2 1,000- 42 32 11 22
electrode
Source: W.J., March 76
226 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Typical procedure data experimentally developed for

butt welds in plate thicknesses of 30 mm, 40 mm and 50
mm using 2.5 mm diameter twin-wires and an
agglomerated flux are given in Table 4.36. The sequence
of passes is shown in Fig. 4.35. It was observed during
the development work that the flux showed a tendency
to boil when a single wire of 5 mm was used at currents
above 800 Amps., while with the twin-wire system, this
boiling did not occur even at 900 Amps.
ii) Twin-wire series power: The main advantages of
this system are high deposition rate and minimum
Fig. 4.34: Applications of twin arc system
dilution with the base metal, which are well exploited
in surfacing applications. Two welding heads are used
with a single DC or AC power source. AC is preferred through the weld pool and surrounding metal. Each
for ferrous metals, while DC is used for non-ferrous electrode has its own feed motor and voltage control
metals. The output power cable is connected to one and thus operates independently. The electrodes are
welding head and the return power cable is connected inclined at an angle of 45° to each other, and transverse
to the other welding head instead of to the work piece to the direction of travel.
(see Fig. 4.36). Thus, the two electrodes are in series and In DC welding, the electrodes have opposite polarity.
welding current travels from one electrode to the other The arcs therefore tend to spread away from each other,

Table 4.36: Data for butt welds with twin-wire SAW

G = 0.5 mm (max) Back-gouging is recommended

C = 4 mm before starting side B.
A = 2B
60°
Side Pass Current Voltage Speed Wire feed
amps V arc travel rate
m/min m/min
30mmf
A 1 750 33 0.50 2.30
2 850 35 0.50 2.95
B 1 900 35 0.60 3.10
40 mm t
1 750 33 0.50 2.30
2 850 35 0.60 2.95
A 3 850 35 0.60 2.95
4 850 35 0.60 2.95
B 1 900 35 0.65 3.10
2 900 35 0.60 3.10
55 mm t
1 750 33 0.50 2.30
2 850 35 0.60 2.95
3 850 36 0.60 2.95
4 850 36 0.60 2.95
5 850 36 0.60 2.95
6 850 36 0.60 2.95
7 850 36 0.60 2.95
8 850 36 0.60 2.95
1 900 34 0.60 3.10
2 900 35 0.60 3.10
3 850 36 0.50 2.95

1.5 MM
— .-i-2.5 MM
, JO MM
2.5 MM
Fig. 4.35: Sequence of passes for twin-wire SAW of
thick joints
c providing a variable impedance in the return lead.
Fig. 4.36: Two-wire SA series connection
resulting in a fanning of the arc zone. Penetration is
deeper under the positive electrode than under the
negative one. When a wide multi-pass weld deposit is
made, it is advisable to locate the positive electrode over
the previously deposited metal, so that the entire deposit
has uniform penetration. Transverse oscillation of the
welding head is sometimes used to minimise dilution.
2) MULTIPLE-WIRE MULTIPLE-POWER SYSTEMS
Systems involving two, three and even four wires,
each powered by an independent power source, are
being used in industry, mainly to increase weld
deposition rates. If the mean fusion capacity of one wire
is 10 kg/hour, it will be 20 kg/hour for twin wire, 40
kg/hour for triple wire and up to 90 kg/hour for four
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 227
wires. The welding speeds can be proportionately
increased to limit the heat input rate. To give an
example, the welding speed on longitudinally welded
pipe of 17.5 mm thick plate has been increased from 45
c m / min using a single wire to 90 for tandem, 170 for
three wire or 200 for three wire/hot wire, and 220 c m /
min in the case of a four-wire process.
Let us first discuss the two-wire system in detail. In
this system, both wires can be DC, both can be AC, or one
DC and one AC. When both wires are DC, they can be
made positive to give the deepest penetration and
therefore the highest possible welding speed. However,
this combination gives rise to arc blow and is rarely used.
The most commonly used arrangement is: the leading
wire connected to DC and made positive and the trailing
wire connected to AC (see Fig. 4.37(A)). The DC weld is
made at a high current to get the required penetration
while the AC weld is deposited at a slightly lower
current to improve the profile and surface finish of
the weld.
Two AC arcs can result in arc deflection depending
on the phase difference between them. In this system,
the welding transformers are connected to the three-
phase line using the Scott or the closed delta connection.
The scott connection, w h i c h is very simple and
economical, provides a 90° phase difference between
the arcs (see Fig. 4.37(B)). This connection is
advantageous for making single-pass welds in thick
plates and multi-pass welds in deep grooves such as
are encountered in the fabrication of pressure vessels.
In the closed delta connection (see Fig. 4.37(C)), the
phase difference between the arcs can be controlled by
Joint set-ups and sequence of passes for making two-
pass square-butt welds in plate thicknesses up to 12.7
mm with two-wire DC/AC system are shown in Fig.
4.38. Welding data are provided in Table 4.37.
Two-pass procedure can also be applied to square
butt joints in the thickness range of 19-38 mm, provided
the joints have double-vee grooves as shown in Fig. 4.39
and welding procedures detailed in Table 4.38 are used.
Multi-power twin-arc SA process has been used with
great success for one-sided welding of plates up to 30
mm t in Japanese shipyards. The arcs are either D C /
AC or AC/AC. Flux-copper backing (FCB) is used as
s h o w n in Fi^. 4.40 for e n s u r i n g complete root
penetration without burn-through. The joint details are
also given in the figure.
The leading electrode is of 6.4 mm diameter, while
the trailing electrode is of 4.8 mm. Maximum root gap
permitted is 0.8 mm. Tack welds, 30 mm long and
228 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

B 1. TRAIL ARC;
A. 1.DC POWER SOURCE;
2,-LEAD ARC;
2. AC POWER SOURCE
3.WELDING DIRECTION.
3. TRAIL ARC;
4. LEAD ARC

C. 1 TRAIL ARC:
2. LEAD ARC;
3.^WELDING DIRECTION
a
b*

L on
" V " r1 UuuutiJ UuuumiJ

Fig. 4.37: Two-wire SA systems: (A) DC/AC system; (B) AC/DC system using scott connection; (C) AC/AC system
using closed delta connection

Table 4.37: Data for butt welds with twin-wire DC/AC system

Joint Plate Pass Electrode 1 Electrode 2 Travel Electrode

detail T No. DC+ AC speed spacing
mm/sec.
mm mm
dia. dia.
mm Amp V Angle 0 mm Amp V Angle 0
A 7 1 4.8 950 35 0 4 650 38 12 34
2 4.8 1,100 35 0 4 700 38 12 34
16
A 9.5 1 4.8 1,150 35 0 4 750 38 12 30
2 4.8 1,200 35 0 4 800 38 12 27
19
B 12.7 1 4.8 1,100 36 0 4 650 39 12 25
2 4.8 1,200 36 0 4 650 39 12 21

Table 4.38: Data for heavy butt welds with twin-wire DC/AC system

Plate Pass Electrode 1 Electrode 2 Travel Electrode

T No. DC+ AC speed spacing A° B C D E°
mm mm/sec mm mm mm mm
dia. dia.
mm Amps. V Angle 0 mm Amps. V Angle 0
19 1 5.5 1,050 35 0 4.8 700 40 12 17 22 90 3.2 9.5 6.3 90
2 5.5 1,150 36 0 4.8 800 41 12 13 22
25.4 1 5.5 1,050 36 0 4.8 700 41 12 11 25.4 80 6.3 9.5 9.5 80
2 5.5 1,150 38 0 4.8 850 43 12 9 25.4
32 1 55 1,050 36 0 4.8 o 750 42 12 8 28.5 70 9.5 9.5 12.7 70
2 5.5 1,200 38 0 4.8 850 43 12 7 28.5
38 1 5.5 1,200 36 0 4.8 850 43 12 8 32 60 11 11 16 70
2 5.5 1,300 40 0 4.8 900 44 12 6 32
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 229

Fig. 4.38: Joint set-ups for two-pass butt welds with twin-wire DC/AC system

One-sided welding
a) Requires specialised expensive backing and plate-
holding equipment
T b) Consumption of flux and wire is higher

i
c) Demands special flux which will tolerate high
current, high voltage conditions
d) The first and last 300 mm lengths of the welded
joint have to be cut out and rewelded manually
Fig. 4.39: Joint set-up for heavy two-pass butt weld with e) Over penetrated bead sometimes requires chip-
twin-wire DC/AC system ping or grinding
f) Turning over of plates is avoided, because weld-
ing is completed from one side
g) Being a single pass, the weld is completed in mini-
mum time
h) Impact values are slightly lower, and yet they meet
the minimum requirements (for 25 mm plate t, at 0°C, 8
kgf.m as compared to 10.5 kgf.m for two-pass
technique).
The acceptable impact values obtained with tandem-
COPPER BLOO*
arc welding are explained by the fact that the trailing
electrode inhibits the formation of the oriented columnar
T T T structure by depositing a sufficiently wide bead, which
AIR HOSE
prevents the formation of a crystal junction in the centre
of the weld by disorientation of the second
Fig. 4.40: Joint set-up and flux-copper backing for twin- crystallisation front. The increased contact area of the
arc one-sided SAW weld metal with the parent metal also gives faster
cooling rates. It is also to be understood that the plates
spaced 300 mm apart, are laid manually with basic low- are better controlled with respect to bon and non-
hydrogen electrodes. The backing to the joint is provided metallic inclusions.
by a layer of flux (depth 5-6 mm) spread over copper
strips, which are made to press against the bottom of Three-wire technique
the plate by air pressure, provided by a hose below. The Both DC/AC/AC and AC/AC/AC (see Figs. 4.41
plates are clamped down firmly, employing a set of and 4.42) are commonly used in shipyards, pressure
powerful electromagnets. The welding parameters are vessel shops and pipe mills to increase productivity.
given in Table 4.39. It may be mentioned that thicknesses It is to be noted that the leading electrode is held at
up to 50 mm have been welded using three or four 90° to the plate, the central one is slightly inclined while
welding heads and wires. the trailing electrode is inclined more steeply. These
It is interesting to compare the Japanese one-sided angles of inclination control the shape of the weld bead.
single-pass technique with the conventional two-sided Three-wire SAW has been used with great success
two-pass SAW technique used by shipyards elsewhere in spiral welding of pipes of large diameters at high
in the world. speeds. In a typical installation, using the DC/AC/AC
230 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.39: Data for twin-wire SAW with flux-copper backing

Plate Leading electrode (AC) Trailing electrode (AC)

thickness
t mm Amps. V Amps
10 1,000 35 800 47
11 1,100 35 800 47

12 1,150 35 850 47
13 1,200 35 850 47
14 - 1,250 35 900 47
15 1,250 35 950 47
16 1,250 35 950 47
18 1,250 35 950 47
20 1,250 35 1,000 47
22 1,250 35 1,000 47
24 1,250 35 1,050 47
26 1,350 35 1,100 47
28 1,350 35 1,100 47
30 1,350 35 1,200 47
Note: Electrode stick-out — 30 mm

welding heads are used; one for external welding, the

other for internal welding, both using the parameters
indicated.
4~riJrrTnJrrTiJ The outstanding feature of this D C / A C / A C system
is the ability to weld a wide range of thicknesses using
the same welding parameters of wire size, wire-feed
speed, current and arc voltage. Once a combined set of
parameters for the three wires has been established, any
thickness of metal between 6.5 mm and 32 mm can be
welded and the only variable throughout is welding
speed. The system thus requires minimum amount of
operator skill and experience.
Fig. 4.41: Three-wire DC/AC/AC SA system: (1) DC > i>
power source; (2) AC power source (transformers in 1 ,_ ¥
Scott connection): (3) Trail arc; (4) Middle arc: (5) Lead * ^ A
_1_..._|
f T
arc; (6) Welding direction 440 V 1
220 VJ220 V I ^ 440 V
< 1
^JULUJU^i i i tXJJJJJJL*
system-leading electrode is DC positive, because a DC
arc is more stable than an AC arc and achieves better
penetration. The DC electrode is fed by its own welding
head. A second welding head feeds two wires supplied
from a pair of Scott connected transformers, so that the
c u r r e n t s u p p l i e d to the t w o w i r e s h a s a p h a s e
displacement of 90°. The two AC wires which provide
the filling passes give minimum penetration and a weld
reinforcement without excessive build-up.
The installation is capable of welding the thickness
Fig. 4.42: Three-wire AC/AC/AC SA system: (1) Trail arc;
range of 6.5-32 m m using the edge preparations and (2) Middle arc: (3) Lead arc; (4) Welding direction
welding parameters shown in Table 4.40. Two three-wire
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 231

Table 4.40: Data for three-wire spiral welding of pipes

Plate Preparation Current Volts Wire dia. Speed
thick: mm (see footnote) mm mm/sec
12.7 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 36-38
i I 1 C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4
16 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 27.5-3C
* I 1 C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4
19 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 15-17
C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4
25.4 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 10.5-12.
/ 1 \ C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4
19 Double-Vee Butt welds
L. 900 DC 30 4.8 21-23
C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4 %.
25.4 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 15-17
C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4
32 L. 900 DC 30 4.8 9-11
C. 800 AC 38 4
T. 700 AC 40 4

Footnote: L = leading C = centre T = trailing

Table 4.41 gives an interesting comparison of SAW
25.4 mm thick mild steel plate with two passes, one
from each side, using single-wire, parallel two-wire,
multi-power two-wire and multipower three-wire
systems. It has been realised that welding speed is
increased by 300% and the welding cost is reduced by
46% by moving from a single-wire system to a three-
wire system.
3) SAW WITH COLD WIRE FEEDING
In this modified SAW process, an additional
continuous wire that does not carry electric current is
fed into the arc underneath the flux blanket in cold state,
that is, without being resistance heated. The wire can
be solid or flux-cored. This requires additional fixtures
to be mounted on the existing equipment, as indicated
in Fig. 4.43 and a more elaborate procedure setup. This
technique has not been fully exploited industrially,
though reportedly it has been used with success for
panel production in a continental shipyard.
Experimental work on such a system was carried out
at Cranfield Institute of Technology using 1.2 mm cold
wire with 1.4% Mn content. The results are given in
Table 4.42.
It is apparent that while the increase in deposition
rate was quite substantial (i.e. equal to the proportion
of cold wire added), the increase in flux consumption
was marginal (4%). Regarding weld bead shape, width
remained nearly constant while reinforcement increased
and penetration decreased, both markedly. Referring
to weld metal properties, yield strength increased by
nearly 20%, tensile strength by 10%, but ductility
remained almost the same, and there was some
improvement in Charpy behaviour.
In another study it was found that addition of solid
wire of the same grade as the electrode does not
influence the transition temperature (which is a measure
of toughness) in the middle of the weld, but outside the
central region the transition temperature decreases (i.e.
toughness increases) with increasing amounts of cold
232 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.41: Comparative data for welding 25.4 mm t joint with various systems

Process Single-wire Parallel Multipower Multipower

two-wire two-wire three-wire
Run No. 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Current, Lead 1,000 1,050 950 1,050
Amps Centre 1,000 1,300 1,480 1,480 800 800
Trail 850 925 700 700
Voltage, Lead 32 32 30 30
Volts Centre 36-38 37-39 35 35 38 38
Trail 36 36 40 40
Welding mm/sec 6.5 4.5 8.5 8.5 12.5 11 19 19
speed
Consumables Wire, kg 1.85 1.65 1.45 1.3
usage, per m Flux, kg 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.6
of weld

Table 4.42 (a): The influence of cold wire additions on deposition rate and flux consumption
Proportion of cold wire addition, Total deposition rate Flux consumption
% of deposited weld metal kg / hour kg / hour
0 11.05 12.63
13 12.50 13.18
37 15.10 13.80
Notes: Electrode polarity: Negative
Current: 600 amps
Head voltage: 38 V
Electrode extension: 40 mm
Travel speed: 380 mm/min

(B)

(A)

Rg. 4.43: Method of cold wire attachment to SAW head: (A) Schematic diagram; (B) Geometric relationship (1) cold
wire; (2) wire feeders: (3) SA wire; (4) work piece; (5) copper contact tube
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 233

wire. This effect is considered to be due to the influence As shown in Fig. 4.46, the hot wire is fed into the
of cold wire addition on the solidification structure and weld puddle and molten slag, which are slightly ahead
the shape of the cross-sections of the weld as shown in of the arc, its point of contact being 10-20 mm ahead of
Fig. 4.44. the main wire. Its angle of entry varies between 40 and
The best toughness values are obtained with the 60°. The hot-wire speed is first set to obtain the desired
Charpy notch, normal to the direction of solidification. deposition rate, the wire run on a plate and the voltage
Cold wire addition creates this favourable condition at and amperage adjusted until the wire reaches its melting
the ends of the weld as shown in Fig. 4.44. However, point, just when it reaches the plate surface and deposits
the orientation of the structure at the weld centre a smooth bead. Normally 9 or 10 volts are found suitable.
remains the same; this explains why toughness property The heating current drawn depends on hot-wire size,
in this region is not influenced by cold wire additions. feed rate and stick-out. The common wire diameter is
The same study showed that addition of a flux-cored 1.6 mm though 1.2 mm and 2.0 mm sizes have also been
wire containing 20% CaF 2 lowered the transition used.
temperature by more than 40° C. This finding ought to Unlike in TIG hot-wire process, the hot wire is first
enhance the industrial potential of this technique for powered and fed. The arc wire is then positioned in the
critical applications. joint, flux and welding power introduced and the arc
initiated to start the weld.
4) HOT-WIRE SAW
This process, depicted in Fig. 4.45, utilises a standard
single-wire SA equipment, in which an auxiliary wire
feeder is incorporated. The second wire is PR heated by
passing current from a separate AC power source,
having slightly drooping static characteristics and
maximum OCV of 15 volts. The use of AC for hot wire
avoids arc blow. The hot wire feeding can increase the
deposition rate by as much as 100% with only marginal
increase in heat input rate, since only one arc is
operating. There is a decrease in the penetrating power
of the arc, since some of its heat is absorbed by the
additional metal deposit.

Fig. 4.45: Schematic diagram of submerged-arc hot-wire

welding system

(A) \~ y

(B)

Fig. 4.44: Effect of cold wire addition on the shape of

weld zone and direction of solidification: (A) Without Fig. 4.46: Cross-section of SA hot-wire system in
cold wire; (B) With considerable wire addition operation
234 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Typical procedures and applications are given below: Travel speed Dep. rate
a) Wide bead in butt joint. Attempting to complete V Amps. mm/sec. kg/h
this weld in a single pass with single or multiple arcs
results in the burning through of the steel backing bar. Arc wire 35 900
11.3
With hot wire SA process, the groove is filled up at a
high speed with minimum penetration. Note that the Hot wire 15 500
13.6
hot-wire deposition rate exceeds that of the arc wire by
50%.
d) Fillet weld—horizontal position. Deposition rate is
double that of a single wire, while root penetration is
■ir excellent.

9.5 m«A

Travel speed Dep. rate

Amps. mm/sec kg/hour

Travel speed Dep. rate

Arc wire 36 625 9.5 6.8 V Amps. mm/sec kg/h
Hot wire 9 375 9.5 10.7 Arc wire 34 600 19.5 6.8
Hot wire 9 350 19.5 6.8
b) Multi-pass butt weld in HY-80 steel The hot-wire
technique gave 50% increase in weld completion rate e) Pipe welding. The process has been found to be
with less than 10% increase in heat input rate, so that well suited for welding the longitudinal seams of small
the final heat input value was well within the maximum diameter pipes using steel backing of 4-5 mm thickness.
allowable (2.16 kj/mm) for this quenched and tempered In one experimental study it was found that satisfac-
steel. tory weld beads were obtained only at specific not wire
% values, which did not exceed 70%. Table 4.42
summarises the findings.
The study also showed that the hot-wire process was
less costly compared to conventional single-wire and
two-wire tandem processes. Table 4.43 gives the cost
comparison for 1 metre length of weld.
f) Weld overlays. Because of high deposition rate and
Travel Dep. rate Heat input shallow penetration, the process is useful for depositing
speed kg/h rate overlays 4.8 mm and thicker. Using alloyed flux-cored
V Amps, m m / s e c kj/mm hot wires, the deposit chemistry can be easily controlled
as desired. Stainless steel overlays on carbon steel have
been successfully made using agglomerated special flux
Arc wire 30 600 9.5 8 1.93
and S.S. main wire and hot wire. With the overlay
Hot wire 8 200 9.5 4 0.17
thickness greater than 4.8 mm, the dilution levels remain
around 15%. This compares favourably with the more
c) Fillet weld—flat position. Large size wide, sym- complex series-arc and strip-cladding methods.
metrical bead can be made in one pass. For 22 mm fillet The mechanical properties of the w e l d s show
size the parameters are: negligible degradation, even when the weld size is
increased by hot wire additions up to 100%. Table 4.44
shows the mechanical values of three welds in ASTM
type A302B steel, deposited with a fused neutral flux
and a wire having 0.12 C/1.80 Mn/0.50 Mo. Such good
values are difficult to explain but can be assumed to be
due to relatively fast cooling rates of the weld beads.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 235

Table 4.42 (b): Effect of % deposition through hot wire

Pipe dimension %
Main welding Hot Bead quality
parameters wire
508 dia x 16 m m 55 6 layers, side wall wetting good
500-600 Amps 65 4 layers, bead satisfactory
30-34 V, 36 M / hour 75 lack of fusion, slag inclusion
600 dia x 32 m m 55 6 layers, good penetration
550-600 Amps, 32-34 V, 65 lack of fusion, convex beads
33 M / hour 75 slag inclusion
780 dia x 40 m m 60 burn-through, undercut
550-600 Amps, 32 V 70 10 layers, satisfactory joints
27 M / hour 80 lack of fusion
100 slag inclusion, lack of fusion

Table 4.43: Cost comparison

Process No. of Total time Total cost

layers in sec inRs.
Single-wire SAW (20 mm) 1,130 51.50
HW-SAW (20 mm) 5 900 47.80
Single-wire SAW (40 mm) 17 2,400 193.90
HW-SAW (40 mm) 10 1,830 182.80
Two-wire tandem (40 mm) 4+7 1,750 199.00
Note: HW—Hot wire

Table 4.44: Mechanical properties of SA welds with hot wire addition

Hot wire added
0% 50% 100%
Yield strength, KSI 76.0 76.3 75.3
Tensile strength, KSI 88.8 89.2 88.4
Elongation, % 25.0 25.0 25.0
Reduction of area, % 71.1 70.6 70.4
Charpy-V values, J-at -12°C 112 114 116
Note: Stress-relieved at 621°Cfor 2 hours

5) SAW WITH METAL POWDER ADDITION Alloy metal p o w d e r s are judiciously b l e n d e d

The process consists of pre-placing a homogeneous, mixtures of well-specified ingredients, which are
correctly blended alloy metal powder in the joint groove s o m e t i m e s a g g l o m e r a t e d . They are m a r k e t e d by
and making the conventional single-wire SA weld as companies in Europe, the USA, Canada and Japan.
shown in Fig. 4.47. Powders meant for general fabrication work usually

METAL POWDER

Fig. 4.47: Schematic diagram of SAW with metal powder addition

236 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

I~TA /
*10 M5-30Y ®
2
Hh- X

Fig 4.48: Fillet welding without (A) and with (B) AM using
identical conditions as follows: plate f-20 mm: electrode
diameter-4.8 mm: 750 amp: 34V-15 cm/min; S49 mm2; S-
100 mm2

contain 85-95% iron powder, alloy additions (Mn—0.5

to 5.5, Si—0.2 to 1.2, Ni—0 to 5, Mo—0 to 5, Cr—0 to 5)
and strong deoxidisers, such as Al, Ca, Mg, Ti and Zr in
varying amounts.The normal powder is fine-grained Fig, 4.49: Automatic two-side butt welding with
conventional edge preparation and medium fit-up: (a) with
capable of passing entirely through 80 mesh (Tyler). The
backing, fine AM; (b) without backing, coarse AM.
coarse variety whose grains vary in diameter between Thickness range: 15 to 45 mm
35 and 10 mesh (0.5 and 2 mm) is meant to be used in
joints of poor fit-up.
The powder, called AM, is placed manually in the
joint. The preferred current is DC, electrode positive.
Welding is done in the flat position. In multi-pass
welding, the quantitative distribution of the powder is
ensured with the help of scrapers simply cut to size and
moved along the joint.
The beneficial effect of AM addition on welding
productivity can be appreciated by examining the
downhand fillet welds shown in Fig. 4.48. Weld (B) has
been made with AM addition at twice the travel speed Fig. 4.50: Automatic two-side butt welding with square
preparation and backing (a) for AM. Conditions: f—20 mm;
as compared to weld (A). Comparing the two, it is seen
e—8 mm; electrode diameter—4.8 mm; first pass—
that the cross-sectional area of the weld metal (B) is twice 650A(DC+), 32V, 30 cm/min; second pass—750 amp
that of (A), weld size has increased by 3 mm and the (DC+), 34V, 40 cm/min.
penetration has decreased by 2 mm.
Use of AM for making typical two-pass, two-sided
butt welds in shipbuilding are shown in Fig. 4.49. The Metal powder technique has been found useful in
root gap usually is as wide as 2 mm. When fine powder one-sided welding of ship plates using refractory flux
is used, it has to be supported by an adhesive seal, such backing and tandem twin-arc SA process (similar to that
as scotch tape attached to the bottom side. For coarse described on page 262) in which, due to poor fit-up, root
powder, such support is not necessary. The metal gap varies between 2 and 10 mm and the difference in
powder actually serves in both cases as a backing for height of the bottom plates can be as much as 4 mm.
the molten weld metal. The welds are smooth and free from undercut, in spite
The ability of AM to serve as a weld backing is of such irregular fit-up.
demonstrated while making a two-pass weld in 20 mm In the fabrication of a 56-storey skyscraper in
thick square butt joint with 8 mm root gap as shown in Toronto, columns with very bad fit-up had to be welded.
Fig. 4.50. The gap is filled with AM, which is supported This was done successfully as shown in Fig. 4.51 by
by an adhesive tape. With this technique, no slag inclu- using asbestos to seal the root, filling the gap with AM,
sions occur and the welds are radiographically perfect. and using multiple-head SA welding.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 237

Combination of AM, a strip electrode and SA process

have been used in strip cladding to gain the following
advantages:
a) Reduction of dilution
b) Increase in deposition rate
c) Economical a t t a i n m e n t of desired weld
chemistry.
The numerous benefits of high current welding with
AM addition over high current welding without such
addition, are listed below:
a) Cooler, less locally overheated molten pool
resulting in:
i) A smoother, quieter fusion
ii) An improved bead appearance
Fig. 4.51: Welding of heavy columns with very poor fit-up
(A—asbestos seal). Leading head: 25 cm ahead, flux-core
iii) A slightly smaller heat-affected zone (per melt
electrode, 600 amp, 30V, 30 cm/min. Middle head: 10 cm zone area).
ahead. 4 mm SAW electrode, 650 amp (DC+), 29 V. Trailing b) Better utilisation of the arc energy, wherein part
head: 5 mm SAW electrode. 900 amp (AC). 27 V of the arc energy instead of being used irrationally to
melt excessive base metal, is freed to melt the metal
powder and bring about:
i) A higher deposition rate
ii) A decline in the consumption of welding flux,
because some of the energy is used to melt the metal
powder
iii) Less dilution, because with an increased
deposition rate, much less energy is required to fill a
50
definite groove
iv) Smaller heat-affected zone (per weld groove
area).
c) Rational conception of metal powders, wherein
being a relatively dense metallic powder, it can by filling
in the varying voids of poorly fit up joints:
i) Minimise the ill-effects of fluctuating weld
geometry on penetration, dilution, etc.
Fig. 4.52: Welding of 85 mm and 50 mm t Germal steel
plates with specially developed AM. Welding conditions ii) If necessary, support conveniently the molten
of third pass as example: hAM = 8 mm, 4 mm diameter bath
electrode, 750 amp (DC+), 32 V, 24 cm/min. iii) Contribute to the correction of the weld
chemistry.
The technique has also been used in welding various
thicknesses of HSB 55 C steel, a German fine-grained 6) SA CLADDING
steel alloyed with Cu and Ni and giving tensile range Clad metals are used mainly in the chemical,
of 58-70 kg/mm 2 , during the fabrication of offshore petroleum and nuclear industries. They are composites
drilling rigs. Figure 4.52 shows a typical joint welded of two or more metals joined in a continuous manner
with the following consumables: an electrode with 1.5% by a metallic bond. They have to be distinguished from
Mn, a specially developed AM containing the necessary liners, in which two or more metals are joined or
alloying elements to adjust the weld chemistry, and a attached in an intermittent manner.
welding flux with an easy slag removal in the first run The most familiar example of clad metal is stainless
of the narrow V-groove. The reduced number of passes steel clad material, comprising a relatively thin layer of
and the narrow groove resulted in considerable gain in stainless steel and a thick backing layer of plain carbon
time and savings in welding consumables. At the same steel. Increasing use is being made of this material in
time, the impact values were up to the mark. large fabrication jobs, such as pressure vessels and
238 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
chemical plant, where the use of fully solid stainless steel
would involve high costs. The thickness of the clad
stainless steel layer is usually small relative to that of
the carbon steel, because it is the latter, which is designed
to take the major proportion of the load. In some
applications, the stainless steel clad metal is replaced
by nickel, copper, high-nickel alloys and copper-nickel
alloys.
Clad steel plates and some standard clad steel
forgings are produced by steel mills by hot rolling the
sandwich assembly and supplied to fabricators. The
high temperature and pressure create a solid-phase
weld between the steel and the clad metal. Clad metals
are also fabricated by explosion welding. This process
is very versatile and is used to clad large and small plates
and forgings in a wide range of thicknesses.
As an alternative to the purchase of readymade clad
plate, the fabricator resorts to SA cladding, i.e. extensive
SA surfacing with one or more wire electrodes, or a strip
electrode usually 60 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick, on flat
and curved surfaces, on dished ends and on forgings as
required from time to time. During the surfacing, each
weld bead is made to tie in or merge with the adjoining
weld bead. The various systems of SA cladding, shown
in Fig. 4.53 are:
a) With one electrode in series with the work piece
b) With two electrodes connected in parallel and in
series with the work piece
c) With one current-carrying electrode in series with
the work piece and one non-current carrying electrode
(filler electrode)
d) With electrodes connected in series
e) With a strip electrode in series with the work
piece.
These have been described earlier, under Process
Variations. Systems (a) a n d (b) p r o d u c e d e e p e r
penetration than that permissible for cladding. They are
W//9////A 3> V7777777/77//X
777,
/////7W/\
^Pl
////////////ft////
Fig. 4 53: Various systems of SA cladding
commonly applied to components such as rollers of
caterpillar tractors and similar equipment, where as a
rule, the requirements as to the quality of the overlay
material are not so stringent. Systems (c), (d) and (e) are
well suited and often used for cladding, because they
are primarily low penetration methods. In system (c),
the cold wire feed increases the amount of molten metal
for a given energy of the arc and removes part of this
energy. With system (d), the energy input to the parent
metal is adjusted by a change in the distance h. As the
arc burns close to the work piece, it absorbs more energy
per unit of surface than when the distance is greater.
The proportion of molten electrode quantity to molten
p a r e n t metal is also i m p r o v e d by u s i n g double
electrodes.
With systems (c) and (d), the electrodes are given an
oscillating m o t i o n of controlled a m p l i t u d e ,
perpendicular to the welding direction while they move
forward. The term 'oscillating motion' must be clearly
distinguished from the term 'weaving motion'. In the
former, the electrodes carry out a parallel motion; in
the latter they swing about a point of suspension. The
width of the weld run is twice the amplitude. Correct
oscillation ensures that penetration is uniform across
the whole width.
Table 4.45 gives a comparison of the efficiencies of
the three systems.
Table 4.45: Comparative efficiencies of three SA
cladding systems
System Electrode Flux
melting speed consumption
kg / hour kg / flux
kg / wire
(c) 13 1.0
(d) 15 0.9
(e) 13 0.4
3>

Cladding with Six Wires
A six-wire cladding machine has been successfully
developed abroad by selecting the proper electrode size,
spacing, mode of operation, polarity relationship,
oscillation mode and frequency, and by designing a
wire-feed mechanism havingsix feed rolls driven by a
common shaft, and a special electrode contact head.
This machine is capable of depositing 308 alloy
stainless steel on carbon steel base material, in a single
layer, to the r e q u i r e d physical a n d chemical
specification. It deposits at the rate of 40 kg/hour and
covers an area of 125 cm 2 / in. Six coils of 1.6 m m
diameter wire electrode, each weighing approximately
230 kg, are fed into the wire drive mechanism.
The electrodes are arranged in accordance with Fig.
4.54. The wire making the tie-in to the previously
deposited bead is made the positive polarity, while the
remaining five wires are made negative. The sixth
electrode is set back a small distance from the in-line
five electrodes to provide a tapered edge on the bead
and assist the tie-in of the next bead, as shown in Fig.
4.55. Figure 4.56 depicts the edge configuration, if an
POWER
SOURCE
OSCILLATION
Fig. 4.54: Arrangement of electrodes in six-wire
cladding system
< _
Fig 4.55: Bead edge configuration with one
electrode offset
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 239
t
Fig. 4.56: Bead edge configuration with all six
electrodes in line
in-line electrode is used in this position. The electrode
pattern was selected to provide minimum dilution,
optimum chemistry and provide a sufficiently smooth
surface to permit dye penetrant and ultrasonic testing
without further surface preparation. All other methods
of submerged-arc cladding require at least some surface
p r e p a r a t i o n to perform non-destructive tests. A
favourable chemistry and controlled dilution of a single
electrode submerged-arc process is dependent upon the
amount of overlap of the previously deposited bead.
With the six arc oscillating electrode method of cladding,
the dilution of the weld deposit by base material is
minimised by directing the arc force on the larger molten
weld puddle characteristic of the six arc process. One
important additional feature of this process is the ability
of the welding head by simple manipulation of the wire
drive controls, to deposit weld metal with either one,
two, three, four, five, or six electrodes.
SA Strip Cladding
This system of cladding, shown at (e) in Fig. 4.53,
has been widely applied in industry for the following
main reasons:
1) It is a simple method with regard to control of weld-
ing data
2) Efficiency is high, if dilution is considered
3) It is a very reliable and economical process pro-
ducing consistent and reproducible weld deposits
4) The essential investment is low. In many cases,
only the submerged-arc welding head has to be ex-
changed for one suitable for use with strips.
The process is outlined in Fig. 4.57. A DC arc is
initiated between the continuously fed melted strip
electrode and the parent metal. Usually DC from a
constant voltage power source is employed to maintain
a constant arc length. The arc and the welding zone are
protected against atmospheric contamination by a layer
of flux, which partially melts and forms a protective
slag cover. After cooling, the solidified slag can be
detached easily from the weld deposit.
240 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Due to the strip electrode size (usually 60 x 0.5 mm)
and the relatively low current density used (about 20-
25 A m p s . / m m 2 ) , t h e s u b m e r g e d - a r c c l a d d i n g
equipment, commonly mounted on a manipulator, has
to fulfil special technical requirements. For example,
control of electrode feeding as well as the power supply
to strip via the contacts must be efficient. Suitable
positioners must be used to ensure correct travel speed
of either the welding head or the work piece. The flux
s u p p l y unit should be constructed to g u a r a n t e e
complete protection of welding zone as well as to enable
the correct flux burden height to be maintained in front
and behind the electrode.
During welding, the arc does not burn over the whole
w i d t h of t h e strip electrode, n o r does it r e m a i n
stationary, but oscillates irregularly, and suddenly shifts
from one point to another on the strip. Furthermore,
two or more arcs can exist together for a short period.
Droplets arise on the end of the electrode and are
detached and transferred into the weld pool.
During the droplet formation and transport into the
weld pool, the liquid metal reacts rapidly with the
molten liquid slag from the flux. In this short period of
droplet growth, about 0.04 sec depending on welding
current, and metal transfer, the important chemical
reactions, such as loss or pick-up of elements, take place.
Parts of the liquid flux/slag are also transported into
the weld pool and carry out additional reactions. Due
to their lower density, these slag particles float along
the recrystallisation front of the weld pool to the surface
of the deposit and solidify to form the slag cover. Figure
4.58 explains the process mechanism.
Requirements of high quality cladding are:
1) High chemical consistency of the deposit with
uniform dilution of parent metal (10-15%) and constant
layer thickness.
I STRIP ELECTRODE
POWER SOURCE
A STRIP FEEDING DEVICE
CONTACTS
FLUX BURDEN
SLAG W E L D
OyERLAY
smm'^wwi
Fig. 4.57: Schematic representation of SA cladding with
strip electrode
STRIP ELECTRODE
STRIP FEEDING SYSTEM
CURRENT CONTACT
CLADDING FLUX
FLUX HOPPER
ARC CAVERN
ELD DEPOSIT
FAVOURABLE DROPLET RECRYSTALLISATION FRONT
TRANSFER wLkB-E9i2LAND FLOW DIRECTION
WELDING DIRECTION
* PARENT METAL
Fig. 4.58: Schematic representation of SA cladding
showing elements of the cladding operation
2) Complete fusion between parent metal and de-
posit,
3) Finely rippled bead surfaces and almost notch-
free overlapping from one pass to the other.
Moreover, for most stainless steel cladding specifi-
cations, three main objectives have to be considered:
1) Chemical composition within the range of the
relevant stainless steel composition over the whole
overlay.
2) A minimum thickness of cladding within the
stainless steel specification.
3) Suitable deposit microstructure and mechanical
properties (e.g., 4-10% free ferrite in an austenitic ma-
trix and sufficient ductility at the clad/metal interface
to satisfy a 3T side bend test).
Control of deposit chemistry. The aim of stainless
cladding is to produce a deposit which is corrosion-
resistant, sound and ductile. To achieve this, carbon
content of the deposit must be below 0.030%, martensite
m u s t be absent a n d delta-ferrite in the austenite
microstructure must be around 5% to avoid cracking.
For delta-ferrite control, reference is made to Schaeffler
diagram and the Cr and Ni contents as well as Cr and
Ni equivalents are maintained within certain limits.
Here, it has to be borne in mind that appreciable Cr-
loss from the strip occurs during deposition. This loss
can be as high as 32% with an acidic flux and 11% with
a highly basic flux. Increasing arc voltage increases Cr-
loss. Losses of Ni, Mo and Nb are usually below 10%,
especially w i t h basic fluxes. These losses are
compensated for by using overalloyed strips a n d
suitably alloyed fluxes. Typical strip compositions are
given in Table 4.46.
Another factor influencing deposit chemistry is
dilution by the base metal arising from the penetration,
which is usually 1.5-2.0 mm. The effects of dilution are
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 241

Table 4.46: Typical stainless steel cladding strip compositions

Strip Chemical composition, wt %

C Cr Ni Mo Nb
max
Type 308L 0.03 19.5 10.5
Type 316L 0.03 19.0 12.5 2.5
Type 309L* 0.03 23.0 13.5
Type 347 0.05 19.5 10.0 12x%C
Overalloyed Type 316 L 0.03 20.5 13.3 3.1
Overalloyed Type 347 0.03 20.5 11.0 0.8
Overalloyed Type 347 0.03 23.5 12.8 0.7
*Overalloyed Type 308L or Type 304L

usually overcome by using two or three layers, so that
the top 2-3 m m thickness fully meets the specified
chemistry requirements.
To understand the effects of dilution and technique
of overcoming them, we shall cite a case study involving
strip cladding of a tank in a heavy water reactor. The
tests were carried out on a 70 mm thick normalised plate
having 0.17 C/1.36 Mn/0.40 Si/ 0.18 Cr/0.14 Cu and
giving YS of 340 N / m m 2 and UTS of 535 N / m m 2 . The
quality requirements were:
a) Penetration into base metal must be 1.5-2.0 mm
b) Size of machined layer must be 6.4 mm, exclud-
ing machining allowance of 2.0 mm minimum
c ) Depth of 1.5-2.0 mm below machined clad sur-
face must consist of 18% C r / 8 % Ni and carbon content
below 0.06%.
d) A side bend test to confirm the absence of low
ductility structures in the zone between the clad layer
and the base metal. The diameter of the mandrel to be
four times the specimen thickness (i.e. 38 mm), and the
specimen to be bent 180° without cracks occurring. The
first three requirements are explained in Fig. 4.59. The
last one is explained in Fig. 4.60.
The cladding was accomplished in three layers. For
the-first layer, taking guidance from the Schaeffler
diagram, a overalloyed 27 Cr/12 Ni type strip with
0.078% carbon was selected in combination with a Cr-
alloyed agglomerated flux. The next two layers were
deposited with a standard strip (19 Cr/10.5 Ni/0.030
C) and the same flux as for the first layer.
The chemistry of the clad layer was determined as a
function of the distance from the plate surface. For each

DILUTED WELD METAL

PENETRATION

SIS 2101

Fig. 4.59: Dimensions of the cladding layer in mm

CLAD LAYER

9.5

Fig. 4.60: Bend test specimen to test cladding ductility. The specimen thickness is the most essential dimension.
242 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
mm, turnings were taken and analysed for the key
elements Cr, C and Ni. Their distribution is shown
graphically in Fig. 4.61.
The figure shows that at the original plate level
surface (A), the composition is 19 C r / 8 Ni/0.08 C. At
2.4 mm below the clad layer (i.e. 4 mm above the plate
surface) the desired levels of Cr, Ni and C have been
reached.
Welding parameters: Parameters for cladding are
usually such that a pass 4.5 mm high and 65 mm wide
is obtained. For 60 mm by 0.5 mm strip, current is in the
range of 550-750 Amps, and voltage in the range of 26-
34 V, giving a deposition rate of 12-15 kg/hour. Strips
100 mm by 0.75 m m have been used at currents up to
1,200 Amps, with deposition rates up to 27 kg/hour.
Welding speeds are in the range of 90-170 m m / m i n .
Electrode extension, i.e. the distance from contact tips
to parent plate, is within 25-30 mm.
Current determines deposition rate, penetration,
dilution, weld bead size and heat input. With increasing
current, deposit height and width as well as dilution
increase. If the current is too low, defects such as slag
inclusions and lack of fusion occur.
%Cx10 2 %Cr%Ni
——
5 6 7 8 9 10 MM
LL [DISTANCE FROM PARENT
IB. PLATE SURFACE
Fig. 4.61: Cr, C and Ni contents as function of the distance
from original plate surface (as-welded specimen). A =
original plate surface; B = surface of cladding layer after
treatment; C = fusion zone
Increase of voltage increases flux consumption and
loss of Cr. It also causes microslag inclusions and
adhesion of slag particles.
Increase of welding speed means that the arc is
directed ahead of the weld pool and on to the base metal,
resulting in increased dilution. It also reduces the
deposit height and width.
Increasing productivity: Using standard 60 mm by 0.5
strip and a welding speed of 100 m m / min, an area of
0.32 m 2 can be surfaced in an hour. This means that a
conventional pressure vessel for a nuclear reactor, clad
with 10 tons of strip in one layer will take six weeks to
complete. Therefore, attempts have been m a d e to
increase cladding output by using modified systems,
in addition to using 120 mm wide strips.
One such system, termed 'double strip cladding' (see
Fig. 4.62), employs a normal strip cladding head and a
modified contact with a distance piece of 8 mm between
the two contact clAmps... The higher deposition rate is
produced by an electro-slag effect between the two
strips. At this point, the liquid slag is so hot that the
electrodes are molten without the assistance of an arc.
Thus, less energy is put into the parent metal and less
energy is necessary to melt the flux to form the slag.
The results from tests in chemical a n d nuclear
applications are shown in Table 4.47.
In another system used in the U.S.A., an auxiliary
cold strip fed by its own drive rolls or placed beneath
the arc to provide additional filler metal increase
deposition rate and reduce dilution. The electrode strip
is 50-75 mm wide by 0.75-1.5 mm thick, while the cold
strip is 40 mm by 1.25-1.50 mm. The parameters are
1,200 Amps./32 V/380 mm per min travel speed. Clad
thickness can be varied between 4 and 9.5 m m by
STRIP ELECTRODE
STRIP FEEDING
POWER SOURCE
CONTACT PIECE
FLUX FEEDING
SOLIDIFYING POOL
BASE METAL
FLUX SLAG
DEPOSIT
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE
WELDING DIRECTION
Fig. 4.62: Schematic representation of double strip
electrode cladding system for two 60 x 0.5 mm strips in
combination with a special flux.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 243

Table 4.47: Welding conditions and results of double strip cladding on carbon steel plates with a proprletory flux
Strip Current Arc voltage Weld speed Overlapping
(mm) (amp) (V) (cm/min) (mm)
2x60x0.5 1250 31 30 7
Reinforcement Width Dilution Deposit rate Cladded rate
(mm) (mm) (%) (kg / hour) (m2/hour)
4.3 60 9 28 0.85
C% Si% Mn% Cr% Ni% Nb% Delta-
Ferrite
Strip El. 0.02 0.40 2.0 23.5 12.0 0.90 16
1st layer 0.04 1.1 1.1 20.0 11.0 0.70 9

adjusting the travel speed and the feeding rate and
dimensions of the cold strip.
Narrow Gap SAW
The conventional SAW of thick plates involves single
or double-V preparations as mentioned earlier in the
section on SAW procedures. Figure 4.63 shows the
difference between conventional and narrow gap weld
preparations for 75 mm thick plate. It is seen that in
narrow gap welding (NGW), less metal has to be
deposited with reduced welding time and less distor-
tion. Also with a constant root gap, a reproducible weld
pass can be deposited over the entire thickness and thus
the welding procedure can be readily automated.
NGW has been carried out successfully in many
shops using the SA as well as the MIG/C0 2 process. With
the SA process, one can weld without spatter, produce
welds with good bead shapes and can control the
mechanical properties of the weld by proper selection
of the flux-wire combination. However, it sometimes
becomes difficult to ensure sidewall penetration and to
avoid slag inclusions. Also slag removal between passes,
visual inspection of each individual pass and removal
of defective weld metal and making weld repair have
to be managed. In MIG/ C 0 2 welding, arc stability,
effective gas shielding and the effect of magnetic fields
on the arc may cause problems.
In NGW by the SA process, one may use the single-
centre pass method or the two-pass layer method as
shown in Fig. 4.64.
The single-centre pass method: This requires less
welding time but makes it difficult to control sidewall
penetration, though in some cases this is overcome by
mechanical oscillation of the wire. A relatively high heat
input is generally required to ensure thorough fusion,
but this factor may not be favourable for welding certain

Fig. 4.63: Comparison of conventional and narrow gap weld preparations for welding 75 mm thick plate: (A)
Conventional, area of preparation 1095 mm2; (B) Narrow gap, area of preparation 935 mm2
244 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

/ /
//A

/////7x;'/s I
I
Fjg. 4.64: Alternative methods of narrow gap SAW: (A) Single centre pass method; (B) Two-pass layer method

low-alloy steels, where heat input has to be restricted.
Removal of solidified slag, especially at the side walls,
can be an additional problem.
Two-pass layer method: These drawbacks are not found
in the two-pass layer method, though it requires nearly
50% more welding time. The need for repair can be
completely avoided. For this method, the gap width is
critical and depends on the wire size, as indicated in
Fig. 4.65. The gap width has to be compatible with a
I * . g - 4 5d-6 5d —«(
- • ) 1.5d-3.5d | » -
Fig. 4.65: Gap width control in narrow gap welding
specific size of grinding disc, to provide access to the
root of the gap for removal of defective metal.
Gap width of 15 mm minimum, enables one to use
grinding discs of 600-650 mm diameter and 12.7 mm t.
Welding capability for three typical wire sizes and gaps
for the two-pass layer method is indicated in Table 4.48.
Experience has shown that while joint edges can be
kept parallel up to 20 mm gap depth, 1° angular incline
on each side in deeper grooves allows for shrinkage and
ensures faultless sidewall fusion.
NGW is ideally suited for the circumferential joints
of pressure vessels, because they can be completed
w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n , t h u s fulfilling the m a i n
r e q u i r e m e n t for integral a u t o m a t i o n . For this
application, system functions have to be provided as
follows:
a) A means of keeping constant the vertical distance
from the end of the contact tip to the work piece. This is
also necessary to allow for work piece ovality.
b) A means of keeping constant the horizontal
distance between the wire and one wall of the gap.
c) A means of keeping constant the horizontal
distance between the wire and the other wall of the gap
(b and c becoming operative on succeeding passes).
d) On completion of each 360° rotation plus some
suitable angular overlap, a means of moving the welding

Table 4.48: Welding capability for a range of wire and gap sizes
Weld metal
Wire Welding current doposition rate Time for gap
dia, Gap (low-medium-high) (low-medium-high) filling; time
mm mm amps kg / hour index no.
3.2 15 390^50-500 4.50-5.15-5.67 148-129-117
4 18 520-595-670 5.92-6.80-8.00 135-118-100
5 22 686-(790)-(900) 7.90-9.60— 124-(102)—
Note: Current values in brackets represent higher than allowable current levels, as mentioned in the section on limiting factors.

wire. i.e. the torch, from one gap wall to the opposite
one. Functions a, b and c are relevant to a conventional
two-axis guiding system, where the axes are vertical and
horizontal, the latter being at right angles to the weld
travel direction. The only special feature is that, at the
end of each revolution a probe changes the pre-load
direction and senses the opposite gap wall.
Function (d) represents the simplest version of a bead
locating program to be repeated at completion of each
revolution. In spite of this simplicity, the system is still
able to be self-correcting. If the gap width is not constant,
the welding wire is always correctly positioned in
relation to the gap wall, thus avoiding lack of
penetration.
The system will function automatically until insuf-
ficient land is left for the sensing probe to operate effec-
tively. From this position onwards (i.e. approximately
10 mm of wall remaining), the gap has to be filled by
manually guiding the welding torch. This requires that
the system be provided with an additional function:
e) When the horizontal sensor is deactivated-push
buttons for manual guidance. Manual guidance presents
no particular problems as visibility is unrestricted and
the task is relatively simple for an average operator.
In the top portion of the joint, all regions which are
below level because of misaligned or irregular gap width
have to be filled on with manually guided weld beads.
Additionally, one must provide a means of
preventing the cylindrical vessel from creeping on the
turning rolls, so as to prevent the horizontal guiding
axis from reaching its limit switch.
NGW demands a high level of accuracy in wall
preparation and joint fit-up. Assembly and shrinkage
tolerances must be closely monitored in order to
maintain a satisfactory gap width. Axial displacement
of the component being welded must not exceed 0.5 mm;
but since this is difficult to achieve in practice, it becomes
necessary to correct the electrode position constantly
by seam tracking equipment. The welding equipment
must be so designed that the weld nozzle must not get
overheated; there should be no accidental arc strikes
between the contact nozzle and the side walls; flux
should be fed uniformly; and excess flux and slag
remnants must be completely extracted. An automation
system must be provided, which among other things,
can maintain constant contact-tip/work piece distance
despite any work piece ovality, and constant wire/
sidewall distance.
The welding power source must have a high level of
reliability. DC power can lead to arc blow problems,
while AC drooping type power source can cause arc re-
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 245
ignition failure. If this occurs, the wire electrode-feed
speed interacts with the apparent arc voltage, causing
stubbing and resultant weld defect. Recently, square
wave AC power sources similar to those used in TIG
welding, with extremely rapid polarity transitions are
being preferred. It is claimed that using such a source,
arc outages at polarity reversals are virtually non-
existent, electrode feed and burnoff rate are uniform,
heat input and sidewall penetration are consistent and
the magnetic arc blow effects associated with a DC arc
do not occur. It is also claimed that with square wave
AC source, arc operation is possible at much closer
proximity to the sidewall without arc blow effects and
consequent inconsistent sidewall penetration and that
square wave AC power, unlike sine wave AC, can be used
with fluxes formulated for AC welding, i.e. arc stabili-
sers and ionisers need not be incorporated in the fluxes.
The flux has to be specially formulated to ensure that
the slag is fragile and self-detachable even at high
preheat temperatures, welds are free from defects and
a stable arc is maintained. The flux should also generate
minimum amounts of gas, because of the small space
in the narrow gap. The bulk density of the flux should
be lower than conventional fluxes, so that it is not so
sensitive to the depth/width ratio of the flux layer and
gases generated in the weld zone can escape easily.
Above all, the flux must yield weld metal of high impact
resistance demanded for the welded product.
Owing to the low degree of dilution with the base
metal and the limited energy inputs associated with
narrow gap submerged-arc welding, the weld metal
produced is characterised by high ductility and good
notch toughness. With the exception of the capping
bead, each bead is affected by the thermal cycle
associated with subsequent beads, resulting in the initial
coarse-grained microstructure being retained only in
small areas, whereas the remainder is recrystallised and
refined. It has been noted that, in comparison with
conventional SAW, narrow gap SAW can be carried out
using wires with lower strength or less alloying content
without impairing the mechanical properties of the
weld. This may be due to the homogeneity of the weld
metal through the thickness of the weld due to the
constant degree of parent metal dilution, the refinement
of the microstructure noted above, and the effects of
the thermal cycle associated with relatively low heat
inputs. The possibility of using lower strength, lower
alloy wires may be advantageous, because it reduces
the danger of hydrogen cracking, and possibly
solidification cracking in the weld metal, and may allow
a reduction in preheat temperature.
246 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Literature survey shows that narrow gap SAW has
been successfully used on a wide range of applications.
The typical ones are listed in Table 4.49.
SA Weld Defects: Causes and Prevention
Weld defects arising from i m p r o p e r w e l d i n g
parameters and procedures have been pointed out
earlier in the section on Process Parameters. We shall
now discuss defects arising from other factors.
• Porosity
Porosity is commonly caused by rust, oil, dirt and
moisture, which may be present on the joint surfaces.
Rust is removed by intense wire brushing. Sometimes
surfaces having rust and red scale need to be torch
heated to 250-350°C to drive away residual moisture in
them. Degreasing solvents must be used to remove oil,
grease and die lubricants. It is always a good practice to
heat the joint edges with a gas torch about 300-600 mm
in front of the arc during the welding operation, at least
for the root pass or first pass.
Porosity may also be caused by welding wire which
is rusty or oily. Rusty wire should be scrapped; but the
wire covered with oil, grease or dirt must be cleaned
before use.
If the layer of flux during welding is shallow, arc
flashes can be seen through it. This is an indication that
the flux is inadequate and this may cause scattered
surface porosity. Insufficient flux depth commonly
occurs on circumferential welds, especially when the
diameter of the cylindrical section is small. In such cases,
the flux must be allowed to pile up around the arc by
mechanical support.
Since the flux is repeatedly recovered and reused, it
is likely to pick up contaminants, especially when the
plate surfaces are not clean or the flux is allowed to spill
Table 4.49: Typical applications of narrow gap SAW
Applications
Vessels for chemical and petrochemical industry
Reactor pressure vessels, steam generators
Big water pipes
Vessels for boiler industry, water turbines
Vessels for the chemical and petrochemical industry
Pressure vessel and boiler, constructions, bridges,
industrial machines
Reactor pressure vessels (for the Navy) and boilers
Reactor pressure vessels, steam generators
Nuclear reactor components
Vessels for the boiler and nuclear industry
Vessels for the boiler and nuclear industry
on the dirty floor. Dirt must not be allowed to get into
the flux. The flux recovery system must be equipped to
separate and remove the dust and foreign particles from
the flux.
Flux rendered moist during storage and handling
can give rise to weld porosity.
Joints inside tanks and vessels may sometimes
contain mill scale dropped from the plate surfaces,
which can contaminate the weld. The mill scale may
also get into the flux. Flux recovery systems are
sometimes e q u i p p e d with magnetic separators to
remove the scale and other magnetic materials.
Flux may sometimes be trapped between the base
of the root weld bead and the bottom side of the joint,
and cause porosity which may remain inside the weld
or rise to the surface as large holes. This porosity can be
avoided by either keeping a margin of 4 mm between
the base of the weld bead and the bottom edge of the
joint or letting the weld penetrate fully into the other
side. This is explained in Fig. 4.66.
• Moisture influxes
Fluxes must be used in a dry condition. The inherent
moisture content of a welding flux depends upon its
general nature, i.e. fused or agglomerated, its chemistry
a n d its m e t h o d of m a n u f a c t u r e . Most critical
applications demand the control of flux moisture and
wire cleanliness (freedom from rust, grease, oil, etc.), so
as to reduce the resultant weld metal hydrogen content
below a certain level related to the section thickness and
restraint of the fabrication being welded. Failure to
reduce weld metal hydrogen below this level may result
in both, weld metal and HAZ cracking.
While some fused acidic and semi-basic fluxes have
inherently low moisture contents, they are unable to
provide weld metal with the consistent o p t i m u m
Type of material Thickness, mm
2.25 Cr-1 Mo 225
Not available 275
ST52 Grade 3 120
Not available 200
2.25 Cr-1 Mo or 1.5 Cr-0.5 Mo Not available
Carbon steel and 250
low-alloy steels 100
200
2 Mn-1 Mo 120
Not available 350
22 NiMoCr37 20MnMoNi55 600
15NiCuMoNB5 120
Not available 200
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 247

g < 4 MM
BACKING WELD
POROSITY PRESENT! IPOROSITY ABSENT

Fig. 4.66: Effect of penetration on porosity

mechanical properties (toughness) demanded in critical
applications. Accordingly, semi-basic and basic
agglomerated fluxes, which are hygroscopic to some
degree must be used to provide optimum mechanical
properties. It is therefore critical that the manufacturing
process of an agglomerated welding flux is controlled
to provide not only low final flux moisture content, but
also a high resistance to moisture re-absorption under
fabrication shop conditions. This is particularly so for
the fully basicfluxes,which tend to be used in the most
demanding applications.
Leading producers of agglomerated fluxes such as
Oerlikon of Zurich have developed manufacturing
procedures and quality control systems designed to
ensure the supply of consistently low agglomerated flux
moisture contents. This is based upon the use of high
final baking temperatures during manufacture (for
example 800°C minimum in the case of OP41TT),
followed by packaging hot into sealed drums or
moisture resistant plastic bags, depending on customer
requirements. This final baking procedure also provides
a high resistance to subsequent moisture re-absorption.
In Table 4.50 we reproduce the hydrogen
determination results of two Oerlikon fluxes when they
are used for welding in the as-received condition.
How these fluxes react to the humidity of the air in
storage is shown graphically in Figs. 4.67 and 4.68. The
absorption characteristics are expressed in terms of the

Table 4.50 Hydrogen levels in welds deposited with Oerlikon fluxes in as-received condition
Flux Batch No. Hydrogen (ml / 100 gm Hydrogen
weld deposit) (ml / 100 gm fused metal)
OP41TT 028 001 3.76 1.01
018 013 4.07 1.63
OP121TT 038 027 6.67 2.67
038 028 4.69 1.88

"T—T " T - 1 — r i—i—r i—i—I—i—I—i—r [20

h- 20°c 0P12ITT 20 h 20*C
EEMM MEDIUM*
5 90% £| OP4ITT
Q.
5
Q.
Q-

o
cc
Q

cc 5
—' LLI 50%HH- ^ O
t CO 5 O
S Q
Q if K/EftV LOW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8I
J— I I TIME.
EXPOSURE T I DAYS
I L JLJO

Fig. 4.67: Effect of exposure of OP41TT on the resultant Fig. 4.68: Effect of exposure of OP121TT on the
weld-metal hydrogen content resultant weld-metal hydrogen content
248 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

diffusible hydrogen contributed to the weld metal by

flux exposed to varying levels of humidity, the hydrogen
being measured by the standard IIW test described at (/)
the end of this section. D
The data show that both fluxes always remain in
LL.
CL
5
CL

very-low/low hydrogen category under the usual shop z

conditions. OP41TT has better resistance to moisture, LU

o
because it is baked at 800°C during manufacture. The
II
O cc <
cc
a rsfli
presence of alloy additives in OP 121 TT precludes the >
i 10
use of a high baking temperature and the water content LU Q

is slightly higher after exposure to atmospheric CD

C/>
-1 3
D <
humidity. INITIAL
The rebaking schedule for the two fluxes in case they 5 5 A 5
have picked up objectionable levels of moisture is H/ERY LOW)

evident from Figs. 4.69 and 4.70, which show the effect
of rebaking for two hours at various temperatures upon
the weld metal hydrogen levels. The data show that
rebaking the flux at 300°C for two hours is sufficient to
restore both fluxes to the very-low category, after
exposure to conditions more severe than those likely to
be encountered in normal practice. The only special
precaution to be observed is that the flux must be baked
in shallow trays about 100 mm deep.
• Cracks
Weld cracks are seldom encountered in mild steel
welding, when the sections are less than 10 mm thick.
In thicker sections, cracks may appear in the welds due
to one or more of the following factors:
(a) rapid cooling of the deposit,
(b) heavy restraint in the joint,
250 350 450 550
-L
"REftJwNfl TEMPERATURE *c
Fig. 4.70: Effect of rebaking exposed OP121TT on the
resultant weld-metal hydrogen content
(c) excessive dilution of the weld with the parent ma-
terial, resulting in pick-up of carbon and other
alloying elements and consequent hardening,
(d) excessive hydrogen in the arc derived from mois-
ture, grease, oil, etc.
It is convenient to discuss fillet weld and butt weld
separately.
Fillet welds: Weld bead shape influences weld
cracking in fillet welds as shown in Fig. 4.71.

rr-*-i " 1 —
—' HJ 2 0
[ 0P41TT IMEDIUMM
5 2
CL
CL a.
CL

—115 2 TB. EXCESSIVE;

/A. SMALL WELD FACE AND 1
O CONCAVITY)
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
o I ^90% cc <
E5^
u -J
-410 LU Q
' LU
CO _
L70% ^ C/> CO FREE FROM CRACKS /-TS

XI
it W ^ o
"- CL •' I «
5 O O
MNTTIAL
K/ERY LOWI

I
■^zzi.
250 350 450 550
_J
I i xREBAKING
i 1 U C & D LARGE WELD Ai
FACE AND
TEMPERATURE °C SOME CONVEXITY
Fig. 4.69: Effect of rebaking exposed OP41TT on the Fig. 4.71: Effects of bead shape on cracking
resultant weld-metal hydrogen content in fillet welds

When cracks are caused by excessive weld metal
dilution, welding procedure must be modified to reduce
weld metal penetration by taking the following steps: .
a) Change electrode polarity from positive to
negative
b) Increase electrode size
c) Change from single electrode to twin-electrode
method
d) Deposit first pass with a manual electrode instead
of with the SA process
e) Use bevel joint. The angle of bevel must be 60°
minimum to ensure that the width is greater than the
depth. The root pass in the bevel may be deposited
manually with a basic low-hydrogen electrode.
Butt welds: In butt welds also, abnormal bead shape
is often the cause of cracking. Examples are given in
Fig. 4.72.
If the cracks are caused by pick-up of carbon and
other alloys from the base metal due to excessive
dilution, suitable steps may be taken as recommended
u n d e r the 'fillet w e l d s ' to reduce dilution and
penetration.
Determination of Hydrogen in SA Welds
The standard methods of determining hydrogen
described in Chapter 3 are mainly applicable to welds
deposited by the m a n u a l metal arc process. The
dimensions of the test piece assembly of these methods
(A) CRACKING DUE TO
<ns>
LARGE WIDTH AND
LOW DEPTH
(B) CRACKING DUE TO SMALU
WIDTH AND HIGH DEPTH
(C) FREE FROM CRACKS
(D) EXCESSIVE CRACKING DUE
TO NARROW NECKING
Fig. 4.72: Effects of bead shape on cracking in butt
welds
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 249
may not be compatible with the weld beads produced
by the submerged-arc and other processes employing
high current and arc energy levels. An IIW document
IIA-593-83 has suggested that it is possible to perform
the SA weld test on one or more of the original size of
centre test piece shown at (a) in Fig. 4.74, if it is rotated
90° about a vertical or a yertical and horizontal axis and
aligned as shown in Fig, 4.74 (b) and (c). and used with
the fixture shown in Fig. 4.73. In this case, the run-on
and run-off pieces have to be compatible with the new
cross-sections and the length has to be increased to 80
mm.
The suggested IIW procedure is as follows:
a) Electrode size: The electrode size is linked to the
current used and the size of the weld bead. It will be
necessary to use the welding fixture shown in Fig. 4.73.
b) Flux drying: The flux should be dried to the
maker's instructions. At least I kg of flux is required for
triplicate welds. Drying should be done in an open dish
placed in a drying oven set at the correct temperature.
A suitable dish size is 250 x 200 mm, which allows a 15
mm flux depth. The dried flux should be used immedi-
ately after it is removed from the drying oven. If there
are no drying instructions, the flux should be dried at
350°C for 2 hours. The flux should spend the full speci-
fied time at the drying temperature and other fluxes
should not be placed in the oven during this time. Used
flux should not be cycled for re-use.
c) Test piece assembly: The run-on and run-off pieces
are 30 x 10 (Or 15) x 135 mm length as shown in Fig.
4.73. The centre sample block is aligned as shown in
Fig. 4.74 (b) or (c). The preparation, degassing and use
of the test piece assembly is as described in the original
method. The flux is kept at a predetermined constant
depth of 30 mm by levelling off along the top of the
copper foil inserts.
d) Making the test weld : Triplicate test welds, each of
total length 260 mm, should be made on different test
piece assemblies. The deposit should be along the centre
line of the test piece assembly. The time spent in
deposition should be noted.
When welding is complete, the weld specimen is
quenched and may be stored as described in the original
method, after which it is cleaned and analysed for
hydrogen content.
e) Welding conditions : The range of consumable wire
diameters and therefore the range of currents are being
investigated by IIW to ensure compatibility with the
welding fixture. When data are available, a table of wire
diameters and recommended welding conditions will
be made available. Typical conditions are:
250 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Wire diameter 4 mm JAPANESE GLYCERINE METHOD

Welding current 625 + 25 Amps. The Japanese method of determining hydrogen in
Polarity DC, electrode positive SA welds is described in JIS Z 3116-1980. The test plate,
which is 18 mm thick, 35 mm wide and 100 mm long, is
Voltage as recommended or 30 : I V
initially heated at 400°C for 1 hour to expel hydrogen.
Welding speed 10 ± I mm/sec A weld bead is deposited on three such test plates closely
Stick-out 30 ± 5 mm placed longitudinally as shown in Fig. 4.75. The test
Depth of flux 30 mm piece is obtained by cutting off the run-on and run-off
parts of the test material.
A small ball of wire wool can be used to promote arc The flux is redried under conditions recommended
initiation, by the manufacturer before use. Standard electrode wire

k— 3 0 -
ISPECIMEN!
1MM THICK ANNEALED COPPER
SHEET
10 GAP

-300-

E I i
2

S
•' 11

ZIIZ.~JJ'SS"SSJLZ "J~ zfcfrrrjt!ii^H

—-o
^jr^-vA-\UtvX-^"i--i-^ii|| ^>
^T^^t^^jj^j^t^t^ 1=N
150

il n
yi.
la
285 LONG TESTPjECE ASSEMBLY j

Mi iPi
L
%
! i
31
DIMENSIONS IN M M
■n7" WATER COOLING TUBES

Fig. 4.73: Welding fixture for high currents (centre sample can have dimensions as shown at (b) and (c) in Fig. 4.74)
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 251

(A) HEAT INPUT £ 30 KJ/CM

(B) HEAT INPUT ^ 30 KJ/CM

(C) HEAT INPUT £ 30 KJ/CM

DIMENSIONS IN MM

Fig. 4.74: Alternative alignments of specimens in the welding fixture

2PP.

T
fjiXL* 100

:ctt<<i*«tt<ca«:?££3;&s
IRUN-ON PART TEST PIECE IRUN-OFF PART

s
APPROX 210
2C
DIMENSIONS IN MM U- 35

APPROX 40 APPROX 70
Fig. 4.75: Material for Japanese glycerine method

of 4 mm diameter is used. The test plate to be welded is
fixed with a copper coupling as shown in Fig. 4.76. The
welding is commenced at room temperature under the
conditions of 500Amps. welding current, 33 V arc
voltage and 30 cm/min arc travel speed. The length of
the bead is about 210 mm, about 40 mm of it being on
the run-on part and about 70 mm on the run-off part as
shown in Fig. 4.75.
The test material is quenched in ice within five
seconds of the completion of welding. Next, the run-on
and run-off parts are removed. The test piece is cleaned
and put in the collecting apparatus based on glycerine
displacement method. This operation has to be finished
within 90 sec after finishing welding. Hydrogen is
collected by immersing the test piece for 72 hours in
glycerine, which is maintained at 45°C. The collecting
252 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

300 j
ST ft'J0
1 4i
HP
1 i1 50| T #40
U 15

1 i 1
jlj 1 # CO1
1 *i! — | C O ^

a\
o»
ml 1
1

o
CO

DIMENSIONS IN MM

Fig. 4.76: Copper coupling for Japanese

glycerine method
\t- 521 DIMENSIONS IN MM
Fig. 4.78: Collecting burette for Japanese
glycerine method
to COLLECTING BURETTE up to 60 mm thickness. Fused, high silica type flux with
V^ around 50% Si0 2 content possessing very good welding
characteristics at the high currents was used. Typical
procedures are given below:

A
GLYCERINE BATH
o
o applications, in which very little emphasis was placed
DIMENSIONS IN MM UL.75-J
Fig. 4.77: Collecting apparatus for Japanese
glycerine method
apparatus and shape and dimensions of the glycerine
bath are shown in Fig. 4.77. The volume of glycerine is
about 650 ml. The shape and dimensions of the collecting
burette are shown in Fig. 4.78.
TOUGHNESS PROPERTIES OF SA WELDS
In the early days of SA welding, i.e. during the 1940's,
the inherent high current-carrying and weld deposition
capabilities of the process were fully exploited for
achieving ultimate economies. Two-pass and one-pass
(with copper bar backing) welding procedures using
single wires up to 12 mm diameter and currents up to
4000 Amps. AC were known and used for butt welds
These welds had adequate tensile properties and
could meet impact values at room temperature. In those
d a y s , SAW w a s u s e d on relatively u n i m p o r t a n t
on toughness properties of the weld metal and the heat-
affected zone.
In the 1960's as SAW began to be used extensively
in pressure vessels, bridges and in shipbuilding, there
w a s a m a r k e d s w i n g to Charpy-V testing at
temperatures below room temperature. It was then
found that the weld metal deposited by these high heat
input procedures gave poor notch impact values,
presumably because of their coarse microstructure. It
was also realised that the notch toughness property
i m p r o v e d w i t h decreasing heat i n p u t a n d w i t h
increasing number of passes in a given joint. The heat
input could be lowered by decreasing welding current
or by increasing welding speed for given values of
current and arc voltage. The large number of passes of
relatively smaller cross-section helped to maximise the
proportion of grain-refined structure in the weld
deposit. As an example, we have given the modified
procedure for 38 mm thick weld on the next paragraph.
As a consequence, SAW d e g e n e r a t e d from an
originally h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e p r o c e s s , w i t h weld
d e p o s i t i o n rates of 20 k g / h o u r a n d m o r e , to a
mechanized multilayer process depositing around 12
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 253

a) One-pass butt weld in 38 mm t plate

Electrode dia. — 9.5 mm
w
"V V AC current
Voltage
—
—
1,900-2,000 amp
40-43 V
Travel speed — 200 m m / m i n
Heat input rate — 25 k j / mm (ave)

b) Two-pass butt weld in 57 mm I plate

v -y Parameters Backing pass

at A
Finishing
pass at B

T '
-V B
Electrode dia. 8 mm 8 mm
AC current 1,600 amps 1,700 amps

i
124 mm
Voltage 38 V 37 V
Travel speed 228 m m / m i n 200 m m / m i n
A-\ Heat input rate 16 kj/min 19 kj/min

kg/hour. When more stringent impact requirements Investigations by Tuliani and Boniszewski regarding
came to be specified, fabricators were compelled to weld the as-deposited microstructure produced by different
in the parameter range of around 600 Amps./32 V/600 flux compositions had shown that of all the flux systems
mm per minute, and at deposition rates as low as 7-8
k g / h o u r (yet three times the deposition rates with
manual MAW electrodes). 2.0' n i —' '
This setback was short-lived. Almost at the same
t i m e , p r o g r e s s in h i g h d e p o s i t i o n r a t e s w a s ■ ^
1.5
achieved by developing tandem-arc multiple wire
• THREE WIRES
configurations featuring 2, 3 and 4 wires in which
heat input rate was restricted by employing very 1.0
high w e l d i n g s p e e d s , ' h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
z
welding speeds obtained with 1, 2 and 3 wires in Q
butt welding a range of plate thicknesses is shown 0.5 - ONE WIRE N x ^ TWO WIRES J
^ x 1
in Fig. 4.79. For 10 mm plate thickness, the welding
speed ratio is 1:1.9:2. 7; for 20 mm it is about 1:1.9:3.0
and for 30 mm it is 1:1. 8:3. 3. In all the cases, the heat 0 1? £_ 30 ** 40

PLATE THICKNESS. MM
input is nearly constant for a given plate thickness, but the
welding power input ratio is approximately 1:2:3. Fig. 4.79: Welding speeds when using one, two and
The d e v e l o p m e n t of n e u t r a l a n d basic fluxes three electrode systems with electrodes connected to
separate power sources
(especially agglomerated types) with low Si0 2 contents
at this time also led to the improvement in weld metal
toughness. Early research studies showed that high Si0 2
(30-60%) fluxes tended to transfer Si into the weld metal
and also to introduce oxygen at the rate of 0.01% oxygen
per 0.1% Si. Si content and hence the oxygen content in
the weld metal decreased with increase in flux basicity
and CaF2 content in the flux. Grain refinement improved Electrode Current Voltage Welding speed Heat input
with decrease in Si content and increase in Mn/Si ratio. dia. amp V mm/min. rate kj/mm
Increasing flux basicity lowered the sulphur content of
the weld metal. All these factors combined to raise the Pass 1 5.5 1,050 36 228 10
Pass 2 5.5 1,100 36 305 7.8
energy absorption in ductile rupture and to decrease
Pass 3 5.5 1,000 34 203 10
the transition temperature.
254 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

used to produce C-Mn weld metal, a flux containing
approximately 40% A1203 produced a microstructure
supposed to be most favourable to notch toughness in
the as-deposited condition. The possible explanation for
this w a s given u n d e r "Aluminiak Fluxes" while
discussing the aluminate fluxes. However, the A1203-
type flux used by them was acidic and gave a high
percentage of Si in the weld metal, which was the reason
why optimum impact values were not obtained. Taking
a hint, another series of experiments were carried out
using a flux containing 50% A1 2 0 3 , 38% of basic
ingredients (CaO, MgO, CaF2 and MnO) and only 12%
of acidic materials for the two-pass welding of EH2
quality ship plate. The results showed that the impact
requirement could be easily met using SD3 wire (0.11
C, 1.62 Mn, 0.30 Si), and the impact values improved
further as SD3 grade wires alloyed with 0.50% Mo and
with 1.0 Ni/0.5 Mo were used. An important condition
in all these cases, however, was that the cooling rate of
the weld deposit must be sufficiently fast (i.e. heat input
rate must be restricted).
In another interesting study of the influence of flux
basicity and heat input on weld metal notch toughness
using SD3 wire (C-0.12, Mn-1.70), it was established
that, at -20°C, the Charpy impact values of a fused Mn-
silicate type flux (basicity 0.78) are uniformly very low
over the heat input range of 1.9-7.6 k j / mm. In the case
of an agglomerated highly basic flux (basicity 3.0), the
Charpy value of 85 J at 1.9 k j / m m fell to 30 J at 3.3 k j /
mm and to the same low level of a fused silicate flux at
7.6 k j / m m . In the case of an aluminate-basic flux
(basicity 1.45), the value of 75 J at 1.9 k j / m m fell to 40 J
at 3.3 k j / m m and levelled to 35 J over the further heat
input range u p to 7.6 k j / m m . A comparison of the
transitional behaviour of the three fluxes (see Fig. 4.80)
showed that at heat input of 1.9 kj/mm, the highly basic
flux fared the best, the aluminate flux came next, and
then the fused-silicate flux. At heat input level of 7.6
k j / mm, the fluxes shifted their positions; the aluminate
flux fared the best, then came the Mn-silicate flux, while
the highly basic flux showed the least toughness.
Such odd behaviour of the fluxes was explained
through microstructural studies of the weld deposits.
Fused flux gave high proportions of upper bainite (35-
41%) and lath martensite (10-20%) over the entire heat
input range. In the case of the aluminate flux, the
proportions of acicular ferrite and polygonal ferrite
remained within the limits of 74-65% and 26-35%
respectively (while u p p e r bainite was absent and
martensite was low) over the entire heat input range. In
the case of the highly basic flux, while the microstructure
at 1.9 k j / m m consisted of 70% acicular ferrite and 30%
polygonal ferrite, the microstructure at 3.3 k j / m m
d e v e l o p e d 12% of lath m a r t e n s i t e p l u s t w i n n e d
martensite, and at 7.6 kj/mm, the proportion of lath
martensite rose to 15%. This explained the disappointing

160

OP41TT (8 = 3.0) S
-140

- 120

3
>
O
-100
DC
Ul
Z / V B X 2 0 0 ( B = 1.45) 100
OJ - 80
> 80 BX200(B = 1.45)
CL
- 60
<
CC

X
o
- 4g,o/

- 20
• ^ * ^ LINCOLN 1 (B - 0 . 7 8 )

(A) 1 1 1 1 I I ! KB)
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -40 -20 0 20 60
TEMPERATURE <°C) TFMPERATURF CO

Fig. 4.80: Effect of heat input and flux basicity on the Charpy-V notch transitional behaviour of submerged-arc welds
in 25 mm C-Si-Mn-Nb-AI primary structural steel with SD3 wire at a 300° C interpass temperature: (A) 1.9 kJ/ mm; (B)
7.6 kJ/mm

notch toughness properties of the highly basic flux
registered at very high heat input levels.
A large number of research investigations, such as
the ones above, which have been carried out the world
over, have led to the conclusion that the main factors
which control weld metal toughness are: flux basicity,
wire chemistry, postweld heat treatment and, above all,
welding heat input (expressed in k j / m m ) . These
combined factors influence the impact property through
the microstructure they help to generate in the weld
deposit. To have good impact strength and a low
transition temperature, the weld metal must have a high
proportion of the interlocking acicular ferrite structure
and correspondingly low proportions of pro-eutectoid
ferrite and upper bainite.
It is well known that increasing Mn level and making
Mo and Ni additions to C-Mn weld metal improves its
sub-zero impact properties, because these elements are
strong acicular ferrite formers. This fact is used with
advantage in the design of manual electrodes. In SAW,
however, it is found that the good effects of these
elements cannot be fully exploited, because at high input
rates these very elements prove detrimental to notch
toughness. It is for this reason that in SA welding of
LPG containers, where impact strength of 41 J at -55°C
must be satisfied, the heat input rates have to be kept
within 1.0 to 2.2 k j / m m for plate thicknesses of 10-28
mm in spite of using basic fluxes and expensive wires
alloyed with 2% Ni or 2.5% Ni-0.8% Cr-0.5% Mo. Yet
reasonably high deposition rates are secured by
combining high currents (530 Amps, for 10 mm plate,
750 Amps, for 25 mm plate) with high travel speeds
(720-900 mm/min).
While multiple-wire a n d m u l t i p a s s w e l d i n g
procedures became the accepted means of getting SA
welds of adequate toughness, studies were also under
way to produce single-pass welds of fairly large cross-
section, which in spite of not having the benefit of grain
refinement, would satisfy the impact requirements.
These studies had practical significance, because in
shipbuilding there is a requirement for wire-flux
combination capable of butt welding plates of 19 mm
and 29 mm thickness with one pass on either side, and
at the same time capable of meeting the weld metal
impact requirement of 51 J at -10°C, the impact
specimens to be removed from the centre of the second
and final pass (see Fig. 4.81). The studies would also
interest the majority of fabricators, w h o o w n e d
conventional single wire SA equipment and desired to
get maximum productivity out of it.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 255
FIRST PASS
•SECOND PASS
^--x— IMPACT SPECIMEN
Fig. 4.81: Location of impact specimen in two-pass butt
weld
The question of obtaining tough single-pass welds
in spite of slow cooling rates was resolved in 1970 when
a document was published for the Japanese Welding
Society, which was subsequently issued by the IIW as
document 11-583-71. It dealt with the correlation
between Ti, Mo, B and CaF2 contents of flux-cored wires
and the mechanical properties of submerged-arc welds.
It showed that it is possible to deposit weld metal in
massive bead cross-sections and resultant low cooling
rates, but still exhibiting toughness values equal to those
of the best multi-layer deposits. This property was a
result of the combined effect of various micro-elements
coupled with low O and N contents. B and Mo additions
give h a r d e n a b i l i t y a n d hence a low austenite
transformation temperature, producing a strong and
tough acicular ferrite, while Ti prevents contamination
of the boron by N 2 or 0 2 . The total effect is to increase
the proportion of acicular ferrite in the microstructure
and refine the acicular ferrite grain size, thereby leading
to significant increases in sub-zero Charpy-V impact
values.
The Japanese trials were made with the combination
of flux-cored wires of the folded type and Ca-silicate
type flux, which could not yield optimum impact values,
because the folded tubular wire was not capable of
taking in sufficiently large quantities of CaF2 in add it
ion to the microelements. The problem was overcome
when a solid wire called TIBOR 22 was introduced by
Oerlikon in England to be used in combination with a
high fluoride, high basicity flux OP41TT.
Typical composition of TIBOR 22 is:
C —0.09% Mo —0.30% S—0.015% max.
Mn—1.2% Ti—0.04% P—0.015% max..
Si —0.10% B—0.003% Al—0.020% max.
N—0.010% max.
Constitution of OP41TT flux is:
Si0 2 + Ti0 2 — 10%
CaO + MgO—35% Suitable for DC + ve
A1203 + MnO—20% at currents up to 800 Amps.
CaF 2 —30%
Basicity—3.1%
256 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

It is interesting to compare the impact values given below (vast improvement over the Al 2 0 3 -type fluxes
by this combination in butt welding 38 mm thick plate, described earlier):
type BS 4360:72 grade 50D, using 10-pass procedure at Plate : BS 4360:1972 Grade
3 k j / m m heat input rate in one case and 3-pass 50D
procedure at 6.4 k j / m m in the other. The comparison Plate preparation : 60°C Double-Vee with
given below shows that the weld toughness is hardly 5 mm root face
affected by heat input and by individual weld bead Welding conditions: Current 850 Amps.
cross-section. Voltage 35 V
a) Joint preparation: Speed 166 m m / m i n
Polarity DC + ve
Heat input 10.1 k j / m m
No. of runs 2
Charpy V-notch value: atl4°C 147 J
At -20°C 95 J
Side 1
Similar high impact values at -55°C are obtained
with 10 to 18 mm thick butt welds in LPG grade steel
Welding conditions: Current 600 Amps. using the combination of Fluxocord 35.21 and OP121TT
Voltage 30 V flux developed by Oerlikon. The former is a micro-
Speed 380 m m / m i n alloyed flux-cored wire designed on the pattern of
Polarity DC + ve TIBOR 22, while OP121TT is a flux of basicity —3.1, for
Heat input 2.8 kj/min DC and AC welding at currents up to 1,200 Amps.)
No. of passes 10 having the following constitution:
Si0 2 + Ti0 2 - 15%
Charpy V-notch test temp. °C + 20 -20 -40 60 CaO + MgO - 35%
Charpy V-notch test values, J 180 172 172 83 A1 2 0 3 + MnO - 20%
(90) (70) (38) H CaF 2 - 25%
Values in parenthesis are those obtained with S3 The sequence of passes and the impact values at —
wire having 1.5% Mn under identical welding and 5S C are indicated in Figs. 4.82 and 4.83.
testing procedures. Table 4.51 gives Charpy-V values at low
t e m p e r a t u r e s for the all-weld metal specimens
b) Joint preparation: deposited by OP41TT flux in combination with various
700
~ Side 1 grades of British wires in the as-welded (AW) and stress-
relieved c o n d i t i o n s . For p r e p a r i n g the all-weld
specimens, the standard procedure involving multipass
technique with fairly low heat input rates has been used.

Side 2

Welding conditions: Current 800 Amps. 78-80-84 J

Voltage 34 V
Speed 254 m m / m i n
Polarity DC + ve
Heat input 6.4 kj/min 116-118-120J
No. of passes 3
Charpy V-notch test values, J 170 165 168
148 67-75-81 J
Charpy V-notch test values, J 170 165 168 94-96-100J
148
Fig. 4.82: Charpy-V impact values of SAW welds at -55°
The combination also gives excellent impact values
C on cryogenic steel using tubular Oerlikon Fluxocord
at -20°C in two-pass welding of 50 mm t plate using 35.21 and OP121TT flux (t = 1 0 - 1 2 mm)
high heat input, as is evident from the example given
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 257

Table 4.51: All-weld mechanical properties from 0P41TT flux and various wires
In combi- Heat U.T.S. Y.S. Elonga- Charpy V Impact energy (j)
treat- N/mm2 N/mm2 tion
with wire ment (Lo-5d) 0°C -20°C -40°C -60°C -80°C -100°C
%
SD3 AW 580-630 >420 >22 >80 >70 >40 >20
SD3 SR 520-560 >370 >24 >120 >100 >80 >50
SD3Mo AW 630-680 500-540 >20 90-130 50-70
SD3Mo SR 570-630 460-500 >22 100-150 60-90
SD3 INi AW 560-630 450-500 >22 80-140 50-90 30-60
SD3 INi SR 520-570 390^40 >22 75-140 55-95 30-55
SD2 2Ni AW 600-650 500-540 >22 40-100
SD2 3Ni SR 585-595 410-440 >22 140-150 65-90 55-75 30-55
SD3 INiMo SR 600-680 500-560 >20 120-160 100-130 60-90 50-80
SD21NiCrMo AW 750-800 650-700 >20 50-65 20-35
SD21NiCrMo SR 800-830 690-730 >20 50-65 20-35
SD2 l 1/4 CrMo AW 730-770 660-700 >15
SD2 l 1/4 CrMo SR 590-620 500-530 >20
SD2 21/2CrMo SR 770-810 600-650 >18
SD2 5CrMo AW 820-880 740-790 >15
SD 2 5CrMo SR 800-840 690-730 >18
TiBoR 22 AW 500-530 390-420 >25 140-160 100-120 80-100
TiBoR 22 SR 450-480 360-380 >35 140-160 100-130
Note: For composition of wires, see Tables 4.6 and 4.7.

COD requirement of 25 or 0.30 mm at -10°C is specified

Table 4.52 gives COD results for samples taken from
full plate thickness w e l d e d with OP41TT flux in
117-131-141 J
combination with the wires indicated.

Case study
Plate type : BS 4360:72 Grade 50 D
68-86-98 J
Chemistry : C—0.15, Mn—1.38, Si—0.42,
S—0.018, P—0.015
Wire TiBoR 22
Flux OP41TT
64-65-72 J
Plate
2 preparation
92-94-102J
Side 1

Fig. 4.83: Charpy-V impact values of SAW welds al 55°C

on cryogenic steel using tubular Oerlikon Fluxocord
35.21 and OP121TT flux (t = 1 5 - 1 8 mm)

In addition to Charpy-V, crack opening displacement

A^K Side 2

(COD) tests are used to measure the notch toughness

property of welds. They are described in BS 5762-1979 Welding conditions: Current 700 Amps.
"Methods of COD testing". In critical fabrications used Voltage 30 V
in offshore constructions in the North Sea, minimum Speed 350 m m / m i n
258 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 4.52: COD values from 0P41TT flux and various wires
In combination Heat Plate C.O.D. (mm)
with wire treatment thickness
(mm) -10°C -40°C -80°C
SD3 As-welded 60 0.58-0.65
SD3 S.R. 60 1.08-1.35
TiBoR 22 As-welded 60 0.90 0.80 0.2
TiBoR 22 S.R. 60 0.75 0.55 0.2
SD2 2Ni As welded 57 0.4-0.84

TiBoR 22

1j%MnS3 TYPE WIRE

C/>

o AS-WELDED
o
o
ONSET OF CLEAVAGE - 1 0 # C

TEMPERATURE C O
Fig 4.84: COD test curves for as-welded specimens

8
TiBoR 22 «

7 * ^ ^* V i f * Mn S3 TYPE WIRE
ok
6
STRESS-RELIEVED
CO
5
5 • ' / ^ ESTIMATED ONSET
OF CLEAVAGE -35*C
Q
O
U
4
V /
3

' y
1
¥
-80 -60 -40 -20 + 20
TEMPERATURE 'C
Fig. 4.85: COD test curves for stress-relieved specimens

Polarity DC + ve The COD test curves shown in Figs. 4.84 and 4.85
Heat input 3.54 k j / m m confirm the excellent fracture toughness of TiBoR 22/
No. of runs 6 OP41TT welds in both as-welded and stress-relieved
Interpass temp. 150°C conditions.
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING 259

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12th Ed., published 1973 by The Lincoln Electric Company, U.S.A.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 6, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published 1971 by American Society for Metals.
Fluxes and Slags in Arc Welding by Coe. WIRR 75/1978 of Nov. 1978.
Welding Process Technology by P.T. Houldcroft.
SAW-Combining Increased Deposition Rates with Improved Mechanical Properties by H. Baach. Advani-Oerlikon Tech. Bull.
No. 215-216, May-Aug. 1981.
Submerged-Arc Welding Fluxes by P.S. Visvanath. Advani-Oerlikon Tech. Bull. No. 218, Nov.-Dec. 1981.
Relationship between Flux Basicity and Mechanical Properties in SAW by Garland and Kirkwood. Weld. & Met. Fabr., Apr.
1976.
Design of a Special Weld Mill for Large Diameter Thin Wall Pipes by W.S. Byard et al. Met. Constr., Sept. 1970.
High Current Density SAW with Twin Electrodes by J.E. Hinkel & F.W. Forsthoefel. Weld Journal, Mar. 1976.
A New High-Efficiency Welding Procedure Using Finely Divided Filler Metal by R.J. De Haeck. Weld Journal, Oct. 1971.
SAW and Surfacing with Hot Wire Additions Weld. Journal, May 1972.
Three-Wire SAW of Line Pipe by G.D. Uttrachi & J.E. Messina. Weld. Journal, June 1968.
Multipower SAW of Pressure Vessels and Pipe by R.A. Kubli & H.I. Shrubsall. Weld. Journal, Nov 1956.
Notch Toughness Properties of Commercial SA Weld Metal by Colvin & Bush. Weld. & Met. Fabr., Feb. 1971.
Towards Improved SA Weld Metal by Garland & Kirkwood. Met. Constr., May/June 1975.
Effect of Ti and b Additions to SA Welds in SOD Plate By Still & Rogerson. Met. Constr., July 1978.
The Influence of Cold Wire and Fluoride Additions on Weld Metal Toughness in SAW by Anderson, Baggerud & Thaulow.
Weld. & Met. Fabr., Nov. 1975.
Hot-Wire Methods of Surfacing and SAW by Lee. Met. Constr., Nov. 1972.
S.S. Cladding Strip Electrodes by Almqvist & Egeman. Weld. & Met. Fabr., July 1963.
Weld Cladding with Wire Electrodes by Armstrong. Weld. & Met. Fabr., March 1971.
Influences of Fluxes on SA Cladding with Stainless Strip Electrodes by Zentner. Weld. & Met. Fabr,, Apr. 1976.
The Narrow Gap SA Welding of Steel: A Tech. Review, by Kennedy. WIRR 233/1984 of Feb. 1984.
SA Narrow-Gap Welding by Altamer. Met. Constr., Oct. 1980.
High Deposition Rate Cladding-Broad strip 180 mm and Double Strip 60 mm Wide by Neff et al. Conference Proceedings of
'Advances in Welding Processes' 1974 by the Welding Institute.
Development of Four-Station Quadruple-Electrode One-Sided Machine for SAW by Terai 259 al, Ibid.
Water Absorption and Redrying Characteristics of Two High Basic Agglomerated Fluxes by Dr. Evans. IIW Doc. IlA-410-77.
Water Content in SA Fluxes and its Influence on Weld Cracking by Dr. Willi & Baach. JWS Symp., Tokyo, Nov. 1971.
Hj Content of Welds Deposited by Different Welding Processes Metals Tech. Conf, Sydney.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 5
Tungsten
Inert-Gas Arc
Welding (TIG Welding)
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS Arc Welding, as the name
suggests, is a process in which the source of heat is an
arc formed between a non-consumable tungsten elec-
trode and the workpiece, and the arc and the molten
puddle are protected from atmospheric contamination
(i.e. oxygen and nitrogen) with a gaseous shield of in-
ert-gas such as argon, helium or argon-helium mixture.
Filler metal, if required, is added externally to the arc in
the form of a bare wire by the welder. It is often referred
to in abbreviated form as TIG welding. Some authors
prefer to call it inert-gas tungsten-arc welding.
The American Welding Society refers to the process
as gas tungsten-arc-welding and has given it the letter
designation GTAW. While a few countries such as the
U.S.A. and Canada use helium and argon-helium mix-
tures besides argon for arc shielding, most other
countries including India use only argon, as helium is
not available. In the latter countries the process is some-
times called Argon arc Process for the sake of simplicity.
The concept of using gases in place of fluxes to shield
the welding arc was first tried out by Roberts and van
Nuys in 1919, and by other scientists in the following
years. Besides inert gases, hydrogen and hydrocarbons
were also considered. A workable method of inert-gas
welding was first developed by the Northrop Aircraft
Co. of the U.S.A. in 1940, using a simple tungsten
electrode torch and a DC welding generator. It was
successfully used on thin-gauge magnesium and
stainless steel.
The main target of the process was aluminium but
initially it was found that the refractory oxide film on
the aluminium surface interfered with the arc unless
AC was used. AC could be used successfully only when
by 1946 it was found that a spark ioniser could be made
to stabilize the AC arc. The high-frequency ioniser,
however, could not remove the inherent imbalance
between the voltage on alternate half-cycles, which
resulted in a DC component that tended to saturate the
transformer. This problem was finally overcome by
using large capacitors in series with the arc,
appropriately termed DC suppressors.
These successful developments of the process were
a boon to the fabricators of aluminium and magnesium
and their alloys, especially the aircraft and chemical
industries, because until then no suitable process was
available to weld these alloys. Manual metal-arc welding
is not convenient, because the electrode coatings tend
to be hygroscopic (causing weld metal porosity) and
there is danger of burn-through with thin gauge
material. With this process and with gas welding, there
is always the risk of flux entrapment in the joints, which
can reduce their corrosion resistance. Gas welding
(oxyacetylene welding) is a slow process and gives rise
to uncontrollable distortion. The more concentrated heat
input of the TIG process as compared to gas welding
enables welding speeds to be increased, distortion to
be minimised, and the metallurgical quality of the weld
to be improved.
BASIC EQUIPMENT
The basic TIG equipment is shown in Fig. 5.1. The
essential components are (a) the welding power source
designed to deliver AC or DC or both as required; (b)
welding torch with a tungsten electrode which is gas-
cooled or water-cooled; (c) supply of inert gas; and (d)
controls.
The most important component of all TIG equipment
is the high frequency (HF) unit, by means of which high-
262 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

A
ELECTRODE HOLDER

TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE

GAS
PASSAGES

WELDING INERT
MACHINE GAS
SUPPLY

SHIELOING GAS
WORKPIECE

Fig. 5.1: Schematic representation of basic TIG equipment

frequency high-voltage is superimposed on the welding
current. Due to this, the shielding gas (argon, helium or
their mixture) gets ionised. The electrons which become
free during the process of ionisation form a conducting
path between the workpiece and the tungsten electrode
as shown in Fig. 5.2. Thus the arc can be started without
directly touching the tungsten electrode to the
workpiece. Starting the arc by touching the tungsten
electrode to the workpiece must be avoided as it
contaminates and wears out the electrode tip, and gives
rise to tungsten inclusions in the weld deposit, thereby
degrading the weld metal properties.
In the case of DC TIG welding, once the arc is struck,
the HF superimposition can be cut-off. However, in the
case of AC TIG welding, HF superimposition is required
continuously to improve arc stability. Also in the case
of AC TIG welding, filter capacitor, commonly known
as DC suppressor, has to be connected in series in the
output circuit to improve arc stability. To appreciate its
function in AC TIG welding, the phenomenon called
arc rectification must be understood.
Arc rectification: Electric current flows more readily
in one direction than in the other between the tungsten
electrode and the workpiece. The difference in current

ELECTRODE (-VE)

a) Flow of electrons (- ) is from electrode to the workpiece.

PROTONS-**/ ® ' © / * f B E E ELECTRONS b) Flow of protons (+) is from the workpiece to the electrode.
c) Workpiece gets 66% of the total heat and electrode gets 33%
(A) of the total heat generated.
ELECTRODE (+VE)
a) Flow of electrons (- ) is from workpiece to the electrode.
b) Flow of protons (+) is from the electrode to the workpiece.
ROTONS-*/©
/ © / /S%_
©/ c) Workpiece gets 33% of the total heat and electrode gets 66%
»© ^ / F R E E ELECTRONS of the total heat generated.
(B) ( ^ WORKPIECE / > f l
Fig. 5.2: Electron flow and heat distribution due to polarity condition: (A) Straight polarity; (B) Reverse polarity

flow is considerable with some metals such as
aluminium, magnesium and their alloys. Secondly, this
resistance to current flow in one direction (similar to a
diode action) is greater when heavy oxide film is present
on the base metal. Aluminium oxide shows this
particular property predominantly. (In other words, in
one AC cycle, there is greater resistance to the flow of
current in positive half-cycle than in negative half-cycle.)
This results in rectification of the AC current.
The DC component in the AC current gives rise to
unbalanced AC waveform as shown in Fig. 5.3, which
in turn leads to instability in the arc as explained in Fig.
5.4. Due to unbalanced AC waveform, the positive half-
cycle duration is reduced. The duration of positive half-
cycle is very important for metals like aluminium and
its alloys, which form a heavy refractory oxide film on
the surface, because it helps to disrupt the oxide film.
This oxide scavenging action can be explained as
follows:
+ VE HAtF
DC COMPONENT
, 5.3: Unbalanced AC waveform due to DC
component
ARC CURRENT
RfcSTRIKING VOLTAGE
ARC REIGNITION /
POSITIVE /
-k
HALF CYCLE/
ARC VOLTAGE/
/ARCEXTINGUISHED> / NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE
' \ / small percentage (1 to 2%) of thorium is added in the
OPEN CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 5.4: Arc instability caused by DC component in AC
TIG welding
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 263
During the positive half-cycle, the flow of gas ions
(positively charged) is from the electrode to the
workpiece and the flow of free electrons (due to
ionisation of gas) is from the workpiece to the electrode.
The positively charged gas ions called protons are
attracted to the negatively charged workpiece, and strike
its surface with sufficient force to break up and dislodge
the oxide layer. It should also be noted that the oxide
breaking action with the heavier gas argon (atomic wt.
40), is much more pronounced than with the relatively
lighter helium gas. This explains why argon is always
preferred as a shielding gas for welding aluminium.
Thus, when the positive half-cycle duration is
reduced due to the unbalanced waveform, the oxide
cleaning action becomes less effective leading to arc
instability. In addition, the DC component arising from
arc rectification may cause magnetic saturation of the
core of the main transformer, leading to distortion in
primary currents and overheating.
The DC component can be reduced by connecting a
bank of capacitors of sufficient value in series, in the
welding circuit. These capacitors get charged during the
negative half-cycle by the excess energy, and this
charged energy in the capacitors gets discharged during
the positive half-cycle. Thus a balanced and symmetrical
waveform is obtained. The DC component in the AC
current is actually filtered or suppressed by the capacitor
bank. That is why the capacitors bank is commonly
called filter capacitors or DC suppressor.
The arc rectification phenomenon as explained above
is due to inherent properties of the base metal, and hence
it is called inherent rectification. Arc rectification can
also occur due to other factors, which can be explained
as follows:
When the arc voltage and current are passing
through the zero period, the arc is extinguished. The
voltage necessary for reignition of the arc, i.e. restriking
voltage, depends on many factors, like
1) Temperature of tungsten electrode
2) Temperature of workpiece
3) Surface conditions of workpiece
4) Shielding gas/flow rate.
When the arc voltage becomes zero after passing
through positive half-cycle, restriking of arc takes place
with ease. This is because of electron emission from the
hot tungsten electrode having negative polarity. Also a
tungsten electrode to improve electron emission
properties.
However, when the arc voltage becomes zero after
passing through the negative half-cycle, the electrode
264 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
is having positive polarity, and hence there is no electron
emission. As the workpiece is at lower temperature, it
cannot emit electrons readily. As a result/arc restriking
voltage is higher when arc voltage becomes zero after
passing through negative half-cycle. Exhaustive tests
have shown that during current reversals involving
change from electrode negative to electrode positive,
about 100 to 450 V are required for arc restriking.
So in this case, arc restriking is not easy and the arc
r e m a i n s e x t i n g u i s h e d partially or completely
throughout the positive half-cycle. This gives rise to arc
rectification, which results in unstable, noisy and fluttery
arc, affecting the heat input, penetration as well as bead
shape.
Generally AC w e l d i n g machines designed for
manual metal-arc welding have an OCV of about 70 to
80 V, which is not sufficient to restrike the arc during
every positive half-cycle. Increasing the OCV beyond
80 V is not advisable, due to the potential danger of
electric shock to the operator.
If by means of a suitable auxiliary device, high
voltage pulses can be fed in the welding circuit when
the arc current and voltage passes through zero, the arc
will be rendered smooth and stable and better welding
action will be obtained. In practice, high voltage, high
frequency (HF) pulses (radio frequency) are injected in
the welding circuit by using conventional spark gap
oscillator circuits. The use of HF is advantageous in two
ways:
• A s the high voltage pulses are at radio frequency,
the average power in the pulses is very small. This
eliminates any danger from high voltage shock to the
operators, and it does not affect heat input of the
welding current.
• The high-frequency high-voltage pulses give rise
to a series of accelerated collisions between shielding
gas atoms, which result in complete ionisation of gas.
The free electrons arising from this ionisation form a
c o n d u c t i n g p a t h b e t w e e n the electrode a n d the
workpiece and lead to easy arc starting.
Thus for easy arc starting in the case of DC TIG
welding, HF injection system is required; and for good
arc starting as well as for a smooth and sustained stable
arc in the case of AC TIG welding, wave balancing
system (filter capacitor unit or DC suppressor) and arc
stabilizing system (HF injection device) are essentially
required. These systems form integral parts of all the
TIG controls.
In addition, controls like gas pre-flow, up-slope for
current, gas flow control valve, down-slope control for
current as a crater-filling device, gas post-flow even after
the welding stops, etc., are incorporated in modern
control units.
Gas pre-flow is a must for good quality TIG welding,
as it removes air from the torch and gas hose before the
arc strikes, a n d e n s u r e s complete a n d perfected
shielding of the electrode and base metal even before
the arc is struck and during arc striking.
Up-slope and down-slope controls for current are
sophisticated features especially useful in mechanised
welding applications. Up-slope avoids the initial current
surge, and down-slope minimises the crater formation
at the end of the weld bead.
Gas post-flow is essential for important welding
applications, as it helps to shield the weld puddle at the
end of the weld bead from atmospheric contamination
and protects the hot tip of the tungsten electrode from
oxidation until it cools, thereby extending its life. Safety
controls such as the following may also be provided:
1) Water pressure/flow control safety device. This en-
sures that unless sufficient water-flow with optimum
pressure is built up for the cooling of the water-cooled
torch, the controls will not work.
2) Gas wastage reduction control: After starting the
unit, if the welding operation does not start within the
next 6-8 sec (may be due to bad earthing/negligence of
the operator, etc.), the gas circuit gets cut off automati-
cally, thereby avoiding the wastage of costly shielding
gas.
Power Source
This is either a transformer, a rectifier or a motor
generator set, depending on the application. The power
source characteristic is essentially drooping type, which
means that power sources designed for and used in
manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) can be directly
used for TIG welding. For better arc stability and a
smooth arc, the OCV of the power source should be
between 70 and 80 V (RMS).
TIG TORCHES
The function of the TIG torch is to conduct both the
welding current and the inert gas to the weld zone. The
tungsten electrode which supplies the welding current
is held rigidly in the torch by means of a collet that
screws into the body of the torch. Collets of various sizes
are available to suit the diameter of the electrode to be
used. Gas is fed to the weld zone through a nozzle which
consists of a ceramic cup. Gas cups are threaded into
the torch head and they control the direction and
distribution of the gas. The cups can be interchanged to
suit a variety of gas flow rates. A gas lense is sometimes

fixed on the nozzle to eliminate turbulence of the gas
stream, which tends to pull in air and cause weld
contamination. The gas lense has a permeable barrier
of concentric fine-mesh stainless steel screens that fits
into the nozzle. Fig. 5.5 shows the cross-sectional view
of a water-cooled torch, while Fig. 5.6 shows the
assembled torch along with the ceramic nozzle and the
gas lense.
When gas turbulence is minimum, welding can be
done with the nozzle as far as 25 m m from the
workpiece. This enables the welder to see the weld pool
more clearly and to reach difficult places, such as inside
corners.
Torches for manual TIG welding and for automatic
TIG welding have the same basic construction as
described above, but the manual torch is provided with
a handle in which control switches may be incorporated,
while the automatic torch has no handle and is designed
to be clamped in a holding bracket.
Fig.5.5: Cross-sectional view of a water-cooled torch
WITH INSULATOR
Fig. 5.6: TIG torch using several fine-mesh screens (gas
lenses) to reduce turbulence and produce a smoother
gas flow
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 265
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT
TIG equipment is available in India in the following
three forms:
1) TIG control outfit
2) Complete AC and DC TIG welding system
3) Composite AC/DC TIG welding outfit
1) Control outfit: This outfit is meant for shops in-
tending to utilise their existing AC and DC manual
metal-arc power sources for TIG operations. The outfit
is either an AC/DC or a DC type. The AC/DC type must
be purchased when aluminium, magnesium and their
alloys are to be welded and it must be used in conjunc-
tion with an AC power source, i.e. a welding trans-
former. The DC outfit must be purchased when ferrous
metals and non-ferrous metals, except aluminium, mag-
nesium and their alloys, are to be welded and it must
be used along with a DC power source, such as a weld-
ing generator or rectifier.
Actually, the difference between A C / DC and DC
types is that the former is p r o v i d e d with a DC
suppressor assembly. The A C / DC unit can be used for
the welding of ferrous metals by connecting it to a DC
power source, but in this case the DC suppressor is
disconnected.
The control outfit comprises:
a) A control unit with built-in contactor, HF unit,
water recirculatory unit (in case of water-cooled
models), and DC suppressor (in case of AC/DC units
only). The water recirculatory unit incorporates a
radiator which is cooled by a sturdy axial fan. The water
line is provided with a water pressure switch for positive
protection of the torch against overheating.
b) A suitable welding torch with accessories.
266 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

c) A set of accessories consisting of welding cables, gas
hose, gas regulator-cum-flowmeter, welding helmet and
gloves, set of tungsten electrodes, etc.
In these control outfits, facility for gas pre-flow and
post-flow is provided through an electromagnetic
solenoid valve to ensure perfect shielding and protection
of the electrode tip and weld. The necessary operations
are performed through the torch switch control. The
torch switch consists of the front part and the back part.
The torch, the control unit and the accessories together
form a four-track On/Off system, which operates as
follows:
To start welding
Press back part : Gas is On (i.e. pre-flow starts)
Press front part : Welding contactor is On
HF is On
Gas is On
Release front part : HF is Off (in case of DC)
Welding operation proceeds
To stop welding
Press back part : Welding is Off
Gas flow continues (post-flow)
Release back part : Gas is Off
Table 5.1 provides current ratings of the standard
models of control units. They all are designed for input
supply of 230 V, single-phase 50 cycles. A typical model
of AC/DC control unit is shown in Fig, 5.7.
2) Complete TIG welding system: This system consists
of the above-mentioned control outfit and a matching
power source. It is meant for fabricators wishing to have
TIG equipment with its own exclusive power source.
The AC TIG system, comprising an A C / DC type control
outfit and a welding transformer of matching rating, is
to be used for welding aluminium, magnesium and their
alloys. The DC TIG system consisting of a DC type
control outfit and a welding rectifier of matching rating
is intended for all ferrous metals and for non-ferrous
metals other than those mentioned above.
3) Composite AC/DC TIG welding outfit: This outfit is
principally an A C / D C transformer rectifier unit having
built-in TIG welding controls. It provides easy switch-
over from AC to DC operation, so that it can be used on
ferrous as well as non-ferrous applications. The
composite outfit is therefore an AC TIG system plus a
DC TIG system built into a single unit. It is preferred by
a fabricator who uses the TIG process regularly to weld
the complete range of industrial alloys.
The outfit is available in three models with welding
current ranges (in two overlapping ranges) indicated
below, and is supplied along with a welding torch and
a set of accessories:
Model Current range, Amps.
AC DC
AD-150 25-150 25-120
AD-350 35-350 35-280
AD-500 40-500 40-400
Its salient features are:
a) Facility for gas pre-flow and post-flow through
an electro-magnetic solenoid valve to ensure perfect
shielding and protection of welds. The necessary op-
erations are performed through the four-track On/Off
system as in the case of the control outfits.
b) Built-in high frequency unit and DC suppressor.
c) Built-in liberally designed water recirculatory sys-
tem (in case of water-cooled versions) incorporating a
radiator cooled by a sturdy axial fan.
d) Water pressure switch is incorporated in the wa-
ter line for positive protection of torch.
Table 5.2 gives complete specifications of the three
models. Figure 5.8 shows the finished form of AD-350.
TIG torches: They are either gas-cooled or water-
cooled. The torch head is connected to cable hose
assembly At the other end a suitable coupler is provided

Table 5.1: Ratings of standard TIG control units

Type Model Current ratings
AC, duty cycle DC duty cycle
60% 100% 60% 100%
Amps. Amps. Amps. Amps.
11/15 115 90 150 110
AC/DC 25 250 180 300 230
45/50 450 350 350 380
15 150 110
DC 30 — 300 230
50 500 380
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 267

Fig. 5.8: Finished model of 350-amp AC/DC TIG

equipment
Fig. 5.7: TIG control unit

Table 5.2 Specifications of AC/DC composite outfits

AD-150 AD-350 AD-500

Open-circuit voltage V 80/73 80/73 80/73

Operating voltage V 10-16 10-24 10-30
Max. welding current Amps. 150-120 350/280 500/400
Max. cont. current
@ 60% duty cycle Amps. 115/90 265/210 380/300
@ 100% duty cycle Amps. 90/75 200/160 285/220
Rating max. KVA 13.5 31.5 - 45
@ 60% duty cycle KVA 10.5 24 34
Insulation Class B B B
Cooling Type Forced air Forced air Forced air
Input supply
Voltage V 380/415 380/415 380/415
Phase No. .. .2 lines of 3o supply
Frequency Hz 50 50 50
Recommended switch
Fuse rating Amps. DP 35 DP 85 DE120
Torch Model BTG-15-3 BTW-30-5 BTW-50-5
Cooling (torch) Type Gas Water Water

for connecting the torch to the control unit. The torches
are supplied with a set of accessories. All these torches
incorporate the switch control, which in conjunction
with the control unit and the accessories, provides the
four-track On/Off system explained earlier under
Control Outfits. Table 5.3 gives the specifications of
standard torches.
INERT GASES
Argon is monatomic gas (i.e., its molecule consists
of one atom instead of two atoms in the case of common
gases like oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, etc.). It is extracted
from the atmosphere by liquefaction of air and refined
to 99.9% purity. It is supplied as compressed gas in
cylinders or as a liquid at temperatures below -184°C
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 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 269

Table 5.3: Specifications of TIG torches

Models Type of Current ratings Suitable for Max. length Standard

cooling tungsten of tungsten hose
AC, duty cycle DC, duty cycle electrode electrode length*
60% 100% 60% 100% dia. accommo- (m)
(Amps.) (Amps.) (Amps.) (Amps.) (mm) dated (mm)

A Gas 115 90 150 110 1.6, 2.4, & 3.2 75 3

B Water 270 195 300 225 1.6, 2.4, 3.2 150 5
&4
C Water 400 310 450 350 1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 150 5
4,4.8, & 6.3
*Longer hose lengths can be supplied when required.

in large insulated containers. For bulk storage, the latter
form is preferred, but suitable equipment must be
provided to vaporise the gas for distribution on the shop
floor.
Helium is also a monatomic gas, one-tenth as light
in weight as compared to argon, and is extracted from
natural gas which occurs in a b u n d a n c e in a few
countries including the U.S.A. This explains why helium
is not freely available in India for industrial use. Helium
has an extremely low liquefaction point (-272°C) and is
therefore commonly transported and used as a gas in
high pressure cylinders. Helium has greater thermal
conductivity and hence requires higher arc voltages and
energy inputs than argon. This will be discussed in detail
under Welding Procedures.
Argon purity: There have been instances where TIG
welding problems have been traced to impure argon.
The fabricator m u s t insist on s t a n d a r d argon of
guaranteed purity.
Purity requirements are laid down in IS:5760-1969,
"Specification for Compressed Argon". These are:
Argon % min. 99.967
Oxygen ppm max. 10
Nitrogen ppm max. 300
Hydrogen ppm max. 5 cleaning action with AC. Helium gives a very stable arc
Carbon dioxide and other carbon
compounds determined as 0 2 ppm max. 5
Water vapour, mg/1, max. 0.0056
In the Appendix of the above standard are described
the methods of determining these impurities in a
chemical laboratory. The percentage of argon is obtained
by deducting from 100 the sum of the percentage of
impurities.
Density of argon is 1.33 times that of air and ten times
that of helium. After emerging from the torch nozzle,
argon forms a blanket over the welding area and
provides an effective shield. Being lighter, helium tends
to rise in a turbulent manner around the arc. For effective
shielding, the flow rate of helium needs to be two to
three times that of argon.
Another important feature of helium is that, it gives
appreciably higher arc voltages for a given arc length
and welding current as compared to argon as shown in
Fig. 5.9. Since the arc energy is given by V x A (where V
is arc voltage and A is current), this means that the
helium arc is hotter than the argon arc. Helium is
therefore preferred over argon for welding thick
materials and those having high thermal conductivity
(such as copper) or high melting points, and for high
speed mechanised welding.
Figure 5.9 also shows that for welding thin materials
in the current range of 50-150 amps, argon has a
pronounced edge on helium and provides the operator
with more latitude in arc length to control the welding
operation.
Another point of distinction is that argon gives
equally good arc stability on AC and DC, and good
with DC, but with AC the arc stability and cleaning
action are poor. Therefore, w h e n aluminium and
magnesium are welded with AC, argon is always
preferred.
Mixtures of argon and helium with up to 75% helium
content are used when some balance between the
characteristics of both is desired.
Argon-hydrogen mixture: Addition of hydrogen to
argon increases the arc voltage and provides benefits
270 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
0 50 100 150
ARC CURRENT A
Fig. 5.9: Voltage-current relationship with argon and helium shielding
similar to helium. Mixture with 5% H 2 sometimes helps
to get cleaner welds with manual TIG welding. Mixture
with 15% H 2 is used for high speed mechanised welding
of tight butt joints in stainless steel u p to 1.6 m m
thickness. It is also used for welding stainless steel beer
barrels and tube to tube-sheet joints in various stainless
steel types and nickel alloys. Mixture with 35% H 2 can
be used on all thicknesses of stainless steel if root gap in
the joint is kept within 0.25-0.50 mm. Excessive use of
H2 must be avoided as it causes porosity. The use of these
mixtures is restricted to stainless steels, nickel-copper
and nickel alloys. On other metals, hydrogen produces
unfavourable effects.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen is sometimes added to argon for
welding copper and copper alloys and pure nitrogen is
sometimes used as a purging gas while welding stainless
steel. The term purging is explained later. Besides argon
and helium, many other inert gases including neon,
xenon and krypton exist in nature, but they are scarce
and very expensive.
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES
Tungsten is preferred for electrode material, because
it is a refractory metal (i.e. highly resistant to heat), has
a high melting point (3,410°C) and is a strong emitter of
electrons which stream across the arc path, ionise it and
thus facilitate the maintenance of a stable arc. Among
several refractory metals, tungsten has the best resis-
tance to erosion in use. When carefully used, a tungsten
electrode lasts a long time and hence it is justifiably
called non-consumable. It, however, oxidises readily at
the extremely high temperatures reached at the root of
the arc, unless it is protected with a shield of inert gas.
200 250 300 350 400
Classification and r e q u i r e m e n t s for t u n g s t e n
electrodes are given in AWS A5.12-80, "Specification
for Tungsten Arc Welding Electrodes". Table 5.4,
r e p r o d u c e d from this specification, specifies the
chemistry of five standard classes of electrodes.
Tungsten electrodes are commonly supplied in the
diameter range of 0.25-6.35 mm and in lengths ranging
from 76 to 610 mm with either clean or ground finish.
Clean finish means that after the drawing or swaging
operation, the surface impurities are removed by
chemical cleaning. Ground finish means that the surface
impurities are removed by grinding.
Pure tungsten electrodes are less expensive, have a
relatively low current carrying capacity and low
resistance to contamination. They are generally used on
less critical applications Compared to pure tungsten
electrodes, thoriated ones have higher emissivity, better
current carrying capacity, longer life and greater
resistance to contamination. With these electrodes, arc
striking is easier and the arc is more stable.
Zirconiated electrodes have properties intermediate
between the above two. Sometimes in welding with AC,
they are found to work better than the others.
Approximate current ranges for various classes and
sizes of electrodes are given in Table 5.5, bearing in mind
that the current carrying capacity of an electrode is also
affected by the design of the electrode holder, the
extension of the electrode from the holder and the
position of welding.
It is evident from Table 5.5 that very high welding
currents can be used when the tungsten electrode is
negative, while the current values have to be severely
restricted when the electrode is positive. This is because
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 271

Table 5.4: Chemical requirements of electrodes

AWS Tungsten, Thoria, Zirconia, Total other

classification min. % (by difference) /o 0/
/o
elements, max. %
EWP 99.5 — — 0.5
EWTh-1 98.5 0.8 to 1.2 — 0.5
EWTh-2 97.5 1.7 to 2.2 — 0.5
EWTh-3 98.95 0.35 to 0.55 — 0.5
EWZr 99.2 — 0.15 to 0.40 0.5

Note: EWTh-3 is a tungsten electrode with an integral lateral segment throughout its length, which contains 1.0 to 2.0 thoria. The average thoria
content of the electrode is as specified in this table

Table 5.5 : Typical current ranges for tungsten electrodes3

Direct current, Amps. Alternating current, Amps.

Straight Reverse 1Unbalanced wave Balanced wave
polarity polarity
Electrode EWP *' EWP
diameter EWTh-1 EWTh-1 EWTh-1 EWTh-1
mm EWTh-2 EWTh-2 EWTh-2 EWTh-2
EWTh-3 EWTh-3 EWP EWzr EWTh-3 EWP EWZr EWTh-3
0.26 up to 15 b up to 15 up to 15 b up to 15 up to 15 b
0.51 5-20 b 5-15 5-20 b 10-20 5-20 10-20
1.02 15-80 b 10-60 15-80 10-80 20-30 20-60 20-60
1.59 70-150 10-20 50-100 70-150 50-150 30-80 60-120 30-120
2.38 150-250 15-30 100-160 140-235 100-235 60-130 100-180 60-180
3.18 250-400 25-40 150-210 225-325 150-325 100-180 160-250 100-250
3.97 400-500 40-55 200-275 300-400 200-400 160-240 200-320 160-320
4.76 500-750 55-80 250-350 400-500 250-500 190-300 290-390 190-390
6.35 750-1000 80-125 325-450 500-630 325-630 250-400 340-525 250-525
a. All values are based on the use of argon as the shielding gas.
Other current values may be employed depending on the shielding gas, type of equipment,
and application.
b. These combinations are not commonly used.

66% of the total heat in a tungsten arc is generated at
the positive pole called anode and only 33% at the
negative pole called cathode as shown in Fig. 5.2. This
means that an electrode can carry a much higher current
without overheating when it is negative than when it is
positive. The table also shows that the DC capacity of
an electrode when it is negative is greater than its AC
capacity, and the AC capacity with an unbalanced wave
is more than it is with a balanced wave.
Tungsten has very low electrical conductivity, and
therefore, heats up when current is passed through it.
When welding with tungsten electrodes, the arc tip
should be the only hot part of the electrode; the
remainder should be kept as cool as possible. One
method of preventing electrode overheating is to keep
the extension of the electrode from the collet short. If
the extension is too long, even a relatively low current
can cause the electrode to overheat and melt above the
terminus of the arc. Conversely, if the current density is
too low, the arc will be erratic and unstable.
Often one can employ a small range of electrode
diameters to operate over a wide range of currents by
BASE METAL
BACKING BAR
RELIEF GROOVE
FOR SHIELDING GAS
Fig. 5.10: A simple set-up for argon purging
272 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 5.6: Tungsten electrode tip shapes and current ranges
Electrode Dia. at
dia, mm tip, mm
1.04 0.125
1.04 0.25
1.60 0.5
1.60 0.8
2.4 0.8
2.4 1.1
3.2 1.1
3.2 1.5
shaping or tapering them to a small tip diameter. Table
5.6 serves as a guide for electrode tip preparation for
four commonly used electrode sizes with recommended
current ranges.
The following general recommendations from AWS A5.
12-80 will help to get the best out of tungsten electrodes:
a) The appropriate current (type and magnitude)
should be selected for the electrode size to be used. Too
high a current will cause excessive melting, dripping,
or volatilisation of the electrode. Too low a current will
cause cathode bombardment and erosion due to the low
temperature and result in arc instability.
b) The electrode should be properly broken or
ground tapered by following the supplier's suggested
procedures. Improper breaking may cause a jagged end
or a bent electrode, which usually results in a poorly
shaped arc and excessive electrode overheating.
c) The electrodes should be carefully handled and
kept as clean as possible. In order to obtain maximum
cleanliness, they should be stored in their original pack-
age until used.
d) The shielding gas flow should be maintained not
only when welding, but also after the arc is broken and
until the electrode cools. When the electrodes are prop-
erly cooled, the arc end will appear bright or polished:
when improperly cooled, they may oxidise and will
appear to have a coloured film on their arc end, which
can, unless removed, affect the weld quality on subse-
quent welds. All connections, both gas and water, should
be checked for tightness.
e) The electrode extension within the gas shielding
pattern should be kept to a minimum, generally dic-
tated by the application and equipment. This is to en-
sure protection of the electrode by the gas, even at lower
gas-flow rates.
f) C o n t a m i n a t i o n of the electrode should be
avoided. Contact between the hot electrode and the base
""Tables 5.7 to 5.15 are taken from Metals Handbook, Vol. 6 published by American society for metals.
DC, electrode -ve
Included Steady current Pulsed current
angle, 0 range, Amps. range, Amps.
12 2-15 2-25
20 5-30 5-60
25 8-50 8-100
30 10-70 10-140
35 12-90 12-180
45 15-150 15-250
60 20-200 20-300
90 25-250 25-350
metal or welding rod, and maintenance of an insuffi-
cient shielding gas flow are causes of contamination.
g) The equipment and, in particular, the shielding
gas nozzle should be kept clean and free of weld spat-
ter. A dirty nozzle adversely influences the gas shield.
This contributes to improper gas-flow patterns and arc
wandering, which can result in poor quality. It may also
contribute to excessive electrode consumption.
Argon purging or backing: In welding thin sheets, the
underside of the joint can become hot enough to oxidise
and produce a rough penetration bead. The argon gas
from the torch, which adequately shields the top of the
base metal, cannot give any protection to the lower or
penetration side. For high quality work, argon backing
or purging is necessary to ensure smooth penetration bead
and uncontaminated base metal. This is accomplished
by introducing argon atmosphere into the relief groove
of a backing bar as shown in Figs. 5.10 and 5.12.
TIG WELDING PROCEDURES*
Stainless steels: TIG process is well suited for welding
the entire range of stainless steels, because the chemistry
of the filler metal remains almost unaltered when it is
converted into weld metal. In the absence of flux and
active gases, gas-metal reactions and slag-metal reactions
in the arc are totally absent and hence the weld is free
from non-metallic inclusions.
Alloying elements from the filler metal are almost
wholly transferred across the arc to the weld metal
including titanium, used as a stabiliser. (It may be
mentioned here that titanium cannot be transferred across
the arc in flux-shielded processes, because this element
has extremely high affinity for oxygen and passes off into
the slag as an oxide.) Because the satisfactory service
behaviour of stainless steel welds depends largely on close
tolerances of chemistry, TIG welding is the ideal process
in many instances, whether a filler metal is used or not.
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 273

TIG welding is best suited for metal thickness of 6.4
mm and below. It can be used in all positions. DC from
a constant-current type power source is used with
electrode negative to deposit a narrow, deep-penetration
weld.
For initiating the arc, scratch starting should be
avoided as the weld gets contaminated with tungsten.
High-frequency starting must be used. The electrode
commonly used is EWTh- 2 (i.e. alloyed with 2% thoria),
because of its excellent current-carrying capacity and arc
stability. While welding, the electrode tip must not be
allowed to come into contact with the molten puddle.
Argon is preferred to helium or argon-helium mixture.
Table 5.7 shows joint designs and welding parameters
for welding austenitic stainless steel in the thickness range
of 1.6-12.7 mm.
Heat-resisting alloys: These alloys can be divided into
four groups as follows:
a) Solid-solution nickel-base alloys such as Hastelloys,
Inconel 600, 601 and 625.
b) Precipitation-hardenable nickel-base alloys such as
Inconel 700, 702, 706, 722 and Rene 41 and Udimet 700.

Table 5.7: TIG welding procedures for stainless steel

Type of joint Electrode Welding curr., amps Arc travel Filler rod Argon
and weld dia., mm electrode negative speed dia. flow rate
(Ref. Page 274) F V O mm/min mm 1/min

Base metal: t = 1.6 mm

Butt, A or B 1.6 80 to 100 70 to 90 70 to 90 305 1.6 4.7
Lap, F or G 1.6 100 to 120 80 to 100 80 to 100 255 1.6 4.7
Corner, H 1.6 80 to 100 70 to 90 70 to 90 305 1.6 4.7
T or corner, E or J 1.6 90 to 100 80 to 100 80 to 100 255 1.6 4.7
Base metal: t = 2.4 mm
Butt, A or B 1.6 6100 to 120 90 to 110 90 to 110 305 1.6, 2.4 4.7
Lap, F or G 1.6 110 to 130 100 to 120 100 to 120 255 1.6, 2.4 4.7
Corner, H 1.6 100 to 120 90 to 110 90 to 110 305 1.6, 2.4 4.7
T or corner, E or J 1.6 110 to 130 100 to 120 100 to 120 255 1.6, 2.4 4.7
Base metal: t = 3.2 mm
Butt, A or B 1.6 120 to 140 110 to 130 105 to 125 305 2.4 4.7
Lap, F or G 1.6 130 to 150 120 to 140 120 to 140 255 2.4 4.7
Corner, H 1.6 120 to 140 110 to 130 115 to 135 305 2.4 4.7
T or corner, E or J 1.6 130 to 150 115 to 135 120 to 140 255 2.4 4.7
Base metal: t = 4.8 mm
Butt, A or B 2.4 200 to 250 150 to 200 150 to 200 255 2.4, 3.2 7
Lap, G 2.4, 3.2 225 to 275 175 to 225 175 to 225 203 2.4, 3.2 7
Corner, H 2.4 200 to 250 150 to 200 150 to 200 255 2.4, 3.2 7
T or corner, E or J 2.4,3.2 225 to 275 175 to 225 175 to 225 203 2.4, 3.2 7
Base metal: t = 6.3 mm
Butt, A or B 3.2 275 to 350 200 to 250 200 to 250 127 2.4 to 4.8 7
Lap, G 3.2 300 to 375 225 to 275 225 to 275 127 2.4 to 4.8 7
Corner, H 3.2 275 to 350 200 to 250 200 to 250 127 2.4 to 4.8 7
T or corner, E or K 3.2 300 to 375 225 to 275 225 to 275 127 2.4 to 4.8 7
Base metal: t: = 12.7 mm
Butt, C or D 3.2, 4.8 350 to 450 225 to 275 225 to 275 76 3.2 to 6.3 7
Lap, G 3.2, 4.8 375 to 475 230 to 280 230 to 280 76 3.2 to 6.3 7
T or corner, E or K 3.2,4.8 375 to 475 230 to 280 230 to 280 76 3.2 to 6.3 7
274 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

t (max)

-i I-

A—Square butt, no root gap B—Square butt, root gap = t

rZ-y
1.6 MM
T
C—Single-V butt with root face = 1.6 mm and no root D—Double-V butt with root face = 3 mm
gap

**&** \

E—Double fillet T joint F—Double concavefilletin lap joint

r^~nat
G—Double convex fillet in Up joint H—Square butt in corner joint

• 50*

J—Square butt in corner joint with root gap r t K—Single-V butt in corner joint
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 275

c) Fe-Ni-Cr and Fe-Cr-Ni alloys such as Incoloy 800,
801, 802 and 901.
d) Cobalt-base alloys such as HS-21, 25, 31 and 188.
TIG process is commonly used for the welding of
heat-resisting alloys in thicknesses less than 6.3 mm.
Argon is generally preferred, but argon-helium mixtures
may be used for thicker sections and for higher speeds
in thinner sections. DC with electrode negative is used.
Table 5.8 is intended as a guide to setting up correct
procedures for welding butt, corner or T-joints. For fully
penetrated T-joints, the current may be increased by 10
to 20 amps. Interpass temperature during welding is
not allowed to rise above 90°C. Oscillation of the
welding torch sometimes helps to prevent cracking by
changing the solidification pattern and to improve the
surface finish of the weld bead. Edge preparation and
joint fit-up need special care. Joint surfaces should be
perfectly free from paint, grease, oil, oxide film and scale.
When foreign matter containing sulphur and lead is
present on the surface, heating may result in severe
cracks due to the diffusion of these elements into the
base metal. The need for cleanliness in handling the plate
material cannot be overemphasised.
Group (a) alloys (i.e. Ni-Cr and Ni-Mo types) are
welded in the annealed condition and need no postheat
treatment. Alloys of group (b) need to be correctly heat
treated before and after welding to prevent cracking in
the weld metal or HAZ. Group (c) alloys are easily
welded by the TIG process without the need for preheat
and postheat, p r o v i d e d m i n i m u m heat i n p u t
commensurate with the base metal thickness and filler
metal diameter is used. For cobalt-base alloys of group
(d), the smallest diameter of 2% thoriated tungsten
electrode that will carry adequate current should be
used. For sound welds, argon flow rate should be on
the higher side (7 to 11.81/min), with additional argon
for weld backing fed at the rate of 2.4 to 4.8 1/min.
Aluminium alloys: These alloys are almost entirely
welded by the inert-gas shielded processes, i.e. TIG and
MIG, because they need no flux and give optimum weld
metal quality. When oxyacetylene welding or brazing
with flux is used for joining, flux residues may remain
in difficult-to-reach places and internal surfaces which
may be totally inaccessible, resulting in premature
corrosion. Besides absence of flux, welding in all
positions is easy with the TIG process, because there is
no slag to be negotiated and washed out later.
The thickness range commonly welded by the TIG
process is 1-9.5 mm for manual welding and 0.25-25 mm
for mechanised welding.
AC is used for Al welding as mentioned earlier,
because it provides the o p t i m u m combination of
current-carrying capacity, arc controllability and arc
cleaning action. The power source is usually a single-
phase welding transformer with an open-circuit voltage
of 80-100 V, which is primarily meant for manual metal-
arc welding. The oxide layer also gives rise to some arc
rectification during the reverse polarity half of the AC
cycle, which results in poor arc stability and possible
overheating of the transformer. To overcome this
problem, filter capacitor (called DC suppressor) is
inserted in the power circuit as pointed out earlier.
The suitable electrodes are p u r e tungsten or
zirconiated tungsten. The latter are preferred, because
they are less prone to contamination by aluminium and
have slightly higher current capacities. The electrode
tip should be hemispherical as shown in Fig. 5.11. The
tip is prepared by using an electrode one size larger than
required for the welding current, taper grinding the tip
and forming the hemispherical end by welding for a
few seconds with a current 20 amps higher than needed
and holding the electrode vertically up. Contamination
of the electrode by aluminium occurs occasionally. Slight
contamination can be burned off by using high current

Table 5.8 :: TIG welding procedijres for heat -resisting alloys

Base metal Filler wire Electrode Shielding Flow rate Current
t, mm dia, mm dia, mm gas 1/mm Amps.
0.25 0.50 1.0-1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 10-15
0.50 0.75 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 15-25
075 0.75, 1.15 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 25-35
1.15 1.15 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 40-50
1.27 1.15 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 45-55
1.52 1.15 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 55-65
2.0 1.52 1.5 Ar 5.6 to 7 75-85
2.54 1.52, 2.3 2.35 Ar or He 5.6 to 7 95-105
3.3 1.52, 2.3 2.35 Ar or He 5.6 to 7 110-135
6.3 1.52, 2.3 2.35 Ar or He 5.6 to 7 130-200
276 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
and holding the arc on scrap metal. Excessive
contamination should be removed by grinding or by
cutting off the end and reforming the tip to the shape
shown in Fig. 5.11. Argon is the usual shielding gas, but
helium or argon-helium mixture is sometimes used to
weld thick sections at high speeds, since it gives a more
penetrating arc.
Jr^rLJL 3/4d
Fig. 5.11: Shaping of electrode tip for Al welding
In TIG welding of aluminium alloys, a band of white
deposit appears alongside the weld bead. Chemical
analysis has revealed it to be aluminium oxide. It is
believed to be caused by the emission of electrons from
the surface of the aluminium when it is negative
cathode. The electrons detach the oxide from the surface
as they fly off. When the deposit band is of hairline
width, it indicates that the shielding is just adequate. If
the band is wider, it means that the gas flow is too much
and gas is being wasted.
Aluminium is a good conductor of heat and hence
calls for preheat when the base metal thickness exceeds
6.3 mm. At 6.3 mm thickness, preheat is optional
depending on the arc energy. For welding 9.5 mm thick
material in the flat position, it is up to 200°C. For welding
9.5 mm thick material in other positions and for welding
12.7 mm thick material in all positions, the preheat
temperature may be as high as 315°C.
Table 5.9: Butt welds in aluminium using AC
3 C
■ 0 to 3 mm
Vvy
(CHVO)
0 110°
0-4.8 -H H—T
0 to 4.8 mm
(FHV)
Same as E-but
groove angle 90°
(H)
Parameters for welding butt joints in the thickness
range of 1.6-12.7 mm are given in Table 5.9, and those
for welding tee and lap joints are given in Table 5.10.
Copper and copper alloys: TIG is the most widely used
process for these materials, because of its intense
localised heat source, good control and suitability for
use with or without filler metal. Sections up to 3.25 mm
thickness are welded easily, though sections up to 12.7
mm thickness can be welded satisfactorily. For
thicknesses above 12.7 mm, MIG is the suitable process.
In spite of the high thermal conductivity of these
materials, TIG process is able to give complete fusion
of the joints with minimum heating of the surroundings.
In welding precipitation-hardened Cu-alloys, HAZ
must be kept narrow and this is possible with the TIG
process.
Sections up to 3.25 mm thick are square butt welded
without using filler wire or preheat. For higher
thicknesses, both filler wire and preheat are necessary.
DC with electrode negative is used, because it enables
one to use a smaller size electrode for a given amperage,
and produces maximum penetration. For beryllium
coppers and aluminium bronzes, AC stabilised by high
frequency is used to avoid the formation of tenacious
oxide films on these alloys.
The range of wrought Cu and Cu-alloys commonly
TIG welded are described in Table 5.11.
Pure copper, unless it has been deoxidised with
phosphorus, silicon, aluminium, iron or manganese,
contains oxygen in the form of gas or cuprous oxide,
which causes porosity and reduces the strength of welds.
For best results, one must use deoxidised coppers,
because they are free from cuprous oxide and contain
residual phosphorus. Phosphorus combines with
| 1.6 m m V / ° t 0 4*8 Tgt
M i M i i 1 , : * ;2.4 mm
1 6.3 mm19 mm | f
i-r 38 mm
(FV)
Same as F but
groove angle 110°
and inverted for (o)
overhead welding
Table 5.9: Contd.
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 277

Table 5.9: Contd.

Argon
Metal Joint Welding Elect- Filler Current Number
thick- design position rode metal Nozzle Flow rate AC, of
ness, (see above) (b) diameter, diameter, diameter 1 / mm Amps. passes
mm mm mm mm
1.6 A F 1.6 2.4 9.5 9.5 70
A H,V 1.6 2.4 9.5 9.5 70
A O 1.6 2.4 9.5 11.8 60
2.4 A F 2.4 3.2 9.5 9.5 95
A H,V 2.4 2.4 9.5 9.5 85
A O 2.4 2.4 9.5 11.8 90
3.2 A F 3.2 3.2 11.0 9.5 125
A H,V 2.4 3.2 9.5 9.5 115
A O 2.4 3.2 9.5 11.8 120
4.8 B F 3.2 4.0 11.0 11.8 175 2
C H 3.2 4.0 11.0 11.8 160 2
B V 3.2 4.0 11.0 11.8 160 2
D O 3.2 4.0 11.0 14.0 170 2
6.3 B F 4.8 4.8 12.7 14.0 225 2
C H 4.0 4.8 12.7 14.0 200 2
B V 4.0 4.8 12.7 14.0 200 2
D O 4.8 4.8 12.7 16.5 215 2
9.5 B F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 325 2
E F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 360 2
F F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 325 3
C H 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 250 3
E H 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 2
G H 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 250 4
B V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 250 3
E V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 2
F V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 250 4
D o 4.8 4.8 15.9 19.0 275 3
H o 4.8 4.8 15.9 19.0 275 3
12.7 B F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 350 3
E F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 400 3
F F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 350 4
C H 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 3
E G 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 270 3
G H 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 4
B V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 3
E V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 270 3
F V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 260 4
D o 6.3 4.8 15.9 19.0 280 3
H o 6.3 4.8 15.9 19.0 280 4
Note: Welding speed is 200 mm/minfor all metal thicknesses except 3.2 and 4.8 mm for which it is 250 mm/min.
278 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.10: TIG welding parameters for T and lap joints

Metal Welding Elect- Filler Argon Current Welding
thickness, position rode metal Nozzle Flow (AC) Preheat Speed, No. of
mm (a) diameter, diameter, diameter, rate, Amps. temp., mm/min passes
mm mm mm 1 / min °C
~L6 F L6 Z4 95 95 80 None 200
H,V 1.6 2.4 9.5 9.5 80 None 200
O 1.6 2.4 9.5 11.8 70 None 200
2.4- F 3.2 2.4 9.5 9.5 120 None 200
H,V 2.4 2.4 9.5 9.5 100 None 200
O 2.4 2.4 9.5 11.8 110 None 200
3.2 F 3.2 3.2 11.0 9.5 150 None 250
H,V 2.4 3.2 9.5 9.5 120 None 200
O 2.4 3.2 9.5 11.8 135 None 200
4.8 F 4.0 4.0 12.7 11.8 215 None 200
H,V 3.2 4.0 11.0 11.8 180 None 200
O 4.0 4.0 11.0 14.0 190 None 200
6.3 F 4.8 4.8 12.7 14.0 260 Optional 200 2
H,V 4.8 4.8 12.7 14.0 235 Optional 200 1
O 4.8 4.8 12.7 16.5 240 Optional 200 1
9.5 F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 345 up to 200 200 2
H,V 4.8 4.8 15.9 16.5 290 up to 315 200 2
O 4.8 4.8 15.9 19.0 290 up to 315 200 3
12.7 F 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 375 up to 315 200 3
H,V 6.3 4.8 15.9 16.5 300 up to 315 200 3
O 6.3 4.8 15.9 19.0 310 up to 315 200 3

oxygen absorbed during welding and thus prevents the
formation of cuprous oxide.
Copper alloys sometimes contain free-machining
additives like lead, tellurium and sulphur, which make
them susceptible to hot cracking during welding.
Presence of zinc in brasses and nickel silvers reduces
their weldability, and its adverse effect increases in
proportion to the amount present. Zinc vapours are
toxic, and hence the welder must be protected from them
during the welding operation. Presence of tin in tin
brasses and phosphor bronzes (up to 10% max.) has no
effect on weldability. Its vapours are also less toxic.
Beryllium, aluminium and nickel, especially the first
two, form tenacious oxide films on the plate material,
which must be scrupulously removed by cleaning before
welding. The oxide formation on the plate due to heat
during welding must be controlled by gas shielding or
by fluxes in conjunction with the use of AC. High-
strength beryllium coppers containing 1.7% and 1.9%
Be are more easily weldable than high conductivity Be-
Cu.
A l u m i n i u m bronzes and silicon bronzes have
excellent weldability. The latter are the most easily
weldable among the alloys, because of the deoxidising
and fluxing action of silicon and the low thermal
conductivity of silicon bronzes.
Iron and manganese are often present in small
a m o u n t s , b u t they h a v e no significant effect on
weldability.
Welding parameters for various types and sizes of
joints in commercial coppers are given in Table 5.12.
Welding parameters for various types and sizes of
joints and welding positions in silicon bronzes are given
in Table 5.13.
Phosphor bronzes: These alloys in wrought form up
to 12 mm thick are easily TIG welded. The process is
also suitable for repairing or joining phosphor bronze
castings. Alloys with tin content of 5% or above have
comparatively low thermal conductivity, and can be
welded without preheat when the sections are up to 3.2
mm thick. The alloy, 1.25% E, containing 1.3% tin has
nearly four times the thermal conductivity of the other
three and demands higher current or lower travel speed
for welding.
Aluminium bronzes: These alloys up to 9.5 mm thick
are readily welded by the TIG process. The process is
also used for repair welding of Al-bronze castings. Iron,
manganese or nickel are included in the base metal or
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 279

Table 5.11: Welding of copper alloys with TIG process

Alloy Name Nominal chemistry, % Weldability

Of and ETP Coppers
Oxygen-free copper (OF) 99.95 Cu G
Electrolytic tough pitch copper (ETP) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 0 2 F
Deoxidised Coppers
Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, low-P (DLP) 99.9 Cu, 0.008 P E
Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, high-P (DHP) 99.9 Cu, 0.02 P E
Beryllium Coppers
High-conductivity beryllium copper, 0.6% 96.9 Cu, 0.06 Be, 2.5 Co F
High-strength beryllium copper, 1.75% 98.3 Cu, 1.7 Be G
High-strength beryllium copper, 1.9% 98.1 Cu, 1.9 Be G
Low-Zinc Brasses
Gilding, 95% 95 Cu, 5 Zn G
Commercial bronze, 90% 90 Cu, 10 Zn G
Red brass, 85% 85 Cu, 15 Zn G
Low brass, 80% 80 Cu, 20 Zn G
High-Zinc Brasses
Cartridge brass, 70% 70 Cu, 30 Zn F
Yellow brass, 65% 65 Cu, 35 Zn F
Muntz metal, 60% 60 Cu, 40 Zn F
Tin Brasses
Admiralty 71 Cu, 38 Zn, 1 Sn F
Naval brass 60 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn F
Special Brasses
Manganese bronze A 58.5 Cu, 39 Zn, 1.4 Fe, 1 Sn, 0.1 Mn F
Aluminium brass, arsenical 77.5 Cu, 20.5 Zn, 2 Al (0.06 As) F
Nickel Silvers
Nickel silver, 65-10 65 Cu, 25 Zn, 10 Ni F
Nickel silver, 65-18 65 Cu, 17 Zn, 18 Ni F
Nickel silver, 65-15 65 Cu, 20 Zn, 15 Ni F
Nickel silver, 65-12 65 Cu, 23 Zn, 12 Ni F
Nickel silver, 55-18 55 Cu, 27 Zn, 18 Ni F
Phosphor Bronzes
Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E 98.7 Cu, 1.3 Sn (0.2 P) G
Phosphor bronze, 5% A 95 Cu, 5 Sn (0.2 P) G
Phosphor bronze, 8% C 92 Cu, 8 Sn (0.2 P) G
Phosphor bronze, 10% D 90 Cu, 10 Sn (0.2 P) G
Aluminium Bronzes
Aluminium bronze D, Sn-stabilised 89 Cu, 7 Al, 3.5 Fe (0.35 Sn) G
Aluminium bronze D 91 Cu, 6-8 Al, 1.5-3.5 Fe, 1 max Mn G
Silicon Bronzes
Low-silicon bronze B 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si E
Low-silicon bronze A 97 Cu, 3 Si E
Copper Nickels
Copper nickel, 10% 88.6 Cu, 9-11 Ni, 1.4 Fe, 1.0 Mn E
Copper nickel, 30% 70 Cu, 30 Ni E

Note: E = excellent; G - good; F =fair.

280 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.12:: Nominal conditions for TIG welding of commercial coppers

Work-metal Root Electrode Diameter Shielding Gas-flow Current Travel Number Preheat
thickness, opening, diameter, of welding gas (c) rate, Amps. speed, of temperature,
mm mm (b) mm rod, mm 1/mm mm/min passes °C
Butt joints-Square groove
1.6 0 1.6 not req. Argon 7.0 110 to 140 600 1 None
3.2 0 2.4 not req. Argon 7.0 175 to 225 550 1 None
3.2 3.2 2.4 2.4, 3.2 Argon 7.0 175 to 225 550 1 None
4.8 4.8 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 190 to 225 500 1 95
Butt joints-—160° Single-V groove, 1.6 mm Root face
6.3 1.6 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 225 to 260 450 1 150
9.5 1.6 max. 4.8 4.8 Helium 19.0 280 to 320 2 260
Lap joints —Fillet welded (e)
1.6 0 1.6 1.6 Argon 7.0 130 to 150 500 1 None
3.2 0 2.4 2.4, 3.2 Argon 7.0 200 to 250 450 1 None
4.8 0 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 205 to 250 400 1 95
6.3 0 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 250 to 280 350 1 150
9.5 0 4.8 4.8 Helium 19.0 300 to 340 - 3 260
Outside corner joints—Square groove
3.2 1.6 max. 2.4 2.4, 3.2 Argon 7.0 175 to 225 550 1 None
4.8 4.8 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 190 to 225 500 1 95
6.3 4.8 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 225 to 260 450 1 150
9.5 6.3 max. 4.8 4.8 Helium 19.0 280 to 320 - 2 260
Outside corner joints—50° Single-Bevel groove, 1.6 mmi Root face
4.8 1.6 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 205 to 250 400 1 95
6.3 1.6 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 250 to 280 350 1 150
9.5 1.6 max. 4.8 4.8 Helium 19.0 280 to 320 . . 3 260
Inside corner joints Square groove, Fillet welded
3.2 3.2 max. 2.4 2.4,3.2 Argon 7.0 200 to 250 450 None
T-joint —Fillet welded
3.2 1.6 max. 2.4 2.4, 3.2 Argon 7.0 200 to 250 450 1 None
4.8 1.6 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 205 to 250 400 1 95
6.3 1.6 max. 3.2 3.2 Helium 14.0 250 to 280 350 1 150
9.5 1.6 max. 4.8 4.8 Helium 19.0 300 to 340 - 3 260

Note: Using EWTh-2 electrodes, RCu, welding rod, and straight-polarity direct current

filler metal chemistry to avoid weld porosity. Since the
thermal conductivity of these alloys is nearly the same
as that of carbon steel, heat input requirements are not
high and preheating is normally not required for sections
up to 9.5 mm thick.
In addition to argon, a special flux may be applied
to the joint edges to increase weld metal fluidity and
prevent oxidation of the base metal due to welding heat.
AC stabilised by high frequency is preferred.
Parameters for welding Al-bronzes are given in Table
5.14. Preheating is not required for the thicknesses covered.
Nickel alloys: Most of the nickel alloys are either solid-
solution (i.e. non-age-hardenable) type or precipitation-
hardenable type. Examples of the former type are Monel 404
(55 Ni, 44 Cu) and Monel 400 (66 Ni, 31.5 Cu, 0.90 Mn,
1.35 Fe). Examples of the latter are Monel K-500 and Monel
502, which are Ni-Cu alloys with controlled amounts of Ti
and Al.
Nickel and nickel alloy material (i.e. joint edges as
well as the surrounding metal) must be completely free
from impurities such as grease, oil, paint, marking
crayons or inks, lubricants used for forming, cutting
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 281

Table 5.13: Nominal conditions for TIG welding of silicon bronzes

Plate Current, Electrode Travel Diameter of Shielding-gas Number
thickness, Amps. diameter, speed, welding rod, flow rate, of
mm mm mm/min mm 1 / mm passes
Manual Welding
Square-groove butt joints, flat position
1.6 100 to 120 1.6 600 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 130 to 150 1.6 600 2.4 7.0 1
4.8 150 to 200 2.4 - 3.2 9.5 1
6.3 250 to 300 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 1
6.3 150 to 200 2.4 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
Square-groove butt joints, vertical and overhead positions
1.6 90 to 110 1.6 - 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 120 to 140 1.6 - 2.4 7.0 1
60° Single -V-groove butt joints, flat position
9.5 230 to 280 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3 to 4
12.7 250 to 300 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 4 to 5
19.0 300 to 350 3.2 - 4.8 9.5 9 to 10
25.0 300 to 350 3.2 - 4.8, 6.3 9.5 13
Fillet-welded lap joints, vertical and overhead positions
1.6 110 to 130 1.6 500 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 1.40 to 160 1.6, 2.4 500 2.4 7.0 1
4.8 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2 9.5 1
6.3 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
9.5 250 to 300 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
12.7 275 to 325 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 6
19.0 300 to 350 3.2 - 4.8 9.5 12
25.4 325 to 350 3.2 - 6.3 9.5 16
Square-groove outside corner joints, flat position
1.6 90 to 110 1.6 - 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 120 to 140 1.6 - 2.4 7.0 1
50° Single'-bevel-groove outside corner joints, flat position
6.3 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
9.5 230 to 280 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
12.7 275 to 325 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 7
19.0 300 to 350 3.2 - 4.8 9.5 14
25.4 325 to 350 3.2 - 4.8, 6.3 9.5 20
Fillet-welded square-groove inside corner joints, flat position
1.6 110 to 130 1.6 500 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 140 to 150 1.6, 2.4 500 2.4 7.0 1
4.8 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2 9.5 1
Fillet-welded T-joints, flat position
1.6 110 to 130 1.6 500 1.6 7.0 1
3.2 140 to 160 1.6, 2.4 500 2.4 7.0 1
4.8 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2 9.5 1
6.3 175 to 225 2.4 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
9.5 230 to 280 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 3
12.7 275 to 325 3.2 - 3.2, 4.8 9.5 7
19.0 300 to 350 3.2 - 4.8 9.5 14
25.4 325 to 350 3.2 - 4.8, 6.3 9.5 20
Note: Using zero root opening, no preheat, EWTh-2 electrodes, RCuSi-A welding rod, argon shielding gas, and straight-polarity direct current.
282 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 5.14 : Parameters for TIG welding of Al-bronzes
Base metal Root gap, Electrode
t,mm mm dia, mm
Square butt joints
1.6 max. 0 1.6
1.6 3.2 1.6 max. 2.4
3.2 3.2 max. 4-4.8
70°-V butt joints
9.5 0 4-4.8
Fillet in T-joint or square groove inside corner joint
9.5 OforT
9.5 max. 4-4.8
for corner
fluids, shop dirt, etc., as they contain low-melting metals
like bismuth and elements such as lead, sulphur and
p h o s p h o r u s , which induce embrittlement d u r i n g
welding or any other form of heating. The complete area
on both sides of the material which will get heated must
be thoroughly cleaned. This usually involves a series of
washings with substances like acetone, methylene
chloride, alkaline cleaners, hot water, and alcohol
depending upon the nature of impurities.
The solid-solution type alloys can be as easily welded
by either of the TIG, MIG and manual metal-arc welding
processes as austenitic stainless steels.
The precipitation-hardenable alloys require special
considerations for welding because of their susceptibil-
ity to cracking. Cracks can occur in the HAZ on aging or
in service at temperatures above the aging temperature
due to residual welding stresses or stress induced by pre-
cipitation. Parts which have been severely formed must
be annealed before welding, preferably in a controlled-
atmosphere furnace to minimise surface oxidation and
its subsequent removal. The alloys must be stress-re-
lieved (i.e. solution treated) after welding and before pre-
cipitation-hardening. This would require fairly rapid
heating of the weldment to the solution-treating tem-
perature in a furnace, to avoid its prolonged exposure to
temperatures within the precipitation-hardening range.
The alloys may be welded in the aged condition, but
the weldments must be solution-treated and re-aged if
during service they are expected to operate in the
precipitation-hardening range. Precipitation-hardenable
alloys are preferably welded by TIG process with
controlled heat input. For multipass welds, stringer
beads must be used. On completing a pass, the oxide
film on the surface must be removed by shot-blasting
or grinding. If this is not done, the oxide film thickens
Filler rod Argon Amps No. of
size, mm flow rate, passes
1 / mm
1.6 9.5-14 25-80 1
3.2 9.5-14 60-175 1
4 14 210 1
4 14 210-330 4
2.4 14 225
with each pass and ultimately interferes with smooth
welding and gives rise to oxide stringers along the weld
axis. These oxide inclusions are likely to induce stress-
corrosion cracking in service.
For TIG welding of nickel alloys generally, DC
electrode negative is recommended. The welding torch
should be held at an angle of 90° to the work. The largest
possible gas-nozzle size must be selected. The distance
between the nozzle and the work piece must be as short
as possible. The shielding gas can be argon, helium or a
m i x t u r e of the t w o . Argon w i t h 5% h y d r o g e n is
sometimes used for single-pass welding of pure nickel
to avoid porosity. For thin sheets, proper fixturing and
clamping including copper backing bars with provision
for gas purging should be provided. Typical backing
bar designs are shown in Fig. 5.12
Nickel alloy castings should be solution annealed
before welding. Preheating to 95-220°C, depending on
the mass of the casting and light peening of the first
pass immediately after deposition are recommended to
reduce cracking at the junction of the weld metal and
the cast base metal.
Magnesium alloys: These alloys are mostly welded by
TIG and MIG processes TIG welding is suitable for joints
up to 12.7 m m thick. Some of the alloys have excellent
weldability: with them 100% joint efficiency can be easily
achieved. Others have limited weldability and give joint
efficiencies below 100% but higher than 60%.
In the Mg-Al-Zn alloy group, Al content u p to
approximately 10% improves weldability by refining the
grain structure, while Zn content above 1% encourages
hot cracks during welding. Mg alloys with more than
1.5% Al are susceptible to stress corrosion, when subjected
to corrosive media in service. Weldments of these alloys
must be stress-relieved.

Fig. 5.12: Groove designs for backing bars in TIG welding:
(A) Standard groove for use without gas purging; (B)
Square-corner groove employed with gas purging
Joint fit-up must be accurate and root openings must
be avoided. Welding fixtures, closely spaced tack welds
and hold-down bars must be used to prevent distortion
of thin plates. To prevent burn-through, backing plates
of steel, magnesium, aluminium or copper, cut with a
small groove may be used.
Plate edges must be perfectly free from oxide and dirt
before welding. This is ensured by cleaning them
mechanically with aluminium or stainless steel wool,
aluminium oxide abrasive cloth or powered wire brushes
having stainless steel bristles. Some fabricators prefer to
clean the parts with special chemicals in tanks, rinse them
with hot water and dry in air.
The need for preheating is dictated more by joint
restraint than by joint thickness. Unrestrained thick joints
may be successfully welded without preheating, while
thin joints under heavy restraint may demand preheating.
High-zinc alloys require preheating to prevent weld
cracking.
Magnesium alloy castings need to be correctly
preheated and postheated. The temper dr the alloy must
be controlled both before welding and after postheat
treatment. A competent authority must be consulted
before undertaking repair welding of a casting.
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 283
AC with superimposed high frequency current is
used. The arc length should be less than 1mm. The
recommended angles of torch and filler wire are shown
in Fig. 5.13.
In butt joints, stringer beads should be deposited at
a constant speed. For fillet welds or large corner joints,
deposition may be effected with a weaving or rotary
motion. Interruption of the arc must be avoided as far
as possible. If a weld has been stopped, it should be
restarted on the previously deposited weld metal 12 mm
from the end.
Welding parameters for butt joints are given in Table
5.15.
Titanium and its alloys: TIG process is ideally suited
for the welding of these materials. At the same time,
special considerations are necessary, because of their two
peculiar characteristics, namely (a) the slightest
contamination in the joint area gives rise to weld
porosity, (b) when heated to above 540° C, they rapidly
oxidise and the oxides penetrate into the material and
embrittle it.
To obtain a weld with maximum freedom from
porosity, joint area of 25 mm width on either side must
be meticulously cleaned. Grease and oil must be
removed to the last trace with steam cleaning, alkaline
cleaning, vapour degreasing or solvent cleaning. Oxide
film must be removed by pickling. If the material has
been exposed previously to temperatures above 540°C,
a thick scale is formed whose removal calls for a complex
treatment. If the e x p o s u r e has been below this
temperature, a lighter scale is formed on the surface,
which demands a less severe cleaning treatment.
To prevent embrittlement of the weld and the HAZ,
welding was previously carried out in closed chambers,
which were either flow-purged or vacuum-purged with
inert gas. In the former type, a continuous flow of argon
pushes out the air. It is necessary in this case to provide
+ .——
Fig. 5.13: Electrode and filler wire angles for welding Mg
284 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.15 Conditions for TIG welding of butt joints in Mg alloys

Base metal Joint No. of. Electrode Current (AC), Argon flow Fillet metal
thickness, design passes diameter, Amps, (b) rate, diameter,
mm (a) mm 1 / min mm
1.2 A 1.6 35 5.5 2.4
1.6 A 2.4 50 5.5 2.4
2.0 A - 2.4 75 55 2.4
2.5 A 2.4 100 5.5 2.4
3.2 A 2.4 125 5.5 3.2
4.8 A 3.2 160 7.0 3.2
6.3 B 2 4.0 175 9.5 3.2
9.5 B 3 4.0 175 9.5 4.0
9.5 C 2 4.8 200 9.5 3.2
12.7 C 2 4.8 250 9.5 3.2
Notes: (a) A = Square butt joint without root gap;
B = 60° bevel, single-V-groove butt joint, 1.5 mm root face and without root gap;
C = 60° bevel, double-V-groove butt joint, 2.4 mm root face and without root gap;
(b) Thorium-containing alloys will require 20% higher current. With He shielding, current will be 20-30 amp less.

a transparent shielding gas cup to protect the molten
pool and give good visibility to the welder. Trailing and
leading shields (referred to later in out-of-chamber
welding) are not required. In the vacuum-purged
version, the work together with the TIG-torch and the
filler wires is first loaded in the chamber, which is then
evacuated completely and filled with argon. Manual or
mechanised TIG welding is then performed inside the
chamber. The torch does not require additional inert gas
supply. Only water inlet and outlet hoses are required.
The chamber is equipped with glove ports on the side,
so that the welder can manipulate the torch and filler
metal without admitting air to the chamber. Viewing
ports are also provided, so that the welder can observe
his operation. Excellent welds are obtained in such
vacuum chambers, because of the total absence of
atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
From the w e l d e r ' s point of view, welding in a
chamber is far from ideal, because the walls of the
chamber and the location of the glove ports restrict
visibility, movement and accessibility. To improve
visibility, rigid or collapsible c h a m b e r s m a d e of
transparent plastic have been used. Rigid plastic
chambers are flow-purged with argon, in volumes equal
to about eight times the volume of the chamber.
Collapsible chambers are first collapsed and then flow-
purged with argon. They save considerable amounts of
gas.
To give maximum flexibility and ease of welding to
the welder, open-air techniques have been successfully
developed by taking care of the three p h a s e s of
shielding: primary, secondary and back-up shielding.
Primary shielding is meant to protect the face side of a
weld puddle and the area immediately surrounding it.
Secondary shielding is required to protect the solidified
and cooling weld bead and its HAZ, which lie behind
the progressing arc. Back-up shielding is required by
the hot metal underneath the joint, i.e. on the side
opposite the welding torch.
Satisfactory primary shielding is provided by a
correctly sized torch, having a gas cup of 12.7 to 19 mm
size, or even larger if it does not diminish accessibility
and visibility.
Secondary shielding is achieved by using a trailing
shield such as the one shown in Fig. 5.14, which provides
a diffused argon flow over the hot solidified weld bead.
Its length is adjusted according to the arc energy and
the arc travel speed.
The trailing shield is not convenient for manual
welding and is used more often in mechanised welding.
For manual welding, the torch is equipped with a shroud
which receives an extra supply of argon. Such a torch is
shown in Fig. 5.15. Secondary shielding can also be
effected through ports in hold-down bars as shown in
Fig. 5.16. The figure also shows how back-up shielding
is provided by ports in the backing bar.
Unalloyed titanium is available in several grades
with Ti content ranging between 98.5 and 99.5%. All the
grades are easily weldable provided they are in the
annealed condition. Welding them in cold-worked
condition must be avoided.
Ti alloys are divided into three groups: alpha, alpha-
beta and beta. Alpha alloys are easily weldable and they
are welded in the annealed condition.
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 285

Alpha-beta alloys, especially those which are

--^ORCH*
strongly beta-stabilised, give low weld ductility caused
by phase transformations in the weld zone or in the
HAZ. Weld ductility is improved to some extent by
GAS INLET using pure Ti or alpha-Ti alloy filler wires, but their use

fa
& i. does not prevent embrittlement in the HAZ. The alpha-
IL beta alloy Ti-6AI-4V and other weakly beta-stabilised
alloys suffer less embrittlement in this respect and are
\ considered to be fairly weldable.
•POROUS DIFFUSION SHEET
Most beta alloys when welded in the annealed or
Fig. 5.14: The trailing shield device for secondary heat treated condition, produce welds which are ductile
shielding which is commonly used in automatic welding but lower in strength. Their weldments are usually used
in as-welded condition. A few other beta alloys, whose
welds embrittle more severely when age hardened are
first welded in the annealed condition, the weld suitably
cold worked, and finally the entire weldment is solution
nc j ^
treated and aged. This procedure ensures adequate weld
I ■i ductility.
COPPER
■fcfl DC rectifiers are preferred to motor-generator sets,
POUTER SHROUD
SHAVINGS \ because they give better current control to ensure even
^^BN penetration. Electrode is m a d e negative to get a
narrower beed with deeper penetration. Since Ti alloys
L - kLfiCTRODE need more thorough shielding as compared to other
ADDITIONAL | B^j , metals, larger nozzle sizes are used. For 0.8 mm diameter
SHIELDING I H^ i
electrode, a 15- mm ID nozzle is taken, and for 1.6 mm

U
G A S ^
diameter electrode, a 19-mm ID nozzle is used. Use of
phenolic or other plastic nozzles should be avoided, as
w NORMAL
*. SHIELDING GAS they are likely to contaminate the weld with carbon.
The torch is provided with a concentric outer shroud.
Fig. 5.15: Sectional view of a torch nozzle equipped with Back-up shielding is also taken care of, as explained
an outer shroud containing copper shavings to provide earlier.
diffused and cooled additional gas shielding in manual Welding procedures are generally similar to those
TIG welding used for austenitic stainless steels. Preheating and
interpass temperatures are not necessary. If cracks occur,
they are to be ascribed to joint contamination. Preheating
HOLD DOWN TIG TORCH does not help to prevent them.
BAR (1 OP 2)x
.•SHIELDING GAS OUTLET Sections u p to 2.5 mm thick can be square butt
welded without filler metal. For thicker sections, the
joint is grooved and welding is done with filler metal.
When tack welding is used, it is better to deposit
long tack welds of full size, so that the main weld never
SHIELDING GAS
PORT(l OF 2) crosses over them. The main weld beads should be
blended into the ends of the tack welds. Heat input
should be minimum. If weld porosity is encountered,
SHIELDING GAS welding speed should be reduced to allow entrapped
PORT (BACKING GAsl / gases to escape from the molten puddle.
BACKING BAR Most of the welded structures in pure Ti and its alloys
BACKING GROOVE
are stress-relieved to prevent weld cracking, to reduce
susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking and to
Fig. 5.16: Typical set-up for secondary and back-up
shielding in TIG welding of Ti
improve fatigue strength. Competent authority must be
consulted for correct procedures.
286 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

DEPOSITION OF ROOT PASS IN SMALL

DIAMETER PIPES FLEXIBLE METAL HOSE
PURGING GAS INLET / 0UTLET HOLES
When root beads of exceptional quality are to be / G A S

made in high-pressure piping of mild steel, low-alloy

steels, high-alloy steels and stainless steels, the TIG
welding process becomes the ideal choice. Outstanding
features of this process are:
1) Excellent weld quality can be obtained in almost
STEEL DISKS RUBBER DIAPHRAGM
all industrial metals.
2) Practically no post-weld cleaning required. Fig. 5.17: Arrangement for purging
3) Arc and molten pool are clearly visible to the
welder.
4) Filler metal is not transferred across the arc, hence
no spatter. V/////JJJ///77777\.
5) Welding is possible in all positions.
6) N o slag is formed; hence no danger of slag
entrapment. f))r})x)))))))i\i))))))))mf)77A
7) Root welds in pipes have smooth internal surface.
GAS
This significantly reduces turbulence in any flowing
substance inside the piping system. In many cases such Fig. 5.18: Purging with plastic gas bags
as nuclear power piping, this is a very important factor.
8) Because of the inert argon shield, the filler rod does of the joint is left open to allow the air to escape. When
not undergo any chemical change. By choosing the welding, the sealing tape around the pipe is removed
correct filler rod, it is possible to obtain a weld having in sections just ahead of the weld. Additional argon is
the same chemical, metallurgical and physical properties blown into the pipe to make up for the gas, which is
as the pipe material. lost through this opening.
In critical applications, and where highly alloyed Typical joint preparation and fit-up is shown m Fig.
steels such as stainless steels are involved, excessive 5.19. When all the aforesaid preparations are made, four
oxidation, resulting in rough underbead appearance, is evenly spaced tack welds are made around the joint.
avoided by displacing the air underneath the joint area Since these welds will become a part of the root bead,
or root with argon. The procedure is referred to as they must be made with the same care and skill as the
purging. remainder of the root bead.
Purging is achieved on short pipe lengths or tubing To weld, for example, 8 in Schedule 60 mild steel
by sealing off or capping the open ends and introducing pipe nipples, a 2.4 m m diameter thoriated tungsten
a liberal amount of argon through the cap at a slightly electrode and a 3.15 m m diameter mild steel filler rod
higher pressure than atmospheric. On tubing of large are used. The electrode should be ground to a pencil
lengths, special sealing arrangements can be employed, point with a fine grinding wheel. The electrode must be
which produce an enclosed area around the joint. Such positioned in the torch in such a way that it extends the
arrangements minimise the consumption of argon. A correct distance beyond the end of the nozzle. This is
typical set-up is shown in Fig. 5.17. Infield conditions done by placing the torch in an upright position with
where the pipe diameters and lengths are commonly
large, the joints can be sealed by inflating two plastic
balloons in the pipe as shown in Fig. 5.18. They must be
positioned far enough from the joint to prevent them
from bursting due to welding heal. Their location must
s \ 75V

be marked on the outside of the pipe, so that when the

root bead is completed, just enough heat can be applied
with a gas torch at these markings to burst the balloons.
1 6 TO 2 4 M M
In both the above arrangements, the pipe joint itself 6 MM
is taped to prevent argon, which is blown into the pipe
Fig. 5.19: Joint fit-up for root TIG welding
at a very low pressure, from escaping. A small portion

the nozzle resting on the level of the weld joint, as shown
in Fig. 5.20. While this is being done, the welding current
should, of course, be shut off. The electrode is then
adjusted, so that it is positioned with the end almost
flush with the bottom of the joint or the inside surfaces
of the pipe.
DC with electrode negative should be used. The
current range is 150-225 amps. The argon supply rate
should be 20 cubic feet per hour (101/min).
When the pipe is in 5G position (i.e. horizontally
fixed, involving all-position welding), tack welds are
best placed at 8:30, 4:30, 1:30 and 11:30 positions. The
regular bead is started at 6 o'clock position and carried
uphill to 12 o'clock position. Then the other half is
welded, starting again at the 6 o'clock position and
reaching the top.
The relative positions of the torch and the filler wire
are shown in Fig. 5.21. After the puddle is established
and the bead is commenced, the welder must oscillate
the welding torch from side to side as shown in Fig.
5.22, allowing the arc to travel slightly beyond the edges
of the pipe.
While welding, the welder must watch the puddle
at all times to see that it is built up to a uniform height
and forms a smooth bead with only traces of a ripple.
As with most welding processes, when welding a pipe
GLASS OR CERAMIC
Fig. 5.20: Adjusting the tungsten electrode
IRECTION OF WELDING
Fig. 5.21: Correct angles of torch and filler rod
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 287
fSA
ir
15*15°
Fig. 5.22: Torch oscillating procedure
in the 5G position, there is a tendency for the puddle to
drip, causing excessive penetration. When this occurs,
corrective action should be taken by slightly increasing
the speed of travel and the speed of the oscillating
movement. If possible, more filler metal than usual
should be added to the puddle, which tends to chill the
puddle and to reduce its size.
The welder must always be careful to prevent the
electrode from making contact with the sides of the joint
and the molten puddle. This would not only
contaminate the end of the electrode but also cause the
arc to become unsteady. If this occurs, the weld should
be stopped and the tip of the electrode reground before
restarting the weld.
One problem that is occasionally encountered is that
the nozzle tends to stick or grab as it is lightly dragged
over the bevel during welding. The end of the nozzle
gets very hot, a factor which promotes its sticking to
the heated bevel. As shown in Fig. 5.23A, the edge of
the nozzle is square, and sticking can be avoided by
grinding a radius on the edge of the nozzle as shown in
Fig. 5.23B.
Pulsed TIG Welding
This is a modified version of TIG welding, in which
the welding current (DC) is fed intermittently in the
form of pulses. The pulsed current alternates between
a low or background level and a high or peak level. The
duration and amplitude of both peak and background
GRIND RADIUS
(A) (B)
Fig. 5 23: A Standard nozzle. B: Nozzle edge rounded
288 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
currents can be varied independently to suit the job. The
melting takes place during the peak current period, and
the weld pool solidifies between pulses as the heat is
dissipated in the job during the background current
period. This current pulsing leads to intermittent
melting along the joint seam, giving a series of discrete
melt spots which overlap each other.
The most significant feature of this process is the
apparent tolerance to external variables such as joint
geometry, clamping, fit-up, dissimilar thicknesses or
other factors causing variation in thermal heat sink. This
tolerance is derived from the fact that the weld pool is
allowed to solidify during background time, and owing
to this the effect of heat build-up is largely overcome.
Conversely, in conventional TIG welding using fixed
or steady current, a delicate balance has to be maintained
by the welder, between heat input from the arc and the
heat sink due to the job. This has to be done to avoid
change in the degree of melting, resulting in uneven
penetration and even burn-through in some cases. Such
a manual manipulation, by either change in torch angle
or w e a v i n g is difficult to achieve, especially in
mechanised welding and therefore leads to significant
variations in joint quality. This problem is largely
eliminated by the use of pulsed current technique.
A typical pulsed current waveform along with the
argon gas flow sequence is shown in Fig. 5.24.
Pulsed current with rapid current rise and current
decay, together with a high pulse-repetition rate is used
in the joining of precision parts. Pulsed current with
slower rates of current rise and fall and slower current
pulse rates is used in mechanised welding.
The process is ideally suited for the automatic all-
position welding of the circular joints of thin-walled
INITIAL CURRENT
.PEAK CURRENT LEVEL
UP-SLOPE
.BACKGROUND CURRENT LEVEL
CRATER FILLER
DOWN-SLOPE
MIN CURRENT
LEVEL
GAS^
PREFL0W
PEAK TIME BACKGROUND
TIME
Fig. 5.24: Pulsed current waveform
pipes or for depositing the root pass in thick-walled
pipes, where the pipes have a fixed horizontal position,
because the same average current and voltage can be
used at all points around the joint, except at the start
and the finish. With the conventional (non-pulsed) TIG
process, the parameters would have to be suitably
altered as the arc moves from the flat through the vertical
to the overhead position. For the same reason, the pulsed
process in automated form is used for the orbital
welding of tubes to tubes, and tubes to plates in the
fabrication of heat exchangers.
The a d v a n t a g e o u s features of the process are
summarised below:
• Tolerates variations in joint fit-up or clamping.
• Permits welding of sheets down to 1 mm with
ease, which is normally difficult by standard TIG
process.
• Minimises distortions owing to controlled heat
input.
• Makes positional welding easy.
• Requires less operator skill as compared to the
normal TIG process.
• Shows marked improvement in weld quality.
• Is suited to mechanisation/automation.
• Is ideal for critical applications such as root passes
of pipes, joining dissimilar thicknesses, etc.
• The strong electromagnetic forces developed by
the high pulse of current agitate the weld puddle
and thereby eliminate weld porosity and ensure
thorough root fusion.
A typical modern pulsed TIG equipment, shown in
Fig. 5.25 is a solid-state outfit with fully transistorised
current control. With the help of the electronic controller
fitted therein, it is possible to pre-set different welding
parameters like pre-flow time, up-slope, down-slope,
peal background current, peak time, background time,
final current level and post-flow time as required.
In this outfit, excellent waveform is achieved through
solid-state transistorised circuitry. The arc is initiated
by a high frequency system with booster voltage
circuitry, which automatically gets cut off after the arc
is formed. A special circuitry automatically cuts off the
complete system, including argon flow if the welding
operation does not commence within 10 sec of pressing
the start switch. This prevents wastage of costly argon
gas on the shop floor.
The power source (DC) has constant current (i.e.
drooping) characteristics in the operating region to
ensure uniform penetration. Control panel is of modular
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 289

Important specifications of the outfit are given below:

Peak current range (DC) Amps. 10 -200
Background current range (DC) Amps. 10-200
Time duration of peak current Sec 0.1-2.5
Time duration of background current Sec 0.1-2.5
Starting up-slope time (up to peak current setting) Sec 1-5
Down-slope time (up to min. current level) Sec 3-12
Final current level Amps. 10-200
Gas pre-flow time Sec 0.1-5
Gas post-flow time Sec 0.1-10
Open circuit voltage V 55
Max. cont. welding current at 60% duty cycle Amps. 200
Max. auto, welding current at 100% duty cycle Amps. 145
Rating at 60% duty cycle KVA 13
Rating at 100% duty cycle KVA 10

Semi-automatic TIG Welding

In this process, the filler wire in continuous length is
fed mechanically and at controlled speed into the arc
area, while the welder advances the torch manually
along the joint. A motor-driven wire-feeder feeds the
wire through a flexible hose. The attachment that brings
the filler wire into the arc area is mounted on the
electrode holder, thus enabling the wire to enter the arc
from any direction. The semi-automatic TIG demands
less skill from the welder and makes his task easier.

Mechanised or Automatic TIG

The various devices and controls necessary for
mechanised TIG welding are:
a) arc voltage control (for steady arc length)
b) electrode positioning devices
c) seam tracking devices
d) oscillating devices
e) filler wire feeders
f) traversing mechanisms.

a) ARC VOLTAGE CONTROL

Fig. 5.25: Pulsed TIG equipment
construction for easy accessibility and maintenance. Self-
sufficient water recirculating system is provided for
cooling of power transistors. Safeguards are also
incorporated against inadequate supply of cooling water
or failure of recirculating system. Equipment trolley has
space for mounting the gas cylinder to ensure complete
portability of the equipment.
The commonly used arrangement is shown in Fig.
5.26. A reversible gear motor keeps the voltage constant
by raising or lowering the electrode to maintain the
desired arc length. The arc voltage measured in this
system consists of two parts: the voltage drop across
the arc and the drop in the electrode. The voltage drop
in the electrode begins to rise as soon as the arc is struck
due to resistance heating. As its value increases, the arc
voltage control shortens the arc length to maintain the
total arc voltage at a constant value. This is visually
evident from the characteristic diving of the tungsten
electrode.
290 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
KKKMCES ABC
f
COMPARISON AMPLIFIER
VOLTAGE
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
_J
(ARC LENGTH AQJUSTER)
— ERROR VOLTAGE
WELOlNfiilEAO
SIGNAL
f REVERSIBLE
1
as
CIRCUIT GEAR MOTOR
I 1
ELECTRQPE
WORK
£ WELDING
Fig. 5.26: Automatic gas-tungsten arc voltage control
system
An alternative method of arc control consists of
maintaining the electrode at a fixed pre-set distance from
the work and adjusting the current, as necessary, to keep
a constant potential or a constant arc power. These
systems vary from simple m a n u a l adjustment to
elaborate magnetic and eddy current devices.
B) ELECTRODE POSITIONING DEVICES
They are referred to later while describing an
automatic pulsed TIG tube-plate welder.
C) SEAM TRACKING DEVICES
Seam tracking, w h i c h involves sophisticated
technology is gaining prominence with the increasing
use of robotic arc welding. Seam tracking devices use
sensors which range from simple to extremely complex.
Simple systems use a mechanical finger or electrical
capacitance measurements. These have a limited scope,
because they can track a few joint geometries and suffer
from inertia/speed problems.
Commercially available seam trackers, frequently
built into robots, are of the nodding head type, using
changes in arc voltage to indicate whether the seam is
being followed. This system requires a very accurate
and stable welding power source, which though very
expensive, can be justifiably used in robotic arc welding.
Such nodding heads are well suited for fillets or deep-
V preparations, but they are not fully effective where
the sidewalls are not steep or high. But it must be
accepted that arc welding even with solid-state power
sources is inherently variable and its parameters are not
desirable as control signals.
More sophisticated and specialised seam trackers
i n c l u d e vision sensors b a s e d on w h i t e light TV
monitoring or laser-illuminated techniques.
TV sensors u s e b o t h n o r m a l light a n d laser
illumination. The sensor seeks the joint and aims to
deposit the weld on a sensor-identified path (whether
this weld is good enough is not the province of the
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
sensor). Imaging is in 'man view' mode, i.e. a man would
easily understand the TV screen display, and the output
is not in machine language.
Laser-only techniques commonly employ low
powered lasers (0.5 mW) in a rastering range-finding
mode or a shadow generating mode. Here the process
CURRENT
SUPPLY
involves measuring, welding, remeasuring, recalibrat-
ing the weld, etc. Limitations to this technique arise from:
a) The working range of the range finder—a few mm;
b) The a m o u n t of data processed to provide a
computed contour.
Currently the generation of weld contours and the
computer reselection of welding parameters is possible,
although it appears to be too slow for production lines
or flexible manufacturing systems.
Laser shadow techniques apparently promise much,
but can frequently be in serious error. If, for instance,
the plate surface quality changes (say, from rolled to
machine) then its reflectivity also changes and thus the
intensity of reflected laser radiation varies. Despite its
dependence upon surface reflectivity, the system is being
investigated widely.
D) OSCILLATING DEVICES
These operate on mechanical or electromagnetic
principles to impart oscillatory motion to the tungsten
electrode or the arc. The motions can be uniform,
harmonic or with dwell as required.
E) FILLER WIRE FEEDERS
Wire feeders are referred to as cold or hot, depending
on whether the filler wire they feed mechanically into
the arc is at room temperature or preheated by electric
resistance method.
Cold wire feeder: The main components are wire drive
m e c h a n i s m , speed controller a n d a wire g u i d e
attachment, to introduce the wire into the leading edge
of weld puddle.
The wire drive mechanism consists of an electric
motor and a set of gears which power the drive rolls
that push the wire. The wire feed is controlled by a
constant speed governor, which can be a mechanical or
an electrical device. A flexible hose guides the wire from
the drive mechanism to the wire guide attachment. The
wire guide attachment is attached to the torch. It
maintains the position at which the wire enters the weld
pool and the angle of approach with respect to the
electrode, work surface and the joint. Wire sizes in the
range of 0.8-2.4 m m are fed at a constant rate.
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 291

Hot wire feeders: As the name suggests, these feeders This technique also eliminates weld porosity in many
feed electric resistance heated continuous wire into the instances by driving off most of the volatile contamina-
weld pool. The feeding may be done through a torch tion and entrapped hydrogen from the filler metal sur-
provided with inert gas shielding to protect the hot wire face during 1 R (electric resistance) heating.
from oxidation. For heating, AC from a constant The hot wire TIG process has been widely applied
potential power source is used as shown in Fig. 5.27. in the U.S.A. for the fabrication of pipe and piping
The heating starts only after the wire makes contact with systems in a wide range of materials including carbon
the weld pool and completes the electric circuit. The and low-alloy steels, stainless steels, and alloys of copper
current is so regulated that the filler metal reaches its and nickel. Figure 5.28 compares the root passes
melting point as it approaches the weld. Thus the weld produced by the hot wire TIG and the conventional
metal deposition is independent of the arc heat. The fused insert manual TIG process in a U-groove joint. At
figure also shows that the hot wire is fed into the trailing (A), a fusible insert is placed in the root gap, which is
edge of the weld pool, a little behind the tungsten fused by the welder with a TIG torch without addition
electrode at an angle of about 50° with the electrode. of filler wire. The root pass so produced is only 1.78
It has been stated that AC is used for heating the mm thick and hence the subsequent passes have to be
filler wire. If DC were to be used for this purpose, the deposited at low currents to prevent burn-through. The
cost of power source would be higher, and further, the TIG hot wire joint at B has 1.6 mm root face and no root
interaction of the magnetic fields developed by the arc gap. In this case, using 230 Amps, at 11 V, and using a
and the current in the filler wire would cause the arc to welding speed of 250 mm/min a root pass can be
be blown either backward or forward, which is not deposited which is 3.55 mm thick, enabling subsequent
desirable. With AC in the wire, the magnetic effects cause passes to be made at higher currents and higher
the arc to oscillate 30° in the longitudinal direction, when deposition rates. At (A) the joint area is 1.135 sq. cm,
the heating current is not more than 60% of the arc which is reduced to 0.97 sq. cm at (B) by withdrawing
current. This amplitude of arc oscillation is well-suited the insert. The production rate of (B) joints is nearly four
for practical applications, and in order not to exceed it, times the production rate of (A) joints.
the filler wire diameter is limited to 1.2 mm. If the wire A typical welding procedure for hot wire TIG
size is larger, the heating current will exceed 60% of the welding of 6 in. Schedule 80 carbon and stainless steel
arc current and cause the arc to oscillate too widely. pipe is outlined in Table 5.16.
The hot wire technique increases the weld deposition
rate of the TIG process. For example, at the arc energy
of 4 kW (330 amps at 12 V) the maximum cold wire
deposition rate is 1.36 kg/hour. With hot wire, up to 3.6
kg/hour can be deposited and this rate can be further
increased to about 4.2 kg/hour by using oscillation.

11 MM

HIGH SPEED FILLER

WIRE FEEDER X R=*4MM
FUSIBLE INSERT
40
° J
CONTACT TUBE*

AC DC
HOT POWER
WIRE TRAVEL (TIG)
POWER

WORKPIECE ' Fig. 5.28: Comparative set-up for root pass in hot wire
Fig. 5.27: TIG hot wire system TIG and fused insert TIG welding
292 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.16: Procedure for hot wire TIG welding of pipes

Pass Welding Voltage, Travel speed Hot wire speed Deposition
current, Amps. V cm/min cm/min rate, kg/hour
1 240 11 23 250 1.36
2 340 13 30.5 375 1.8
3 440 13 30.5 750 3.6
4 450 13 30.5 750-1,250 3.6-6.36

Table 5.17: Comparative welding speeds of hot wire and cold wire TIG welding
Sheet Cold wire Hot wire
thickness, mm Amps. speed cm/min Amps. Speed cm/min
1.6 160 62.5 300 87.5
2.4 220 37.5 360 75
3.2 250 30 410 62.5
4.8 350 17.5 450 30
6.3 400 10 480 17.5

Table 5.17 shows that stainless steel sheets can be

welded at appreciably faster rates by the hot wire TIG VERTICAL ADJUSTMENT WIRE FEEDER

as compared to the cold wire process.

F) TRAVERSING MECHANISMS
They are designed to move the electrode torch or
the welding head with respect to the joint or vice versa.
They maintain the position of the electrode with respect
to the joint within close limits and travel smoothly at a
set speed without much vibration. They are described
in detail in Chapter 20.
For welding stationary joints, the welding head or
the electrode torch can be mounted on a motorised
trolley, which runs on rails or directly on the workpiece.
For long straight joints, the welding heads and allied
equipment can be transported by means of a side beam
carriage, which is supported on the vertical face of a
flat track. The track can be attached to the side of a beam,
to construction brackets on a wall or to columns erected
on the floor. The carriage is fitted with a mechanical
clutch, so that the drive motor can be disengaged while Fig. 5.29: Automatic cold wire TIG equipment
the welding head is being positioned. For longitudinal
and circumferential welding of cylindrical sections,
combinations of welding booms and rotators can be built-in with a fine vertical adjustment for exact
used as in the case of the automatic submerged-arc positioning of the torch. A control box which houses all
welding process. the control elements for carriage and wire-feed is
separately located. All these items make up the welding
Automatic TIG Equipment head, which is suitable for use with any appropriate
An example of the a u t o m a t i c cold wire TIG standard TIG power source and torch. Filler wire in the
equipment is shown in Fig. 5.29. It consists of the form of spool is fed into the arc at a rate which is
carriage, wire-feed mechanism, spool holder to carry infinitely adjustable in the range of 0.1 to 12 metres/
filler wire spool and an adjustable torch-holding device min and the particular wire-feed setting is maintained
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 293

constant by the wire-feed m e c h a n i s m t h r o u g h a
thyristorised electronic control.
The equipment shown in Fig. 5.30 is specially
developed to perform DC TIG welding on longitudinal
and circumferential joints in stainless steel box structures
and cylindrical shells made from sheets of up to 6 mm
thickness. In case of circumferential joints a job rotator
is necessary. Longitudinal joints of desired length can
be welded using carriage travel track of suitable length.
Maximum length for longitudinal welding is 10 metres.
To ensure 100% radiographic quality joint, a gas purging
arrangement and a backing bar are provided.
Orbital Narrow Gap TIG Welding
Automatic TIG welding has been successfully
applied to high pressure pipework for the modern steam
turbine generator system. To compensate for the low
deposition rate of the process, a narrow gap joint is used
instead of the conventional preparations used for the
manual metal-arc or submerged-arc processes. Atypical
narrow gap butt joint for 63.5 mm wall thickness along
with the conventional preparations is shown in Fig. 5.31.
The groove volume of the narrow gap shown at (C) is
only 25% of the other two. A typical machine marketed
in the U.K., shown in Fig. 5.32, incorporates a patented
torch design and a telescopic shielding arrangement
which fits around the gas channel and shields the arc
effectively at weld preparation depths of 100 mm. Its
main component is the carriage which orbits the pipe
accurately even under high preheat temperatures up to
300°C, which are used for the welding of low-alloy
creep-resisting materials (such as Vi Cr-Mo-V steel).
The system has a guide ring of stainless steel with
two V grooves around the periphery to accept the
carriage wheels. It is located on the outside of the pipe
by adjusting screws and will split into two halves for

Fig. 5.30: Automatic equipment for S.S. box structures and cylindrical shells

Fig. 5.31: Typical joint preparations for pipe butt joints of t= 63.5 mm (a) MMAW using a TIG root run; (b) SAW with
TIG root run and 13 mm MMA reinforcement; (c) narrow gap weld
294 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 5.32: NGW head in use
removal after welding. The welding head and drive
carriages are separate and are located diametrically
opposite each other by quickly detachable link arms.
This separation reduces the out-of-balance loading on
the drive motor and enables the complete assembly to
be rotated easily around the pipe at all times. There are
two connecting arms between the carriage; one is spring
loaded with a release mechanism to allow for unloading
and loading on to the guide ring.
The drive, carriage locates and runs on the guide ring
and houses a high-torque drive system to all four wheels
of the carriage a n d incorporates a quick-release
m e c h a n i s m for fast m a n u a l r e w i n d of the cable
assemblies. The torch assembly houses a fast response
automatic voltage control system together with a wire-
feed unit. Automatic travel speed is 75 m / m i n , running
on precision shafts and driven by a ball screw. The wire-
feed guide also fits down to the bottom of the groove.
The torch carriage locates and runs on the guide ring
and carries the torch assembly on sides, allowing cross-
seam adjustments which can be performed during the
welding cycle. The complete unit weighs approximately
23 kg a n d h a s a radial a n d axial clearance of
approximately 250 mm. It will cover a pipe size range
of 150-600 mm OD, but in principle the technique and
equipment could be extended to cover the welding of
thick walled pressure vessels of much greater diameter.
Experience has shown that use of pure argon as a
shielding gas causes lack of side-wall fusion, and that
this defect is overcome by using an argon: 1% hydrogen
mixture.
Automatic Pulsed-TIG Tube-To-plate Welder
In tube-to-plate welding during the fabrication of
boilers and heat exchangers, the difference in thermal
mass between the gauge of tube and the heavy section
plate can create problems. Excessive penetration (burn-
through, of the tube) and insufficient penetration of the
plate must be avoided. Pulsed TIG is recommended for
fully automatic tube-plate welding. The tube-plate joints
and welds are generally as shown in Fig. 5.33.
A typical welding head shown in Fig. 5.34 is designed
to weld 75 mm diameter tube of 2 mm wall thickness to
a 5 mm thick plate, the pitch between tube centres being
95 mm. An interchangeable expanding mandrel locks
the head into the tube and accommodates a range of
tube sizes. The rotating parts move over the surface of
the plate supported on three wheels pitched at 120°,
e n s u r i n g that torch a n d wire-feed assembly are
maintained at a pre-set height above the joint.
Both the weld torch and wire-feed nozzle have
micrometer adjustment in three motions (see Fig. 5.35)
and critical angles for arc and wire can then be set very
accurately. A precision quick-release allows the torch to
be r e m o v e d for t u n g s t e n r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h o u t
interfering w i t h the torch setting. Electronically
controlled 24 V DC motors in the head are geared to
give a maximum speed of rotation of 0.5 rev/min and a

.COVER P A S S / - B ! F ? R E . < A F T E R W E L D , N G
TUBE
„ • „ r WELDED
BEFORE ^ELDING f r
\i
DRILL t / TUBE SHEET
BEFORE EXTRUSION
D it
Fig. 5.33: Typical joints for tube-to-plate welds
^ 4. ^ ,
Fig. 5.34: Pulsed TIG welding head
maximum wire speed of 0.3 m/sec. An overlap angle
for the weld over a range 0-25° may be pre-set.
The arc, struck by a high frequency circuit, is
maintained by a pilot arc supply and pulsed weld
current is then produced from a thyristor bridge-rectifier.
Controls are provided for peak and background current
and their times of operation. Weld current is controlled
to within 1% of the set value despite variations in arc
length. Build-up and decay rates are also controlled to
eliminate thermal shock and craters. Power amplifiers
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 295
WELDED'
DED\ BEFORE
" t r i r n t vWELDING
OP
PLUG (DRILLED) SUBSEQUENTLY
BEFORE^ '
WELDING \ / W £ L D METAL
AFTER EXTHUSION
Fig.5.35: Adjustment of torch angles
for weld head rotation and the wire-feed motors are
interlocked with the power source. Output transistors
switch at 15 kHz. The speed error is amplified and
compared with a 15 kHz triangular wave generator to
produce a pulse-width modulated waveform to the
drive motor. A 20:1 speed range is possible and the
maximum motor current is electronically limited to
guard against possible stalling.
Operating sequence is fully automatic and the
operator merely observes the weld pool or the inside
wall of the tube. The 'Start' push-button initiates a pre-
purge gas period followed by HF ignition of the arc.
The head drive then rotates the torch as the weld current
builds up to the set value. When this is reached, filler
^p wire then feeds into the weld pool.
After a complete revolution plus the pre-set overlap
angle the wire feed automatically stops, weld current
decays to zero, and the arc extinguishes. A post-purge
period is followed by high speed reversal of the head to
the start position, ready for the next weld. Operating
parameters (current levels, pulse times, weld and wire
speeds, etc.) are set on the power source panel. Remote
control facilities to stop and start the process and to trim
the weld current are provided for close supervision.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
The term plasma means a gas that has been heated
to a sufficiently high temperature, so that it is
296 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
transformed into an ionised condition (i.e. into an equal
number of electrons and ions) and is able to conduct an
electric current. Plasma is regarded as the fourth state
of matter following the three commonly known states:
solid, liquid and gaseous. The electric arc with its intense
heat, generates a considerable amount of plasma. In fact,
the electric arc consists of a relatively high current
discharge sustained through a column of plasma.
In the normal open arc welding processes including
the TIG process, the plasma jet has a low velocity and is
diffused over a wide area, with the result that the arc
loses much of its power and its zonal temperatures are
lowered. Plasma arc processes (these include plasma
arc welding, plasma arc cutting, plasma arc surfacing
and plasma arc spraying) use a specially designed
plasma arc torch, which is a modified version of the TIG
torch, in which the tungsten-arc is directed through a
nozzle through which an inert gas (argon or argon-
helium mixture), called the carrier gas, flows. The
nozzle, located between the tungsten electrode and the
base metal, prevents the divergence of the arc and
constricts it into a small cross-section. This results in a
substantial increase in the resistive heating of the arc,
so that the arc temperatures and the arc voltage are
raised. From the constricting nozzle, the arc emerges in
SHIELDING- © ELECTRODE
GAS
SHIELDINi( f G A S
NOZZLE
ARC PLASMA
" " ^ ^ ^ V / v WORK
TIG
Fig. 5.36: Comparison of (a) TIG and (b) PAW processes
the form of a high velocity, intensely hot and collimated
plasma jet. This plasma jet is termed as a plasma arc.
Figure 5.36 compares the common tungsten arc and the
plasma arc welding processes, while Fig. 5.37 compares
the shapes and isothermal maps of the argon-tungsten
arc and the constricted plasma arc.
PAW process, as compared to TIG, has the following
advantages: (1) Greater concentration of energy, (2)
improved arc stability especially at low currents, (3)
higher heat content, (4) higher velocity of plasma, (5)
less sensitivity to variations of arc length, (6) no tungsten
contamination, (7) less welder skill in manual welding,
(8) solid backing a v o i d e d by a d o p t i n g keyhole
technique.
Drawbacks of PAW process are: (1) Equipment costs
more, (2) short life of constricting nozzle, (3) welder
needs deeper understanding of the process, (4) increased
consumption of inert gas.
Plasma Arc Operation
To understand the operation of the process, one must
know the terminology of the plasma arc torch as shown
in Fig. 5.38 and the significance of each term.
• Electrode: The tungsten electrode is recessed inside
the constricting nozzle, so that it cannot touch the
ORIFICE GAS
SHIELDING GAS
"SHIELDING GAS
NOZZLE
ARC PL
PLASMA
p ARC
PAW
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 297

Cathode *-)

Nonconstrieted arc £C^ Constricted arc

40ft»/h argon §§S (3/1 in)diaorif ice
4.8mm(3/16
200A 40ft»/n argon
15V 220A

Temperature K
} 10 000-14 000
|} 14 000-18 000
3j£l8 000-24 000
tt 24 000 up

Fig. 5.37: Comparison of shapes and isothermal maps of TIG and PAW arcs

ELECTRODE ORIFICE GAS

SHIELDING GAS' CONSTRICTING

OZZLE

OUTER GAS NOZZLE

PLENUM
CHAMBER

THROAT LENGTH
ELECTRODE
SETBACK

ORIFICE DIA

TORCH STANDOFF

Fig. 5.38: Plasma arc torch terminology

workpiece. Hence tungsten contamination, which
commonly occurs in the TIG process, does not occur in
this process. The electrode has negative polarity.
Positive polarity causes excessive deterioration of the
electrode.
• Electrode setback: This is the distance between the
electrode tip a n d the outer b o t t o m e d g e of the
constricting nozzle.
• Orifice gas: This gas, referred to earlier as carrier
gas, is an inert gas which is fed through the torch to
surround the electrode and to enter the arc through
the plenum chamber. It becomes ionised in the arc to
form the plasma, which expands due to the heat of
the arc and issues from the orifice or orifices of the
constricting nozzle at an accelerated speed as the
plasma jet. The jet is so powerful that it is capable of
cutting a metal. The higher the orifice gas flow rate,
the more penetrating is the arc. For welding, the jet
is controlled by holding the orifice gas flow rates within
the range of 1.5-15 1/min. The orifice gas alone is not
298 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

adequate to shield the weld pool from the atmosphere. suitably positioned to give an elongated arc in line with
Additional shielding gas is therefore provided through the joint, which for the keyhole technique described
an outer gas nozzle. later, gives 30-50% higher welding speed than that
• Plenum chamber: This has been referred to under obtained with single port nozzle.
'orifice gas'. It is the space between the inside wall of The nozzle is usually made of copper and is water-
the constricting nozzle and the electrode. cooled. The fact that copper with a melting point of
• Shielding gas: As mentioned under 'orifice gas', 1,083° C is able to withstand the plasma temperatures
the shielding gas is provided additionally through the of 24,000° C and above is explained thus: during
outer gas nozzle, in the same manner as in the TIG- welding, the arc column inside the nozzle is surrounded
process to protect the area of the workpiece, over which by an annular layer of cooler gas with a very steep
the arc plasma impinges. Its composition is the same as thermal gradient. This layer of cooler gas provides
the orifice gas, i.e. either argon or argon-helium mixture. thermal and electrical insulation to the inside surface
• Constricting nozzle: The arc constricting nozzle is a of the nozzle. If the smooth flow of this gas layer is
critical component of the torch. Its contour partly disturbed either by insufficient orifice gas flow or
determines the thermal energy of the arc. Its main xcessive arc current, the nozzle may suffer damage due
dimensions are 'orifice diameter' and 'throat length', to double arcing, i.e. between the electrode and the
which are shown in the above figure. The nozzle may nozzle and between the nozzle and the work.
have single or multiple ports. The most commonly used • Orifice diameter: The nozzle orifice size is a criti-
types are shown in Fig. 5.39. The central orifice may be cal dimension as stated earlier. It is rated for a
cylindrical or have a converging or diverging taper. given current at a given gas flow rate. If the gas
In the case of the single port nozzle shown at (a), the rate is reduced, the current rating at the orifice
entire orifice gas and the arc pass through the single must be proportionately decreased.
orifice. With the nozzle shown at (b), the arc and a part • Torch standoff: It denotes the distance between the
of the orifice gas pass through the central orifice, while outer edge of the constricting nozzle and the
the rest of the orifice gas flows through the two small workpiece. The torch standoff distance is not
ports. important, because changes in arc length have
While the nozzle type (a) is most widely used with negligible effect on the process results. Much
DC electrode negative, the type (b) can be used with longer torch standoffs are possible with the
advantage on certain types of joints. The type (b) can be plasma arc than with the TIG process.

CONSTRICTING NOZZLE
LECTRODE

AUXJLIAI
GAS
PASSAGES

RIFICE-
(A) SINGLE PORT (B) MULTIPLE PORT

Fig. 5.39 : Single and multiple port constricting nozzles

 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 299

Plasma Arc Properties
In the conventional TIG process, the arc plasma
spreads over a large area of the workpiece and the arc
is easily deflected by weak magnetic fields. The plasma
arc, on the contrary, is stiff and unidirectional and very
little affected by magnetic fields. The constriction of the
arc in the latter, results in higher plasma temperatures
and arc power. For example at 200 Amps., electrode
negative, and an argon flow rate of 19 1/min, a
constricted arc passing through a 4.8 mm diameter
orifice shows a 100% increase in arc power (mainly
because the arc voltage is doubled) and a 30% increase
in temperature as compared to an open TIG arc.
The energy of a plasma arc can vary over a wide
range depending on (a) plasma current, (b) size and
shape of nozzle orifice, (c) type of orifice gas, and (d)
flow rate of orifice gas. Hence the process can be applied
with equal efficiency for cutting, welding, surfacing and
metal spraying by suitably controlling the four factors.
For cutting, for example, a high arc current, a small-
sized orifice and high orifice gas flow rate are used to
obtain a highly concentrated energy and a high jet
velocity. For welding, a low plasma jet velocity is
obtained by using a large orifice, low gas flow rate and
low transferred arc currents.
The normal TIG arc has a conical shape and hence
the area of heat input to the workpiece varies as the
square of the arc length. A slight variation in arc length,
therefore, causes an appreciable change in unit area heat
transfer rate. The plasma arc jet being cylindrical,
changes in arc length have negligible effect on the area
of heat input and the arc intensity.
Two types of arc are used for welding as shown in
Fig. 5.40. The transferred arc (A) is formed between the
electrode and the workpiece. The non-transferred type
(B) is formed between the electrode and the nozzle.
In the transferred arc, the workpiece is in the circuit,
which means that it has to be electrically conducting. The
transferred arc transfers greater energy to the work than
the non-transferred type, and produces heat both from
the anode spot on the workpiece and plasma stream. For
welding, this type of arc is generally used.
The non-transferred arc is contained within the torch
and is independent of the workpiece. The hot plasma
issuing from the nozzle orifice serves as a useful source
of heat. Non-transferred arcs are used for joining and
cutting non-conductive materials or for applications
demanding low arc energy.
Equipment
The basic equipment for manual PAW is the same as
for TIG welding, and is shown in Fig. 5.41. It consists of
a DC power source, control console, water-cooled
welding torch, cylinders and hoses for orifice gas and
shielding gas, coolant circulator with pipings leading
to and back from the torch, and accessories such as on-
off switch, gas flowmeters and remote current control.
More commonly, the process is used in mechanised

CONSTRICTING NOZZLE

RIFICE GAS

SHIELDING.
'GAS

TRANSFERRED '"' NON-TRANSFERRED

Fig. 5.40: Transferred and non-transferred plasma arc modes

300 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

are a high frequency power generator, an arc voltage

START-STOP
WELDING SWITCH control and filler wire-feed system. The wire-feed
TORCH system can be cold or hot as used in mechanised TIG
welding. For mechanised welding the maximum currnt
used is approximately 400 Amps.
Power sources are the same as those used for DC
TIG welding. They are usually rectifiers with current
ratings from 100 to 400 Amps, at 60 to 100% duty cycle
1 WORK h with OCV in the range of 65-80 V.
REMOTE A typical control system for mechanised high-current
CURRENT plasma arc welding consists of a main console control,
CONTROL
a junction box for gas and water hoses, an operator's
Fig. 5.41 : Typical equipment for plasma arc welding pendant control box, and a high-frequency generator.
The main control unit sequences the power source; high-
form, so that high currents can be used to achieve high frequency generator, orifice, shielding, and backing
welding speeds and increased penetration. In fact, gases; torch travel; auxiliary wire feeding; and cooling
manual PAW is restricted to currents less than 100 amps water for the torch. Travel speed and wire-feed rates
due to the intense heat of the arc. The manual torch are controlled by electronic governors. The need for
configuration is shown in Fig. 5.42 (A). A mechanised sensing and maintaining a constant arc length does not
PAW system is provided with a specially designed torch arise, because the plasma arc preserves its melting
(see Fig. 5.42 (B), which is fixed to a torch stand, so that capability in spite of variations in arc length.
it can mechanically traverse a joint or can be kept Flowmeters are provided for metering the orifice,
stationary while the joint travels. Other accessory units shielding, and backing gases. In addition, timers and a

TOURCH BARREL

HEAD

SHIELDING GAS
NOZZLE

(A) SHIELDING GAS NOZZLE

Fig. 5.42: Torches for PAW: (A) Manual; (B) Mechanised


gas flow tapering device are provided for u p and down
sloping of the orifice gas. An adequate supply of cooling
water for the torch is provided by a circulation system.
A flow switch and interlocking circuitry assure that
cooling water is flowing to the torch before the arc can
be ignited.
Arc Start
Since in PAW the tungsten electrode is well inside
the constricting nozzle and touch-starting against the
workpiece is ruled out, a special method has to be
devised for initiating the arc. The welding arc is started
by first igniting a pilot arc between the electrode and
the constricting nozzle, the power for this pilot arc being
derived from a separate power source or from the
welding power source itself. To start the pilot arc, the
electrode can be made to touch the nozzle and then
retracted to form an arc. This method is suitable for low
amperage torches. In the case of a high amperage torch,
a high frequency generator is provided, or high-voltage,
low-power pulses are superimposed on the welding
circuit. The high-voltage power ionises the gas and
enables it to conduct the pilot arc current.
In a typical system using the HF generator, the
constricting nozzle is connected to the positive terminal
of the power source through a current reducing resistor.
A low-current pilot arc is first formed between the
electrode and the nozzle by the HF generator, the
electrical circuit being completed through the resistor.
The pilot arc ionises the gas, which forms an electrical
path between the electrode and the nozzle or between
the electrode and the work. When the power source is
switched on, the main arc is initiated between the
electrode and the work or between the electrode and
the nozzle, depending on whether the circuit is arranged
for transferred or non-transferred arc. The pilot arc may
then be extinguished.
Procedures and Techniques
The manual PAW technique is similar to that used
for TIG welding. It is referred to as melt-in technique.
Low amperage and low-orifice gas flow rate are used
and the filler rod is added manually to the weld pool.
This technique is used to weld in all positions.
The penetrating power of the plasma arc and high
speed capability of the process are fully utilised in
mechanised welding by adopting the so-called keyhole
technique. This technique is suitable for square butt
joints in thickness range of 1.6-6.4 mm. It consists of
producing a small weld pool with a hole penetrating
completely through the base metal, using a special
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 301
combination of plasma gas flow, arc current and arc
travel speed. The keyhole is formed by the plasma
stream displacing the molten metal to the top bead
surface. As the plasma torch travels along the joint seam,
the metal being melted by the arc is pushed backward
around the plasma stream to form the weld pool, which
solidifies as the arc progresses.
This motion of the completely penetrated weld metal
allows the impurities to rise to the surface and the gases
to be expelled before solidification. The welding
conditions for the keyhole technique must be accurately
maintained. The orifice gas flow rate, especially, has to
be closely controlled.
In the keyhole t e c h n i q u e , the molten pool is
prevented from spilling by its surface tension. Hence
no backing bar is required to support it. However, a
grooved backing bar, as shown in Fig. 5.43, is used to
support the assembly, hold the underbead shielding gas
and provide- an exhaust for the plasma jet. When filler
metal is required, it is added to the leading edge of the
pool formed by the keyhole. The molten metal flowing
around the keyhole then forms a reinforced weld bead.
Square butt joints up to 6.4 mm t can be welded in a
single pass this way. For heavier joints which require
multi-pass welding, partial beveling is done and the root
pass of the largest size possible is deposited with the
keyhole technique without using filler wire. The rest of
the passes are then made with the normal melt-in
technique with filler wire additions.
Keyhole technique presents no difficulties in straight
seams as well as in circumferential pipe welds when
the metal thickness is under 3 mm. The welds can be
started and completed at full operating current, travel
speed and orifice gas flow rate, because the keyhole is
formed without any disturbance in the weld pool.
When the keyhole technique is used on thicknesses
over 3 mm, the plasma stream tends to bore a tunnel
PLASMA JET
BACKING GAS BACKING BAR
Fig. 5.43: Typical backing bar for keyhole plasma arc
welding
302 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

beneath the molten metal during keyhole start. Run-on

and run-off tabs have to be used on straight seams to
exclude the keyhole start and finish areas from the main 40 PLASMA ARC
seam. On circumferential joints where such tabs cannot
be used, the keyhole initiation and withdrawal is 0.030 IN DIAM ORIFICE
30
automatically programmed to give a gradual rise in
welding current and orifice gas flow rate at the start, 20
V GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
and their gradual decay at the end as shown in Fig. 5.44.
Welding e q u i p m e n t i n c o r p o r a t i n g controls to
10
programme the welding operation as described is
commercially available.
Presently PAW process is limited to thicknesses of 25
0 ? i A
AMPERES (DCSP)
? I
P
mm and lower for butt welds. When thickness exceeds Fig. 5.45: Comparison of gas-tungsten arc and plasma
25 mm, the plasma torch nozzle is not able to reach the arc volt-ampere characteristic curves below 10 amp in
root of the joint. argon

thickness the gravity effect diminishes rapidly until at

| / CURRENT
\ 1 0.38 mm it disappears. The surface tension of the molten
metal then determines its shape regardless of the

\JJ
GAS welding position.
z> The success of thin foil welding depends largely on
u < effective gas shielding and good fixturing. Fixturing in
o
z butt joints is simplified by flanging the edges. The
5 \ ^
> flanged edges act as pre-placed filler metal to fill the
gap and assure fusion across the joint. They also
STARTING WELD CLOSING
minimize warpage by providing extra stiffness. Defects
1 KEYHOLE TIME KEYHOLE
usually arise from (a) failure to maintain continuous
Fig. 5.44: Welding current and orifice gas slope control contact between the two joint edges, (b) oxidation of
cycle for starting and terminating a keyhole weld the base metal or weld metal due to improper shielding,
and (c) inadequate clamping.
The electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 5.46. It includes
Microplasma Arc Welding two separate power sources, one for the pilot arc and
For welding extremely thin sheets and foils (0.10- the other for the transferred arc. The pilot-arc power is
1.25 mm t), low current PAW is used, in which the pre-set to deliver approximately 5 amps continuously
current range may be 0.1-10 Amps, or 0.2-20 Amps. The when in use. The pilot arc is initiated by touching the
process is sometimes referred to as microplasma arc
welding. Plasma arc is preferred in place of normal TIG
POWER SOURCE AND
arc, because at such low currents the TIG arc is highly CONTROL UNIT
unstable and inconsistent. The reason for this is TORCH
explained by the V-Amp curves shown in Fig. 5.45. The ELECTRODE (-)
slope of the 6.4 mm long plasma arc is nearly flat over TRANSFERRED PILOT ARC
ARC POWER POWER
0.10-10 Amps, range, indicating very little change in SUPPLY
SUPPLY
ORIFICE GAS
arc voltage. On the other hand, in the case of the 1.3
/ SHIELDING GAS
mm long tungsten arc, the voltage registers 83% rise
CURRENT
(12 to 22 V) aL the current decreases from 10 to 0.10 <

ni
< a CONTROL
Amps. The relatively stable arc voltage of the plasma SNOZZLETm
ensures steady and controlled welding at low currents. CONTACTOR I © 'GAS LENSE
In microplasma welding of thin sheets, the molten ! NOZZLE

weld pool being extremely small, surface tension rather U—<= WORK ZJ<+>
than gravity becomes increasingly dominant as the
section thickness decreases. For example, below 0.76 mm Fig. 5.46: Microplasma arc welding equipment

electrode to the nozzle and then retracting it or with a
HF discharge. The main transferred arc is started by
closing the contactor.
Microplasma welding can be mechanised and
adapted for keyhole technique down to 0.8 mm, but the
success depends on the accurate measurement and
control of the plasma jet velocity, which is not adequately
provided by the flowmeter, but requires the use of a
pressure gauge.
A typical microplasma welding equipment consists
of power source giving a current range of 0.2-20 Amps.,
a control module, welding torch with accessories, water
recirculatory unit with suitable connecting hoses, foot
switch assembly with cable and plug, pressure regulator
for argon (shielding) along with non-return valve,
pressure regulator for hydrogen (shielding) along with
non-return valve, pressure regulator for argon (plasma),
gas hose with suitable end connectors for hydrogen
(shielding gas), and gas hose w i t h suitable end
connectors for argon (plasma).
Salient features of this equipment are:
• Fully transistorised, ensuring very high reliabil-
ity and excellent arc stability.
• Pulsed mode operation for precise control of heat
input through accurate programming.
• All controls mounted on front panel for easy
accessibility. Independent stepless variation of
all welding parameters like up-slope, peak
current, background current, down-slope, peak
current time, background current time, etc.
• Gas pre-flow and post-flow facilities provided.
• Inbuilt gas mixer unit for optimum results.
• Non-return valves provided in shielding gas-
flow lines for maximum safety.
• Being fully solid-state, requires little mainte-
nance.
• Very low power consumption.
• Light weight, easy portability.
• Immune to input supply voltage fluctuations up
to ± 5%.
• Constant current output characteristics to enable
excellent arc stability and uniform penetration.
• Most modern pilot-arc starting system for instan-
taneous start.
Applications of PAW
PAW can be used on all metals which are normally
welded by the TIG process. On many fabrication jobs
TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 303
PAW has b e e n p r o v e d to give better flexibility,
consistently high quality, and better economy. It is
therefore an accepted process in shipbuilding, nuclear,
electronic, aerospace and many other engineering
industries.
Mechanised high current PAW with keyhole
technique has been used to obtain high welding speeds
and consistently high quality joints in the following
typical applications in the U.S.A.:
1) Stainless steel and titanium tubing (longitudinal
welds)
2) Girth joints in pipe fabrication
3) Missile tankage
4) Turbine engine components
Manual PAW with the melt-in technique is usually
employed on very thin metal sections, because of the
ease and reliability it provides.
Microplasma welding is successfully used on the
following applications, because it provides a stable yet
cool arc at very low currents:
1) Thin-wire mesh screen filters
2) Small-wire butt welds
3) Relay case fabrication
4) Bellows assemblies
5) Thermal shields
6) Thin-wall pressure vessels
7) Vacuum tube components
8) Thermocouple junctions.
It is possible for highly skilled welders to use
microplasma keyhole technique to achieve uniform
w e l d p e n e t r a t i o n in applications such as pipe
fabrication.
Filler Metals for TIG and Plasma Arc Welding
Information on filler metals is available from the
relevant standards of the AWS, ISI and BSI.
The list of AWS specifications is given in Table 5.18.
As indicated in Table 5.18, filler wires in some
specifications are suitable also for MIG, oxyacetylene
a n d s u b m e r g e d - a r c w e l d i n g processes. In the
classification system for all these wires, letters ER or R
are used as prefix followed by a number indicating the
chemical composition of the filler metal. E stands for
electrode and indicates that the wire can be used as an
electrode in processes such as MIG and submerged-arc
welding (where if forms a part of the welding circuit).
R stands for rod and indicates that it is suitable for
processes such as TIG, PAW and oxyacetylene welding.
AWS A5.7-1977 contains the following
classifications of copper and copper-alloy filler rods
304 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.18: AWS specifications for TIG filler metals

AWS Fillet metals To be used with
specification processes
A5.7 Copper and copper-alloy welding rods and electrodes TIG / MIG
A5.9 Corrosion resistant chromium and chromium-nickel steel bare
electrodes and welding rods TIG / MIG / SA
A5.10 Aluminium and aluminium-alloy welding rods and bare electrodes OA / TIG / MIG / PAW
A5.14 Nickel and nickel-alloy bare welding rods and electrodes TIG / MIG /PAW / SA
A5.16 Titanium and titanium-alloy bare welding rods and electrodes TIG / MIG
A5.18 Mild steel electrodes for gas-metal arc welding TIG / MIG /PAW
A5.19 Magnesium-alloy welding rods and bare electrodes OA / TIG / MIG
A5.24 Zirconium and zirconium-alloy bare welding rods and electrodes TIG / MIG
A5.28 Low-alloy steel filler metals for gas shielded arc welding TIG / MIG /PAW
Notes: OA - Oxyacetylene; SA = Submerged-arc; PAW = Plasma arc welding

suitable for TIG, plasma arc and MIG welding processes.
They are similar in composition to the manual electrodes
listed in AWS A5.6- in chapter 3 ERCu, ERCuSi-A,
ERCuSn-A, ERCuNi, ECuAl-Al, ECuAl-A2, ECuAI-
A3, ERCuNiAl and ERCuMnNiAl.
Properties and applications of these filler metals are
similar to those of the corresponding manual electrodes
described in chapter no. 3.
AWS A5.9-1977 has listed corrosion-resisting
straight chrome and chromium-nickel steel filler wires
suitable for use with TIG, MIG and submerged-arc
processes, which are similar to those listed as manual
electrodes in AWS A5.4-in chapter no. 3. The
compositions are such that the weld deposit has the
capability of providing an approximately predictable
ferrite number.
The typical classifications are ER 308L, ER 309, ER
316, ER 310 and ER 347. The Appendix states that Si
may be used as suffix to the classification to indicate
that the filler metal contains 0.65-1.0% Si rather than
the standard 0.30-0.65% Si. Examples are: ER 308 Si, ER
308L Si, ER 309 Si, ER 316 Si, ER 316L Si, ER 309 Si, ER
316 Si, ER 316L Si and ER 347 Si. The higher Si level
improves the usability of the filler metal in TIG / M I G /
PAW processes. If dilution by the base metal results in
low ferrite or fully austenitic weld metal deposit, the
high-Si content weld metal is more resistant to cracking
than a low-Si content weld metal.
The TIG and plasma arc processes involve the least
change in the chemical composition from wire to
deposit, and hence produces the smallest difference
between the ferrite content calculated from the wire
analysis and that measured on the deposit. There is some
loss of carbon in gas-tungsten arc welding—about half
of the carbon content above 0.02%. Thus a wire of 0.06%
carbon will typically produce a deposit of 0.04% carbon.
There is also some nitrogen pick-up; a gain of 0.02%.
The change in other elements is not significant in the
undiluted weld metal.
AWS A5.10-1980 deals with Al and Al-alloy filler
wires suitable for oxyacetylene, TIG, plasma arc and
MIG processes. As shown in Table 5.19, there are 14
classifications; 10 of them carry the prefix ER which
means that they can be used as electrodes by the MIG
process and as r o d s by the other processes. The
remaining carry the prefix R, indicating that they are
suited for the first three processes and not for the MIG
process.
The last four are used for the repair of castings. The
rest are general purpose filler metals meant for use on
various standard grades of wrought Al-alloy products
as indicated in tabular form in the Appendix.
The Al and Al-alloy rods must have clean and oxide-
free surfaces. To quote from the Appendix: "Oil, or other
organic materials, as well as a heavy oxide film on the
rod will interfere with coalescence of the weld. Because
of this, it is necessary to clean the welding rod and
electrode before packaging. Proper storage of welding
rods and electrodes is essential to avoid contamination,
which may affect their performance. Packages of filler
metal should not be left outdoors or in unheated
buildings, because the greater variations in temperature
and humidity increase the possibility' of condensation.
Experience has demonstrated that undesirable storage
conditions m a y a d v e r s e l y affect filler metal
performance. Investigation of the effect of storage time
on electrode performance indicates that packaged
electrodes, stored under good conditions (dry places in
heated buildings), are satisfactory after extended
storage. Contamination of filler metal from handling or
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 305

Table 5.19: AWS classification of Al and Al-alloy filler wires

AWS class Approx. composition
ER 1100 99.0 min. Al
ER 2319 6.3 Cu / rest Al with controlled amounts of V, Zr
ER4043 5.3 Si / rest Al
ER 4047 12 Si/rest Al
ER 4145 10Si/4Cu/restAl
ER 5183 0.8 M n / 4.8 Mg / rest Al
ER 5356 0.1 Mn / 5 Mg / rest Al
ER5554 0.8 M n / 2.7 Mg / rest Al
ER 5556 0.8 Mn/5.1 Mg/rest Al
ER 5654 Mn trace / 3.5 Mg / rest Al
R242 4Cu/1.5Mg/2Ni/restAl
R295 4.5 Cu / rest Al
R355 5 Si / 1.2 Cu / 0.5 Mg / rest Al
R356 7Si/0.3Mg/restAl

storage may occur. In most cases, the contaminating
influences will dictate the cleaning method. The practice
of giving the welding rod a rub with steel wool, just
before welding is quite widely followed, if it has been
exposed to the shop atmosphere for long periods of
time."
A5.14-76 lists Ni and Ni-alloy bare filler metal for
use with the TIG, Plasma arc, MIG and submerged-arc
processes. The classifications covered are listed in Table
5.20.
The following notes on applications are taken from
the Appendix.
ERNiCr-3 is intended for welding nickel-chromium-
iron alloy, for dissimilar metals, for welding the clad
side of nickel-chromium-iron clad steel and for surfacing
steel with nickel-chromium-iron alloy.
ERNiCrFe-5 is intended for welding nickel-
chromium-iron alloys (ASTM B163, B166, B167 and B
168). The higher columbium-plus-tantalum content,
aimed at a minimum of four times the silicon content,
is intended to minimise cracking in welds, where high
stresses are encountered, such as in thick material.
ERNiCrFe-6 is intended for welding certain
dissimilar metals and for surfacing carbon steel. The
deposited weld metal will precipitation harden on heat
treatment. The degree to which it hardens depends on
the temperature and the time at temperature. The
supplier or his technical literature should be consulted

Table 5.20: AWS classification of Ni and Ni-alloy filler wires

AWS class Approx. composition
ER Ni-1 Similar to the electrode in A5.ll
ER NiCu-7 Similar to the electrode in 5.11, with 2.2 Ti
ER NiCr-3 67.0 min Ni / 20.0 Cr / 2.5 Cb + Ta
ER NiCrFe-5 70.0 min Ni / 15.5 Cr / 8.0 Fe / 2.2 Cb + Ta
ER NiCrFe-6 67.0 min Ni / 15.5 Cr / 8.0 Fe / 3.0 Ti
ER NiCrFe-7 70.0 min Ni / 15.5 Cr / 7.0 Fe / 2.4 Ti / 0.7 Al / 1.0 Cb + Ta
ER NiFeCr-1 42.0 Ni / 20.0 min Fe / 21.5 Cr / 3.0 Mo / 1.0 Ti
ER NiMo-1 Similar to the electrode in A5.ll
ER NiMo-2 16.5 Mo / 7.0 Cr/rest Ni
ER NiMo-3 Similar to the electrode in A5.ll
ER NiMo-7 28.0 Mo / rest Ni
ER NiCrMo-1
ER NiCrMo-2
ER NiCrMo-3 Similar to the electrode in A5.ll
ER NiCrMo^
ER NiCrMo-5
ER NiCrMo-7 16.0 Cr / 15.5 Mo / 0.50 Ti / rest Ni
ER NiCrMo-8 24.5 Cr / 6.0 Mo / 1.10 Ti / 1.0 Cu / 50.0 Ni
306 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
for specific recommendations concerning the precipi-
tation hardening tendency of the weld from this filler
metal.
ERNiCrFe-7 is used for welding nickel-chromium-
iron-titanium precipitation hardenable alloys. Prior to
precipitation hardening, the weldment must be solution
annealed at 980°C for one hour. Air cooling or water
q u e n c h i n g follows. The w e l d m e n t can then be
precipitation hardened by heating it to 700°C and
holding for 20 hours, followed by air cooling.
ERNiFeCr-1 is intended for gas shielded arc welding
of nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum-copper alloy
(ASTM B423 or UNS-No. 8825).
ERNiMo-2 is intended for welding corresponding
base metal (ASTM B434) to itself or to other alloys and
for cladding steel by the TIG and MIG processes.
ERNiMo-7 is i n t e n d e d for w e l d i n g the
corresponding type of nickel-molybdenum base metal
(ASTM B333) and for cladding steel. It can be used with
the gas shielded arc processes. Postweld heat treatment
is neither required nor prohibited.
E R N i C r M o - 7 is i n t e n d e d for w e l d i n g nickel-
chromium-molybdenum alloy base metal (ASTM B575),
dissimilar metals and for cladding steel by the TIG,
plasma arc and MIG processes.
ERNiCrMo-8 is i n t e n d e d for w e l d i n g nickel-
chromium-molybdenum alloy base metal (ASTM
B582), dissimilar metals and for cladding steel by
the TIG, plasma arc and MIG processes.
AWS A5.16-70 gives 14 classifications of Ti and
Ti-alloy filler wires as shown in Table 5.21.
A unique feature of these filler metals is that severe
restrictions have been placed on C, O, H and N contents,
which together are referred to as the interstitial content.
The footnote to the table states that analysis for
interstitial content should be made on the finished wire,
i.e. wire drawn to its final diameter. Its value is kept
low, especially in the classes marked* so that the high
toughness required for cryogenic applications and other
special uses can be obtained in the deposited weld metal.
The Appendix gives unusually detailed information
on the welding of Ti and Ti-alloys by covering the
following topics: w e l d i n g characteristics, surface
preparation for welding, welding procedure. Inspection,
mechanical testing, weld-metal tests for cryogenic
applications. Effect of interstitial elements on welds in
alpha-beta-Ti alloys, and welding of the 1.32 metre
diameter 6A1-4V-Ti second stage minuteman rocket
motor case, serve as an example.
AWS A5.18-79 d e a l s w i t h c a r b o n steel filler
metals for TIG, p l a s m a arc, MIG a n d M I G / C O ;
processes. It covers seven classes as shown in Table
5.22.
Strictly speaking, none of the standard grades is
suitable for TIG welding, because of high Si a n d / o r Mn
contents. They are really meant for MIG/CO; welding
using argon-oxygen mixture, argon-C0 2 mixture or pure
C 0 2 as a shielding gas. The filler wire composition
normally recommended for TIG welding of mild steel
is C 0.12% maximum, Mn—0.90 to 1.45%, Si—0.20
to 0.50%. It could be covered by the classification R70S-G.
AWS A5.19-69 deals with four classifications of
magnesium alloys as shown in Table 5.23
The Appendix indicates in a tabular form the various
commercial Mg alloys, on which the above filler metals
can be used and the typical weld properties that can be
achieved.
The filler wires requires special care in storage and
use as in the case of Al and Al-alloy wires. The following
recommendations given in the Appendix must be
followed:
Filler metal ele aliness and freedom from surface
oxidation is important in gas shielded-arc welding. Oil
or other organic material as well as heavy oxide coatings
on the surface of the filler metal will interfere with
coalescence of the weld puddle and cause porosity or
other weld defects or both. For this reason, filler metal
is manufactured and packaged in such a manner as to
prevent contamination.
Proper storage of welding rod and electrode in the
user's plant is essential, if the filler metal is to remain
free of contamination until used. Packages of filler metal
should not be left outdoors or in unheated buildings,
because the greater variations in temperature and
h u m i d i t y increase the possibility of m o i s t u r e
condensation. Properly protected filler metal can be
stored for long periods of time without adverse effect
on its performance.
Packages of filler metal should remain sealed until
ready for use. Once removed from the container, spooled
electrode should be kept covered, even during use. to
prevent surface contamination by dust, moisture, or
other air-borne foreign material. After welding is
completed, the electrode should be returned to its
original container for storage. Welding rod should also
be kept covered until ready for use. Storage conditions
here need not be as rigorous as for spooled electrode,
because good welding practice always includes a
stainless steel wool rub of the rod just prior to use, to
remove surface oxidation or other contamination.
The Appendix also provides detailed information on
the welding of Mg alloys in the same manner as AWS A5.16
 Table 5.21: AWS classification of Ti and Ti-alloy filler wires
Hydro- Nitro- Alumi- Vana- Tin Chro- Iron Molyb- Colum- Tant- Palla- Tita-
AWS Carbon Oxygen gen gen nium dium mium denum bium lum dium nium
0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 0/
classification % /o % % % %
/o /o /o /o /o /o /o
ERTi-1 0.03 0.10 0.005 0.012 — — — — 0.10 — — — — Remainder
ERTi-2 0.05 0.10 0.008 0.020 0.20 Remainder
0.10- " " " " " " "

ERTi-3 0.05 0.15- 0.008 0.020 — — — — 0.20 — — — — Remainder

0.15-

ERTi-4 0.05 0.25 0.00ft 0.020 0.30 Remainder

ERTi-0.2Pd 0.05 0.15 0.008 0.020 — — — — 0.25 — — — 0.15- Remainder
0.25
ERTi-3Al-2.5V 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.020 2.5- 2.0 — — 0.25 — — — — Remainder
3.5 3.0
ERTi-3Al-2.5V-l* 0.04 0.10 0.005 0.012 2.5- 2.0- — — 0.25 — — — — Remainder
3.5 3.0
ERTi-5Al-2.5Sn 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.030 4.7- 2.0- 0.40 Remainder
5.6 " 3.0 " " " " "

ERTi-5Al-2.5Sn-l* 0.04 0.10 0.005 0.012 4.7- — 2.0- — 0.25 — — — — Remainder

5.6 3.0
ERTi-6Al-2Cb-lTa- 0.04 0.10 0,005 0.012 5.5- — — — 0.15 0.5- 1.5- 0.5- — Remainder
TMo 6.5 1.5 2.5 1.5
ERTi-6Al-4V 0.05 0.15 :.UH)8 0.020 5.5- 3.5- — — 0.25 — — — — Remainder
6.75 4.5
ERTi-6Al-4V-l* 0.04 0.10 .,-#* 0.012 5.5- 3.5- — — 0.15 — — — — Remainder
6.75 4.5
ERT1-8AI-IM0-IV 0.05 o.r 0.03 7.35- 0.75 — — 0.25 0.75- — — — Remainder
8.35 1.25 1.25
ERTi-13V-llCr-3Al 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.03 2.5 12.5 — 10.0 0.25 — — — — Remainder
14 c; 190

*This classification offillermetal restricts the allmmble interstitial acontent

low level
toin order that the high toughness required for applications and other
cryogenic special uses can be obtained
in the deposited weld metal.
Note 1: Analysis for interstitial content shall be nvide after the welding rod or electrode has been reduced to itsfinaldiameter.
Note 2: Single values are maximum percentages.
308 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.22: AWS classification of carbon steel filler wires

Chemical composition, weight %
AWS
Classification Mn Si Ni Cr Mo V Cu Ti Zr Al
0.90 0.401 0.05 0.02 0.05
ER70S-2 0.07 to to 1 to to to
1.40 0.70 0.15 0.12 0.15
0.06 0.90 0.45
ER70S-3 to to to
0.15 1.40 0.70
0.07 1.00 0.65 !
ER70S-4 to to to 'I 0.025 0.035 — 0.50
0.15 1.50 0.85 1
0.07 0.90 0.30 0.50
ER70S-5 to to to to
0.19 1.40 0.60 0.90
0.07 1.40 0.80
ER70S-6 to to to 1
0.15 1.85 1.15 f
0.07 1.50 0.50
ER70S-7 to to to
0.15 2.00 0.80
ER70S-G No chemical r equirerr

PART 1: Ferritic Steels

Table 5.23: AWS classification of Mg-alloy filler wires
It is convenient to discuss this part with IS 6419-1971,
AWS Class Approx. composition because they are identical and deal with wires for TIG
ERAZ61A 6.5 Al / 1.0 Zn/rest Mg and MIG/C0 2 welding.
ERAZ101A 10.0 Al / 1.0 Zn/rest Mg The British standard lists five types of wires for mild
ERAZ92A 9.2 Al / 2.0 Zn/rest Mg steel as shown in Table 5.25. The types are designated A15,
EREZ33A 2.5 Zn / 0.75 Zr/3.2 rare earth / rest Mg A16, A17, A18 and A19, depending on the chemical
composition. The same identical five types are included in
AWS A5. 28-79 deals with bare solid wires of low- IS 6419, but the designations are S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4 and S-5.
alloy steel for use with TIG, MIG and PAW processes. In explaining the characteristics of these different
The class-ifications and chemical compositions are types, we shall refer to the British designations:
reproduced in Table 5.24.
AWS A5.24-76 dealing with Zr and Zr-alloy filler A15
metals is not elaborated here, because the welding of Could be used for TIG welding or MIG with C0 2 ,
these alloys is rarely carried out. Ar plus C 0 2 or Ar plus 0 2 mixtures.

British Standard A16

The British standard on TIG/MIG filler metals is BS The deoxidant content of this wire indicates its
2901:1970 entitled Tiller rods and wires for gas-shielded probable suitability for use with TIG or MIG with C0 2 ,
arc welding'. It is available in five parts: Ar plus C 0 2 or Ar plus 0 2 mixtures. High carbon levels
(0.30%) would obviously enhance the yield and ultimate
1) Ferritic steels tensile strengths compared with other Si/Mn wires in
2) Austenitic stainless steels this series. This does, however, appear to have limited
use in industrial application possibly because of
3) Copper and copper alloys
anticipated increased susceptibility to solidification
4) Al and Al alloys and Mg alloys cracking. In fact commercial availability of this wire is
5) Nickel and nickel alloys. doubtful even though it remains in the standard.
 Table 5.24 : AWS classification of low-alloy steel filler wires

Chemical composition requirements, %

AWS Carbon Manga- Silicon Phos- Sul- Nickel Chro- Molyb- Vana- Tita- Zirco- Alumi- Copper Total
Classifi- nese phorus phur mium denum dium nium nium nium other
cation elements

Chromium-molybdenum steel electrodes and rods

ER80S-B2 0.07-0.12 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.025 0.025 0.20 1.20-1.50 0.40-0.65 — 0.35 0.50
ER80S-B2L 0.05 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.025 0.025 0.20 1.20-1.50 0.40-0.65 — 0.35 0.50
ER90S-B3 0.07-0.12 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.025 0.025 0.20 2.30-2.70 0.90-1.20 — 0.35 0.50
ER90S-B3L 0.05 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.025 0.025 0.20 2.30-2.70 0.90-1.20 — 0.35 0.50

Nickel steel electrodes and rods

ER80S-NU 0.12 1.25 0.40-0.80 0.025 0.025 0.80-1.10 0.15 0.35 0.05 — 0.35 0.50
ER80S-Ni2 0.12 1.25 0.40-O.80 0.025 0.025 2.00-2.75 — — — 0.35 0.50
ER80S-N13 0.12 1.25 0.40-0.80 0.025 0.025 3.00-3.75 — — 0.35 0.50

Manganese-molybdenum steel electrodes and rods

ER80S-D2 0.07-0.12 1.60-2.10 0.50-0.80 0.025 0.025 0.15 0.40-0.60 — 0.50 0.50

Other low-alloy steel electrodes and rods

ERlOOS^l 0.08 1.25-1.80 0.20-0.50 0.010 0.010 1.40-2.10 0.30 0.25-0.55 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.50
ER100S-2 0.12 1.25-1.80 0.20-0.60 0.010 0.010 0.80-1.25 0.30 0.20-0.55 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.35-0.65 0.50
ER110S-1 0.09 1.40-1.80 0.20-0.55 0.010 0.010 1.90-2.60 0.50 0.25-0.55 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.50
ER120S-1 0.10 1.40-1.80 0.25-0.60 0.010 0.010 2.00-2.80 0.60 0.30-0.65 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.25 0.50
ERXXS-G Subject to agreement between supplier and purchaser
310 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.25: BS classification of mild steel filler wires

Type Carbon Silicon Manganese Aluminium Sulphur Phosphorus
min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max. min. max.
% % % % % %% % % % % %
A15 — 0.12 0.30 0.90 0.90 1.60 0.04 0.40 — 0.040 — 0.040
A16 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.50 1.30 1.60 — — — 0.040 — 0.040
A17 — 0.12 0.20 0.50 0.85 1.40 — — — 0.040 — 0.040
A18 — 0.12 0.70 1.20 0.90 1.60 — — — 0.040 — 0.040
A19 0.08 0.12 0.30 0.50 1.00 1.30 0.35 0.75 — 0.040 — 0.040

A17 Sometimes wires have titanium and zirconium

Should be satisfactory for TIG welding or MIG
welding with predominantly Ar-gas mixtures.
A18
Suitable for TIG welding, and by far the most
popular choice for MIG welding with C0 2 , Ar plus C 0 2
and Ar plus 0 2 mixtures.
A19
Suitable for TIG welding and MIG with C0 2 , Ar plus
C 0 2 and Ar plus 0 2 mixtures. Although the silicon levels
are somewhat lower than other wires for use with C0 2 ,
this is compensated for by 0.75% (maximum)
aluminium.
Generally, this wire is capable of producing porosity-
free joints on weldments, which are rusty or otherwise
contaminated. Despite this apparent advantage, the
wires do not share the popularity of type A18. Probably
this can be attributed to their inferior metal transfer and
flow characteristics, which also result in a weld of coarse
appearance.
It must be appreciated that it is difficult to quantify
each wire application, because factors other than the
wire composition and shielding gas, should also be
considered. These include cleanliness of the weidments,
chemical composition of the weldments with respect to
deoxidant levels, dilution levels and element recovery
values associated with the particular metal transfer
characteristic being used.
Important note: Generally speaking, wires which have
high level of Si (above 0.65%) or of Si plus Al (above
0.80%) are designed to work with a C 0 2 shield. Since
the C 0 2 gas is reactive in the arc, the level of Si is
considerably reduced in the weld metal, which is an
important and favourable condition. If such wires are
used with argon or argon-oxygen mixture, the weld
metal has an excess of silicon and is prone to hot cracks.
deoxidants to partly replace silicon, which operate
satisfactorily under C 0 2 shielding. Such wires will not
give harmful effects if used with argon-oxygen mixtures.
PART 2: Ausentic Stainless Steels
This standard lists 14 types of filler metal. The range
is much smaller than in AWS A5.9, because while the
BS deals only with austenitic stainless steels, the
American Standard covers straight chrome and Cr-Ni
ferritic, austenitic and martensitic stainless steels. The
14 BS classifications and their AWS equivalents are
shown in Table 5.26.
PART 3: Copper And Copper Alloys
The standard covers 13 types as shown in Table 5.27.
Type C7 is intended for welding copper using argon
or helium as a shielding gas, while Type C8 is a modified
version to be used with nitrogen as a shielding gas. Type
C21 carrying minute amounts of boron is covered by a
British patent.
PART 4: AI/AI Alloys And Mg Alloys
The standard covers eight types of Al and Al alloys
as shown in Table 5.28
The standard covers eight types of Mg alloys as
detailed in Table 5.29.
PART 5: Nickel And Nickel Alloys
Eleven types are covered as shown in Table 5.30.
Indian Standards
The four Indian Standards on TIG/MIG filler metals
are:
1) IS 6419-1996: equivalent to BS 2901-1970—Part 1
2) IS 585*^1970: equivalent to BS 2901-1970— Part 2
3) IS 5897-1970: equivalent to BS 2901-1970— Part 4
4) IS 5898-1970: equivalent to BS 2901-1970— Part 3
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 311

Table 5.26: BS classification of S.S. filler wires

BS 2901: Part 2 Equivalent
Type AWS A5.9 type
308S92 ER 308L
308S96 ER308
308S93 ER 308L Si
307S96 ER347
309S94 ER309
311S94 This is ER 309 type and stabilised with Nb. There is no AWS equivalent.
310S94 ER 310
310S98 This is ER 310 with 0.35-0.45%C. There is no AWS equivalent.
313S94 This is E 310 and stabilised with Nb. There is no AWS equivalent.
316S92 ER 3216L
316S96 ER316
316S93 ER 316L Si
317S96 ER 317
318S96 ER 318

:Table 5.27: BS classification for Cu and its alloy filler wires

Type Common Approx. composition Nearest AWS
name equivalent
C7 copper 98.5 min. Cu / 0.25 Mn / 0.28 Si ERCu
C8 copper 99.4 min. Cu / Al+Ti 0.38 X
C9 silicon-bronze 1.0 M n / 3.0 S i / rest Cu ER CuSi-A
ClO phosphor-bronze 93.8 min. Cu / 5.3 Sn / P 0.20 ER CuSn-A
Cll phosphorbronze 92.3 min. Cu / 6.8 Sn / P 0.20 X
C12 aluminium-bronze 90.0 min. Cu / 6.8 Al ER CuAl-Al
C12Fe aluminium-bronze 89.0 min. Cu / 75 Al / 3.0 Fe X
C13 aluminium-bronze 86.0 min. Cu / 10.0 Al / 1.0 Fe ER CuAl-A2
C16 copper-nickel 0.35 Ti / 1.6 Fe / 11.0 Ni / 0.8 Mn / rest Cu X
C18 copper-nickel 0.35 Ti / 0.7 Fe / 31.0 Ni / 0.8 Mn / rest Cu ER CuNi
C20 aluminium-bronze 82.5 Cu / 8.8 Al / 2.5 Fe / 4.2 Ni / 1.3 Mn ER CuNiAl
C21 copper 99.8 min. Cu / 0.06 B X
C22 aluminiumbronze 7.8 Al / 3.0 Fe / 2.2 Ni / 12.5 Mn / rest Cu ER CuMnNiAl

Table 5.28 : BS classification of Al and Al alloy filler wires

Type Approx. composition Nearest
AWS equivalent
G1A 99.8 min. Al / Cu+Si+Fe+Mn+Zn : 0.2 max. ER1100
GIB 99.5 min Al / Cu+Si+Fe+Mn+Zn+ : 0.5 max. ER1100
NG21 Al / 5 Si ER4043
NG3 Al / 1.0 Mn X
NG5 Al / 3.5 Mg ER5654
NG52 Al/2.7Mg/0.8Mn/0.1Ti ER 5554
NG6 Al / 5.0 Mg / Mn + Cr : 0.1 to 0.5 ER5356
NG61 Al / 5.25 Mg / 0.8 Mn / 0.1 Cr / 0.1 Ti ER5556
312 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.29: BS classification of Mg and its alloy filler wires

Type Approx. composition Nearest
AWS equivalent
Dl 9.8 Al / 0.27 Mn / Cu+Si+Fe+Ni: 0.4 max / rest Mg ERAZ101A
D2 1.5 Mn / rest Mg X
D3 7.0 Al/0.27 M n / r e s t Mg ERAZ61A
D4 3.0 Al / 0.42 Mn / 1.0 Zn / rest Mg X
D5 1.1 Zn / 0.7 Zr / rest Mg X
D6 2.0 Zn / 0.7 Zr / 2.0 Cd / rest Mg X
D7 4.3 Zn / 0.7 Zr / 1.25 rare earth metals / rest Mg X
D8 2.0 Zn / 0.7 Zr / 3.2 rare earth metals / rest Mg EREZ33A

Table 5.30: BS classification of Ni and its alloy filler wires

Type Approx. composition Nearest
AWS equivalent
NA32 Ni with 3% Ti ERNi-1
NA33 66 Ni / 33 Cu ERNiCu-7
NA34 Ni with 20% Cr X
NA35 Ni with 20% Cr / 3.0 Mn / 1.5 Fe / 0.5 Ti / Nb+Ta : 2.5 ERNiCr-3
NA36* 20 Cr / 88 Co / 2.5 Ti / 1.4 Al /rest Ni X
NA37* 18 Cr / 14 Co / 7.0 Mo / 2.2 Ti / 2.1 Al / rest Ni X
NA38* 20 Cr / 20 Co / 5.8 Mo / 2.2 Ti / 0.45 Al / 0.25 Si/rest Ni X
NA39* 15.5 Cr / 4.0 Fe / 3.0 Ti / 2.35 Mn / 67.0 min. Ni ERNiCrFe-6
NA40 21.2 Cr / 1.5 Co / 18.5 Fe / 9.0 Mo / 0.6 W / rest Ni ERNiCrMo-2
NA41 40 Ni / 21.5 Cr / 3.0 Mo / 1.4 Ti / 2.2 Cu / rest Fe ERNiFeCr-1
NA42* 44 Ni / 16.5 Cr / 3.2 Mo / 1.2 Ti / 1.2 Al / rest Fe X
*These are age-hardenable type.

Reference was made to IS 6419 while discussing BS (2.0) 500 or 1000

2901 — Part 1 on page 291. The other Indian standards
need no elaboration as they give identical types and
compositions as contained in the equivalent British
standards.
Dimensions
Standard dimensions for TIG welding rods are
specified in ISO/R546, "Lengths and tolerances for
drawn or extruded filler rods for welding supplied in
straight lengths", and they have been incorporated in
BS 2901 and the corresponding Indian standards. The
diameters and lengths are as follows.
Diameter (mm) Length (mm)
(1.2)
(1.6)
(2.4)
2.5
(3.2)
4.0 1000
5.0
The preferred sizes are given in parenthesis.
The rods must have smooth finish, and must be free
from surface imperfections, corrosion products, oxides,
grease and oil, which w o u l d adversely affect the
soundness and mechanical properties of the weld.
Mechanised TIG welding may call for continuous
wires wound on spools or rims, or in the form of coils.
Standard dimensions for these are given in the next
chapter on M I G / C 0 2 welding.
 TUNGSTEN INERT-GAS ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING) 313

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 3, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published 1971, by American Society for Metals.
Modern Welding, Chapter 11, by Althouse et al., published 1965, by The Goodheart-Willcox Co.
Pipe Welding Procedures, Chapter 6 by H. Rampaul, published 1973, by Industrial Press Inc., New York.
Sensors, Present and Future by Venn. Weld. & Met. Fabr., Oct. 1984.
GTA Hot Wire Welding, Weld ]., May 1970.
Orbital Narrow Gap TIG Welding, Met. Constr., Oct. 1977.
Automatic Pulsed-TIG Tube-Plate Welder, Weld. & Met. Febr., May 1980.
TIG Welding Troubleshooting, Weld J. Nov. 1983.
Hot Wire—for TIG. Plasma and SAW, Weld & Met. Fabr., June 1971.
TIG Welding of Al-Bronze, Weld & Met. Fabr., June 1975.
TIG Welding of Al Pipes, Weld & Met. Fabr., Dec. 1975.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Metal
lnert-Gas/C02
Arc Welding
METAL INERT-GAS ARC WELDING, as the name
suggests, is a process in which the source of heat is an
arc formed between a consumable metal electrode and
the workpiece, and the arc and the molten puddle are
protected from contamination by the atmosphere (i.e.
oxygen and nitrogen) with an externally supplied gas-
eous shield of inert gas such as argon, helium or an ar-
gon-helium mixture. No external filler metal is neces-
sary, because the metallic electrode provides the arc as
well as the filler metal. It is often referred to in abbrevi-
ated form as MIG welding.
MIG welding was primarily developed as a high
current-density, smaller-diameter metal-electrode
process with argon shielding for welding aluminium.
Hence the term MIG was appropriate, and the process
was equally applicable to deoxidised copper and silicon
bronze. But when it was extended to the welding of
ferritic and austenitic steels, addition of 1-2% oxygen
to argon was found necessary to get smooth metal
transfer. Later it was established that mild steel could
be welded using 100% carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) or argon-
C 0 2 mixture as a shielding gas. Since these gases are
not inert, the process came to be termed as M I G / C 0 2 o r
MIG/MAG welding process. MAG is an abbreviation
of metal active-gas, in which active gas refers to argon-
oxygen, carbon dioxide and argon-C0 2 mixture, which
are chemically reactive and not inert.
The American Welding Society refers to the process
as Gas Metal-Arc Welding and has given it the letter
designation GMAW. This term appears simpler, because
it covers inert as well as active shielding gases.
After the successful industrial adoption of the TIG
process in 1940, it was but one step forward for the
development of the MIG process for welding alumi-
nium. This occurred in 1950. The replacement of argon by
the active gas C0 2 or argon-oxygen mixture took place in
1955. In 1960, the flux-cored continuous wire was
developed to replace the solid-metal electrode wire. The
years 1960-66 saw the growth of the spray transfer tech-
nique and the development of the pulsed MIG process.
M I G / C 0 2 welding process overcomes the restriction
of using small lengths of electrodes as in manual metal-
arc w e l d i n g a n d overcomes the inability of the
submerged-arc process to weld in various positions. It
is not surprising, therefore, that the 50/50 level of the
relative weights of weld metal deposited by the manual
metal-arc and MIG/ C 0 2 processes was reached in 1973
in the U.S.A. and in 1978 in Europe.
M I G / C 0 2 is basically a semi-automatic process, in
which the arc length and the feeding of the wire into
the arc are automatically controlled. The welding
operator's job is reduced to positioning the gun at a
correct angle and moving it along the seam at a
controlled travel speed. Hence less operator skill is
required with this process as compared to the TIG and
manual metal-arc processes. Yet, systematic initial
training in the setting u p of the e q u i p m e n t and
manipulation of the gun must be provided to the
operator to ensure quality M I G / C 0 2 welding. By
suitably adjusting the process parameters, it is possible
to weld joints in the thickness range of 1-13 mm in all
welding positions. For production welding of steel joints
thicker t h a n 13 m m , flux-cored arc w e l d i n g or
submerged-arc welding is preferred.
All the major commercial metals can be welded by
the M I G / C 0 2 process, including carbon steels, low-alloy
and high-alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminium,
copper, titanium, zirconium and nickel alloys.
316 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

MIG/C0 2 is also used in mechanised and automatic used, because it yields a stable arc and smooth metal
forms to eliminate the operator factor and to increase transfer with least spatter for the entire current range
productivity and consistency of quality. used. AC is unsuitable for this process, because the arc
is extinguished at each half-cycle and rectification of the
BASIC EQUIPMENT reverse polarity cycle makes the arc erratic. DC with
The basic MIG/C0 2 equipment is shown in Fig. 6.1. electrode negative is also not practicable, because the
It consists of a DC power source, a wire feeder, a arc becomes unsteady and erratic.
shielding gas supply, controls for governing wire drive, Constant current power sources, such as those used
current, gas flow and cooling water (if used), and a for manual metal-arc welding are not suitable for this
welding gun. The power source is usually a constant process, because they demand stringent control of
potential welding rectifier giving DC. The wire feeder electrode-feed speed and the system is not self-
pulls the wire electrode from a spool and pushes it regulating. On the other hand a constant voltage power
through the welding gun at required speed. As the wire source, when used in conjunction with a constant-speed
passes through the gun, it picks up electric current from wire feeder, provides a self-correcting arc length system
the copper contact tube, which is electrically connected as explained in Chapter 2. In this case, the arc voltage is
to the power source, and makes an arc with the adjusted by setting the output voltage on the power
workpiece. The initiation and termination of gas flow supply. The welding current is adjusted by setting the
is automatically controlled. The gun is cooled either by wire-feed speed.
the shielding gas passing through it or by a water Power sources are rated at 60% duty cycle for semi-
circulation system. The later is required only when automatic operation and at 100% duty cycle for
currents above 400 amps are used, and then controls automatic continuous operation. The maximum
are provided to start and stop the water circulation amperage used is 600 amp at 60% duty cycle, though in
automatically during the welding operation. exceptional cases automatic equipments may use power
sources of 1,000-2,000 Amps. The commonly used
Power Sources power sources cover the following ratings:
Power sources used in MIG/C0 2 , welding are either Max. Amps, at 60% duty cycle 160 200 300 400 600
welding generators or transformer-rectifiers of constant- Max. Amps, at 100% duty cycle 120 150 230 310 500
voltage type such as are used in SA welding, which give When the power source is of the constant-voltage
direct current. DC with electrode positive is always type, the arc can be started by simply feeding the

ELECTRODE

|WIRE DRIVE
WIRE REEL ^
Note : Sometimes a water circulator is used. MAY BE LOCATED'
IN WELDING GUN,
HANDLE OR AT
WIRE REEL

GAS
SUPPLY

CONTROLS FOR GOVERNING

WIRE DRIVE. CURRENT. GAS
FLOW. AND COOLING WATER.
IF USED

Fig. 6.1: Diagram of MIG/C0 2 arc welding equipment

 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 317

electrode to the work. It is necessary, however, to have
the wire moving as soon as it comes in contact with the
work, since the large current pulse at short circuit can
burn off the wire faster than it is fed, causing it to fuse
with the contact tube. This is called the burn-back
phenomenon. The second requirement for the wire feed
is that the wire should not protrude too far, by over-
running when the arc is broken at the end of the welding
and also should not stick into the weld pool.
In modern M I G / C 0 2 machines, these points have
been taken care of with the help of an electronic
controller whose controls avoid:
• Burning back of contact tubes
• Loss of wire through over-run
• Loss of time spent for cutting of extra-long pro-
truded wire
• Loss of time spent for cutting the wire stuck into
the weld pool.
The required features are brought about by carefully
sequencing the wire feed, the power source On-Off
function and gas On-Off in relation to gun switch
triggering. The sequence adopted in the electronic
controller is as under:
1) When the gun is switched On
a) The gas, wire feed and the power source are
made On simultaneously
b) As a result, the welding operation starts
2) The On state continues till the gun switch is re-
leased, i.e. turned Off
3) When the gun switch is released
a) The wire feed stops instantaneously, because
of special braking circuit provided for the
wire-feed motor
b) Weld power is turned Off after a time delay
of 0.1 to 0.2 sec. This power is turned Off by
means of a contactor put in the input side of
the power source
4) The shielding gas flow is also stopped along with
the weld power.
The above sequence of operations is shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 6.2.
Welding Gun
The g u n is provided with (a) a contact tube to
transmit the welding current to the electrode wire, (b) a
gas passage and a nozzle to direct the shielding gas
around the arc and the weld puddle, (c) arrangement
for cooling by shielding gas or circulating water, and
(d) a switch to start and stop the welding current, wire
feed and shielding gas flow.
For semi-automatic welding, the gun is shaped like
a pistol and is of goose-neck design, with a gun head
angle of 45°. The gun head is connected to a cable hose
assembly, whose other end has a coupler for remote
connection to a wire feeder. A typical gas-cooled gun is
shown in Fig. 6.3.
In another design, a pull-type wire-feed mechanism
and the wire spool are mounted directly on the gun.
The spool has a diameter of 102 mm and weighs 0.5 to
1.0 kg. The wire diameters are usually 0.8-1.2 mm. In
this case, there is no limit for the length of the cable
connecting to the power source and the gas cylinder.
In yet another design, a self-contained wire feeding
mechanism is mounted on the gun, which pulls the wire
through a flexible cable from a remote spool. It may be
used in conjunction with a normal wire feeder to make
it a push-pull type feeding system. In this case, the length
of the cable between the gun and the wire feeder can be
15 m or more. Such a gun can conveniently operate with
aluminium and steel wires, whose diameters range
between 0.8 and 1.6 mm.
The choice of gas-cooled or water-cooled guns is
based on several factors. For intermittent welding with
C 0 2 gas shield, gas-cooled gun can be used for currents
up to 500 amp. For continuous welding the limit is 400
Amps. If the shield is of argon or helium, the current is
limited to 200 Amps. The other factors are the metals
being welded, weld joint design and the established
shop practice. Gas-cooled guns are easier to manipulate
than the water-cooled types and are preferred for
positional welding and welding in confined areas.

WIRE FEED V////////J///////////A

WELD POWER 7////////XW////////A
GAS V////////////////M^^^^ TIME
TORCH SWITCH PRESSED ON TORCH SWITCH RELEASED OFF

Fig. 6.2: Operational sequence in MIG/C0 2 arc welding

318 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
GAS TUBE /
' NOZZLE
\ GUN SWITCH
CURRENT CONTACT TUBE
WELDING ELECTRODE
Fig. 6.3: Typical semi-automatic gas-cooled, curved-neck gas metal-arc welding gun
Shielding Gas Control
C 0 2 gas is normally supplied in cylinders. These
cylinders contain liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide in
equilibrium at high pressure. As C 0 2 gas is withdrawn
from the space at the top of the cylinder, liquid C 0 2
evaporates to replace the gas removed, thus maintaining
the gas-liquid equilibrium. Evaporation of the liquid
C 0 2 causes intense cooling of the gas coming out of the
cylinder. Also it is necessary to ensure that only gaseous
C 0 2 , and not the liquid, passes into the pressure
reducing valve. For this purpose an electrically heated,
thermostatically controlled vaporiser or gas preheater
is provided between the cylinder valve and the reducing
valve.
The pressure and flow of the shielding gas to the
welding gun is controlled by using a gas pressure
regulator and a flowmeter. The regulator reduces the
high pressure of the gas from the cylinder or any other
source to a safe working pressure, and maintains a
constant delivery pressure within the operating range
of the gas. The flowmeter controls the rate of gas flow
to the welding gun. The flowmeter is calibrated in litres
per minute. The inlet gas pressure to the flowmeter must
be maintained as specified by the equipment supplier,
by setting the pressure regulator suitably.
Gaseous mixtures in standard proportions are often
available readily fiom gas suppliers. Sometimes gas-
mixing units are used on the shop floor to mix the gases
from individual cylinders in the desired proportion.
TYPICAL EQUIPMENT
Typical modern M I G / C 0 2 equipment as shown in
Fig. 6.4 and 6.4 A consists of (1) constant potential
rectifier-type power source and controls, (2) separable
ELECTRODE GUIDE JUBE
COMPOSITE
rfPOSITE<CABLE. \
wire feeder, (3) welding gun and accessories, (4) set of
control cables and welding cables with hoses for gas
and water (water only for capacities of over 500 Amps.),
and (5) set of accessories which include gas regulator-
cum-flowmeter, gas preheater, welding helmet, gloves
and anti-spatter silicone spray.
Some of the salient features of the equipment are:
a) Thyristorised DC variable speed drive system en-
sures smooth and precise wire feeding
b) Easy plug-in type connections facilitate quick in-
terchangeability
c) Facility is provided for pre-selection of voltage
and gas-flow rates before commencing the weld-
ing operation
d) All the control circuits are m o u n t e d on one
printed circuit board for ease of maintenance
e) Automatic choke setting avoids the possibility of
selecting wrong choke values and ensures opti-
mum metal transfer with better dynamic charac-
teristics
f) Burn back control is incorporated to ensure quick
and smooth arc-striking without wastage of filler
wire
g) Protection against ventilation failure, a n d
consequent overheating and d a m a g e to the
equipment, is provided. Where water-cooled
system is used, a built-in water circulatory unit
is provided for effective torch cooling. It has extra
protection against p u m p failure or inadequate
water flow
h) Effective gas flow control is provided through a
solenoid valve, which ensures adequate shield-
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 319

Fig. 6.4: ADORMIG welding outfit Fig. 6.4A: MIGMAG welding outfit

ing of the weld puddle and minimises wastage
of gas.
The equipment is available in four models A, #, C and
D, whose brief specifications are given in Table 6.1.
Power Sources
All the models have constant-potential type welding
rectifier as basic power source giving excellent short arc
and spray arc transfers of weld metal during the welding
operation. With their almost horizontal (constant
voltage) characteristics, they are well suited for fully-
automatic as well as semi-automatic MIG/C0 2 welding.
Accurate voltage adjustments can be made by way of
fine and coarse control voltage selection switches.
Automatic choke incorporated in the machine provides
smooth welding arc. As seen in Fig. 6.4 it is ruggedly
constructed, drip-proof, and is provided with suitable
fan for adequate cooling of power elements. The
machine is mounted on rubber-type wheels and has a
mounting bracket for the gas cylinder along with lifting
lugs for shifting from job to job.
Wire Feeder
Typical wire feeder, shown in Fig. 6.5 contains a
suitable DC motor, speed reducing gear box, 2/4 roll
drive, gas solenoid valve and potentiometer for
adjustment of wire-feed speed. Its salient features are:
a) DC motor of adequate power to cover the entire
range of wire feeders to feed wires of different
sizes

Table 6.1: Brief specifications of MIG/C02 models

Model Qirrent range Wire sizes in mm
up to (Amps.) Steel Aluminium

A , 150 0.8 to 1.00

B 250 0.8 to 1.20 1.20
C 400 ' 0.8 to 1.60 1.20 to 1.60
D 600 0.8 to 2.00 150 to 1.60
Their detailed specifications are given in Table 6.2.
320 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 6.2: Detailed specifications of MIG/C02 models

Model A B C D
Power source Type CPR CPR CPR CPR
Current (up to) amp 150 250 400 600
Max. DC voltage V 26 35 49 56
Welding current
@ 60% duty cycle amp 115 250 400 600
@ 100% duty cycle amp 90 195 310 500
Rating:
Continuous KVA 2.4 8 17 31
@ 60% duty cycle KVA 3 10 22.5 36.5
Max. KVA 4 — — —
Insulation Class F B B B
Cooling (power source) Type Natural air Forced air Forced air Forced air
Input supply 230V / lph / 50 450V / 3 ph / 50 415V / 3ph / 50 415V / 3ph / 50
Wire Feeder Model E F F G
Drive system Type Planetary 2-roll 2-roll 4-roll
Cooling (gun) Type Gas Gas Gas Water

Fig. 6.5: Wire-feeder Model VCG-B-201 Fig. 6.5A: Wire-feeder

b) Includes two-track/four-track systems for wire
feeding
c) Continuously variable wire-feed speeds
d) Vertical spool position ensures a smooth wire-
feed and avoids bird-nest phenomenon
e) Optional CO, spot welding attachment can be
plugged in for spot welding operations
f) Suitable for .mounting on welding booms or for
use in conjunction with various welding aids
with/without minor modifications.
Specifications of the three models are given in Table
6.3.
Guns
These are available both in gas-cooled and water-
cooled versions. The gun head is connected to a cable
hose assembly. All models are fitted with a suitable
coupler for connection to the right wire feeder. The guns
are supplied with requisite accessories. Special guns
with straight heads or those suitable for automation
can also be supplied. They are also available with

Table 6.3: Specifications of wire feeders
Model
Wire diameters:
Steel mm
Aluminium mm
Wire drive motor Type
Drive system Type
Wire-feed speed control Type
Wire-feed speed m / min
suitable spot welding nozzles and soft wire/aluminium
welding attachments.
SPECIAL GUN HOLDER
Where MIG/C0 2 welding is preformed continuously
on a production scale, a special gun holder provided
with a spring-loaded support can be conveniently used
to take away the strain of the gun from the welder's
arm. It is designed to be used in conjunction with the
wire feeder. The arm of the gun holder swivels along
with the wire feeder through 360° to increase the coverage
of working area. The arm joint is spring-loaded and the
tension can be adjusted for optimum operation. While in
use, the arm of the gun holder moves down as the welder
manipulates the gun (see Fig. 6.6).
Following are the advantages of using this gun holder:
a) Fatigue to the welder is reduced since the weight
of the gun is taken away by the holder. This re-
sults in increased productivity.
b) Facilitates easy manipulation of the gun.
Fig. 6.6: Gun holder with wire feeder mounted on it.
METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 321
E F G
0.8 to 1.2 0.8 to 1.6 0.8 to 2.0
— 1.2 to 1.6 1.2 to 1.6
DC DC DC
Planetary 2-Roll 4-Roll
Thyristorised Thyristorised Thyristorised
1.2 to 18 1.2 to 18 1.2 to 18
c) The gun is kept off the floor. This increases its life
and reduces the risk of its getting damaged. Also
there are fewer chances of accidents due to the
gun trailing on the ground.
d) Trouble-free wire feeding, as the gun is kept rela-
tively straight.
e) Wider area of coverage, because of the swivel-
ling mechanism.
AUTOMATIC WELDING HEAD
A typical outfit consists of a water-cooled welding
gun and a wire feeder, the former being mounted directly
below the latter. Welding currents up to 1,200 amp and
long arc times are used. The electrode wire is driven by
feed rolls into a guide assembly, which supports and
protects the electrode during the welding operation.
Electrode diameters vary from 0.8 to 6.4 mm.
The welding head may be-mounted on a trolley and
made to traverse a track running parallel to the joint.
Alternatively, it may be mounted on a beam and
operated in conjunction with specially built positioners
and fixtures. For example, by mounting the head on a
column and boom, longitudinal arid circumferential
joints of cylindrical vessels can be automatically welded
as shown in Fig. 6.7.
COMBINED SA-MIG/C02 WELDING HEAD
Since submerged arc and MIG/C0 2 welding
processes are best suited for high-speed mechanised
welding, fabricators sometimes desire to have and
inquire for a combined welding head for these two
processes. Fabricators must understand that such a
welding head cannot be conceived, because (a) wire-
feed speed range and torque requirements are different
for these two processes, and, (b) while the SA process
needs flux feeding and flux dispenser arrangements,
MIG/C0 2 demands gas shielding and water-cooling
arrangements.
322 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS
FROM OUTSIDE:

• BOOM IN FIXED POSITION

\M
LONGITUDINAL WELDS
FROM OUTSIDE:
• FIXED WORKPIECE
CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS
FROM INSIDE:
• BOOM IN FIXED POSITION
LONGITUDINAL WELDS
FROM INSIDE:
•FIXED WORKPIECE
• BOOM MOVING AT WELDING SPEED • WORKPIECE ROTATING • BOOM MOVING AT WELDING
• WORKPIECE ROTATING
O N ROTATOR SPEED
ON ROTATOR

Fig. 6.7: Automatic MIG/CO. head mounted on column and boom

At best, the equipment manufacturer can supply a

universal-type power source, carriage unit and guide
track as common items; and separate welding heads
which can be interchanged as required.
Some internationally known companies supply the
SA welding head and a supplementary kit consisting
of a motorgear box unit to match MIG/C02 wire-feed
speeds and other substitution parts to enable the
fabricator to convert the SA head to a MIG/C02 head.
Such an arrangement cannot be a true combined
welding head.
METAL TRANSFER
In the MIG/C02 process, the metal transfer from the
electrode tip to the weld pool across the arc is either
globular, spray type or short-circuiting type depending on:
a) the magnitude of welding current
b) current density
c) shielding gas
d) electrode extension and
e) electrode chemistry.
Globular Transfer
With carbon-dioxide shielding, the transfer is
globular and non-axial, whatever may be the value of
the welding current, current density and other factors.
Hence there is considerable spatter. Drops become
smaller in size as the current increases and they continue
to be directed axially and non-axially.
Axial transfer means that the metal droplets move
along a line that is an extension of the longitudinal dxis
of the electrode. Non-axial transfer means that the
droplets are hurled in any other direction.
The non-axial transfer is caused by an
electromagnetic repulsive force acting on the bottom of
MOLTEN
METAL
Fig. 6.8: Non-axial metal transfer
the molten drop. The electric current flowing through
the electrode gives rise to several electromagnetic forces
that act on the molten tip including the pinch force (P)
and the anode reaction force (R) (see Fig. 6.8). The pinch
force which increases with current and electrode
diameter causes the drop to detach. With C0 2 shielding,
the electrode tip is not heated directly by the arc plasma
but by the arc heat conducted through the molten drop.
The molten drop grows in size and finally detaches by
short-circuiting or gravity, after having overcome the
force R, which tends to support the drop.
Spray Transfer
With pure argon or a mixture of C0 2 with at least
80% argon or helium, the metal transfer is globular at
relatively low current density, but changes to spray type
when the current density exceeds a certain value
depending on the wire electrodetypeand shielding gas.
Table 6.4 indicates transition currents for various
electrode types.
In the spray-type transfer, the metal travels across
the arc in the form of fine droplets which are axially
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 323

Table 6.4: Globular-to-spray transition currents for a variety of electrodes

Wire electrode
diameter Minimum spray arc
Wire electrode type (mm) Shielding gas current, amp
Mild steel 0.76 98% argon-2% oxygen 150
Mild steel 0.89 98% argon-2% oxygen 165
Mild steel 1.14 98% argon-2% oxygen 220
Mild steel 1.59 98% argon-2% oxygen 275
Stainless steel 0.89 99% argon-1% oxygen 170
Stainless steel 1.14 99% argon-1% oxygen 225
Stainless steel 1.59 99% argon-1% oxygen 285
Aluminium 0.76 Argon 95
Aluminium 1.14 Argon 135
Aluminium 1.59 Argon 180
Deoxidized copper 0.89 Argon 180
Deoxidized copper 1.14 Argon 210
Deoxidized copper 1.59 Argon 310
Silicon bronze 0.89 Argon 165
Silicon bronze 1.14 Argon 205
Silicon bronze 1.59 Argon 270

directed. The droplet diameter is equal to or less than In the dip transfer technique, the low arc voltage results
the electrode diameter. The arc column is fine and the in a reduced arc length and at low currents used, the
wire tip becomes pointed. The spray transfer is induced molten metal droplet gets transferred into the weld pool
by the electromagnetic forces acting on the molten by direct contact. Arc voltage has an important bearing
electrode tip as well as by the arc plasma. The pinch on metal transfer: its value is suitably chosen to give the
force P plays its part by squeezing the molten metal highest short-ciraiiting frequency, so that one gets smooth
formed at the electrode tip and pushing it towards the and steady metal transfer with negligible spatter.
weld pool. Metal vapour generated at the electrode tip Oscillographic analysis of the dip transfer arc has
also influences spray transfer. shown that the voltage reaches zero at each short-circuit
MIG/ C0 2 welding with spray-type arc is best suited and the current rises during this time to a value some
for welding relatively thick parts, because of the high two to four times greater than the arc current. At the
welding currents it demands. peak current, the short-circuit bridge is broken, the arc
re-ignites and the voltage rises to arc voltage with a
Short-circuiting or Dip Transfer reduced current (100 amp). This is a repetitive sequence
Normal C0 2 welding which is extensively used in and occurs maybe 200 times a second depending on the
industry is a high current density process (e.g. 350 amp wire size, other welding parameters and type of gas used
for 1.6 mm diameter wire), which gives a penetrating (see Fig. 6.9).
spray-type arc with free flight transfer of metal. It is For optimum performance, when the wire has short-
well suited for welding thick steel plates in the circuited with the weld pool, the short-circuited system
downhand position. should be able to draw the correct amount of current at
However, its penetrating arc and large sized molten the appropriate rate to enable the short-circuit to clear
weld pool makes it unsuitable for welding thin sheets the bridging wire and re-establish the arc. For the
and for all-position welding. For these applications, a average 1.2 mm wire, this amounts to about 300 amp in
modified technique for C0 2 welding called short- 0.005 sec. This is achieved in the case of a constant
circuiting arc or short arc or dip transfer is used. potential power source by making available an
Dip transfer technique uses small diameter wire additional inductance or choke to suitably alter its
(0.8-1.6 mm), low arc voltage (16-22 V) and low current dynamic characteristic.
(60-180 amp). While typical parameters for spray-type Selection of the correct choke is of utmost importance
arc welding are 360 amp, 34 V and 1.6 mm wire, for in dip transfer welding. Too little choke gives a fast rise
short-circuiting arc they are 120 amp, 19-21 V, 1.2 mm of current and causes explosive clearance of short-circuit
wire. called spatter. Too much choke prevents the short-circuit
324 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

ZERO

-ARCING PERIOD—*
z
o

Fig. 6.9: Oscillograms of short-circuit transfer

from clearing and the result is that the wire stubs into
the plate. In practice, a good operator can arrive at the
correct choke setting by the feel, sound and appearance
of the arc and weld pool. A good choke setting lies
midway between the minimum, to prevent the
formation of spatter and the maximum which still
permits an easy arc characteristic.
Optimum short-circuiting arc operating ranges for
three wire sizes are given in the following table:
Parameter Wire size (mm)
0.8 1.2 1.6
Wire-feed rate m/min 5 2.5 1.7
Arc Voltage, V 18 19 20
Average current, Amps. 100 120 160
Response rate, kA/sec 50-150 40-130 20-75
The range of response rate (kA/sec) shown above is
obtained by the use of a variable choke, as mentioned
earlier, and this is also used to control the heat of the
welding conditions. Thus a 40 kA/sec rise would be
suitable with 1.2 mm diameter wire for welding thick
plate in position, 60 kA/sec for the root run of a pipe
joint in the field, and 130 kA/sec is the requirement both
for welding sheet and for the fast response necessary
for starting the arc at the beginning of a run.
Operating ranges of wire-feed rate are given in Table
6.10. The current is shown in brackets.
helium is sometimes preferred to argon for the welding
of thick sections of high conductivity metals such as
aluminium, magnesium and copper alloys. Helium has
higher thermal conductivity than argon and hence, for
a given welding current and arc length, it gives higher
arc voltage and higher heat input. A disadvantage with
pure helium is that it gives a wide bead with wide
reinforcement as depicted in Fig. 6.10, wherein bead
contours obtained with various shielding gases are
shown. This is overcome by using an argon-helium
mixture containing 50-80% helium. Also one can obtain
spray transfer more readily with argon shielding than
with helium shielding.
In replacing argon with helium, it must be
remembered that argon is nearly ten times heavier than
the latter. Therefore, while argon forms a natural blanket
over the weld area after leaving the welding nozzle,
helium rises in a turbulent manner and tends to disperse
Wire size Wire-feed speed
mm m/min
0.8 2.5-7.5 (60-160 amp)
1.2 2.0-4.7 (100-175 amp)
1.6 1.5-2.0 (120-180 amp)
POSITIVE ELECTRODE

ARGON-0 2 ARGON HELIUM-ARGON HELIUM

SHIELDING GASES
Fig. 6.10: Bead contour and penetration patterns for
Pure 100% argon is used for almost all metals except various shielding gases
steels. In countries where helium is available, pure 100%
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 325

into the air, because it is lighter than air. Therefore higher from element to element, depending on how readily it
flow rates are required for helium than for argon combines with oxygen. Table 6.5 gives the transfer
shielding. efficiency expressed in % recovery, which is calculated
Pure nitrogen or nitrogen mixed with argon has been from the formula:
used in Europe for welding copper, because it gives
greater heat input like helium and is inexpensive. % element in weld metal
When pure argon, pure helium or an argon-helium % recovery = x 100
mixture is used for welding ferrous metals, the flow of % element in original wire
the molten filler metal along the edges is irregular,
sometimes causing undercut, and the metal transfer is
erratic and results in considerable spatter. Small addi- Table 6.5: Transfer efficiency of alloying elements in C02
tion of oxygen or carbon dioxide to argon (usually 1- shielding
5% 0 2 or 3-10% C02) overcomes these troubles. It helps C* Al Zr Ti Si Mn Nb
to achieve axially directed spray transfer, promotes the
50-235 30-40 30-40 40 50-70 60-75 60-70
wetting and flow of the weld metal, eliminates undercut
and porosity and reduces bead penetration. Oxygen or Cr Mo Ni Cu P&S
carbon dioxide additions are also made to helium or 90-95 95-100 95 95-100 100
argon-helium mixtures, but such mixtures are used for
short-circuiting or pulsed DC techniques. * With 0.30% carbon wire, carbon in the weld metal is 0.15%.
With 0.055% C in a S.S. wire, C in the weld metal is 0.13%.
It must be remembered that the addition of 0 2 or
C0 2 to argon or helium causes the shielding gas to be
In welding with short-circuiting transfer technique,
oxidising. The use of this gas mixture may cause
special gas mixtures may be used. For example, argon-
porosity in some ferrous metals, unless suitable
deoxidisers are incorporated in the electrode. The C0 2 mixtures containing 20-50% C02 are often used to
absence of deoxidisers in alloy steel electrodes may also weld mild steel. They perform satisfactorily also for
cause some loss of alloying elements such as silicon, welding stainless steels, but they may raise the carbon
manganese, chromium and vanadium. content of the weld metal and reduce its corrosion
resistance. Hence a less reactive mixture of 90%
Carbon dioxide is widely used for the welding of
He—7.5% Ar—2.5% C0 2 is generally preferred for
mild steel, because besides being inexpensive, it gives
stainless steels in the U.S.A. For low-alloy steels,
sound weld deposits with adequate mechanical
mixtures of 60 to 70% He—25 to 35% Ar-^i to 5% C0 2
properties at high welding speeds and with good joint
are used and they give welds of good impact properties.
penetration. The drawbacks of C0 2 shielding are
globular or non-axially directed spray transfer, harsh Information on the choice of shielding gases is given in
arc and considerable spatter. In C02 welding, an Table 6.6.
occasional small short-circuit current pulse is
immediately followed by a high current peak, which is PROCESS PARAMETERS
too high for the wire size being used; the resultant The following parameters must be considered in
explosive disruption of the short-circuit wire bridge drawing up a MIG/C0 2 welding procedure:
gives rise to spatter particles. Spatter can be kept 1) Electrode size
reasonably low by using a very short, uniform arc length 2) Welding current
and maintaining the electrode tip below the adjacent 3) Arc voltage
work surface.
4) Arc travel speed
Carbon dioxide becomes oxidising in the arc due to
decomposition into carbon monoxide and oxygen. On 5) Electrode extension
the basis of Mn and Si losses in the arc, a C0 2 shield 6) Electrode position
may be regarded as equivalent to a shield of inert gas 7) Welding position
containing about 10% oxygen. To ensure porosity-free
welds, the electrode must contain the appropriate 1) Electrode Size
balance of deoxidisers (such as Al, Ti, Si, Zr). Commonly used electrode sizes are (mm): 0.8, 1.0,
When alloy-steel electrodes are used with C0 2 1.2, 1.6 and 2.4. Each size has a usable current range
shielding, the transfer efficiency across the arc varies depending on wire composition and whether spray-type
 Table 6.6: Gas selection for gas metal arc welding

Metal type Thickness Transfer mode Recommended shielding Advantages/description

gas

Carbon Steel Up to 14 gauge Short Circuit Argon + C0 2 Good penetration and

C + C0 2 +0 2 distortion control to reduce
potential melt-through.

14 gauge -1 /8 in Short Circuit Argon + 8 to 25% C0 2 Higher deposition rates without

Argon + He + C0 2 melt-through. Minimum distortion

and spatter. Good weld control for
out-of-position welding.

More than 1/8 in. Short Circuit Carbon Dioxide High welding speeds. Good
Argon + 15 to 25% C0 2 penetration and pool control.
Applicable for out-of-position welds.

Short Circuit Argon + 25% C0 2 Suitable for high current and

Globular high-speed welding.

Short Circuit Argon + 50% C0 2 Deep penetration; low spatter; high

travel speeds. Good out-of-position
welding.
Short Circuit Carbon Dioxide Deep penetration and fastest travel
Globular (buried speeds but with higher melt-through
arc) potential. High current mechanized
welding.

Spray Transfer Argon + 1 to 8% 0 2 Good arc stability; produces a more

fluid weld pool as 0 2 increases;
good coal-essence and bead contour.
Good weld appearance and weld pool control.

Spray Transfer Argon +5 to 20% C0 2 Fluid weld pool and oxidizing to weld
metal causes higher amounts of slag
and scale as C0 2 increases. Good arc
stability. Weld soundness and
increasing width of fusion.
 Short Circuit Argon +COz+ 0 2 Applicable to both short circuiting
Spray Transfer Argon + He + CO, and spray transfer
modes. Has wide welding current range and
good arc performance. Weld pool has good
control which results in improved
weld contour.

High Current Argon +He + C02+ 0 2 Used for high deposition rate
Density Rotational Argon + C0 2 + 0 2 welding where 15 to 30 lb/h (7 to
14 kg/h) is typical special welding
equipment and techniques are some
times required to achieve these
deposition levels.
More than 14 Pulsed Spray Argon + 2 to 8 % 0 2 Used for both light-gauge and heavy
gauge Argon +5 to 20% C0 2 out-of-position weldments. Achieves
Argon +C02 + 0 2 good pulse spray stability over a wide
Argon + He + C0 2 range of arc characteristics and
deposition ranges.
Low- and- Up to 3/32 in. Short Circuit Argon +8 to 20% C0 2 Good coalescence and bead contour.
High-Alloy Helium + Ar + C0 2 Good mechanical properties.
Steel Argon +C02 + 0 2

Short Circuit Argon + 20% to 50% C0 2 High welding speeds. Good

Globular penetration and weld pool control.
Applicable for out-of-position welds.
Suitable for high current and
high-speed welding.

More than 3/32 in. Spray Transfer Argon + 2% Oz Reduces undercutting. Higher
(High Current Argon + 5 to 10% C0 2 deposition rates and improved bead
Density & Argon + C0 2 + 0 2 wetting. Deep penetration and good
Rotational) Argon + He + C0 2 + Oz mechanical properties,

Pulsed Spray Argon + 2% 0 2 Used for both light-gauge and heavy

Argon + 5 C0 2 out-of-position weldments. Achieves
Argon + C0 2 + 0 2 good pulse spray stability over a wide
Argon + He + C0 2 range of arc characteristics and
deposition ranges.
Steel, Upto 14 gauge Short Circuit Argon + 2% to 5% 0 2 Good control of melt-through and
Stainless, distortion. Used also for spray arc z-welding.
Nickel Weld pool fluidity sometimes
Nickel Alloys sluggish depending on the base alloy.

Table 6.6 Contd...

 CO

Table 6.6 (Contd.) 00

o
o
m
Metal type Thickness Transfer mode Recommended shielding Advantages/description 2)
gas z
>
31
Steel, More than 14 Short Circuit Helium + 7.5 Ar + 2.5 CO. Low C0 2 percentage in He mix o
Stainless, gauge minimizes carbon pick-up, which can
m
z
Nickel cause intergranular corrosion with some ©
Nickel Alloys alloys. Helium improves wetting action H
m
and contour C0 2 percentages above o
i
5% should be used with caution on some
alloy. Applicable for all-position welding.
Spray Transfer Argon + 1 to 2% 0 2 Good arc stability. Produces a fluid but
Argon +He + C0 2 controllable weld pool; good
Helium + Ar + CO. coalescence and bead contour.
Minimizes undercutting on heavier thickness.

Stainless Steel More than 14 Pulsed Spray Argon + 1 to 2% 0 2 Used for both light-gauge and heavy
gauge Argon + He + C0 2 out-of-position weldments. Achieves
Helium + Ar + C0 2 good pulse spray stability over a wide
Argon + C0 2 + H2 range of arc characteristics and
deposition ranges.

Aluminium Upto Vi in. Spray Transfer Argon Best metal; transfer, arc stability and
Pulsed Spray plate cleaning. Little or no spatter.
Remove oxides when used with DCEP
(reverse polarity).

More than l/i in. Spray Transfer Helium + 20 to 50% Argon High heat input. Produces fluid weld
Pulsed Spray Argon + Helium pool, flat bead contour and deep
penetration. Minimises porosity.
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 329

arc or short-circuiting arc is used. Generally stated, the 2) Welding Current

electrode size increases as the base metal thickness
increases. However, the selection of electrode size is
important and should be made with care, depending
on the particular application. For a given current, a
change to a smaller electrode size results in a faster
droplet transfer rate and hence a higher melting rate
due to an increase in the current density.
This fact is made use of, for example, in multi-pass
mechanised welding, where for intermediate passes a
high droplet rate at fairly low current ensures an
acceptable weld profile. A 1.2 mm size electrode is
chosen here in preference to a 2.4 mm size electrode.
The increased I2i?-heating effect due to the smaller
electrode size also favours the weld deposit. On the other
hand, for mechanised welding of a plate girder in the
downhand position, a 2.4 mm size can be used at very
high amperage to obtain heavy deposition rates.
The 2.4 mm size is avoided for semi-automatic
welding, because it is difficult to feed in manual guns.
The most versatile size is 1.2 mm. General data on
electrode size and other variables in mild steel welding
are provided in Table 6.7.
The current within the usable range is selected
according to the electrode size, type of metal transfer
and the base metal thickness. When the current is too
low, the molten metal fails to wet the joint surface and
causes lack of fusion. When the current is too high, it
gives rise to spatter, porosity and poor weld bead profile.
General data on current selection are given in Table 6.7.
With a constant-voltage power source, the welding
current increases as the electrode-feed rate is increased,
and decreases as the electrode speed is decreased,
provided all the other variables are kept constant.
Operating ranges of wire-feed rate in C0 2 welding are
given in Table 6.8.
The upper limits of wire-feed rate for 0.8 and 1.2 mm
electrodes are dictated by the maximum available wire-
feed speed of the machine, which is around 15-18 m/
min. For larger electrodes, the upper limits of wire-feed
speed are imposed by the high arc force at the maximum
current, which results in a badly shaped weld and
excessive spatter.
With increasing current, the melting rate of the
electrode increases. The relations between these factors

Table 6.7: General guide to welding conditions

Arc voltage 0.8 mm dia. 1.2 mm dia. 1.6 mm dia. 2.4 mm dia.
V wire wire wire wire
Low penetration for Good control over Good fusion—
sheet root penetration and vertical plate
fusion
16-22
(Short-circuiting)
arc) ~T 60-160 amp
n
100-175
! = .amp
i
LU
&

120-180 amp
/ Not normally used
(150-200 amp)

Fast mechanised Fast mechanised H.V. Downhand

24-28
weld on corner
n mechanised butt weld
Not normally used
(Semi-shorting arc)
15(£550amp 200-300 amp
C§D
250-350 amp
(300-400 amp)

Good penetration Multi-pass Deep penetration Deep penetration,

with 200 amp set mechanized weld downhand high deposition rate,

3
ft It
thick plate
PL
30-45
(Spray type arc)
150-250 amp 200-350 amp
QD
300-500 amp
^
500-750 amp
330 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

are shown in Fig. 6.11 for four common sizes of mild
steel electrodes. For each electrode size, the curve is
nearly linear at the lower current range. However, at
higher currents and especially with smaller electrode
sizes, the melting rate curve becomes non-linear and
progressively increases at a higher rate as the welding
amperage increases. This change is due to the I ^-heat-
ing of the electrode extension beyond the contact tube.
WELDING CURRENT (DCRP). AMP
Fig 6 11: Melting rate of carbon-steel electrodes
For a given electrode size, increasing the amperage
within the usable range results in (a) increased depth
and width of weld penetration, (b) increased deposition
rate, and (c) increased size of weld bead, provided all
the other variables are kept constant.
3) Arc Voltage
This is a very important variable in MIG/ C 0 2
welding, mainly because it determines the type of metal
transfer by influencing the rate of droplet transfer across
the arc. The arc voltage to be used depends on base metal
thickness, type of joint, electrode composition and size,
shielding gas composition, welding position, type of
weld and other factors. Typical values for welding
various metals by drop transfer (i.e. by globular or
spray) and short-circuiting transfer using various
shielding gas compositions are given in Table 6.9, while
the arc voltage ranges for typical applications have been
indicated earlier in Table 6.7.
To arrive at a precise value of arc voltage for a
welding job, one is advised to carry out welding trials,
because no specific values are appropriate for all

Table 6.8: Ranges of wire-feed rate in C0 2 welding

Wire-feed speed, m/min

(current is shown in parentheses)
Wire dia. (mm) Spray-type arcs (30-45 V) Short-circuiting arcs (16-22 V)
0.8 5.0-15 (150-250 amp) 2.5-7.5 (60-160 amp)
1.2 5.0-15 (200-350 amp) 2.0-3.8 (100-175 amp)
1.6 5.0-8.8 (350-500 amp) 1.5-2.0 (120-180 amp)
2.4 3.8-7.5 (500-750 amp) 1.25-1.6 (150-200 amp)

Table 6.9: Typical arc voltages for MIG/C0 2 welding of various metals

Drop transfer Short-circuiting transfer

1.6 mm (1/16 in.) diameter electrode 0.9 mm (0.035 in.) diameter electrode
25% A r - Ar-02 Ar-02 75% Ar-
Metal Argon Helium 75% He (1-5% 0 2 ) co2 Argon (1.5% 0 2 ) 25% C 0 2 co2
Aluminium 25 30 29 — — 19 — — —
Magnesium 26 — 28 — — 16 — — —
Carbon steel — — — 28 30 17 18 19 20
Low-alloy steel — — — 28 30 17 18 19 20
Stainless steel 24 — — 26 — 18 19 21 —
Nickel 26 30 28 — — 22 — — —
Nickel-copper alloy 26 30 28 — — 22 — — —
Nickel-chromium-iron alloy 26 30 28 — — 22 — — —
Copper 30 36 33 — — 24 22 — —
Copper-nickel alloy 28 32 30 — — 23 — — —
Silicon bronze 28 32 30 28 — 23 — — —
Aluminium bronze 28 32 30 — — 23 — — —
Phosphor bronze 28 32 30 23 — 23 — — —
 METAL INERT-GAS/C0 2 ARC WELDING 331

applications. Starting with a certain value of arc voltage,
any further increase tends to flatten the weld bead and
further widen the fusion zone. A decrease makes the
weld narrower with a pronounced reinforcement and
deeper penetration. When the value is much above the
usable range, porosity, spatter and undercutting may
be encountered; when it is too low the result can be
porosity and overlap at the weld edges.
As indicated in Table 6.7, the low-voltage range of
16-22 V is used for all-positional C0 2 welding of
relatively thin steel sheets using a short-circuiting arc
and small size electrode resulting in minimum
penetration. The high range of 30-45 V is mostly used
for automatic spray-type C0 2 welding of thick sections
in the flat position, using largest size electrodes and high
currents to achieve deep penetration and high
deposition rates. The intermediate range of 24-30 V
gives the characteristics of both the spray and short-
undercutting occurs along the edges of the weld bead,
because the deposition of filler metal is not sufficient to
fill the path melted by the arc.
5) Electrode Extension
Electrode extension (also called stick-out) is the
distance between the end of the contact tube and the tip
of the electrode as shown in Fig. 6.12, The figure also
shows nozzle-to-work distance and contact tube-to-
work distance, which also have to be taken care of. As
the electrode extension is increased, the electrical
resistance of the electrode and hence its PR- heating
increases. The result is that less amperage is necessary
to melt the electrode at a given wire-feed rate. The
electrode extension is particularly important in welding
stainless steels, where a small variation can vary the
current appreciably for an otherwise similar welding
procedure. This is shown in Fig. 6.13, where the current

GAS
NOZZLE
ONTACT TUBE

T
CONTACT TUBE
NOZZLE TO
TO WORK
WORK DISTANCE

i
DISTANCE

ARC LENGTH
WORK PIECE

Fig. 6.12: Electrode extension and related terms

circuiting arcs and is used for semi-automatic and

automatic welding of medium thicknesses. 250
"1—I—r—
1.2 MM DIAMETER WIRE
4) Arc Travel Speed 200
<
The linear rate (expressed in cm/min or mm/sec) at f
i~
which the arc moves along the joint, termed arc travel z 150
speed, affects weld bead size and penetration. With AC
other variables kept constant, there is a certain value of D
O
travel speed at which the weld penetration is maximum. ioa
2
If this value is lowered, the weld pool becomes larger 9
and shallower and the advancing arc impinges on this 50
weld pool rather than on the base metal. The result is a
shallower penetration and a wider weld bead. As the 3.15 64 95 12.7 15.9 19 22.2
travel speed is increased, the heat input rate of the arc ELECTRODE EXTENSlON^E (MM)
is decreased. The result is decreased penetration and
Fig. 6.13: Relation between electrode extension and current
narrower weld bead. When the travel speed is excessive,
332 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
drawn by 0.8 mm and 1.2 mm electrodes at electrode
extensions of 6.4 to 19 mm can differ by as much as 40
amp in 100 amp at a constant wire-feed speed of 5 m /
min and 18 V arc voltage.
Too long an electrode extension results in excess
weld metal being deposited at low arc heat, giving rise
to a badly shaped weld and shallow penetration. The
arc stability is also affected. Such effects are noticeable
while welding deep grooves, which are narrow enough
to limit the access of the nozzle. When the electrode
extension is too short, excessive spatter gets deposited
on the nozzle, which can restrict the shielding gas flow
and cause porosity in the weld. Recommended range
for electrode extension is 6 to 13 mm for a short-
circuiting arc and 13 to 25 mm for drop-transfer arc.
Generally the nozzle-to-work distance should be
between 16 and 19 mm.
6) Electrode Position
As with all arc welding processes, the position of
the gun and the electrode with respect to the joint affects
the weld bead shape and penetration in a much larger
measure than arc voltage or arc travel speed. The gun
angle is usually maintained within 10 to 20° on either
side of the vertical. Depending on which way the gun is
inclined, the technique is referred to as forehand and
backhand. The various electrode positions and
techniques and their effects are shown in Fig. 6.14. It is
observed that as the electrode is changed from the
perpendicular to the forehand technique, the weld bead
becomes shallower and wider and has less penetration.
Backhand technique gives a more stable arc, less spatter
w passes by high current spray transfer technique.
, DIRECTION OF WELDING
| <QH> 1 cases one must use higher gas flow rates than those
FOREHAND TORCH BACKHAND
TECHNIQUE PERPENDICULAR TECHNIQUE
Fig. 6.14: Electrode angle and its effects on weld bead
and a narrower, more convex weld bead with deep
penetration. Perpendicular technique is used more in
automatic welding, and avoided in the semi-automatic
mode, because the end of the gas nozzle restricts the
operator's view of the weld pool.
7) Welding Position
As mentioned earlier, spray type technique is
restricted to making butt and fillet welds in the
downhand position. When used for horizontal fillet
welds, this technique tends to give unequal leg lengths,
convexity and undercutting. For welding thin sheets in
the downhand position, the penetrating arc of the spray-
type technique may give weld burn-through. Hence the
short- circuiting technique or spray transfer with pulsed
DC is preferred for such jobs.
Vertical and overhead welding are usually carried
out with electrode diameters of 1.2 mm and under, using
short-circuiting metal transfer or spray transfer with
pulsed DC.
WELDING PROCEDURES
As with other arc welding procedures, a good MIG/
C0 2 welding procedure starts with correct edge
preparation and joint fit-up. The joint surfaces must be
free from rust, scale, grease, oil, paint and other foreign
materials. For making full penetration joints by welding
with spray transfer technique from both sides, it is
necessary to gouge out the root from the second side
before starting to weld that side. When welding is done
only from one side, suitable weld backing must be
provided. Sometimes weld backing can be avoided by
making the root pass with the short-circuiting technique
to obtain uniform penetration and depositing the fill up
The welding equipment must be assembled and the
welding parameters set according to the manufacturer's
instructions. All gas and water connections must be
absolutely leak-proof. If the shielding gas gets
contaminated with air or water, the arc becomes erratic
and pores appear on the weld.
The gun nozzle size and the shielding gas flow rate
must be correctly set according to the material being
welded and its joint design. Some joint designs demand
longer nozzle-to-work distance than normal; in such
recommended by the equipment manufacturer or
specified in standard procedures, and a gas nozzle of
adequate size to cover the welding area. On the other
hand, smaller nozzle sizes may be used for welding in
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 333

Tfeble 6.10: Guidance on MIG/C02 welding procedure

Arc type Typical conditions and Procedure

applications
Spray-type arc 360 amp, 34 V, 1.6 mm wire.
Downhand welding of plate
Short-circuiting arc 120 amp, 19 V, 1.2 mm wire.
Positional welding of sheet and
plate
*The wire-feed speed determines the welding current
1) Set open-circuit voltage to a little above the
required arc voltage; e.g. 38 V.
2) Set wire-feed speed* to the recommended value for
the electrode size and material, e.g. 5 m/min.
1) Set open-circuit voltage to a little above the re-
quired arc voltage, e.g. 20 V.
2) Set wire-feed speed* to the recommended value for
the electrode size and material, e.g. 2.5 m / min.
3) Set choke (tune the circuit) to get required crisp-
ness and heat of arc.

confined areas or in the root of a thick joint. The
electrode-feed rolls and the contact tube must be
compatible with the size and composition of the
electrode, as recommended by the manufacturer. If the
contact tube is worn out in usage, it must be replaced
before the gun starts getting heated due to bad electrical
contact between it and the electrode.
Electrode extension is dictated mainly by whether
short-circuiting or spray-type welding is being done. It
is set by adjusting the distance between the end of the
contact tube and the gas nozzle opening, which is
between 6.4 and 9.5 mm for normal spray-type welding
(see Fig. 6.12). In special applications, the contact tube
may be flush with or protruding from the gas nozzle.
For example, when using the short-circuiting arc, the
contact tube may extend 3 mm beyond the end of the
nozzle. Further guidance on procedures using a constant-
voltage power source is given in Table 6.10.
Following the settings of Table 6.10, trial bead welds
should be deposited to arrive at correct arc voltage and
the electrode-feed rate (current). In the short-circuiting
procedure, the choke should be finally adjusted to obtain
good arc start and a stable arc with minimum spatter.
PROCEDURE DATA
The following data (taken from C02 Welding by A.A.
Smith) should be used as a guide to arrive at precise
welding procedures.

BUTT WELDS
Wire-feed Arc travel
Plate t Joint Current Voltage rate speed
mm type amp V m/min cm/min
1) With 0.8 mm wire
Flat position

1.6
32 95 16-20 4.6 37

3.0 1 140 19-23 8.6 76

s 140 19-23 8.6 35

8.0 1 210 24-28 15.5 33

s 210 24-28 15.6 64
334 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

12.5 1&2 210 24-28 15.6 46

S 210 24-28 15.6 64

HV position
1.6 130 16-20 7.6 62
1 '\P I
3.0 1 180 20-24 12.3 109
s 180 20-24 12.3 50

8.0 &2 205 22-28 15.0 56

S 205 22-28 15.0 61

12.5
rr-2-n -A 205 22-28 15.0 44
Ts 3-3
S 205 22-28 15.0 61

1.5

Vertical position
1.6 115 17-21 6.3 51

y60.
3.0 1 165 19-23 10.7 80
W/^-l-P s 165 19-23 10.7 44
P^l
60 20-24
8.0 1 185 13 30
2 140 19-24 8.6 29
1.5 S 185 20-24 13 53
^ T

12.5 1 185 20-24 13 30

2&3 140 19-24 8.6 12
S 185 20-24 13 53
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 335

Overhead position
1.6 165 19-23 10.7 92

ifer
I ,<•> I

n
3.0 2 JO 165 9-23 10.7 26.7

^50*^
8.0 1&2 165 19-23 10.7 17.3
.2.0

7K
*• 5(M

12.5 1-3 165 19-23 10.7 13.2

2.0

2) With 1.2 mm wire

Rat position

1 155 18-22 3.2 57

S 155 18-22 3.2 22
^
«fc

T. 5 .°:> 1 205 22-26 5.1 31

s 205 22-26 5.1 35
*tfi«
*y-

12.5 1-3 245 25-29 7.0 42

S 245 25-29 7.0 48

20 -5 305 28-32 10.0 35

S 305 28-32 10.0 48
336 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

HV position
3 1 160 18-22 3.5 88

&
s 160 18-22 3.5 24
■ ^

I 195 22-26 4.7 23

.60 s 195 22-26 4.7 32

s^rY<-*-3.o

12.5 1-3 245 25-29 7.0 48

S 245 25-29 7.0 48
y 3 V * ^ \ \ 30°

20 Similar to above, 1-7 245 25-29 7.0 38

but 7 passes in S 245 25-29 7.0 48
the groove

Vertical position

3 -4 IM.S 1 160 17-21 3.5 49

~'A
I=J3^ s 160 17-21 3.5 24

1&2 160 17-21 3.5 14

S 160 17-21 3.5 24

12.5 Similar to above, 1-3 160 17-21 3.5 10

but 3 passes in S 160 17-21 3.5 24
the groove

20 Similar to above, 1-3 160 17-21 3.5 4.4

but 3 passes in S 160 17-21 3.5 24
the groove
 METAL INERT-OAS/CO, ARC WEUNNO 337

Overhead position
3 1&2 155 17-21 3.25 31
-*t I- 3.0
I
aa=i
LA
60"

Similar to 1&2 155 17-21 3.25 9.2

above

12.5 Similar to above, 1-3 155 17-21 3.25

but 3 passes in
the groove

20 1-4 155 17-21 3.25 4.7

-4 H-2.0

3) With 1.6 mm wire

Flat position
3 1 190 19-23 2.4 75
s 190 19-23 2.4 27

>*-60V 1 210 20-24 2.75 24

s 210 20-24 2.75 31

n
<*£*G-

12.5 Similar to above, 1-3 300 25-29 4.4 39

but 3 passes in S 300 25-29 4.4 50
the groove

25 Similar to above, 1-6 300 25-29 4.4 17

but 6 passes in S 300 25-29 4.4 50
the groove
338 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

HV position
3 1 190 18-22 2.4 107
s 190 18-22 2.4 27

□ gS£
zp
1-3 200 19-23 2.6 68
60« 3
S 200 19-23 2.6 27

12.5 2 / H 1-4 210 19-23 2.75 44

S 210 19-23 2.75 31

Ail5c

25 1-10 210 19-23 2.75 21

,T30« s 210 19-23 2.75 31
i'tl
SjU-"*

Vertical position

3 1 180 19-23 2.25 56

c s 180 19-23 2.25 25

1 150 17-21 1.8 10

^60<y s 150 17-21 1.8 20

> * 1.5

12.5 Similar to above, 1&2 150 17-21 1.8 8.2

but 2 passes in S 150 17-21 1.8 20
the groove
25 Similar to above, 1-4 150 17-21 1.8 6.0
but 4 passes in S 150 17-21 1.8 20
the groove
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 339

Overhead position
3 165 17-22 2.0 21
7!Ut:2.0
L—ffTj? I

1-3 165 17-22 2.0 20

-it-2.o

A- A3

12.5 Similar to above, 1-5 165 17-22 2.0 17

but 5 passes in
the groove
25 Similar to above, 1 140 16-21 1.7 20
but 10 passes in 2-10 160 17-22 1.9 10
the groove

FILLET WELDS
Leg length Run Current Voltage Wire-feed rate Arc travel speed
mm numbers amp V m/min cm/min
1) With 0.8 mm wire
Flat position
3 1 150 19-23 10 62
4 1 150 19-23 10 40
5 1 150 19-23 10 27
6 1&2 150 19-23 10 40
Horizontal
3 1 145 19-22 9.6 70
4 1 145 19-22 9.6 40
5 1 145 19-22 9.6 26
6 1&2 145 19-22 9.6 37
Vertical down
3 1 115 17-21 7.1 52
4 1 115 17-22 7.1 32
5 1 115 17-22 7.1 21
6 1 115 17-22 7.1 15
Overhead
3 1 155 19-22 10.7 66
4 1 155 19-22 10.7 42
5 1 155 19-22 10.7 29
6 1&2 155 19-22 10.7 42
Note: Above welds can be made at higher speed, using one of the following combinations of current and voltage:
Amp V
170 18-23
195 23-27
205 24-28
230 26-30
340 MOOCRN ARC WEUNNQ TICMNOtOOY

2) With 1.2 mm wire

Flat position
3 1 150 20-23 3.2 56
alt. 1 200 24-28 5.2 92
4 1 150 20-23 3.2 33
alt. 1 200 24-28 5.2 53
5 1 200 24-28 5.2 35
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 95
6 1 200 24-28 5.2 24
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 67
8 1 200 24-28 5.2 14
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 38
10 1 200 24-28 5.2 9
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 25
12 1&2 200 24-37 5.2 13
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 17
Horizontal
3 1 150 20-23 3.2 56
alt. 1 200 24-28 5.2 92
4 1 150 20-23 3.2 33
alt. 1 200 24-28 5.2 53
5 1 200 24-28 5.2 33
alt. 1 300 30-34 10.2 68
6 1 200 24-28 5.2 24
alt. 1 350 33-37 14.2 68
8 1&2 200 24-28 5.2 28
alt. 1&2 350 33-37 14.2 77
10 1&2 200 24-28 5.2 18
alt. 1-3 350 33-37 14.2 75
12 1-3 200 24-28 5.2 19
alt. 1-3 350 33-37 14.2 53
Vertical down
3 1 115 17-20 2.0 36
alt. 1 145 18-21 3.0 53
4 1 115 17-20 2.0 21
alt. 1 145 19-22 3.0 31
5 1 115 17-20 2.0 13
alt. 1 150 19-22 3.3 22
6 1 115 17-20 2.0 9.5
alt. 1 165 20-23 3.8 18
Vertical up
8 1 150 20-23 3.3 9
10 1 150 20-23 3.3 6
12 1&2 150 20-23 3.3 8.5
Overhead
3 1 130 19-20 2.5 48
4 1 130 19-22 2.5 26
5 1 130 19-22 2.5 17
6 1 130 19-22 2.5 12
alt. 1 150 20-23 3.3 16
8 1 150 20-23 3.3 9
 METAL INERTOAt/CO, AHC WEUNMO 341

10 1 150 20-23 3.3 6

12 1-3 150 20-23 3.3 12
3) With 1.6 mm wire
Flat position
6 275 25-28 3.8 31
alt. 435 35-39 9.2 74
8 275 25-28 3.8 18
alt. 435 35-39 9.2 43
10 275 25-28 3.8 12
alt. 435 35-39 9.2 28
12 1&2 275 25-28 3.8 16
alt. 1 435 35-39 9.2 20
15 1-3 275 25-28 3.8 16.5
alt. 1&2 435 35-39 9.2 26
20 1-4 275 25-28 3.8 12
alt. 1&2 435 35-39 9.2 15
Horizontal
6 1 265 22-26 3.7 30
alt. 1 400 34-37 7.2 58
8 1&2 265 22-26 3.7 35
alt. 1&2 400 34-37 7.2 68
10 1-3 265 22-26 3.7 34
alt. 1&2 400 34-37 7.2 44
12 1-3 265 22-26 3.7 24
alt. 1-3 400 34-37 7.2 47
15 1-5 265 22-26 3.7 26
alt. 1-5 400 34-37 7.2 51
20 1-10 265 22-26 3.7 30
alt. 1-8 400 34-37 7.2 47
Vertical down
6 1 210 19-22 2.7 22
8 1 210 19-22 2.7 13
Vertical up
10 1 190 19-22 2.3 7
12 1 190 19-22 2.3 5
15 1 190 19-22 2.3 3.3
20 1&2 190 19-22 2.3 4.7
Overhead
6 1 195 20-23 2.4 20
8 1 195 20-23 2.4 11.5
10 1&2 195 20-23 2.4 15
12 1-3 195 20-23 2.4 16
15 1-5 195 20-23 2.4 21
20 1-12 195 20-23 2.4 24

GMA WELDING OF VARIOUS ALLOYS
Mild StMl
C0 2 welding is extensively used for welding mild
steel, all over the world. Most of the descriptions given
thus far in this chapter apply to mild steel, unless other
alloys are specifically mentioned.
Filler wires suitable for mild steel welding have been
specified in AWS A5.18 79, and they have been covered
on page 290, while describing the filler wires for TIG
342 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

welding. Similarly mild steel filler wires specified in BS short-circuiting transfer, either C0 2 or argon-based gas can
2901:1970 (Part I) have been covered on pages 290-291. be used.
On page 291 mention has been made that IS: 6419-1971
is equivalent to this British Standard. INFLUENCE OF SHIELDING GAS
Investigations were made recently in West Germany,
Low-Alloy Steels concerning the influence of the shielding gas composition
These steels are conveniently welded by the MIG/ on the undiluted weld chemistry and all-weld metal
C0 2 process. C0 2 is used extensively as a shielding gas properties in MIG/C0 2 welding using mild steel and
for alloys of low-carbon equivalent (i.e. with CE no low-alloy steel electrodes.
higher than that of AISI 4130 steel). Electrode wires of Gas compositions used are indicated in Tables 6.11
matching or compatible alloy composition are used, and and 6.12. Weld metal analysis for each case is given in
since C0 2 is an oxidising gas, the wire is made to contain Table 6.11, while all-weld metal mechanical test values
greater amounts of deoxidisers, such as Si and Al than are given in Table 6.12.
are required for argon-based shielding gases. Two sets of welding parameters were used, one with
For welding alloy steels of high hardenability and lower current range (I.e.) and the other with higher
for important applications, C0 2 shielding is avoided current range (h.c.) as given below:
because of the high arc energy and spatter associated Filler wires: Commonly used low-alloy steel filler
with it. High arc energy may induce weld cracking. One wires (electrodes) are listed in AWS A5.28-79 and have
of the following argon-based gas mixtures is preferred: been reproduced on page 291, Chapter 5, because most
98% Ar—2%0 2 of them are suited also for TIG (and PAW) processes.
75% Ar — 25%C02 The following notes on these wires are reproduced from
80% Ar — 20%CO2 the Appendix of this standard. They should be read in
80% Ar —15% C0 2 — 5% 0 2 conjunction with Table 5.24.
Use of 100% argon is avoided as stated earlier, because It should be noted that weld properties may vary
of the irregular weld bead shape and undercutting. appreciably depending on filler metal size and current
If spray-type metal transfer is desired, C0 2 shielding used, plate thickness, joint geometry, preheat and
must be avoided, because it is incapable of giving a true interpass temperatures, surface conditions, base metal
spray arc. Instead, an argon-based gas must be used. With composition and extent of alloying with the filler metal,

Electrodes of the following chemistry were used:

Mn Si O, Cr Mo Ni
SG2 0.11 1.49 0.82 0.020 0.015 0.0095
SG3 0.09 1.65 0.99 0.012 0.013 0.007
CrMo 0.11 1.20 0.58 0.008 0.015 0.009 1.14 0.54 0.10
FK* 0.087 1.63 0.65 0.013 0.010 0.019 0.30 0.29 1.36
'Also contains 0.012 Al, 0.086 V, 0.028 Cu

Parameters l.c. h.c.

Welding current Amps. 150-165 260-300
Wire diameter mm 1.2 1.2
Wire-feed speed mm / sec 61.2 146.7
Melting rate kg / hour 1.94 4.66
Arc travel speed mm / sec 4.0 6.17
Electrode extension mm 14 21.6
Gas-feed rate 1 / min 15 15
Preheat and interpass temperature °C 120-150 120-150
Position flat flat
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 343

Table 6.11:: Weld metal chemistry

Analysis
Shielding gas Wire C Mn Sii P S o2
l.c. Kc. Tc h.c. 1Z "Tc. l.c. Tc. l.c. h.c. l.c. h.c.
% % % % % % % % % % % %

100% C0 2 SG2 0.10 0.098 1.04 0.97 0.55 0.48 0.016 0.020 0.009 0.013 0.066 0.071
82% Ar, 18% C0 2 SG2 0.11 0.10 1.29 1.21 0.70 0.65 0.019 0.019 0.012 0.011 0.044 0.036
91% Ar, 5% C 0 2
4% 0 2 SG2 0.11 0.11 1.26 1.33 0.70 0.70 0.017 0.020 0.010 0.013 0.037 0.032
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 SG2 — 0.10 — 1.27 — 0.70 — 0.015 — 0.012 — 0.025
100% C 0 2 SG3 0.095 0.085 1.15 1.20 0.72 0.71 0.014 0.016 0.008 0.010 0.065 0.070
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 SG3 0.085 0.085 1.42 1.31 0.90 0.82 0.015 0.016 0.010 0.010 0.050 0.036
91% Ar, 5% C 0 2
4% 0 2 SG3 0.08 0.08 1.41 1.34 0.89 0.85 0.015 0.015 0.009 0.009 0.029 0.032
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 SG3 — 0.075 — 1.43 — 0.90 — 0.015 — 0.009 — 0.024
100% C 0 2 Cr-Mo 0.12 0.098 0.80 0.81 0.41 0.40 0.010 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.072 0.077
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 Cr-Mo — 0.10 — 0.905 — 0.42 — 0.011 — 0.013 — 0.048
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 Cr-Mo — 0.105 — 1.13 — 0.58 — 0.009 — 0.013 — 0.042
100% C 0 2 FK 0.083 0.068 0.99 0.98 0.47 0.34 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.072 0.074
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 FK — 0.078 — 1.07 — 0.44 — 0.011 — 0.014 . — 0.053
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 FK — 0.055 — 1.35 — 0.57 — 0.010 — 0.012 — 0.048
carbon
*h.c.—High
*l.c.—Low carbon

Table 6.12: All-weld metal properties

Impact Impact
value value
Shielding gas Wire Mechanical properties Redn. of (ISO-V- (ISO-V-
U.T.S. Y.P. Elongation area TestO°C) Test-20°C)
TE- h.c. Tc- KZ~ l.c. h.c. " Tc7^ f ^ c T Tc h.c. I.e. h.c.
N / m m 2 N / m m 2 N/mm 2 N / m m 2 % % % % J J J J
100% C 0 2 SG2 594 538 489 422" 24.2 26.9 64~ 68~~ 50 81 45 67
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 SG2 644 592 525 485 22.6 22.1 68 66 78 62 61 63
91% Ar, 5% C 0 2
4% 0 2 SG2 635 598 532 464 22.7 21.7 63 45 91 90 63 58
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 SG2 — 609 — 485 — 24.9 — 66 — 95 — 35
100% C 0 2 SG3 586 562 455 435 26.8 25.6 65 68 59 88 46 64
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 SG3 659 613 548 503 23.3 25.2 64 67 144 100 114 71
91% Ar, 5% C 0 2
4% 0 2 SG3 630 615 542 505 20.2 27.1 61 69 121 113 116 88
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 SG3 — 604 — 492 — 28.8 — 71 — 127 — 99
100% C 0 2 Cr-Mo 836 795 786 721 17.1 15.3 54 54 43 34 30 28
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 Cr-Mo — 790 — 702 — 17.2 — 49 — 53 — 33
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 CR-Mo — 830 — 762 — 16.1 — 52 — 62 — 42
100% C 0 2 FK 757 720 700 640 16.3 17.1 59 59 55 74 40 42
82% Ar, 18% C 0 2 FK — 737 — 665 — 18.6 — 59 — 54 — 44
95% Ar, 5% 0 2 FK — 786 — 760 — 17.5 — 61 — 90 — 54

and shielding gas. For example, when filler metals of the filler metal, when used with argon-oxygen
having an analysis within the range of Table 5.24 are shielding gas but will show a considerable reduction in
deposited, the weld metal chemical composition will the content of manganese, silicon, and other deoxidizers
not vary greatly from the as- manufactured composition when used with C0 2 as the shielding gas.
344 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

• ER80S-B2 Classification. Filler metal of this classi- control porosity when welding with C0 2 as the
fication is used to weld V£Cr-ViMo, lCr-ViMo, and shielding gas, and molybdenum for increased
l-ViCr- V6M0 steels for elevated temperatures and strength. They will give radiographic quality
corrosive service. It is also used for joining dis- welds with excellent bead appearance in both or-
similar combinations of Cr-Mo and carbon steels. dinary and difficult-to-weld carbon and low-al-
The spray transfer, short-circuiting, or pulsed loy steels. They exhibit excellent out-of-position
power modes of the GMAW process may be used. welding characteristics with the short-circuiting
Careful control of preheat, interpass temperatures, and pulsed arc process. The combination of weld
and post-heat is essential to avoid cracking. soundness and strength makes filler metal of this
• ER80S-B2L Classification. This filler metal is iden- classification suitable for single and multiple-pass
tical to the type ER80S-B2, except for the low car- welding of a variety of carbon and low-alloy steels.
bon content (0.05% maximum). This alloy exhib- • ER100S-1, ER100S-2, ER110S-1, and ER120S-1
its greater resistance to cracking and is more suit- Classification. These filler metals deposit high-
able for welds to be left in the as-welded condi- strength, very tough weld metal for critical ap-
tion or when the accuracy of the PWHT (postweld plications. Originally developed for welding HY
heat treatment) operation is questionable. 80 and HY 100 steels for military applications,
• ER90S-B3 Classification. Filler metal of this clas- they are also used for a variety of structural ap-
1
sification is used to weld the 2 4Cr-l MO steels plications, where tensile strength requirements
used for high-temperature-high-pressure piping exceed 690 MPa and excellent toughness is re-
and pressure vessels. It may also be used for join- quired to temperatures as low as -50°C.
ing combinations for Cr-Mo and carbon steel. All • ERXXS-G Classification. This classification in-
gas-metal arc welding modes may be used. Care- cludes those solid electrodes and rods which are
ful control of preheat, interpass temperatures, and not included in the preceding classes. The sup-
post-heat are essential to avoid cracking. plier should be consulted for the characteristics
• ER90S-B3L Classification. This filler metal is iden- and intended use of these filler metals. This speci-
tical to thetypeER90S-B3, except for the low car- fication does not list specific chemical composi-
bon content (0.05% maximum). This alloy exhib- tion or impact requirements. These are subject to
its greater resistance to cracking and is more suit- agreement between supplier and purchaser. How-
able for welds to be left in the as-welded condi- ever, any filler metal classified ERXXS—G must
tion. meet all other requirements of the specification.
• ER80S-NH Classification. This filler metal depos- All-weld tensile and impact requirements stipu-
its weld metal similar to 8018-C3 covered elec- lated in AWS A5.28-79 are given in Table 6.13
trodes and is used for welding low-alloy high- Preheat, interpass, and postweld heat treatment
strength steels requiring good toughness at tem- (PWHT) temperatures required for the prepara-
peratures as low as -40°C. tion of tensile and impact specimens are given in
• ER80S-M2 Classification. This filler metal depos- Table 6.14.
its weld metal similar to 8018-C1 electrodes. Typi-
Stainless Steels
cally, it is used for welding 3V4% nickel steels and
MIG welding provides a method of welding stainless
other materials requiring a tensile strength of 550
steels at high speeds, because it is a semi-automatic
MPa and good toughness at temperatures as low
process with high arc times and deposition rates. Flux
as -60°C
or slag is totally absent. This minimises cleaning and
• ER80S-Ni3 Classification. This filler metal depos-finishing time and gives consistent weld-metal
its weld metal similar to 8018-C2 electrodes. Typi- chemistry. The quality of welded joints is excellent.
cally it is used for welding 3Vfc% nickel steels for Shielding gas is either pure argon, argon with 1% oxygen
low temperature service, where a tensile strength or argon with 2% oxygen. Compared to pure argon,
of 620 MPa is required. argon with 1% oxygen gives improved arc stability,
• ER80S-D2 Classification (same as E70S-1B of produces a more fluid and controllable weld puddle,
A5.18-69). Filler metals of this classification con- good coalescence and bead contour and minimises
tain a high level of deoxidisers (Mn and Si), to undercutting on heavier stainless steels. Argon with 2%
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 345

Table 6.13: Tensile and impact requirements as per AWS A5.28-79

Class Shielding UTS YP Eln. % in Condition Impact value

gas min. MPa min. MPa 50 mm, min.
ER 80S-B2 550 470 19
ER80S-B2L
PWHT Not reqd.
ER90S-B3 Ar+
ER90S-B3L 1-5% 620 540 17
o2
ER80S-Nil As-welded 27Jat-46°C
ER80S-Ni2 550 470 24 PWHT 27Jat-62°C
ER80S-Ni3 27Jat-73°C
ER80S-D2 co2 550 470 17 As-welded 27Jat-29°C
ER100S-1 690 610 to 700 16
ER100S^2 Ar+ 690 610 to 700 16
ER110S-1 2% 760 660 to 740 15 As-welded 68 J at -51°C
ER110S-2 o, 830 730 to 840 14

Table 6.14: Heat treatment temperatures as per AWS A5.28-79

Class Preheat and PWHT
interpass temp. temperature
°C °C
ER80S-B2 150 ± 15 620 ± 15
ER80S-B2L
ER90S-B3 200 ± 15 690 ± 15
ER90S-B3L
ER80S-Ni2 150 ± 15 620 ± 15
ER80S-Ni3
ER80S-D2
ER80S-NU
ER100S-1
ER100S-2 150 ± 15 None
ER119S-1
ER120S-1

oxygen provides better arc stability, coalescence and
welding speed than 1% oxygen mixture on thinner
stainless steel materials.
With pure argon, there is hardly any loss of alloying
elements between the filler wire and the weld deposit.
Even elements like Ti are readily transferred across the
arc, making Type 321 stainless weld metal practical with
this process. Table 6.15 shows the transfer efficiency of
several elements across an argon-shielded arc.
DC is used with electrode positive. For thickness of
3.2 mm and above, current above a certain minimum,
which will ensure spray transfer must be used. Below
this minimum, the transfer will be in the form of large
drops with spatter and arc instability. For 0.9 mm
diameter wire, the threshold current value for stable
spray transfer is 170 amp. For 1.15 mm diameter it is
225 amp and for 1.6 mm diameter it is 285 amp. Nominal
data for spray arc welding is given in Table 6.16.
SHORT-CIRCUITING TRANSFER
Welding with a short-circuiting arc employs lower
current, generally ranging from 50 to 225 amp, low
voltages of 17 to 24 V, and small diameter wires—0.80,
1.0 and 1.2 mm being the popular sizes. The distinctive
346 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 6.15: Chemical compositions of some stainless steel filler wires and deposited weld metal

Alloy Type Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Ti Cb
308L Wire 0.025 1.51 0.37 0.020 0.011 10.32 20.31 — — —
308L Weld 0.030 1.57 0.35 0.019 0.011 10.28 20.46 — — —
308 Wire 0.056 1.75 0.47 0.021 0.021 9.94 20.94 — — —
308 Weld 0.051 1.72 0.33 0.018 0.013 10.03 20.89 — — —
321 Wire 0.079 1.43 0.58 0.019 0.016 10.52 18.58 0.95 —
321 Weld 0.085 1.44 0.63 0.016 0.012 10.52 18.78 — 0.85 —
347 Wire 0.069 1.59 0.49 0.023 0.014 9.96 20.82 — — 1.18
347 Weld 0.063 1.55 0.48 0.022 0.014 9.64 20.80 — — 0.87

Table 6.16: Nominal conditions for spray arc welding of stainless steel
Plate Joint and edge preparation Electrode Current Wire-feed Welding Number
thickness, wire dia- (dcrp), speed, speed, of
mm meter, mm amp m/min cm/min passes
3.2 Square butt with backing 1.6 200-250 2.75-3.75 50.0 1
6.5 Single-V butt, 60° incl. angle,
not root face 1.6 250-300 3.75-5.0 38.0 2
10.0 Single-V butt, 60° incl. angle,
1.6 mm root face 1.6 275-325 5.65-6.30 50.0 2
12.5 Single-V butt, 60° incl. angle,
1.6 mm root face 2.4 300-350 1.90-2.15 12.0 3-4
18.5 Single-V butt, 90° incl. angle,
1.6 mm root face 2.4 350-375 2.15-2.40 10.0 5-6
25.4 Single-V butt, 90° incl. angle,
1.6 mm root face 2.4 350-375 2.15-2.40 5.0 7-8
Note: Tables 6.16-6.19 are taken from Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, published by American Society for Metals.

feature of the short-circuiting arc is the frequent shorting
of the electrode wire to the work. All metal transfer takes
place at arc outages, which occur at a steady rate and
can vary from 20 to more than 200 per second. The net
result is a stable arc of low energy and heat input, ideally
suited to the welding of thin sections in all positions.
The low heat input minimises work-metal distortion.
The short-circuiting arc is better than the spray arc for
welding joints that have poor fit-up.
Electrode wire extension (stick-out) should be kept
as short as possible. Backhand welding is normally
easier on fillet welds and results in cleaner welds.
Forehand welding is used for butt welds, outside corner
welds are made with a stra-ight movement. Typical arc
voltages and gas flow rates are:
V Litres/
min
Spray transfer/argon shield/1.6 mm wire 24 19
Spray transfer/argon with 1-2% 0 2 /1.6 mm wire 26 19
Short-circuiting/argon shield/0.9 mm wire 18 12
Short-circuiting/argon with 1-2% O2/0.9 mm wire 19 12
The minimum thickness that can be welded by spray
transfer arc is 3.2 m m . The characteristic d e e p
penetration of this process calls for butt joints with
narrow groove angles and large root faces. Fit-up has
to be perfect. For sheets thinner than 3.2 mm and for
joints with bad fit-up, short-circuiting mode of transfer
must be used, since this gives very shallow penetration.
Filler wires: Standard stainless steel filler wires for
MIG welding are covered in the following specifications:
AWS A5.9
BS 2901: Part 2
IS 5856-1970
The same wires are also suited for use with some or
all of the following processes: Oxyacetylene, TIG, PAW
and Submerged-arc.
They have been referred to earlier in Chapter 5.
Aluminium Alloys
These alloys are most conveniently welded by the
TIG and MIG processes, and their weldabihties are the
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 347

same for both the processes. TIG welding of these alloys
is described on page 258.
The range of wrought Al alloys in industrial use is
very wide, and their weldability properties differ from
alloy to alloy. Some are readily weldable, some others
have limited weldability, while a few are not meant to be
welded. A few examples of each category are given in
Table 6.17.
The standard filler wires are covered in AWS A5.10,
BS 2901-Part 4 and IS 5897. They have been dealt with
on pages 287,290 and 291 as filler wires for TIG welding.
The high melting and solidifying rate of the weld
deposited by the MIG process can result in entrapped
gas in the welds. The gas is caused by contaminants
present on joint surfaces and filler wires. Joint surfaces
must be free from dirt, oil, grease, paint, moisture, metal
particles and heavy oxide film. Some alloys form a thin
oxide coating on the surface, while others have a thick,
dark oxide coating. The methods of removing various
contaminants are given below:
Contaminant Method of removal
Dirt Washing and scrubbing with a detergent
solution
Grease and oil Swabbing with an organic solvent like
acetone, carbon
tetrachloride or trichlorethylene.
Heavy oxide Removed with wire brush, steel wool,
layer mill file or scraper.
Total oxide Immersion in butylalcohol-phosphoric
removal acid type solution, followed by w a s h -
ing with water and drying with hot air.
For best result, all the above operations should be
carried out immediately before welding. Alternatively,
welding must be done on freshly machined and freshly
filed surfaces.
A common source of weld-metal porosity in MIG
welding of Al alloys is the invisible oxide film on the
filler wire. In TIG welding, it is possible to remove this
contaminant by giving the filler rod a rub with steel wool
immediately before welding. Such pre-cleaning is not
possible with the continuous wire in reeled or spooled
form, which is used for MIG welding. Moreover, the
relatively thinner wires used in this process mean that
the ratio of exposed metal surface to the unit weight of
weld metal is significantly high. Producers of wires use
specialized techniques to ensure that the spooled wires
are absolutely oxide-free and they supply these spools
in thoroughly sealed plastic containers. Users are
advised to open the containers immediately before use
and to ensure that no contaminants are picked up in
the wire feeder of the MIG equipment. After a day's
use, the balance wire must be repacked in an airtight
container. Any contamination of the wire from storage
or handling or by exposure to humid air must be
avoided. Wires in their original and intact packings must
be stored in a dry, warm storage room.
Shielding gases: Typical shielding gases used in the
U.S.A. are pure argon, pure helium or Ar-He mixture.
Argon is preferred for thinner sections (up to 19 mm f),
because of lower arc heat, smoother and steadier arc
and less weld spatter. Helium gives higher arc heat,
deeper penetration, and a weld profile which is wider
and less convex. The weld has a darker tint and the

Table 6.17: Al alloys and their weldability

Category Alloy grade* Approx. alloy composition (%)

Easily weldable 1060 NHT 99.6 (min.)

1100 NHT 0.12 Cu / 99 Al (min.)
2219 6.3 Cu / 0.3 Mn / 0.18 Zr / 0.1 V / rest Al
3004 NHT 1.2 Mn/1.0 Mg/rest Al
5050 NHT 1.4 Mg / rest Al
5456 NHT 0.6 Mn / 5.1 Mg / 0.12 Cr / rest Al
6061 HT 0.6 Si / 0.27 Cu / 1.0 Mg / 0.2 Cr / rest Al
Used for heavy 7005 HS/HT 0.45 Mn / 1.4 Mg / 0.13 Cr / 4.5 Zn / rest Al
defence structures 7039 HS/HT 0.27 Mn / 2.8 Mg / 0.2 Cr / 4.0 Zn / rest Al
Required special procedure 2014 HS/HT 0.8 Si / 4.4 Cu / 0.8 Mn / 0.5 Mg / rest Al
4032 12.2 Si / 0.9 Cu / 1.1 Mg / 0.9 Ni / rest Al
Limited weldability 2024 HS/HT 4.4 Cu / 0.6 Mn / 1.5 Mg / rest Al-
Not weldable 7075 HS/HT 1.6 Cu / 2.5 Mg / 0.3 Cr / 5.6 Zn / rest Al
*The numbers refer to the designations of the Aluminium Association of U.S.A.
NHT = Non-heat treatable. HT = Heat treatable. HS = High-strength.
348 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 6.18: Data for butt welds in flat position for Al
Plate t Joint design Elect. Ar flow
mm dia., mm rate,
1/min
3.15 sq. butt, no root gap 1.2 14
6.4 60° V, 0-3 mm root gap,
1.6 mm root face 1.6 20
12.5 60° V, 0-3 mm root gap,
1.6 mm root face 2.4 24
spatter is slightly more than with argon. Ar-He mixtures
are often used to get the best out of the two gases,
especially in positional welding of thicker sections. The
flow rates are 14-33 1/min for pure argon, 24-50 1/min
for 25-75 Ar-He and 28-661/min for pure helium. These
values are for 1.6 mm electrode wire.
Most Al-alloy welding is done with spray-type arc
using normal steady current or pulsed current. Spray
metal transfer is ensured by using high current densities
ranging from 80 to 480 amp/sq. mm of electrode cross-
section. The advantages of spray-type arc are: deep
penetration, which ensures sound root fusion; stiff arc,
which helps positional \ 'elding and a narrow stable arc,
which enables one to make small fillet welds in relatively
thick material Pulsed-current welding enables one to
use spray-type arc for the thickness range of 0.75-3 mm.
It also makes the welding of thin sheets to heavier plates
easier.
Typical parameters for butt welds in the flat position
are given in Table 6.18.
Backing bars of carbon steel or stainless steel are
commonly used for temporary backing of butt welds.
Copper and aluminium may be used when higher
thermal conductivity is needed. Carbon steel being
magnetic can sometimes deflect the arc and interfere
w i t h w e l d i n g . W h e n c o p p e r backing is u s e d ,
contamination of the weld metal by copper must be
prevented.
High current-density techniques can be used for
making butt welds in the thickness range of 6.4 to 15.8
mm using square butt joints and depositing one pass
from each side. Back gouging is not required. The
resultant welds are of high radiographic quality. The
current range of 370 to 450 amp is used at 24-25 V for
2.4 mm electrode size. In one case, 44.5 mm thick butt
weld was made, using one pass from each side with
450 amp, 28 V, 481/min argon-feed rate and 1.6 m m
diameter electrode.
Wire-feed Amps./V Welding No. of
speed, speed, passes
m/min cm/min
4.45 110 / 20 60 1
4.3 200 / 25 60 1
3.3 290 / 27 40 2
Large-diameter electrode techniques have also been
developed for butt welding plates in the thickness range
of 19.5-75 mm. They call for wide single or double-V
grooves and use electrode sizes of 4-5.5 mm in the
current range of 450-650 amp at 28-31 V. The resultant
welds are capable of meeting the requirements of section
IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Heavy
cranes and spheres have been welded by this method.
Copper and Copper Alloys
The standard filler wires for MIG welding of Cu and
its alloys are covered in AWS A5.7, BS 2901:1970 (Part
3) and IS: 5898-1970, referred to on pages 287, 291 and
293.
Though MIG process is applicable to many Cu alloys,
it is preferred for the welding of aluminium bronzes,
silicon bronzes and copper nickels in section thicknesses
greater than 3 mm. For lower thicknesses, the TIG
process is preferred. Flat position welding is done with
spray transfer. Welding in the vertical and overhead
positions is also carried out with small diameter
electrodes, low currents and globular or short-circuiting
mode of transfer. Lead containing alloys cannot be MIG
welded.
Coppers: MIG welding can be used for deoxidised
coppers to get the same weld soundness and strength
as is obtained with the TIG process. Coppers which have
not been deoxidised or contain insufficient amounts of
deoxidiser (such as electrolytic tough pitch copper,
oxygen-free copper, and low-P deoxidised copper) give
greater porosity and lower strength in the HAZ with
the MIG process than with the TIG process. Hence the
latter process is preferred. The electrode wire must
conform to AWS class ECu, i.e. it m u s t have 98%
minimum purity and contain controlled amounts of P,
Sn, Si and Mn as deoxidisers to prevent or minimise
porosity. Sections thicker t h a n 6.3 m m require
preheating due to the high thermal conductivity of
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 349

copper. Preheat temperatures range between 100 and weld. Preheating must be avoided and the interpass
480°C, depending on workpiece thickness. temperature must be held below 95°C The commonly
Phosphor bronzes: MIG process is commonly used for used electrode wire conforms to AWS class E Cu Si (2.8-
the thickness range of 9.5-12.7 mm. For alloys with less 4.0 Si, 1.5 maximum Sn, 1.5 maximum Mn, 0.5 maximum
than 8% Sn, AWS class ECu Sn-A electrode wire having Fe). A thin oxide film forms on the weld deposit after
4-6% Sn and 0.1-0.35% P is used. For alloys with 8-10% each pass, which must be removed with a wire brush
Sn, ECu Sn-C having 7-9% Sn and 0.05-0.35% P is used. before depositing the next pass.
These wires may also contain 0.5% Si to help minimise Copper-nickels: These alloys in thicknesses greater
weld porosity. Controlled preheating in the range of than 1.6 mm are usually MIG welded in the flat position,
100-200° C is used to increase weld metal fluidity and though welding in the vertical and overhead positions
reduce porosity. Severe preheating and large heat input is possible. Their thermal conductivity is equal to or
during welding encourages hot-cracking of the weld lower than that of mild steel. Hence no preheating is
and columnar grain growth. Hence stringer bead necessary. Post-heating is also not necessary. Interpass
technique with small weld pool and high are travel temperature during welding should not exceed 65°C.
speed must be used. The weld must be peened between The commonly used electrode wire conforms to AWS
passes. class E Cu-Ni and has 70% Cu, 30% Ni and 0.15-1.0%
Al bronzes: These alloys in the thickness range of 3 - Ti. Titanium minimises porosity and prevents oxygen
12.5 mm can be MIG welded with ease in all positions, embrittlement by acting as a deoxidiser, and makes the
because of the comparatively high tension pf the molten weld metal more fluid.
weld metal and the low thermal conductivity of the base Table 6.19 gives nominal welding parameters for
metal. While spray-type metal transfer is used for the welding 9.5 mm thick butt joints in copper and copper
flat position, welding in the vertical and overhead alloys.
position is carried out with the globular or short-
circuiting mode of metal transfer, using electrode wire MIG Spot Welding
sizes of 1.6 mm and less. Electrode wire conforming to MIG or GMA (gas-metal arc) spot welding is similar
AWS class ECu A1-A2 is normally used. It contains 9- to resistance spot welding or riveting. In this process,
11% Al, and also 1.5% Fe to make the weld deposit less two overlapping sheets are fused together by means of
susceptible to hot cracking than welds from E Cu Al- a spot weld, which penetrates completely through one
Al. Wire of AWS class E Cu Al-B (11-12% Al, 3-4.25% sheet into the other. No joint preparation is required,
Fe) also gives welds free from hot shortness, but they but the overlapped surfaces must be scrupulously
are stronger, harder and less ductile. cleaned before welding. The welding gun is held
Si bronzes: These alloys are readily welded by the stationary against the plate while the spot weld is being
MIG process, but stringer bead technique, low current made. To make the weld, the operator initiates a pre-
and high travel speed must be used to prevent excessive set timed sequence, which strikes the arc and feeds the
heat built-up, which occurs because of the low thermal wire, and finally stops the arc as well as the wire feed
conductivity, and which results in hot cracking of the after a weld of required size and penetration is

Table 6.19: Data for MIG welding of 9.5 t butt joint in Cu and Cu-alloys
Joint design Electro. Shielding Gas flow Amps./V Welding No. of Preheat
dia., mm gas rate, speed, passes temp., °C
1/min cm/min
Commercial copper
90° V, 5 mm root face, no root gap 2.4 Ar 14 500 / 27 36 — 205
Phosphor bronze
90° V, no root face, root gap 3 mm 1.6 He 16 280 / 27 — 3 or 4 95-150
Aluminium bronze
70° V, no root face, root gap 3 mm 1.6 Ar 14 285 / 28 — 2 none
Silicon bronze
60° V, no root face, root gap 3 mm 1.6 Ar 14 265 / 28 21 2 none
Copper-nickel
70° V, no root face, root gap 4.5 mm 1.6 Ar 14 280 / 28 — 2 none
350 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
completed. The arc time is expressed in cycles, one cycle
being equal to 1/.50 sec. The gun is then moved to the
next weld location.
The process uses a standard MIG-welding gun, to
which a special nozzle may be attached, so that the gun
can be rested on the workpiece, gas may be allowed to
escape through holes or notches in the nozzle, or legs
may be attached to the nozzle to maintain it at a standard
distance from the workpiece, so that electrode extension
remains constant.
The following sequence of operations proceeds
automatically, once the torch trigger is depressed:
1) The welding contactor is closed, shielding gas
flows, and the filler wire advances at a pre-set low
speed (run-in) proportional to the welding speed.
2) On contact between the wire and the workpiece,
the arc strikes and the wire accelerates to or to-
wards the spot at pre-set welding speed.
3) The arc is maintained for a pre-set time.
4) The wire halts and the arc is allowed to continue
sufficiently long to separate the wire from the
weld (burn-back), while shielding gas flows to
prevent excessive oxidation of the weld surface.
The MIG spot welding process is controllable and
requires m i n i m u m operator skill. Since access is
normally required from one side of the joint and thick
r dip transfer, metal is transferred to the molten pool
R
(3)-
(C)
(2)
(4)-
WORKPIECE
Fig. 6.15 Power of source of pulsed MIG welding
© @®0®
O U b Q v
Pulsed arc droplets
8. 300 A
< of both the heat input and the amount of weld metal
§ 2QCH
o manufacturer to simplify use. Pulsed arc transfer can
Time
18 m/sec
Fig. 6.15 (A) Sequence of events in pulsed metal
transfer
materials can be welded with conventional welding
power sources, it has distinct advantages over resistance
welding techniques in the fabrication and lining of
structures and vessels.
This method is commonly used on mild steel,
stainless steel and aluminium. A typical example of mild
steel application is a motor-end panel, to which support
bars and channel sections are spot welded, using a
portable gun with a nozzle guide tube, which is seated
against two right-angled surfaces to make spot fillet
welds. Using 1.6 mm wire, 350 amp (DC electrode -ve),
30V, 22 cycles arc time and shielding mixture of argon
plus 27% oxygen at flow rate of 71/min, a fillet weld of
6.4 mm leg length and 6.4 mm long is made.
In another application, cupro-nickel sheets were
attached to mild steel water boxes in a seawater
distillation plant. It was possible to control penetration
to maintain the iron content of the weld at a sufficiently
low level to prevent cracking.
PULSED MIG WELDING
Pulsed arc MIG welding is a controlled method of
spray transfer welding requiring a more sophisticated
power source, where as the three type of transfers
described previously can be obtained with standard
power sources and wire feed units. In spray transfer,
droplets of metal are projected from the wire tip across
the arc gap to the molten pool at a constant current. In
somewhat irregularly during the periods of short
circuiting. Pulsed arc welding enables droplets to be
projected across the arc gap at a regular frequency, using
pulses of current in the spray transfer range from a
special supplied power source. Transfer of metal from
the wire tip to the molten pool occurs only at the period
of pulse or peak current.
During the interval between the pulses, a low
background" current maintains the arc to keep the wire
tip molten, but no metal is transferred. Pulsed transfer
means that the weld metal is projected across the arc
gap at a high current, but the mean welding current
remains relatively low. The operator can vary the pulse
height and the background current to obtain full control
deposited. However, in modern power sources the pulse
p r o c e d u r e is preset or p r e - p r o g r a m m e d by the
be used on mild and low-alloy steels, stainless steel and
is particularly useful with aluminium and its alloys on
a light to medium plate sections as dip transfer cannot
be used in these applications.

The advent of electronic power sources has enabled
controlled metal transfer to be achieved with the MIG
process. These power sources provide a static volt-amp
characteristic that can be tailored to process
requirements and a dynamic response significantly
more rapid than that from a conventional power source.
Feedback from the arc and the wire feeder modifies the
power source output to control metal transfer and
maintain a stable arc.
First development of pulsed MIG power sources
used semiconductors employing series regulator or
chopped (switched) secondary. However the advances
mode in inverter technology have made these designs
obsolete. In the inverter design the mains input is first
rectified and then switched (by transistors) through a
welding transformer at high frequency (typically 5-40
KHz), before being rectified again to give a DC output.
This technique offers a considerable improvement in
efficiency and performance. These electronic power
sources can be configured to p r o d u c e an o u t p u t
specifically suited to a particular process, wire, gas or
joint design. Feedback from the arc controls the metal
transfer and maintains arc stability.
DC operation with conventional power sources, at
low mean welding currents using dip transfer, the short
circuit currents draw a high peak current which ruptures
the contact explosively giving serious spatter. This is
followed by a period of low arc current giving a 'cold'
weld and the possibility of lack of fusion faults. With
controlled metal transfer welding, the power source
detects that a short circuit is about to occur and injects a
high current in a controlled manner. This can control
the end of the wire shorting to the liquid pool and will
minimimise spatter. One type of short-arc technique
senses the arc current and wire feed speed. The power
source output is adjusted to give a constant arc current
per unit volume of wire. As the wire feed speed is varied,
the arc current is varied in proportion. This helps to
overcome the incidence of lack of fusion associated with
conventional dip transfer welding. It is to be understood
that with these controlled short-arc techniques it is
generally the welding current that is controlled (via
feedback), rather than the voltage as with a conventional
MIG power source.
In pulsed MIG welding (often known as Synergic
MIG) a spray-type metal transfer is achieved at low
mean welding currents by pulsing the power source
output between a low and high level. Metal is transfered
only during the peak current pulse. The peak current is
chosen to be above the globular to spray transition
current level and the duration of pulse is selected to
METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 351
detach a single molten drop. A low background current
is chosen to maintain arc stability and frequency of
pulsing, and hence the mean current is proportional to
the wire feed speed. If, as originally conceived, the
power source is operated in the constant current mode,
and the pulse parameters are specified in terms of peak
current, then an additional voltage control of either the
wire feeder or p o w e r source may be required to
maintain arc length. This means that 'one knob' control
of the power source can be achieved with the wire feed
speed governing the arc parameters.
Pulsed (synergic) MIG was originally conceived with
the pulse parameters defined in terms of peak and
background current, the theory being that current is the
main parameter controlling heat input. However, recent
power source designs operate with constant voltage in
the peak. This gives a measure of self adjustment during
the pulse and offers greater arc stability, particularly
with aluminium and cored wires. Metal transfer and
arc stability can also be enhanced by generating a more
complex wave form than a square pulse. A high current
peak can induce droplet detachment and a slope on the
trailing edge of the pulse will aid the stable transition
between peak and background levels.
Pulsed MIG welding results reduced fusion faults
at low mean currents and considerably lower spatter
levels. Synergic pulsed MIG offers controlled heat input
with spray type metal transfer, permitting positional
welding with a small weld pool and superior weld
finish.
MIG BRAZING
W h e n coated steels are fusion welded, the
effectiveness of the coating adjacent to the weld
deteriorates due to heat and a recondition operation is
often required to restore corrosion resistance or desired
visual appearance to the affected areas. MIG-brazing
process addresses this problem.
In MIG-brazing, like in the conventional brazing
process, employs the technique of "wetting" the joint
without melting it with the help of a continuously fed
filler metal, the melting temperature of which is below
that of the steel.
The process is carried out in either semi-automatic
or automatic technique similar to MIG welding. Unlike
in the conventional brazing process, there is no need at
all for any fluxes.
Pure argon is mostly used as shielding gas in MIG
brazing, although little bit addition of active gases like
C 0 2 or 0 2 helps improve stability and 'wetting'
properties of the weld metal. Argon with 1% oxygen as
352 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 6.20 : Wires for MIG brazing
Wire type % Melting UTS,
Composition point, C N/mm 2
Si - Mn Alloy 1 mm 980 - 1020 350
DIN: S -CuSi3 3 Si
Balance Cu
Al - Bronze 8A1 1030 550
DIN: Cu A18 Bal ance Cu
Phosphor-Bronze 7Sn 900 -1050 500
DIN: S-Cu Sn 6 Balance Cu
shielding gas is most optimum as confirmed by studies.
A number of different copper based wires—Si-alloy or
aluminium bronze/phosphor bronze alloys—can be
used for MIG brazing. Typical wire compositions,
physical properties and applications are shown in Table
6.20. The wire diameters can vary from 0.8 mm tol.2
mm and the spool sizes from 1 kg to 15 kg.
A few users of this process have been working
without pulse mode in short-circuiting technique. This
may lead to a lot of uncontrolled spatter if the power
source is not well regulated. In addition, the operator
needs to adhere to a very constant contact tip distance
to avoid abrupt parametric changes with consequent
impairment in the weld. These factors necessitate use
of pulsed technique for MIG brazing, with one single
molten droplet detaching from the wire electrode for
pulse.
In order to keep zinc vaporisation from light gauge
sheets as low as possible, MIG brazing is usually
performed at low power—typically 40 Amps, to 130
Amps, with travel speeds between 70-100 cm/min. The
background current is often 20 Amps, or even less. An
inverter power source with high switching frequency
of 100 KHz delivers an extremely smooth welding
current. Today power sources are available in the
"Synergic" mode (on knob control) for any wire/gas
combination with pre-programmed parameters. Fully
digitised systems are now available for convenience of
synergy setting and the possibility of optimising all the
parameters relevant to the process individually.
Narrow-Gap Welding
The general economics of narrow-gap welding of
thick plates was dealt with in the chapters on SA
welding and TIG welding. The MIG process is equally
suitable for this technique.
Narrow-gap MIG welding operates in the spray
transfer range. Each weld layer is made up of two beads
Hardness, Applications
BHN
90 MIG brazing of steels
130 MIG brazing of dissimilar metals
120 MIG brazing on ferrous and dissimilar
metals.
laid side by side, simultaneously by two welding heads,
each with a separate power source and controls, which
act symmetrically with respect to the joint plane. The
important components of the welding head are:
a) Wire and its driving and stressing system
b) Torch
c) Gas supply
d) Welding head setting
a) The copper-coated wire is driven by rollers,
which feed it to the joint as well as stress it so that it
curves after leaving the torch end. The stressing system
allows the wire to be fed in a range from straight to an
arc about 180 mm in diameter. The mechanical assem-
bly consists of a motor tachometer, gear reduction ar-
rangement, stress roller, drive rollers, skew-pressure
roller and the torch.
b) The torch is of special design. A typical torch con-
sists of a 4 mm thick copper bar, electrically insulated
and cooled by a water supply. An axial hole drilled in
the copper bar permits wire driving, whereas a contact
tube located at the bottom of the bar transmits the elec-
trical current to the electrode wire by a rubbing contact.
The contact tube is equipped with a small tip, which
can be replaced when it becomes worn or if a burnback
occurs. The tip is electrically insulated by a ceramic
shield which also serves, in case of a burnback, to extin-
guish the arc before it reaches the water jacket of the
contact tube.
c) The arc and the weld puddle are shielded by two
tubes located at each side of the torch. These tubes are
equipped with special nozzles to produce a laminar flow
of gas preventing aspiration of air into the weld region.
Approaching the end of the weld, a special nozzle (called
a gas cup) is put on the torch to give a circular gas sup-
ply, which avoids air contamination; the shielding gas
flow remains the same. For low-alloy steels, 80% Ar/
20% C 0 2 mixture is used as a shield.

d) Each torch is carried on a support which is
constituted by two crossed motorised runners. This
setting allows two travel directions for the welding
head; one located in the joint plane, the other
perpendicular. These tvv o possibilities act directly on the
wire-to-work distance.
Two transducers, referred with respect to the bottom
of the joint and to the adjacent side, act upon the
electronic controls of the runner motors to put the torch
into position. Thus, the guidance of each torch is fixed
with respect to the work independently of the joint
width variations, of the joint filling height, or of the
parallelism of the relative displacement of the torch with
respect to the joint side.
The different operations are automated by three
functions:
(1) Proximity, (2) Seam track, (3) Wire feed.
Proximity is the drive used to control the torch-to-
work distance by positioning the head. This function
effectively controls the arc voltage, since this voltage
varies directly with the arc length or with the torch-to-
work distance. Seam track controls the cross slide drive,
which keeps the head tracking along the work seam.
Wire feed controls the rate at which filler wire is fed to
the work.
Each of these functions is controlled by a separate
feedback motor control system. This is a closed loop,
solid state control, featuring reversing with the use of a
contactor, and having a precision control under varying
loads.
Following conditions must be observed:
1) Oxyacetylene cutting must not be used for edge
preparation, because it decarburises the base
metal and cannot guarantee gap tolerance of ± 1
mm for 9 mm gap and +10 mm for 6 mm gap.
2) Joint faces must be accurately parallel. Tolerances
are +050 mm.
3) Joint perpendicularity with respect to the sup-
port is not very important. Tolerances are +0040
radian.
4) Electrode wire curvature between 175 and 190
mm is advisable. Buckling of the wire of 20 mm
maximum seems appropriate.
Advantages of narrow gap w e l d i n g are: (1)
reduced internal stresses and distortion, (2) better as-
welded mechanical properties of the joint, (3) better
economy for thicknesses above 50 mm. The
disadvantages are: (1) more likelihood of weld defects,
(2) difficulty of removing and rectifying defects when
detected.
METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 353
Twist-Arc Welding
This is a modified version of narrow gap MIG
welding developed in Japan. It uses two intertwined
wires as the electrode (see Fig. 6.16), which as it
consumes, gives rotational movement to the welding
arc and ensure thorough defect-free sidewall fusion.
When the gap is maintained within 12-18 mm, sound
weld joints can be obtained by adjusting the travel speed
according to the gap size, without changing the welding
current and arc voltage.
The process developed by Kobe Steel employs an
automatic control system, in which the image of the
square groove in the vicinity of the welding arc is
registered by a small TV camera. Seam tracking and
control of the welding parameters are then performed
by analysing and processing the video signal from the
camera. This automatic control system makes it possible
to hold the electrode position within 0.5 mm of the centre
of the groove gap in real time, and frees the welding
operator from the severity of the working environment
by virtue of its remote-control function. Optimum
welding conditions are given below:
Power source DC drooping characteristic
Shielding gas Ar + 20% C 0 2
Wire diameter 2.0 x 2.0 mm
Pitch of twist 9 - 1 0 mm
Groove width 12 ~ 18 mm
Welding current 550 - 600 amp
Arc voltage 31 ~ 32 V
Welding speed 400 ~ 425 mm/min
Fig 6.16: General arrangement of twist arc welding
process: (1) twist wire; (2) arc; (3) molten pool; (4)
direction of welding; (5) shielding gas
354 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Applicability of the process to pressure vessels and
boiler plates in the thickness range of 50-120 mm has
been established.
Plasma-MIG Welding
This is a modification of the TIG plasma arc process
, in which filler wire is continuously fed through the
axis of the constricted arc plasma. The apparatus, as
d e v e l o p e d by a E u r o p e a n company, is s h o w n
schematically in Fig. 6.17. The tungsten electrode is
placed away from the axis of the copper housing, which
has a water-cooled orifice for constricting the arc plasma.
The wire can then be axially fed through the orifice. A
curved arc is formed between the tip of the tungsten
electrode and the workpiece. The wire passes through
a considerable length of the plasma and the hottest
constricted zone. Typical welding parameters and
melting rates of filler wire are given in Table 6.21.
By suitably adjusting the wire-feed rate, one can
obtain short-circuiting, free flight or fine-spray type
t CONSUMABLE WIRE
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE - HIGH
FREQUENCY!
[GENERATOR]
POWER
SUPPLY
y Thus, by using unconventional parameter settings,
Fig. 6.17: Schematic representation of plasma-MIG
welding equipment
metal transfer as desired. A sufficiently high wire-feed
rate causes the molten drops to touch the weld pool,
resulting in a dip-transfer technique. When the wire
speed is somewhat decreased, the mode of transfer
changes to free flight. The coarse drop transfer occurring
here is very different from transfer during MIG welding
below the transition current: no restraining arc force is
present, because the arc is not attached to the drop.
Material transfer occurs in an envelope of arc plasma
streaming to the workpiece. Consequently spatter is
absent. With further decrease in wire speed, melting
occurs in a more constricted zone of the arc and a fine
spray of filler metal is carried along with the plasma,
which resembles the spray transfer during MIG welding
above the transition current.
Figure 6.17 also shows that the filler wire can be
energised by connecting it to a separate power source.
When this is done, it is possible to have an arc between
the filler wire and the workpiece, while maintaining a
separate arc between the tungsten electrode and the
workpiece. This is the real version of the plasma-MIG
welding process and it results in higher melting rate
and improved control of penetration. The higher melting
rates are evident in Table 6.20.
The special feature of this process is that, it is suitable
for welding refractory metals like molybdenum and
tungsten.
HIGH SPEED WELDING (HSW)
The most important single factor in increasing
productivity is the deposition rate. The average rate is
between 3-5 kg/hour. It should always be possible to
raise this deposition rate to between 7-10 k g / h o u r
without the need for additional investment in new
equipment.
we can go beyond the traditional working ranges and
thus considerably raise the productivity. This is the
thinking behind a concept for high productivity

Table 6.21: Melting rates of plasma arc welding with filler wire and plasma-MIG welding

Plasma arc Plasma arc Filler wire MIG-arc Diameter of Melting rate of
current, voltage, current, voltage, filler wire, filler wire,
amp V amp V mm g / min
110 29 — — 0.9 22
135 30 — — 0.9 28
160 32 — — 0.9 33
190 34 — — 0.9 40
190 37 100 31 1.2 85
190 38 150 32 1.2 130
 METAL INERT-GAS/C02 ARC WELDING 355

w e l d i n g of thicker materials, (e.g. 15-20 m m in

Arc voltage
4%>*.r'{
Mixed arc
Short arc
W i r e fwM $f»ee<l
Fig. 6.18 Working ranges — Conventional GMA
welding and RAPID ARC/RAPID MELT welding
welding, HSW. The concept comprises two welding
procedures. RAPID ARC, which aims at raising the
welding speed in most plate thicknesses, and RAPID
MELT, which raises the deposition rate, primarily in the
thickness).
Figure 6.18 s h o w s the w o r k i n g ranges for
conventional GMA welding and HSW-RAPID ARC
A N D RAPID MELT. In many cases RAPID ARC
technique can more than double the welding speed,
depending on the application. The technique can also
be performed with most existing welding equipment
and is suitable for mechanised welding as well as for
manual welding.
The RAPID MELT technique can provide very high
deposition rates — as high as 20 kg/hour. This means
the wire feed speeds of upto 50 metres per minute.
The technique, therefore, requires some investment
in the form of reliable, rapid wire feed units, and high
capacity power source. RAPID MELT is also feasible
for mechanised welding.
However, the optimal sheilding gas required for
RAPID processes are Argon rich mixtures (Typically Ar
+ 8% C 0 2 +.03% 0 2 ). Such a gas with low C 0 2 content
gives a stable arc, low spatter, low convexity and little
surface oxidation.
RAPID ARC and RAPID MELT processes are being
increasingly used for mechanised welding — in
particular for robotic welding.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 4, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
C02 Welding by A.A. Smith, published, 1970, by The Welding Institute.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published, 1971, by American Society for Metals.
Pulsed Current MIG Welding by Villeminot et al, Conference Proceedings of "Advances in Welding Processes", 1970, by The
Welding Institute.
Plasma-MIG Welding by Essers et al, Conference Proceedings of "Advances in Welding Processes", 1970, by The Welding
Institute.
The Twist Arc Welding Process by Kimura et al, Conference Proceedings of "Advances in Welding Processes", 1978, by The
Welding Institute.
MIG Welding in Excavators, Met. Constr., Sept. 1973.
MIG Welding of Aluminium, Weld. J., Nov. 1974.
MIG Welding of Aluminium, Weld. }., Jan. 1975.
Plasma-MIG for Welding Aluminium, Weld. & Met. Fabr., Oct. 1980.
Pulsed MIG for Welding of Aluminium, Met. Constr., Apr. 1982.
Recent Developments in Mechanised High Efficiency Gas-Shielded Arc Welding Processes WIRR 235/84, Apr. 1984.
Narrow Gap Welding by Gazes & Ducrot. Conference Proceedings of "Advances in Welding Processes", 1974, by The Weld-
ing Institute.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Flux-Cored
Arc
Welding
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) is a modifi- of slag forms on the weld bead, which is easily detached
cation of MIG/C0 2 welding, in which the continuous by chipping.)The weld-metal is less liable to porosity
solid wire is replaced by a continuous flux-cored elec- and it is easier to get consistent X-ray quality welds. All
trode wire, i.e. a tubular wire filled inside with flux. these factors provide highest welder appeal to flux-
The flux performs essentially the same functions as the cored wires when compared to solid C02-shielded wires
flux coating of a manual metal-arc welding electrode. and manual electrodes.
They are: Gas consumption is also much less. While in solid
1) To provide shielding gas through chemical de- wire C0 2 welding, the rate of gas flow is 171/min, it is
composition. However, auxiliary shielding gas is used 8-12 1/min with flux-cored wires.
to ensure optimum weld-metal quality. The most striking advantage of flux-cored wires is
2) To act as deoxidisers or scavengers, which will that they eliminate the consumable goods
help purify and produce a sound weld-metal. manufacturer's continuous dependence on the
3) To form a slag, which will float on the molten steelmaker. In the case of solid wires, the steelmaker
weld-metal and protect it from the atmosphere during must first provide the billets of required chemistry.
solidification. These then must be rolled down to rods of suitable
4) To act as arc stabilisers, which will produce a diameter in coil form by a rolling mill. High cost of these
smooth welding arc and reduce spatter. operations can be justified only when the demand is
5) To add alloying elements to the weld-metal, large and regular.
which will increase strength and provide other desir- Since flux-cored wires use a standard tube material
able weld-metal properties. and achieve the required chemistry through alloy
powders introduced into the core, the producer can
Advantages of FCAW supply even small batches of wires of any desired
Flux-cored arc welding overcomes all the composition at relatively short notice. Continuous
shortcomings of manual metal-arc welding, such as low hardfacing wires can also be easily produced, which in
arc time, low deposition rate, stub loss, factors of the case of solid wires would be a difficult, sometimes
welder's skill and fatigue. The equipment provides the even impossible proposition, because foiling and
operator with automatic wire-feed and arc control, drawing would be involved.
leaving him to provide guidance and relative motion For welding low-alloy steel pipes in 5G position (in-
or travel for the torch. volving 360° welding), welders find it easier to use flux-
Flux-cored wires have several advantages over solid cored wires than solid wires. In welding high strength
wires used in the gas-shielded welding process. Spatter steels where mechanical properties are affected by heat
is considerably reduced and weld surface finish is vastly input, it becomes possible to increase alloy content as
improved, because of the arc-stabilising and slag- the wire diameter increases, so as to obtain uniform
forming compounds present in the core. (A thin layer mechanical properties over a wide range of heat input.
358 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
EQUIPMENT
The basic equipment for flux-cored arc welding is
essentially the same as for C0 2 welding: DC constant
potential power source, a wire feeder, a means to supply
shielding gas to the arc, a welding gun and a control
box. Typical equipment is shown in Fig. 7.1.
Constant-potential power source is preferred,
because it makes the control system simpler. The
electrode wire is fed into the arc at a required constant
rate, and it automatically draws the amount of current
required to maintain the pre-set arc voltage. If wire-feed
rate is increased, current increases and consequently the
weld deposition rate increases.
Like MIG/C0 2 welding, flux-cored arc welding is
primarily a semi-automatic process, in which the gun
is held by the operator and manipulated along the seam.
It can also be used as an automatic process for special
applications, where the operator continuously monitors
the operation during mechanised travel of the seam or
the welding head or both.
Wire-Feeders
Drive rolls of wire feeders are specially designed to
ensure that the flux-cored electrodes do not flatten, or
DIRECT CURRENT
CONSTANT VOLTAGE
POWER SOURCE
CrT
-VOLTAGE CONTROL
.CONTACTOR CONTROL
fTTI ITTI
ELECTRODE POWER CABLE
GROUND CABLE
Fig. 7.1: Schematic representation of semi-automatic flux-cored arc welding equipment
otherwise distort during feeding. The puslvtype wire
feeding is usually employed, that is, the electrode is
pulled from a reel by drive rolls and pushed through a
flexible conduit to the welding gun and onwards to the
arc. A four-roll feeder in which all the rolls are driven
(see Fig. 7.2) is more effective than a two-roll system,
though the latter is also sometimes employed with
one-roll being driven, while the other is a pressure
roll. The design allows easy adjustment of roll speed
and pressure and quick changing of the rolls. It is
important to select rolls compatible with the wire size
being used.
For medium to large diameter electrode wires (1.6
mm and above) V-groove knurled rolls are used as
shown at (B) in Fig. 7.2. Grooved-gear rolls (C) are better
suited for soft electrode wires. Concave smooth-faced
rolls (D) are preferred for small diameter wires (1.2 mm
and below) which are less liable to flatten than the larger
ones.
Wire feeders are normally mounted on the power
source, though there are instances where they are
several metres away from the power source. Sometimes
they are mounted on overhead jib cranes or booms, so
that the welder can operate over a large area.
fx
TO SOLENOID VALVE»
SHIELDING
GAS SOURCE
VOLTMETER AND
AMMETER
WIRE FEED
(CURRENT)
ONTROL
SASJN.
AS OUT
 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 3 5 9

WIRE INLET FROM REEL

ROLL(1 (5F4 )
FLEXIBLE CONDUIT TO-
ELECTRODE HOLDER
A. FOUR-ROLL PUSH-TYPE FEEDER

ARROWS INDICATE
- * _ WATER IN
—►WATER OUT SWITCH-t"
OGAS

B. V-GROOVE D. CONCAVE HAND SHIELD

KNURLED ROLLS ROLLS.

Fig. 7.2: Electrode wire-feed system and three designs

of feed rolls Fig. 7.3: Diagrammatic sketches of guns for
semi-automatic gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding
Welding Guns
These are either gas-cooled or water-cooled. For
welding currents of 500 amp or more, water-cooled guns
must be used. Under Indian tropical conditions, it is
advisable to prefer these types for currents above 350
amp. Gas-cooled guns are kept cool by radiation of heat
to the surrounding air and by the shielding gas, which
is quite cold, as it passes through it. Gas-cooled guns
must be preferred where conditions permit, because
they are lighter in weight, more compact, and demand
less maintenance. Typical gas-cooled and water-cooled
guns for semi-automatic welding are shown in Fig. 7.3.
They may have straight or curved nozzles, the latter
vary-ing between 40 and 60°. Curved nozzles are more SIX STYLES OF
FLUX- CORED ELECTRODES
flexible and make electrode manipulation easier in some
applications.

FLUX-CORED ELECTRODE WIRES

6.3 MM-DIAM
FLUX-COVERED
ELECTRODE
O
1.6 MM-DIAM
2.4 MM-DIAM
FLUX-CORED SOLID ELECTRODE
The electrode wires meant for the welding of mild ELECTRODE
steel, medium tensile steels and low-alloy steels, and
for some of the hardfacing applications consist of a low- Relative sizes of electrodes for use at nominal
carbon steel sheath surrounding a core of fluxing and welding current of 400 amp
alloying materials. The common core elements and their Fig. 7.4: Various designs of flux-cored electrodes, and
functions are given in Table 7.1. size comparison of flux-covered, flux-cored and solid
Various forms of flux-cored wires are available and metal electrodes for use at the same nominal
six of them are shown in Fig. 7.4. The three top ones are welding current
360 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 7.1: Common core elements in flux-cored electrodes

Element Usually present as Purpose in weld
Aluminium Metal powder Deoxidise and denitrify
Calcium Minerals such as fluorspar (CaF2) and Provide shielding and form slag
limestone (CaC03)
Carbon Element in ferroalloys such as Increase hardness and strength
ferromanganese
Chromium Ferroalloy or metal powder Alloying to improve creep resistance, hardness,
strength and corrosion resistance
Iron Ferroalloys and iron powder Alloy matrix in iron base deposits, alloy in nickel
base and other non-ferrous deposits
Manganese Ferroalloy such as ferromanganese or Deoxidise, prevent hot shortness by combining with
as metal powder sulphur to form MnS; increase hardness and
strength; form slag
Molybdenum Ferroalloy Alloying to increase hardness, strength, and in
austenitic stainless steels to increase resistance to
pitting type corrosion
Nickel Metal powder Alloying to improve hardness, strength, toughness
and corrosion resistance
Potassium Minerals such as potassium bearing Stabilise the arc and form slag
feldspars and silicate and in frits
Silicon Ferroalloy such as ferrosilicon or Deoxidise and form slag
silicomanganese; mineral silicates such
as feldspar
Sodium Minerals such as potassium bearing Stabilise the arc and form slag
feldspars and silicates and in frits
Titanium Ferroalloy such as ferrotitanium; in Deoxidise and denitrify; form slag; stabilise
mineral, rutile carbon in some stainless steels
Zirconium Oxide or metal powder Deoxidise and denitrify
Vanadium Oxide or metal powder Increase strength
Note: Denitrifying elements have an important function in gasless flux-cored wires. They are not required in gas-shielded wires.

the most common and their steel content is about 75-
85% of the total weight and about 75% of the cross-
sectional area of the electrode. They are made by passing
low-carbon steel strip through contour-forming rolls
that bend the strip into a U-shaped cross section. The
U-shaped product is then filled with a measured amount
of granular core material (flux) by passing it through a
filling device. Next, the flux-filled U-shaped strip passes
through closing rolls that form it into a tube and tightly
compress the core materials. The tube is then pulled
through drawing dies that reduce its diameter and
further compress the core materials. The drawing
operation secures the core materials inside the tube. The
electrode may or may not be baked during or between
drawing operations, depending on its type. Additional
drawing operations are performed to produce different
sizes of electrode wire. The finished electrode wire is
wound into a continuous coil or onto spools, as required.
In these wires, the seam remains unsealed, and hence
the flux in the core is liable to pick up moisture from
the atmosphere in long storage. The finished wire may
also not be perfectly circular.
Seamless flux-cored wires are produced from a
seamless tube. They are marketed under the trade
names Automig FC and Automelt FC. The former is
designed for flux-cored arc welding and the latter for
submerged-arc welding. The unique feature of Automig
FC wire is that it is perfectly circular and the core
material is permanently sealed against moisture pick-
up in storage. As a result, Automig FC gives consistent
extra-low hydrogen weld metal, which is not the case
with the conventional open-seam wires. For the same
reason, Automig FC wires are ideal filler metals for
m e c h a n i s e d u n d e r w a t e r w e l d i n g . The perfectly
symmetrical structure of the wire corss-section with its
consistently thick metal annulus permit equally good
bending in all directions. The wire is twist-free and does
not tend to open along its longitudinal axis, nor is it
liable to deform as a result of bending forces. Automig
FC is therefore suitable for welding on any MIG/MAG

welding set, and this applies equally to the lowest
diameter of 1 mm.
The range of flux-cored wires is as wide as for
manual electrodes. It covers mild steel, medium strength
and high strength steels, alloy steels, creep-resisting
steels, stainless steels and hardfacing applications.
SHIELDING GAS
Most electrode wires are designed for use with an
external shield of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ). C 0 2 gas is
inexpensive, gives deep penetration and globular metal
transfer across the arc. The function of C 0 2 in the arc is
explained below. It is important to point out that
alloying elements like Cr, Ni, Mo in low-alloy weld
metals are not affected by the oxidising atmosphere of
the C 0 2 gas.
The C 0 2 dissociates in the welding arc into carbon
monoxide and oxygen. A considerable amount of
oxygen is therefore present in the arc to oxidise metals.
Molten iron also reacts with C 0 2 producing iron oxide
and carbon monoxide in a reversible reaction:
Fe + C 0 2 < » FeO + CO
Deoxidising agents (Al, Ti, Zr, Si) are added to the
core to compensate for the oxidizing effect of the C0 2 .
Carbon monoxide may also dissociate further into
carbon and oxygen. This carbon may dissolve in the
weld-metal to increase its carbon content.
Actually, the C 0 2 a t m o s p h e r e can serve as a
carburising or a decarburising medium depending upon
the original carbon content in the base metal and filler
metal. Carbon content in the weld deposit usually ranges
between 0.05 and 0.12%. If the carbon content in the
electrode metal and base metal is lower than this range,
the weld-metal will tend to pick up carbon from the
C 0 2 shielding atmosphere.
On the other hand, if the carbon content of the base
materials and electrode metal is greater than 0.12%, the
weld-metal will show a tendency to lose carbon. This
loss of carbon can be attributed to such reactions as:
FeO + C < » Fe + CO
When this reaction occurs, the carbon monoxide
forms as a gas which can be trapped in the weld deposit
and form porosity. The tendency is avoided by keeping
the level of the deoxidising elements in the cored
electrode sufficiently high.
Oxygen will react with the deoxidising elements in
preference to carbon. This reaction results in a solid
material that floats on the weld surface instead of a gas
that could form porosity.
An advantage of C 0 2 shielded arc welds is that they
have greater hot-cracking resistance t h a n either
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 361
submerged-arc, inert gas shielded or covered electrode
deposits. This is attributed to the reduction of hydrogen,
phosphorus and possibly sulphur in the deposited weld
by oxidation during welding.
The use of C 0 2 shielding thus improves the weld-
metal ductility and toughness. C 0 2 shielding also
provides deeper weld penetration. In general, flux-cored
welding with C 0 2 has penetrating qualities much
greater than low-hydrogen iron powder electrodes, but
will not penetrate as deeply as C 0 2 welding with a solid
electrode wire at the same welding current range.
When C 0 2 is replaced by A r / C 0 2 mixture, the metal
transfer is spray-type and penetration is moderate. In
the case of wires primarily designed for 100% C 0 2
shielding, the Mn and Si levels in the weld metal will
go up, since the arc atmosphere is now less oxidising.
The rise can be about 10% for Mn and about 30% for
Si. This rise in Si level will have no effect on the weld-
metal impact properties, as long as the Si content does
not exceed 0.50%.
Weld-metal d e p o s i t e d with A r / C 0 2 mixture
generally has higher tensile and yield strengths than
weld-metal deposited with 100% C 0 2 shielding.
The mixture is mainly used for out-of-position
welding of pipes, especially low-alloy steel, because of
better arc characteristics and greater operator appeal.
Some electrode wires are designed exclusively for
use with a r g o n / C 0 2 mixture (80% Ar/20% C0 2 ) while
many can be used with this mixture as well as with 100%
C0 2 . The manufacturer's catalogue must be consulted
for the selection of the appropriate shielding gas.
SELF-SHIELDED FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
Specially formulated flux-cored electrodes have been
developed in recent years, which generate a shielding
atmosphere through combustion and decomposition of
the flux-core compounds in the arc and make auxiliary
gas shielding unnecessary. They are known as self-
shielding or gasless flux-cored electrodes, and the
method of using them is called self-shielded flux-cored
arc welding.
Since the electrode wires have to operate in the
absence of an external gas shield, the core must contain
a large amount of deoxidisers as well as denitrifiers. The
commonly used denitrifiers are Al, Ti and Zr (see Table
7.1). With Al, aluminium nitride inclusions occur in the
weld metal and they lead to low toughness. Excessive
Al (in some commercial wires Al is often more than 10%
of the core material) also promotes bainitic structure in
the weld. Ti also promotes bainite formation, while Ti-
killed welds have high density of inclusions, which
362 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

affects toughness. Where impact requirements have to be Self-shielding wires generate large amounts of fumes
met, gasless wire must be selected with due care. A few as shown in Fig. 7.5 (C) and hence for semi-automatic
types are being marketed with guaranteed impact, but welding, fume extraction equipment is a must. In the
they are expensive since they have to contain Zr and Ni. U.S.A. and other advanced countries, special welding
Use of self-shielding electrode wires makes the entire guns with a built-in fume extraction arrangement are
equipment simple, since one can dispense with gas available.
cylinders, nozzles, valves, etc. The welding gun can also A typical gun of this type is shown in Fig. 7.5(D).
be simple. Figure 7.5 showrs the difference between the Naturally, simplicity achieved through elimination of
nozzle of a gun for a normal shielded process (A) and gas shield is nullified to a large extent through the need
for the gasless process (B). In the former, the contact for this additional device. On the other hand, self-
tube extends nearly to the end of the gas cup, so that shielding wires lead to easier automation, where
the electrical stick-out (distance from the end of the welding fumes do not matter.
contact tube to the weld puddle) is nearly the same as Self-shielding wires have made the biggest impact
the visible stick-out (distance from the end of the gas in the hardfacing field, where some amount of porosity
cup to the weld puddle). The distance from the end of the and lack of toughness in the weld deposit can be
contact tube to the end of the gas cup is usually 9.5 m m ignored.
or more. Electrical stick-out is approximately 19 r 25 mm. For general surfacing, 2.8 m m wire size is commonly
For the self-shielded method, the electrical stick-out used. For critical work, a small diameter wire with C 0 2
is usually 65-75 m m as shown at (B). shield is used. Custom-built fully-automatic hardfacing
This leads to better accessibility in narrow corners. equipment using gasless flux-cored wires have been
Since no gas cup is necessary, an insulated wire guide designed and are in use in the U.S.A. for typical
can be provided at the end of the gun, as shown, to applications like blast furnace bells and hoppers, impact
prevent the wire from touching the end or nozzle crushers, gyratory crushers and crusher rolls.
portion of the gun. The longer electrical stick-out causes
electrical current to flow through a longer length of the RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
electrode, which increases its preheat and results in Self-shielding wires were introduced in the market
higher weld deposition rate. more than 35 years ago, but in spite of being very
This method is not suited for spray-type technique, convenient to use, their popularity did not increase,
because when the fine spray is formed, the total surface because of their limited mechanical properties and their
area of the metal particles is large, and with the metal inability to operate in vertical and overhead positions.
being transferred from outside of the electrode to the These inadequacies have been recently overcome and
weld p u d d l e , the oxidation in this area cannot be today the process is widely used for all-position welding
prevented. Self-shielded welding is therefore performed in all types of code work including high rise buildings,
with globular or short-circuiting metal transfer. bridges, shipbuilding and offshore drilling platforms.
Mechanical properties, especially ductility and For the welding of offshore drilling platforms in the
impact strength at low temperatures, of welds deposited N o r t h Sea, n e w s t a n d a r d s w e r e set in 1972 a n d
by self-shielded method are considered to be lower than upgraded in 1980 both for the parent metal and the
those of welds deposited by the standard gas-shielded weld-metal. The steels to be used included BS 4360-50D
method. Lower impact strength is caused by the and BS 4360-50D modified. (The modified grade
presence of gas-forming and deoxidising elements in indicates a vacuum degassed steel which improves the
the core of the electrode wire as explained earlier. t h r o u g h thickness p r o p e r t i e s for n o d e barrel
Gasless wires are mainly used for fillet welds in the fabrication.) The steel types and the weld-metal
downhand position, and to a limited extent for butt toughness requirements since 1980 are shown in Table
welds and in vertical position. Owing to the self- 7.2. Self-shielded wires are now available, which meet
shielding property, the performance is not affected by these Charpy-impact and CTOD test requirements for
windy weather (gas-shielded wires need protection offshore platforms. A leading producer of such wires
against wind in outdoor work), and hence these wires has pointed out the following advantageous features:
possess a definite advantage for site fabrication. Good welds can be made semi-automatically at
Self-shielding wires gives less penetration compared higher deposition rates and with a higher operator factor
to gas-shielded types. Hence they will bridge wide gaps (per cent of total time actually spent depositing weld-
more easily. metal) than is possible when using MM A welding.
 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 363

CONTACT
TUBE

INSULATED
CONTACT GUIDE WIRE
TUBE
FLUX-CORED
ELECTRODE ELECTRICAL
RICAL STICK-OUT
FLUX-CORED^H
STICK-CUT
ELECTRODE

Fig. 7.5: Comparative designs of (A) nozzle for use with auxiliary gas shielding, and (B) nozzle for use with self-
shielding. Fume generation in welding with self-shielding wires using (C) a normal gun, and (D) a gun having built-
in fume extraction arrangement

Table 7.2: Offshore structure requirements in 1980

Steel type Application area Condition Weld-metal property
requirements
Charpy-V BS 5762
notch CTOD, mm
BS 4360-50D Flotation tanks, brace tubulars, Normalised, fully -40°C -10° C
skid beams, deck trusses, killed 35 J 0.44
leg tubulars (50 mm) (0.26, PWHT)
BS 4360-50D Node barrel tubulars, man deck Vacuum degassed, -40°C -10°C
Modified plate, girders, lifting padeyes, normalised, with 35 J 0.44
water-tight diaphragms sulphur < 0.008 (0.26, PWHT)
API 5LGrB Secondary structural members Normalised -20°C None
< 600 mm 27 J
364 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Further cost savings are realised by the user, since there
is only about 60% electrode efficiency when using MMA
welding, while self-shielded wires are typically 80-90%
efficient.
In addition to increased production rates, experience
has shown that repair rates for MMA welding range
around 4%, while a rate of 1.-5% or less can be expected
when using self-shielded wires. The main reason is
fewer stops and starts with a semi-automatic wire, and
higher penetration which allows the operator to burn
through any slag not removed during weld cleaning.
This digging arc makes it easier to obtain good
sidewall fusion and root penetration, giving a back bead
with both good appearance and strength. Because of
this arc characteristic and weld pool control, training of
operators is simplified.
When fabricating structures as large as North Sea
offshore rigs, root gaps may sometimes range up to 12
mm. It may seem contradictory to say that wires with
good penetration are also good at handling poor fit-up,
but the nature of self-shielded wires and the pool control
afforded to the operator enable wide gaps to be handled
relatively well.
Self-shielded flux-cored wire welding has been used
with great success in the erection of the steel structures
of skyscrapers in the U.S.A. The steel erector has
described the advantageous features of the process thus:
"The mechanised welding used on 52-storey, 32-storey
and 22-storey buildings in Atlanta and Florida gave
approximately three times the weld-metal deposition
rate of the other processes that can be used in the field.
The weld penetration and appearance were excellent.
The ability to complete a weld with fewer passes
increased productivity. Stub losses were negligible and
the electrodes did not require redrying ovens for
reconditioning, as would be the case with manual
electrodes".
There are two classification groups depending on
the tensile level, namely, E6 and E7. E6 group has nine
standard types, E7 group has 12. They are listed in Table
7.3 along w i t h their all-weld tensile a n d impact
requirements in the as-welded condition.
Electrodes covered by this specification are capable
of producing weld deposits that meet most radiographic
quality requirements.
The specification classifies 12 different types of
electrodes with the following different suffixes: T-l, T-
2, T-3, T-4, T-5, T-6, T-7, T-8, T-10, T - l l , T-G and T-
GS.
Each suffix indicates a general g r o u p i n g of
electrodes, w h i c h contain similar flux or core
components and have similar performance and usability
characteristics.
For T-GS, T-2, T-3 and T-10, chemical requirements
of the deposited weld-metal are not specified, because
these types are meant for single-pass welding with

STANDARDS ON FLUX-CORED WIRES

The American Welding Society has issued the following three important standards:
AWS A5.20-95, "Specification for carbon steel electrodes for flux-cored arc welding"
AWS A5.22-95, "Specification for flux-cored Cr and Cr-Ni steel electrodes"
AWS A5.29-98, "Specification for low-alloy steel electrodes for flux-cored arc welding"

A5.20
The method of AWS classification is illustrated below:
Designates an electrode.
Indicates the minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld-metal in a test weld
made with the electrode and in accordance with specified welding condition.

1 I -Indicates the primary welding position for which the electrode is designed:
EXXT-X 0 — flat and horizontal positions

1 — all positions

-Indicates usability and performance capabilities.

Indicates a flux-cored electrode.

Note: The letter "X" as used in this figure and in electrode classification designations in this specification substitutes for specific designa-
tions indicates by this figure.
 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 365

Table 7.3: AWS classes of flux-cored wires with mechanical property requirements
AWS UTS YS % Eln. in V-notch impact,
classification MPa, min MPa, min 50 mmi, min min
E6XT-C 415 330 22 n.r.
E6XT-GS 415 n.r. n.r.
E7XT-1 480 400 22 27Jat-18°C
E7XT-2 480 n.r. n.r.
E7XT-3 4S0 n.r. n.r.
E7XT-4 480 400 22 n.r.
E7XT-5 480 400 22 27Jat-29°C
E7XT-6 480 400 22 27Jat-29°C
E7XT-7 480 400 22 n.r.
E7XT-8 480 400 22 27 J at -29°C
E7XT-10 480 n.r. n.r.
E7XT-11 480 400 20 n.r.
E7XT-G 480 400 22 n.r.
E7XT-GS 480 n.r. n.r.
Notes : a) n.r. means not required; b) Single values shown are minimums; c) Classifications E6XT-GS, E7XT-2, E7XT-3, E7XT-10 and E7XT-GS are
intended for single-pass welding. Only transverse tension and longitudinal guided bend tests are required; d) For each increase of one percentage point in
elongation over the minimum, the minimum required yield strength or the tensile strength or both may decrease 7 MPafor a maximum reduction of 14 MPa
in either the required minimum yield strength or the tensile strength or both.

resultant high dilution. For the rest, the chemical
composition of the weld-metal must be
C — not specified, but must be determined
Mn — 1.75% max. Cr —0.20% max.
Si — 0.90% max. Mo — 0.30% max.
Ni — 0.50% max Al —1.8% max.
(for self-shielded types only)
S — 0.03% max. P — 0.04% max.
A5.20 gives the following descriptions of the standard
classes:
• Class T-1: Electrodes of the T-1 group are classi-
fied with C 0 2 shielding gas by this specification. How-
ever, argon-C0 2 mixtures are also used to improve us-
ability, especially for out-of-position applications. De-
creasing amounts of C 0 2 in the argon-C0 2 mixture will
increase manganese and silicon in the deposit and may
improve the impact properties. The T-1 electrodes are
characterised by a spray transfer, low spatter loss, flat
to slightly convex bead configuration, and a moderate
volume of slag, which completely covers the weld bead.
Most electrodes in this group have a rutile base slag.
• Class T-2: Electrodes of this classification are es-
sentially T-1 electrodes with higher manganese or sili-
con or both and are designed primarily for single-pass
welding in the flat position and for horizontal fillets.
The higher levels of deoxidisers in these electrodes al-
low single-pass welding over scaled or rimmed steel.
The arc characteristics and deposition rates are similar
to those of the T-1 electrodes.
• Class T-3: Electrodes of the T-3 classification are
self-shielded, used on DC with positive polarity, and
have a spray type transfer. The slag system is designed
to give characteristics, which make possible very high
welding speeds. They are used to make single-pass
welds in the flat and horizontal positions on sheet metal
up to 4.8 mm thick.
• Class T-4: Electrodes of the T-4 classification are
self-shielded, operate on DC with positive polarity, and
have a globular type transfer. They give high deposi-
tion rates and desulphurise the weld metal to a very
low level, which helps make the weld deposit very re-
sistant to cracking. These electrodes are designed for
low penetration, enabling them to be used on weld joints
with poor fit-up, and for single and multiple-pass weld-
ing in the flat and horizontal positions.
• Class T-5: Electrodes of the T-5 group are de-
signed to be used with C 0 2 shielding gas (argon-C0 2
mixtures may be used as in the T-1 types) for single-
and multiple-pass welding in the flat position and for
horizontal fillets. These electrodes are characterised by
a globular transfer, slightly convex bead configuration,
and a thin slag, which may not completely cover the
weld bead. Electrodes in this group have a lime-fluo-
ride base slag. Weld deposits produced by electrodes
of this group have improved impact properties and
crack resistance in comparison to the rutile types.
• Class T-6: Electrodes of the T-6 classification are
self-shielded, operate on DC with positive polarity, and
366 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

have a spray-type transfer. They give very good low-
temperature impact properties, deep penetration be-
yond the root of the weld, and excellent deep groove
slag removal. They are used for single- and multiple-
pass welding in the flat and horizontal positions.
• Class T-7: Electrodes of the T-7 classification are
self-shielded and operate on DC with negative polar-
ity. Large sizes are used for high deposition rates and
the smaller sizes for all-position welding. The slag sys-
tem is also designed to desulphurise the weld metal to
a very low level, which helps make the weld deposit
resistant to cracking. They are used for single- and mul-
tiple-pass welding.
• Class T-8: Electrodes of the T-8 classification are
self-shielded and operate on DC with negative polar-
ity. They are suitable for all-position welding. The slag
• Class T-G: The EXXT-G classification is for new
multiple-pass electrodes, which are not covered under
any of the presently defined classifications.
• Class T-GS: The EXXT-GS classification is for new
single-pass electrodes, which are not covered under any
other presently defined classification.
A5.29
The system of classification is similar to the one used
in A5.20, except that an additional suffix is used to
indicate the weld-metal chemistry as has been done in
AWS A5.5, "Specification for low-alloy steel covered arc
welding electrodes", Chapter 3. The A5.29 classification
system describes low-alloy steel flux-cored electrodes
as exhaustively as A5.5 describes low-alloy steel covered
electrodes and covers 52 classes as shown:

C-Mo types:
E70T5-A1, E80T1-A1, E81T1-A1
Cr-Mo types:
E81T1-B1, E80T5-B2L, E80T1-B2, E81T1-B2, E80T5-B2, E80T1-B2H.E90T1-B3L, E81T1-B1L, E80T1-B2L
E90T1-B3, E91T1-B3, E90T5-B3, E100T1-B3, E90T1-B3H, E80T5-B6, E80T5-B6L, E80T5-B8, E80T5-B8L,
Ni-steel types:
E70Tg-Nil, E80T1-N11, E81T1-Nil, E80T5-M1, E71T8-N12, E80T1-N12, E81T1-N12, E60TI-N11, E61T1-Nil,
E70T6-N1, E80T11-N13
E80T5-M2, E90T1-N12, E91T1-N12, E80T5-M3, E90T5-N13,
Mn-Mo types:
E91T1-D1, E90T5-D2, E100T5-D2, E90T1-D3,
All other types:
E80T5-K1, E70T4-K2, E71T8-K2, E80T1-K2, E90T1-K2, E91T1-K2, E80T5-K2,
E90T5-K2, E100T1-K3, E110T1-K3, E100T5-K3, E110T5-K3, E110T5-K4,
E111T1-K4, E120T5-K4, E120T1-K5, E61T8-K6, E71T8-K6, E101T1-K7,
EXXXTXG, E80T1-W,

system is also designed to produce very good low-tem-
perature impact properties in the weld metal, and to
desulphurise the weld metal to a very low level, which
helps resist weld cracking. They are used for single- and
multiple-pass welding.
• Class T-10: Electrodes of the T-10 classification
are self-shielded and operate on DC with negative po-
larity. They are used for making single-pass welds on
material of any thickness in the flat and horizontal po-
sitions at high travel speeds.
• Class T - l l : Electrodes of the T - l l classification
are self-shielded and operate on DC with negative po-
larity, and have a smooth spray-type arc. They are suit-
able for all-position welding and high travel speeds.
They are used as general purpose electrodes for single-
and multiple-pass welding in all positions.
The final suffixes Al, Bl, B2, B2L, Dl, D2 and D3 in
A5.29 denote weld-metal chemistry similar to those in
A5.5. The suffixes N i l , Ni2 and Ni3 used in A5.29
correspond respectively to the covered electrode classes
C3, Cl and C2. Table 7.4 gives a comparison of the two
and will help the fabricator to decide which flux-cored
electrode type to use in place of a low-alloy manual
electrode he has been using.
Classes K2 to K7 of A5.29 are e q u i v a l e n t to
classes E9018-M to E12018-M of A5.5, as far as all-
weld mechanical properties are concerned, because
t h e y a r e m e a n t to b e u s e d on s t e e l s , w h e r e
mechanical requirements have to be met and weld-
metal chemistry is a secondary issue. Since the heat
i n p u t in m a n u a l w e l d i n g a n d in flux-cored arc
welding is different, the chemistries of flux-cored
 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 367

Table 7.4: Comparison of A5.5 and A5.29 classes

Nominal deposit chemistry AWS classification
A5.5 A5.29
0.5% Mo
C-Mo steel electrodes: E7010-A1, E7011-A1, E7015-A1, E70T5-A1, E80T1-A1, E81T1-A1
E7016-A1, E7018-A1, 7020-A1,
E7027-A1
Cr-Mo steel electrodes:
0.5% Cr-0.5% Mo E8016-B1, E8018-B1 E81T1-B1
0.05% max. C, 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo E8015-B2L, E8018-B2L E80T5-B2L
0.12% max. C, 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo E8016-B2, E8018-B2 E80T1-B2, E81T1-B2
0.10-0.15% C, 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo None E80T5-B2, E80T1-B2H
0.05% C max., 2.25% Cr, 1.0% Mo E9015-B3L E9018-B3L E90T1-B3L
0.12% C max., 2.25% Cr, 1.0% Mo E9015-B3, E9016-B3, E9018-B3 E90T1-B3, E91T1-B3
0.10-0.15% C, 2.25% Cr, 1.0% Mo None E90T5-B3, E100T1-B3, E90T1-B3H
0.5% Ni, 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Cu E8018W E80T1-W
Ni-steel electrodes:
0.12% C max., 1.0% Ni E8016-C3, E8018-C3 E71T8-Nil, E80T1-Nil,
E81T1-Nil, E80T5-Nil
0.12% C max., 2.25% Ni E8016-C1, E8018-C1 E71T8-Ni2, E80T1-M2,
E80T1-Ni2, E80T5-Ni2, E90T1-M2,
E91T1-Ni2
0.12% C max., 3.25% Ni E8016-C2, E8018-C2 E80T5-Ni3, E90T5-Ni3
Mn-Mo steel electrodes:
1.5% Mn-0.35% Mo E9015-D1, E9018-D1 E91T1-D1
1.8% Mn-0.35% Mo E10015-D2, E10016-D2, E10018-D2 E90T5-D2, E100T5-D2
1.4% Mn-0.5% Mo E8016-D3, E8018-D3 E90T1-D3
Ni-Mo steel electrodes:
1% Ni-0.5% Mo E8018-NM E80T5-K1

K classes and the coated M classes are not directly
comparable.
Looking closely at K classes in A5.29, one finds that
some of them can have a multiplicity of tensile strength.
For example, the K-2 class is capable of producing weld-
metal tensile strengths of 483, 552 or 621 MPa within
the chemistry range of the class (as indicated by classes
E7XXX-K2, E8XXX-K2, E9XXX-K2). This is partly due
to the fact that the specification for low-alloy flux-cored
electrodes places a range on tensile strengths, as
opposed to the m i n i m u m values imposed by the
specification for low-alloy covered electrodes. On the
other hand, the low-alloy covered electrodes in the M
and M - l classes must exhibit yield strength within a
narrow range. Low-alloy flux-cored wire electrodes in
the K classes m u s t meet only a m i n i m u m yield
requirement (see Table 7.6).
The A5.29 classification shows that there are only
four general types of low-alloy flux-cored electrodes:
Tl, T4, T5 and T8. Each of these suffixes indicates a
general grouping of electrodes that contain similar flux
or core components that produce distinctive welding
characteristics and similar slag systems. The main
characteristics of these types are given in Table 75.
Like A5.5, A5.29 gives details of base metal plates,
preheat and interpass temperatures, pass sequences and
stress-relief temperatures wherever applicable, which
are required for preparing welded test assemblies for
determining all-weld mechanical properties. However,
there are differences in the two specifications in these
details, which must be carefully noted.
It must also be borne in mind that Tl type flux-cored
electrodes are not listed for any classification where
tensile and charpy-V testing are done after stress-relief.
This is because the weld deposit of Tl type, which has
rutile-type flux, loses more of its notch toughness after
stress-relief than a T5 deposit having similar chemistry.
T5 type which has a basic flux is considered unsuitable
for positional w e l d i n g , while Tl type operates
satisfactorily in all welding positions, w h e n wire
diameters are 1.6 mm or less. On the other hand, basic-
coated low-alloy manual welding electrodes (XX15-X,
368 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 7.5 : Main characteristics of types in A5.29

Type Polarity Shielding gas Remarks
Tl Electrode positive co 2 ( a ) All-position capability is common in 1.6 mm and
smaller diameter; usually have rutile-based slag
systems
T4 Electrode positive None Globular transfer; usable in flat and horizontal
positions only
T5 Electrode positive co 2 ( a ) Globular transfer; usable in flat and horizontal
positions; better crack resistance and impact
properties than Tl; usually have basic slag
system
T8 Electrode negative None All position capability; good crack
resistance and impact properties
Note:<a) Argon-C02 mixtures may be used where recommended by the manufacturer.

Table 7.6 : Tensile requirements as per AWS A5.29

AWS classification UTS YS % Eln. in 50 m m
MPa min MPa min mm
E6XTX-X 410 to 550 340 22
E7XTX-X 490 to 620 400 20
E8XTX-X 550 to 690 470 19
E9XTX-X 620 to 760 540 17
E10XT-X 690 to 830 610 16
E11XT-X 760 to 900 680 15
E12XT-X 830 to 970 750 14
EXXXTX-G Properties as agreed upon between supplier and purchaser
Note: Properties of electrodes that use external gas shielding (EXXTI-X and EXXT5-X) vary with gas mixtures. Electrodes
classified under this specificaiion should not be used with gases other than those listed in Table 7.5 without first consulting the
manufacturer.

XXI 6-X classes) offer superior low impact properties
along with all-position capability.
Comparing the C groups of A5.5 and Ni groups of
A5.29, the Tl type flux-cored electrodes must have
higher Ni content in order to meet comparable charpy-
V impact values. Within A5.29, only T5 types meet
v a l u e s of 27 J at -59°C a n d -75°C. The lowest
temperature impact property listed either in A5.5 or
A5.29, i.e. 27 J at -100°C is attained only with low-alloy
manual electrodes.
Mechanical property requirements of flux-cored
electrodes are shown in Table 7.6. It shows that the
electrodes must meet a minimum yield strength, but
must not exceed the minimum tensile strength for their
classification by more than 140 MPa. As pointed out
earlier while referring to the K series, the deposit
chemistries and the flux characteristics chosen by the
producer, when combined with this narrow tensile
strength range, can result in a multiplicity of tensile
strength within a deposit chemistry classification. It is
therefore a necessary condition that both the mechanical
property code and the chemistry code must be included
in the low-alloy flux-cored electrode classification to
make it complete.
Another noteworthy point is that, the self-shielding
flux-cored electrodes in A5.29 are restricted to E6XTX-
X and E7XTX-X classifications. This suggests that for
welding high strength steels, auxiliary gas-shielded flux-
cored electrodes must be preferred.
AWS A5.22
This specification classifies stainless steel electrodes
on the basis of weld deposit chemistry and shielding
medium to be used. Table 7.7 shows the shielding
designations in the classification and corresponding
current characteristics:
The EXXXTX-1 class uses C 0 2 shielding, which causes
loss of oxidisable elements and slight increase in carbon

Table 7.7: Shielding and current characteristics as per AWS A5.22
AWS designations3 External shielding
all classifications medium
EXXXT-1 co 2
x
(75-80%) Ar reminder C0 2
EXXXT-4
None (self-shielded)
EXXXTX- 3
None specified
EXXXT-G
Note:" The letters XXX stand for the chemical composition (AISI type), such as 308, 316, 410 and 502.
content. The EXXXTx-3 is self-shielding type, and hence
loss of oxidisable elements and nitrogen pick-up from
the air occur. If this type is used at low current and with
long arc length, the weld deposit can pick up excessive
nitrogen. Since nitrogen stabilises the austenite, it will
reduce the ferrite content of the weld metal. Obviously,
to control the ferrite content of the weld deposit, the
chemistries and Cr/Ni ratios of EXXXTX-1 and EXXXTX-
3 deposits have to be different.
For each classification, all-weld mechanical
properties are specified, as also radiographic soundness
requirements. Though these electrodes are intended to
be used on corrosion-resisting and heat-resisting steels,
no corrosion or scale resistance tests are specified. When
required, special tests pertinent to an intended
application are expected to be decided upon, between
the electrode producer and the user.
Ferrite Control in Welds
The Appendix makes the following comments
regarding control of ferrite in weld deposits:
The chemical composition is set up to allow adequate
latitude for the manufacturer to control the ferrite
number (FN) of the undiluted deposit. With the
EXXXTX-1 classifications using carbon dioxide shielding,
there is some minor loss of oxidisable elements and some
pick-up on carbon content. With the EXXXTx-3
classifications that are used without external shielding,
there is some minor loss of oxidisable elements and a
pick-up of nitrogen, which may range from quite low
to over 0.20%. Low welding currents coupled with long
arc lengths (high arc voltages) should be avoided,
because they result in excessive nitrogen pick-up and
excessive loss in the ferrite content of the weld.
The E307T-X, E308T-X, E308LT-X, E308MoLT-X and
E347T-X grades are normally ferrite controlled. When
used with the recommended shielding gases and with
reasonable and conventional welding currents and arc
lengths, they produce weld metal with a typical ferrite
level of 4-to 14 FN.
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 369
Current and
polarity
DCEP
DCEP
DCEP
Not specified
PROCESS VARIABLES
The process variables and their effects on welding
must be properly understood, in order to arrive at a
correct welding procedure.
Welding Current
As mentioned earlier, using a constant voltage power
source, welding current is proportional to the electrode-
feed rate for a given electrode size, composition and
electrode extension. The relationship for an E70T-1
general purpose mild steel electrode is shown in Fig. 7.6.
With other variables kept constant, increasing the
welding current increases weld deposit rate and
penetration. Low currents produce large droplet transfer
and excessive spatter and in the case of self-shielded
electrodes, may result in nitrogen pick-up and porosity
in the weld deposit. Excessive currents give convex weld
beads of poor appearance.
When welding current is changed, output voltage
of the power supply must be suitably readjusted to
maintain optimum relationship of arc voltage to current,
For a specific electrode-feed rate, an increase in electrode
extension causes a decrease in measured welding
current and vice versa.
Arc Voltage
Arc voltage and arc length are inter-related. A long
arc means high arc voltage and a short arc means low
arc voltage. The voltage reading on the voltmeter of the
power source is the sum of the voltage drops through
the welding cable, the electrode extension, the arc, the
workpiece and the earthing cable. When all other circuit
elements remain constant, arc voltage will be
proportional to the voltmeter reading.
Too high an arc voltage caused by too long an arc
will result in excessive spatter and a wide weld bead of
irregular profile. With self-shielded electrodes, this will
give rise to excessive nitrogen pick-up. Very low arc
voltage caused by a very short arc gives a narrow convex
bead, excessive spatter and shallower penetration.
370 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

000
400
2 114 MM
(0.045 IN) DIAM 350
z 800

300
<
tr. 600 250
EEJ 1.59 MM
Ej d/16 IN) DIAM
Q Eg ^§J> 200
O W .^S^1.98MM 2
CO 400 f j£§r (5/64 IN) DIAM
2 38 MM 150
> ^ ^ ^«<^^ 1

4^^ >^^^^^^^-<<^^^^^^S>f7/64IN) D
'AM
100
200
« * ^ ^ ^ ^ (1/8 IN) DIAM" 50
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
ft — i i 1 ,, i 1 1— ■J
WELDING CURRENT. A

Fig. 7.6: Electrode feed rate versus welding current range for E70T-1 steel electrodes with C02 shielding

Electrode Extension
This variable is more significant in the case of flux-
cored electrodes than with solid electrodes, because of
the need to keep the melting and activation of the core
ingredients consistent with that of the outer metallic tube
as also with arc characteristics. With other variables kept
constant, too long an extension gives an unsteady arc
and excessive spatter. An unduly short extension makes
the arc too long at a given voltage setting, and in the
case of gas-shielded electrodes, gives rise to excessive
spatter build-up in the nozzle, which interferes with the
gas flow and causes weld porosity and oxidation. As
stated earlier, the electrode extension or electrical stick-
out is usually 19-25 mm for gas-shielded electrodes and
65-75 mm for self-shielded types.
Arc Travel Speed
As travel speed increases, the cross-section of the
weld bead decreases a n d p e n e t r a t i o n becomes
shallower. Too low a travel speed can overheat the base
metal and cause burn-through in thinner plates. It also
results in a rough weld with slag entrapment. When
the travel speed is too high, the weld bead is ropy and
irregular in profile.
Shielding Gas Flow
For normal gas-shielded welding, the gas-flow rate
should be correctly set. Inadequate flow results in
porous and oxidised weld. Excessive gas flow creates
turbulence and ingress of air into the gas shield. Gas
flow is set according to the type and size of the gun
nozzle, distance of the nozzle from the work and draft
conditions. For welding in still air, flow rates of 14 to 1$
1/min are adequate, but in moving air and with electrode
extension longer than normal, flow rates of up to 26 1/
min may be required. Nozzle openings must not be
allowed to get clogged with weld spatter.
Electrode Angle
For making butt and fillet welds in the downhand
and horizontal positions, correct drag angle must be
used (see Fig. 7.7), so that the arc force helps to give
proper shape to the weld bead and to prevent the slag
from running ahead of and getting entrapped in the
weld metal. With gas shielded method, the drag angle
should be between 2° and 15° and not more. With larger
drag angle, the shielding becomes less effective. For the
self-shielded method, drag angles are between 20° and
45° and larger for thin sections. For horizontal fillet
welds, in addition to the drag angle, a work angle of
40°^15o as shown in Fig. 7.7 at B must be used to control
the flow of the weld pool.
WELDING PROCEDURES
In order to take advantage of the high current
densities and consequent deep penetration of FCAW,
joints are designed to have smaller groove angles,
narrower root gaps and larger root faces than are used
in manual metal-arc welding. However, care should be
taken that the root is accessible a n d permits the

TRAVEL
(DRAG)
ANGLE
\ I / / WELDING
DIRECTION
i
zzzzzzzzzzzz
^ W
(A)
Fig. 7.7: Welding electrode positions
necessary electrode manipulation during welding, and
that a constant electrode extension can be maintained
for all the passes in the groove.
Fillet welds made in the flat and horizontal positions
possess excellent penetration beyond the root, and hence
their sizes can be reduced by approximately 2 to 3 mm,
w h e n design specifications and quality control
standards permit.
Typical FCAW procedures for welding mild steel
with E70T-1 class electrodes using DC, electrode
positive, are given in Table 7.8, which is taken from
Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., p u b l i s h e d by
American Welding Society.
Automatic FCAW
Like the M I G / C 0 2 process, FCAW is used as an
automatic process for specific production applications
and large-scale hardfacing. Typical equipment is shown
in Fig. 7.8. To fully exploit the process, heavy electrodes
(2.4 to 4.0 mm diameter), high electrode-feed rates and
long arc times are used. Hence the power source is
designed to provide the required high current at 100%
duty cycle. The wire feeders and wire drive motors are
of sufficiently high capacity. Welding guns are of special
design. Typical guns with their nozzle details are shown
in Fig. 7.9. The one on the left is air-cooled and designed
for side shielding. It presents no problem of spatter
build-up in the nozzle and can be conveniently used in
narrow, deep grooves. It is good enough for currents
up to 600 amp. For higher currents, the water-cooled
type such as shown on the right must be used.
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 371
WORK ANGLE
*40°to 50°
ONE ELECTRODE
DIAMETER
4-
(B)
For automatic operation, the welding head may be
mounted on a trolley and made to traverse a track
running parallel to the joint. Alternately, it may be
mounted on a beam and operated in conjunction with
specially built positioners and fixtures. For example, by
mounting the head on a column and boom, longitudinal
and circumferential joints of cylindrical vessels can be
automatically welded as explained in Chapter 20.
Applications of FCAW
• IN THE U.S.A.
Structural Welding Code, ref. AWS Dl.l, published by
the American Welding Society has given an important
place to the flux-cored arc welding process. Many steel
fabricators in the U.S.A. are using it to fabricate I-beam
type girders by joining flange to webs of different
structural steels. They are also using it for joining
stiffeners, attaching clip angles and for splicing web and
flange plates.
Typical applications of flux-cored arc welding in
advanced countries are, main frames on bulldozers,
bulldozer blades, gear boxes, etc., rotating frames for
shovels and cranes and for power shovel booms, tractor
frames, road rollers, motor grader frames, and other
similar heavy-duty equipment. Since the process has
been recognised as a time-saving one, it has been taken
up by other industries such as the container industry for
the manufacture of tanks of all types as well as pressure
vessels, autoclaves, etc. The metal-working industry has
also been quick to adopt the process to manufacture
372 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 7.8: Typical FCAW procedures

Joint design Thickness Root gap No. of Electrode Welding power
T R passes dia.
(mm) (mm) (mm) V amp
Flat position
13 0 2 2.38 30 480
25 0 6 2.78 32 525

jr^-y. 16 5 3 2.78 32 525

25 5 6 2.78 32 525
^45-y
25 0 6 2.78 32 525
51 0 20 2.78 32 525
Horizontal position
13 3 6 1.98 28 350
25 3 18 1.98 28 350

5 0 1 1.98 28 350
13 0 3 2.78 30 450
Vertical position
13 2.4 4 1.14 22 180
25 2.4 9 1.14 22 180

3 0 1 1.14 22 180
13 0 2 1.14 22 180

DIRECT CURRENT
CONSTANT VOLTAGE
POWER SOURCE VOLTMETER AND VOLTAGE SHIELDING
AMMETER CONTROL GAS SOURCE
CONTACTOR WIRE FEED
(CURRENT)

GAS OUT

GROUND CABLE

Fig 7.8: Schematic representation of fully automatic flux cored arc welding equipment

ELECTRODE
Fig. 7.9: Diagrammatic sketches of guns for fully-automatic welding with gas-shielded flux-cored electrodes
machine-tool base frames for punch presses, the crown
assemblies for bending presses, etc. The transportation
equipment industry also employs the process to
manufacture mineral wagons, under-frames for
locomotives, automobile components such as rear axle
housings, truck frames, trailer frames, etc. The ship-
building industry is using the process for the fabrication
of tugboats, river barges, and similar weldments,
One of the first applications of flux-cored arc welding
in the U.S.A was in the field erection of a skyscraper in
Chicago. This building — a ^5-storey, 3,800 ton, 76 ft by
178 ft tower — was designed for all-welded column
splices and welds joining the primary beams to the
columns. The column splices were partial penetration
single-bead 45° bevel butt welds, with a penetration
slightly greater than half the metal thickness. The beam-
to-column joints utilized full penetration single-bevel
45° butt welds between the flanges and the column.
Back-up strips and a root opening were used together
with the gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding process.
The beam web to column joint was made with manual
covered electrodes, because the smaller diameter flux-
cored wires were not available at that time. On another
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 373
SHIELDING
GAS
CIRCULATING
WATER
WATER-COOLED
CONCENTRIC-SHIELDED
NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
ELECTRODE
building, the process helped to reduce the 12-month long
schedule by six weeks. In the construction of the 10-
storey 1,350 ft (415 m) high twin tower World Trade
Centre in New York City, a tremendous amount of
welding has been involved. All the steel structures up
to the ninth floor above street level and the seventh floor
below street level are all-welded.
• IN EUROPE
Figures 7.10-7.14 illustrating typical applications in
industry clearly show that they are used wherever high
quality requirements under production conditions have
to be met.
• IN INDIA
Ador Welding pioneered the use of FCAW in India
by commencing production of Automelts FC wires in
1978, under a license agreement with Oerlikon of Zurich.
The range of AutoMIG FC wires, presently restricted to
the welding and hardfacing of ferritic steels, is as wide
as the range of mild steel, low-alloy and high tensile steel
and hardfacing manual electrodes. Most of the AutoNDG
FC wires can be modified for use with the submerged-
374 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

arc process. The modified versions make u p the AutoMIG FC-11 has been the most popular type in
Automelts FC range, and the equivalent AutoMIG FC India. It has a rutile base and gives a soft arc and good
and Automelts FC wires carry the same two-digit number. weld finish, especially in fillet welds. It is meant to be
For example, AutoMIG FC-31 and Automelt FC-31. used for general mild steel applications. It has been

Fig. 7.10: Automelt FC welding on diesel engine chassis

Fig. 7.11: Automelt FC welding on locomotive underframe


found very suitable fw the thickness range of 4-30 mm.
Typical applications are rubber machinery, cement
machinery, material handling equipment, steel safes and
almirahs, steam drums and boiler accessories. Main
advantage is its high productivity and low-hydrogen
characteristic, in spite of being a rutile type.
AutoMIG FC-31 has a basic flux and is an excellent
substitute for the manual electrodes Supabase and
Fig. 7.12: AutoMIG FC welding on flat tubes in furnaces
Fig. 7.14: The largest gantry crane in Europe welded with AutoMIG FC and AutoMELT FC
FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING 375
Tenalloy It has been used in the thickness range of 4-50
mm on the following applications: excavators, sugar
machinery, heavy machine-building, mobile cranes,
automobile components, valves and boiler components.
The main considerations in its favour have been its high
productivity and the good crack resistance of the welded
joints.
AutoMIG FC-18 has been used for the welding of
Corten -1 weather-resisting steel in the fabrication of
Fig. 7.13: AutoMIG FC root welding on bridge girders.
Filling runs and top layers deposited with the
submerged-arc process
376 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

electrostatic precipitators. Two engineering companies
in south India have used AutoMIG FC-42 for the
welding of Tl steel, which is a high tensile quenched-
and-tempered steel produced in the U.S.A. The core
of this electrode carries a basic flux alloyed with
Cr, Ni and Mo. The weld deposit gives a tensile range
of 730 -790 N / m m 2 and good impact values down to
-50° C
In all the above applications, pure and dry carbon
dioxide is used as a shielding gas. Welding is performed
in the downhand or horizontal position using standard
equipment. AutoMIG FC wires are well suited for
vertical and overhead welding, provided argon-C0 2
mixture is used for shielding. It is expected that the wires
will be used in these positions, especially on pipes, in
the near future.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 5, Vol. 2, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published 1971 by American Society for Metals.
Flux-Cored Wire for the Welding of Steel, Weld. ]., May 1965.
Efficient Use of MIG Welding with Flux-Cored Electrodes by Lee et al., Weld. ]., July 1965.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding by Cary, Howard, B., Weld. & Met. Fabr., Nov. 1970, Dec. 1970 & Jan 1971.
Open-Arc Hardfacing by Soudometal, Weld & Met. Fabr., July 1971.
Application of Flux-Cored Welding in Germany by Weyland. Australian Weld. /., Sept./Oct. 1972.
Welding with Seld-Shielding Flux-Cored Wires, Met. Constr., Sept. 1980.
Recent Developments in Applications of Innershield, Met. Constr., Dec. 1983.
Innershield Welding, Met. Constr., Nov./Dec. 1981.
Mechanised Welding Speeds High Rise Construction, Met. Constr., June 1984.
The Development and Application of Flux-Cored Welding by Shackleton, Met. Constr., Oct. 1974.
Electroslag and
Electrogas
Welding
ELECTROSLAG WELDING A N D ELECTROGAS
WELDING are two similar processes, which being quite
different from the are welding processes discussed so
far, stand in a class by themselves.
In both these processes which are fully automatic,
the plates to be joined are kept in the vertical position,
i.e. the axis of the weld joint is vertical. Yet the welding
takes place in the flat or downhand position, with
vertical upward travel of the weld pool. A consumable
electrode (sometimes more than one) is fed downward
into a cavity formed by the two square edges of the plate
pieces being welded and two dams or shoes. Figure 8.1
illustrates the method of electroslag welding with three
electrodes and Fig. 8.2 illustrates electrogas welding
with a flux-cored electrode. The entire weld is completed
in one pass and without interruption, whatever may be
the thickness of the plates.
The two processes differ from each other in the
manner in which the heat required for melting the wire
and the plate edges is generated. In the electroslag
process, an electric arc is used initially for a brief
moment to heat and melt the flux and to convert it into
slag. The molten slag then chokes and extinguishes the
arc, but the current continues to pass between the
electrode and the work via the molten conductive slag.
The resistance offered by the molten slag to the electric
current provides the heat necessary to keep the process
going. Enough heat is generated to maintain the internal
temperature of the bath at approximately 1,900°C and
its surface temperature at approximately 1,650°C. On
the other hand, electrogas is an arc welding process in
which the arc is formed between the electrode and the
molten weld pool. In the electroslag process, the weld
pool is shielded by the molten slag while in the latter, it
is shielded by a gas.
It is pertinent to point out here that in submerged-
arc welding, the arc remains stable under the molten
slag, because the arc voltage is in the range of 25-32 V
and the slag layer is shallow. In electroslag welding, on
the other hand, the slag pool is 38-50 mm deep and it
offers a conductive path between the electrode and the
base metal. Hence the current flow is maintained after
the arc is extinguished.
ELECTROSLAG WELDING
There are two basic versions of this process. The usual
and conventional method uses a non-consumable guide
or contact tube to direct the wire electrode into the slag
bath. The welding head travels steadily upward along
with the shoes or dams as the weld is deposited. In the
other version called the consumable guide method, a
consumable guide or contact tube is used. In this case,
the welding head remains fixed at the top of the joint,
the shoes are clamped on the sides and are immovable,
and both the guide tube and the electrode are melted
by the molten slag.
Non-consumable Guide Method
In the conventional or non-consumable guide
method, a square butt joint with a gap of approximately
30 mm is placed, so that the axis of the weld is vertical.
A starting trough of full plate thickness and 75 mm
depth is attached to the bottom. The trough is made out
of three scrap plate pieces tack welded together. It can
also be a clamp-on sump made from copper, which can
be used repeatedly. Run-off tabs of full plate thickness
378 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

CURVED ELECTRODE
GUIDE TUBE

ELECTRODC

MOLTEN SLAG BATH.

MOLTEN WELD POOL

WATER-COOLED SHOE
SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL

COMPLETED WELD

BASE PLATE

Fig. 8.1: Electroslag welding with three electrodes

WELDING GUN,
FLUX-CORED ELECTRODE^
BASE PLATE 1

DRIVE ROLLERS-^ MOLTEN S±.AG GAS

SHIELDING

MOLTEN WELD METAL WATER

SOLIDIFYING WELD MATAL CIRCULATION

SOLIDIFIED METAL

WATER
CONNECTIONS

BASE PLATE 2 COMPLETED WELD

Fig. 8.2: Electrogas welding with a flux-cored electrode


and 75 mm height are attached to the top, so that the
weld crater is above the top of the joint. U-shaped
restraining plates are also welded on the faces of the
joint. They should provide enough room for the water-
cooled shoes to move through them (see Fig. 8.3).
The welding machine is then positioned beside the
gap between the two plates. The two dams or shoes (ap-
propriately called mold shoes or retaining shoes), which
are attached to the welding machine are designed to
move vertically upward as the machine moves. The
dams which are water-cooled and made of copper serve
to contain the molten weld-metal and slag, to acceler-
ate the solidification of the weld-metal and to provide
the desired reinforcement or outside contour to the weld
joint.
A layer of granular flux is placed at the bottom of
the trough and an arc is initiated beneath this flux layer
as is done in submerged-arc welding. As soon as a suffi-
ciently thick layer of slag is formed, the arc stops and
the process automatically becomes electroslag welding.
The electrode wire is fed through a wire guide, which
consists of a beryllium-copper tube for'better heat
resistance, with two supports brazed to it. It is curved
and narrow (usually less than 12 mm in diameter), so
that it can travel vertically in the joint gap With sufficient
clearance. The tube is wrapped withj&sulating tape to
prevent short-circuiting with the work. The guide tip is
maintained 50 to 75 mm above the molten slag.
The welding machine moves vertically up along with
the shoes, and this movement is kept consistent with
the deposition rate. The amount of slag remains constant
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
Fig. 8.3: Two 152 mm thick plates ready for electroslag welding
ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 379
except for some loss due to its deposition, as a thin layer
on the outer weld surfaces. Small amounts of flux have
to be added manually to the slag bath from time to time.
If flux-cored wire is used, no such manual addition is
necessary.
When the weld is completed, the welding machine
along with the shoes is withdrawn. The starting trough
and the run-off tabs are removed flush with the ends of
the joint.
More than one wire has to be used with increasing
thickness. If the workpiece thickness exceeds
approximately 70 mm per wire used, the wires along
with their guide tubes need to be oscillated, i.e. moved
horizontally back and forth in a direction parallel to the
edges of the workpiece. One oscillating electrode is good
enough for thickness up to 120 mm, two electrodes up
to 230 mm and three electrodes up to 500 mm.
EQUIPMENT
The standard electroslag welding equipment consists
of the following:
a) Power source
b) Wire feeder and oscillator
c) Electrode guide tube
d) Retaining shoes
e) Welding head with controls
f) Travel carriage.
a) Power source: The commonly used power source
is a constant potential welding rectifier rated for 750 or
RUNOFF TAB
(1 OF 2)
vBASE
METAL
STRONGBACK
STARTING TROUGH
SHOWN WITHOUT WEDGES AND DAMS
380 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
1,000 amp at 100% duty cycle and with open-circuit
voltage of 60 V minimum. It is similar to the one
designed for submerged-arc welding. It is usually
provided among other things with a contactor, a means
to control output voltage remotely, a range control, an
ammeter and a voltmeter. Each of the wires used in the
operation must have a separate power source of this
description.
b) Wire feeder and oscillator: The motor-driven wire
feeder is similar in design to the one used in M I G / C 0 2
and submerged-arc processes. It is mounted on the
welding head and feeds the wire to the molten bath
through the guide tube at a constant speed. The speed
is set according to the current required for the deposition
rate. It usually is in the range of 17 to 150 mm/sec for
2.4 mm or 3.2 mm size solid or flux-cored electrode.
The wire coil or spool has to be of adequate size to ensure
that the entire joint is completed without interruption.
Each wire has its own individual wire drive. Often a
wire straightener is provided in the feeder to remove
the cast in the electrode wire, because the cast causes
the electrode to wander as it emerges from the guide
tube and gives rise to defects such as lack of fusion.
For oscillating the g u i d e t u b e , m o t o r - d r i v e n
mechanical systems such as a lead screw or a rack and
pinion are used. Oscillation m o v e m e n t has to be
controlled with respect to travel distance, travel speed
and dwell at the end of each stroke. Electronic circuitry
is used for this purpose.
c) Guide tube: Reference has been made to this
component earlier. Besides guiding the wire to the slag
bath, it serves as an electrical contact to the wire. The
bore of the tube is insulated all along, except at the tip
where the electrical contact is necessary.
d) Retaining shoes: These have been described earlier.
e) Welding head with controls: The electroslag welding
head incorporates the wire spool or coil, wire feeder,
wire guide tube or tubes with their electrical connections
and a means of attaching the head beside the joint. In
special cases, it has an a r r a n g e m e n t for multiple
electrode operation and oscillation mechanism. To make
the method portable, the wire bundle and the wire
feeder may be removed and placed a short distance
away from the welding head as in semi-automatic MIG/
C 0 2 welding.
The controls consist of:
i) Ammeter, voltmeter, remote control for each
power source and a remote voltage control
ii) A speed control for each of the wire drive motors
iii) Controls to oscillate the guide tubes, length of
stroke and duration of dwell at each end of the
stroke
iv) Control for the vertical rise of the head. In an au-
tomatic version, an electric eye sensor is aimed
at a point below the top of the containment shoes
and adjusted to detect the top of the molten slag
bath. When the bath rises above the point, the
rise drive is activated and moves the welding
head and shoe up until the bath is no longer de-
tectable. A continuous incremental rise is ob-
tained automatically in this manner.
f) Travel carriage: The head is mounted on a travel
carriage and driven on a vertical track or rail. The rate
of vertical travel is controlled as in (iv) above.
Consumable Guide Method
Figure 8.4 shows the consumable guide method of
electroslag welding. It is to be noted that the welding
head incorporating the wire reel, wire feeder and other
components is stationary and fixed above the joint, while
the guide tube extends the entire height of the joint. The
guide tube directs the wire to the bottom of the joint
and to the molten pool as the weld progresses upward.
The guide tube, which is made of steel and carries the
welding current, melts along with the wire and becomes
an integral part of the weld. The guide contributes 5 to
10% of the filler metal that goes into the joint. The guide
is insulated so that it does not short-circuit with the side
walls and retaining shoes. Sometimes the guide tube is
flux coated to insulate it as well as to replenish the slag
bath.
The water-cooled retaining shoes are also of the same
height as the joint and are clamped on the opposite faces.
For long joints, it may be more convenient to have
several pairs of shoes. As welding progresses, a pair of
shoes is removed from the joint and placed above the
next pair. This leap frog pattern is repeated until the
weld is completed.
As with the conventional method, more than one
wire m a y be u s e d a n d they m a y be oscillated
horizontally in the joint, d e p e n d i n g on the plate
thickness. When not oscillated, each wire can weld
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 63 m m of plate thickness. W h e n
oscillated, one wire can weld up to 130 mm, two wires
up to 300 mm and three wires up to 450 mm.
EQUIPMENT
The equipment is the same as required by the
conventional method, except for the design of the

POWER SOURCE
WORK (GROUND).
LEAD
Fig. 8.4: Consumable guide method of electroslag welding
electrode guide tubes and the fact that the consumable
guide method does not require vertical travel of the head
and the shoes. The equipment is therefore simple and
less expensive.
Guide tube: The guide tube is made from steel which
is compatible with the base metal, and it is slightly
longer than the joint. It usually has an outside diameter
of 16 mm and inside diameter 3.2 to 4.8 mm. It is
attached to a copper-alloy support tube which connects
to the welding head. The current is supplied to the
electrode wire via the copper tube and the consumable
steel tube.
The guide tube needs to be insulated against short-
circuit only When the weld is more than about 750 mm.
As an alternative to flux coating, insulator rings are
placed on the outside at a spacing of 350 mm and held
in place with small welds. Like the flux coating, the
insulator rings also melt and help replenish the bath as
the guide tube gets consumed.
PROCESS VARIABLES
Following variables affect the operation, weld quality
and economics of the electroslag process:
a) Form factor
b) Welding current
ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 381
ICONTROL PANEL
MOLTEN SLAG BATH
MOLTEN WELD
POOL
RETAINING SHOE
y WATER IN
WATER OUT
c) Welding voltage
d) Electrode extension
e) Electrode oscillation
f) Slag bath depth
g) Number of electrodes and spacing
h) Root opening.
a) Form factor: The ratio of the width of the weld pool
to its maximum depth is termed as form factor. Width
is given by the initial root gap plus the total penetration
into the two plate edges. Depth is the distance between
the top of the molten weld pool and the lowest point of
the liquid-solid interface. With high form factor, the
grains in the solidified weld meet at an acute angle, and
with low form factor (i.e. narrow width and deep weld
pool) the grains meet at an obtuse angle. In the former
case, the weld metal is highly crack-resistant; while in
the latter case, the cracking resistance is low.
b) Welding current: Increasing the current increases
the deposition rate as also the depth of the molten wTeld
pool. This leads to a decrease in the form factor and
lowers the resistance to cracking.
c) Welding voltage: This variable is very important as
it controls the depth of fusion. Increase in voltage causes
increase in the depth of fusion and the width of the weld.
382 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
This helps to increase form factor and resistance to
cracking. Voltage also controls the welding operation.
If it is too low, arcing to the weld pool occurs. Too high
a voltage may cause slag spatter and arcing on the top
of the slag bath. For best results, the welding voltage
must be between 31 and 55 V per electrode.
d) Electrode extension: This factor is present in the
conventional electroslag process a n d not in the
consumable guide method. It is the distance between
the guide contact tube and the slag pool surface, and is
called dry extension. Increasing the electrode extension
increases the resistance in the dry extension and this
causes the power supply to reduce its current output.
This leads to a slight increase in the form factor. If the
voltage setting is increased to bring the current to the
previous level, the form factor decreases markedly.
Electrode extension is usually in the range of 50-75
mm. If it is less than 50 m m , the guide tube gets
overheated. If it is more than 75 mm, the electrode melts
on the slag bath surface instead of in the bath. This
makes the operation unstable.
e) Electrode oscillation: Oscillating the electrode helps
to distribute the heat and ensure edge fusion. Oscillation
speed is important. Increase in the oscillation speed
reduces weld width and consequently the form factor.
It must therefore be tuned with the other variables. The
dwell time at the end of each oscillation is also
important, as it controls the fusion of the base metal
and helps to overcome the chilling effect, of the retaining
shoes.
f) Slag bath depth: The bath should be sufficiently
deep to enable the wire to enter into it and melt beneath
the surface. If the bath is too shallow, slag splits and
arcing occurs on the surface. If it is too deep, the weld
width is reduced as also the form factor. For best results,
the bath depth should be around 40 mm.
g) Number of electrodes and spacing: For a given
number of electrodes, increase in plate thickness causes
a slight decrease in weld width, but a considerable
decrease in pool depth, thus resulting in an improve-
ment of form factor. Thickness increase beyond a certain
limit, however, results in lack of edge fusion. The correct
number of electrodes, stationary and oscillating, for a
given plate thickness has been stated earlier.
h) Root opening: A minimum root opening of 20 mm
is necessary to give a sizeable slag bath, good slag
circulation and clearance for the insulated guide tube
in the case of the consumable guide method. An increase
in the root opening has no effect on weld pool depth,
but it increases the weld width and hence the form
factor. If the root opening is too large, it consumes
unnecessarily more filler metal and may cause lack of
edge fusion. Root openings usually range between 20
and 40 mm.
Typical Electroslag Welds
Figure 8.5 shows typical welds for various types of
joints. In many cases, specially designed retaining shoes
are required. The manner and depth effusion are shown
by dashed lines.
Circumferential Welds
For making circumferential welds on thick-walled
shells of pressure vessels, several electroslag welding
methods and equipments, some of them patented, are
available. In one method, the dams are designed to
follow the curvature of the shell, and they as well as the
welding head are kept stationary while the shell rotates.
When the last 450 mm of the joint length is approached,
the electroslag process is stopped and the remaining
welding is carried out with the manual metal-arc
process.
In some cases, the circumferential weld is started and
closed as follows: Welding is started on a simple dam
that is tacked in place on the inside of the cylinder.
Preparation for closing is made when welding is half
completed, by cutting away the starting dam and
gouging out the first weld metal deposited along a
predetermined surface that is tangent to the inside
diameter. Tapered finishing tabs are tacked in place
outside the joint at this location, so that the weld puddle
can be brought to the surface of the cylinder as the joint
is completed.
Portable Equipment
A portable electroslag welding equipment capable
of welding the thickness range of 16-60 mm has been
developed in India, specially for the site welding of blast
furnace shells.
The equipment consists of:
a) A special carriage with vertical drive mechanism.
b) A guide angle at the desired curvature to facili-
tate guiding of the carriage.
c) A set of water-cooled copper shoes.
d) A clamping device, mounted on the carriage, to
clamp the copper shoes firmly on to the walls of
the plates to be welded.
e) A suitable power source to feed the welding cur-
rents.
Figure 8.6 shows the carriage mounted on the guide
rails on a test joint. A set each of guide rollers and drive
 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 383

nn
XT
BUTT JOINT
CORNER JOINT
T-JOINT

nod
K
T- JOINT TRANSITION JOINT
&-

FILLET WELD

■if

Tl
L-J
CROSS WELD OVERLAY BUILDUP

E D G T J Q I N^IT
o
PLUG WELD

Fig. 8.5: Joint designs for electroslag welding—dashed line shows depth of fusion into the base metal

rollers enable the carriage to negotiate the travel. It is
provided with a thyristor drive arrangement to enable
setting of the desired travel speeds.
Fig. 8.6: The electroslag welder making test joint
The p o w e r for w e l d i n g is obtained from a
thyristorised supply-compensated rectifier power
source. It p r o v i d e s special constant current
characteristics while striking the arc and then
automatically switches over to flat characteristics. It also
has provision for remote voltage setting and adjustment.
Also due to the feedback system provided, one could
achieve up to 1% regulation in case of supply outages
of 10%.
Since the success of the electroslag welding process
depends also upon the copper shoes and their efficient
cooling, a tank with pump is provided.
A control panel is suitably located to control:
a) Wire feed setting
b) Vertical travel setting
c) Arc voltage setting, and
d) Switching On and Off operation.
Thus the entire system is simple, effective and
efficient. All the in-built systems are also provided in
the equipment, because the electroslag welding process
does not tolerate any interruption whatsoever. Each
interruption would mean gouging out the weld metal
and restarting the welding.
384 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
The equipment was used successfully at Bhilai Steel
Plant. The following welding procedure was adopted:
The weld portion of the blast furnace shell was 16 m
in diameter and 12 m in height and the joints had to be
welded in the vertical position. Square butt joints were
laid keeping a gap of 25-35 mm between the two plates.
For a height of every metre, this gap had to be increased
by 1 m m in order to allow for shrinkage, so that
distortion could be avoided. Before welding, the plate
edges were ground smooth, and the scales and burrs
were removed to enable the copper shoes to travel
smoothly. A guide angle, 75 mm x 75 mm in size, was
bent to the profile of the plate of 10 m diameter, and
tack welded to one of the plates parallel to the weld
joint. The powered carriage of the welding equipment
moved in this angle by means of the guide rollers. The
welder's seat was located separately on a platform, so
that it could move vertically as the welding progressed.
To start with, segments of 8 m radius, 6.8 m length
and 2 m width were welded together, keeping a tall
curvature of 6-8 m in the vertical position. Six such
segments were welded together. Figure 87 shows the
site welding of one such curvature joint. It took only
about 5.5 hours to complete a 6-8 m long weld using
the following parameters:
Electrode wire, diameter 3.15 mm
Current used 600-650 amp
Voltage 46V
Slag pool 30 mm
Fig. 8.7: Welding in progress
Seven such segments were then assembled vertically,
involving six joints, to be welded to a height of 12 m.
All the welded joints were tested ultrasonically and
partly by X-ray and were found to be flawless.The flux-
wire combination, which was successfully used for this
job was also indigenously developed.
Consumables for Electroslag Welding
Fluxes: Flux is an important consumable, since it
melts a n d p r o v i d e s the slag b a t h that gives the
electroslag process its name.
There are no standard specifications for fluxes. They
are marketed as proprietary items. Their formulations
usually contain oxides of Si, Mn, Al, Ti, Ca and Mg.
Calcium fluoride (fluorspar) is added to adjust fluidity
and electrical resistivity. As the amount of calcium
fluoride increases, viscosity, m e l t i n g point a n d
resistivity decrease. Titanium oxide also decreases
resistivity while aluminium oxide increases it.
The flux must meet the following requirements:
a) It must be sufficiently conductive when molten,
to carry the welding current from the electrode to the
molten weld puddle and to the surfaces of the solid base
metal without arcing. A flux of high resistance will draw
too little current, allowing the pool to cool and the wire
to drive too deeply into the molten flux. A flux of low
resistance will d r a w excessive current, raising the
temperature of the pool until the process stabilises with
a shorter length of wire immersed.
b) Flux viscosity must be in the range between the
high viscosity, that results in sluggishness and prevents
setting of small droplets of molten metal (and also leads
to slag inclusions in the weld) and the low viscosity,
that causes the flux to leak through small crevices
between the dams and the work. Viscosity must be low
enough to permit a good stirring action in the flux pool,
so that heat will be distributed uniformly to all surfaces
of the joint.
c) The flux must have a melting range lower than
that of the weld metal and the boiling point well above
the operating temperature to prevent losses and changes
in pool composition.
d) The flux must be metallurgically compatible with
the alloy being welded. For carbon steel, low-alloy steel,
and stainless steel, a basic flux is usually recommended.
e) The flux should solidify to a slag that is easily
removed from the surface of the weld.
Electrode wires: Two types of electrodes are used,
namely, solid and metal-cored. The latter is a composite
electrode consisting of a tube filled with alloying
ingredients and small amounts of arc stabilisers and
 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 385

fluxing agents. Standard flux-cored electrodes are not process. It is used widely in the structural field.
suitable as their use results in excessive build-up of slag Typical examples are: transition joint between
in the molten bath. different flange thicknesses, stiffeners in box columns
In selecting the wire for a particular steel, it must and wide flanges, joining of large, wide flange beams.
borne in mind that the electroslag weld suffers dilution In the machinery area, large, heavy plates required for
to the extent of 30-50% by the base metal. The mixing is heavy presses and machine tools are electroslag welded.
thorough and the weld-metal chemistry remains Other items are kilns, gear blanks, turbine rings, and
uniform throughout. rims for road rollers. Heavy pressure vessels for the
In higher alloy steels, the required mechanical chemical, petrochemical, marine and power generating
properties of the joint, i.e. weld-metal and the heat- industries are often electroslag welded, as also the
affected zone, are achieved through chemistry as well branch pipes of such vessels. In shipbuilding, the main
as postweld heat treatment. It is advisable, therefore, to hull section is welded by the conventional electroslag
ensure that the weld-metal chemistry matches the base- method. Vertical welding of the side shell, from the bilge
metal chemistry as closely as possible, so that both will area to (but not including) the sheer strake is done with
respond almost equally to heat treatment. a specially designed electroslag welder called the plate
The most popular sizes are 2.4 and 3.2 mm diameters. crawler. Longitudinal and transverse hull stiffeners are
Supplies are normally made in the form of 27 kg coils, welded with the consumable guide tube method. In steel
spools or drums. Since electroslag welds are usually foundries, massive difficult-to-cast components are
long and heavy, and no interruption of the operation is produced in smaller, better quality castings and then
tolerated, spools or drums up to 340 kg are used. electroslag welded together. Since the metallurgical
AWS specification A5.25 deals with flux-wire com- structures of a casting and an electroslag weld are
binations used for electroslag welding of carbon and similar, they respond to postweld heat treatment in a
high strength low-alloy steels. Solid electrodes are classi- similar way.
fied on the basis of their composition, as manufactured.
\
Metal cored types are classified on the basis of chemical ELECTROGAS WELDING
composition of undiluted weld-metal. For chemical \ A brief introduction of this process is given on the
composition of the latter, an undiluted ingot is deposited
first page of this chapter along with Fig. 8.2 showing
in a water-cooled copper mould using the typical the welding operation using a flux-cored wire. Figure
electroslag welding conditions given in the specification.
8.8 shows electrogas welding with a solid electrode,
Many of the solid electrodes are the same as are used
which is fed through a modified M I G / C 0 2 welding gun.
for submerged-arc welding and M I G / C 0 2 welding. The gun also serves as an electrode guide and a contact
Fluxes are classified on the basis of the mechanicaltip holder. Its width is restricted to 10 mm, so that it can
properties of a weld deposit made with a particular fit and move easily in a minimum of 17 m m root
electrode. The classification designation given to a fluxopening. Shielding with C 0 2 or argon-C0 2 mixture is
consists of a prefix FES followed by a two-digit number provided through the gun and also through pipes in
representative of the tensile-strength and impact the moveable shoe as shown. There is no molten slag
p r o p e r t y r e q u i r e m e n t s for test w e l d s m a d e in
on the weld pool to protect it. The entire protection is
accordance with this specification. This is then followedprovided by the gas shielding.
by a set of letters and numbers corresponding to the In electrogas welding with a flux-cored wire, a thin
classification of electrode used to classify the flux. slag layer is present on the top of the molten pool.
Mechanical property requirements are: two tensile Whether additional gas shielding is required or not
ranges, namely 420-550 MPa with minimum yield is dictated by the type of flux-cored electrode used.
strength of 250 MPa, and 490-650 MPa with minimum With self-shielding type wire, gas shielding is not
yield strength of 350 MPa. Three Charpy-V notch levels required.
of 20 J minimum at -18°C, 20 J minimum at -29°C or none The basic mechanical equipment is similar to that
at all. It is to be noted that these tensile and impact values
for conventional electroslag process, except for the fact
have to be obtained without postweld heat treatment. that introduction of shielding gas, when required, has
to be provided for. For supplementary gas-shielding of
Applications the weld pool, gas boxes may be mounted on the
Plates and other sections ranging in thickness from retaining shoes as shown in Fig. 8.8. Gas from these
19 to 460 mm are commonly welded by the electroslag boxes is directed out through ports which are suitably
386 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRODE
CONDUIT
WELDING-
GUN
fMxfc
WATER
FIXED SHOE
Fig. 8.8: Electrogas welding with a solid wire electrode
sized and positioned to uniformly shield the arc as well
as the weld pool. Gas metering device is also necessary.
For plates less 32 mm thick, gun oscillation is not
necessary. For thickness range of 32-102 m m , the
welding gun must be oscillated horizontally over the
weld pool to achieve uniform metal deposition and to
ensure thorough fusion of the joint edges.
Process Variables
The welding variables of electrogas welding are
similar to those for electroslag welding discussed earlier.
Increase in electrode-feed speed causes increase in the
welding current and leads to an increase in weld width.
A rise in arc voltage increases the depth of fusion and
the weld width. Arc voltages are generally in the range
of 30-55 V. With increasing current, the deposition rate
increases as also the upward travel speed.
Electrode extension is approximately 40 mm when
gas shielding is used and 60-75 mm when self-shielding
3*—GAS
GAS
MOVEABLE
SHOE
electrodes without extra gas shield are used. The latter
results in increased deposition rate due to resistance
heating.
Horizontal oscillation of the electrode is used when
the plate thickness exceeds 32 mm. The oscillation is so
controlled that the electrode guide does not get within
10 mm distance of each retaining shoe. Oscillation speed
is 7 to 8 mm/sec and the dwell time at the ends is 1-3
sec.
The plates to be joined are assembled vertically with
square faces and a root gap of 17 mm. Plates thicker
than 25 mm require starting as well as run-off tabs, while
plates thinner than 25 mm require only a starting plate.
The arc is initiated in the same manner as in M I G / C 0 2
or flux-cored arc welding.
C 0 2 is used as a shielding gas for flux-cored
electrodes, while 80% Ar-20% C 0 2 mixture is preferred
for solid wires. Flow rates usually range between 14 and
66 1/min.
 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 387

Electrodes in this process, the weld-metal may contain up to 50%

AWS Specification A5.26, "Specification for of admixed base metal.
consumables for electrogas welding of carbon and high Because of the prolonged thermal cycle, the
strength low-alloy steels", covers the two forms of electroslag weld-metal structure consists of large prior
electrogas welding electrodes used in industry, namely, austenite grains that follow a columnar solidification
flux-cored and solid. The specification classifies flux- pattern. The grains are oriented horizontally at the weld
cored electrodes on the basis of (a) whether auxiliary edges and turn to a vertical orientation at the weld
shielding gas is required or not, (b) chemistry of the centre. The microstructure of low-carbon steel
deposited metal, and (c) as-welded mechanical electroslag weld usually consists of acicular ferrite and
properties of the deposited metal. Solid electrodes are pearlite grains with pro-eutectoid ferrite outlining the
classified on the basis of their chemistry as prior austenite grains. While the prior austenite grains
manufactured and as-welded mechanical properties of at the weld periphery are usually coarse, those near the
the deposited metal. The tensile and impact centre of the weld are finer. This fine-grained region
requirements are similar to those for electroslag welding appears equiaxed in a transverse cross-section; however,
electrodes. The original AWS specification must be longitudinal sections reveal its columnar nature. The
consulted for full details. relative proportions of the coarse - and fine-grained
Electrogas flux-cored electrodes differ from those regions change markedly with changes in weld-metal
designed for flux-cored arc welding in having a lower chemistry, sometimes even to the extent that only one
proportion of slag-forming compounds in their flux. is present.
They provide a thin slag layer under the retaining shoes, The prolonged high temperature and the slow
which gives a smooth weld profile. They also provide cooling rate after electroslag welding result in wide,
the necessary alloying elements. Sizes range from 1.6 to coarse-grained heat-affected zones having only
4 mm diameter. relatively soft, high-temperature transformation
Solid wires are identical to those used for MIG/ C0 2 products.
welding. Electroslag welds along with their heat-affected
zones as described above can be used in the as-welded
Applications condition in applications such as structural welding,
The common applications of electrogas welding are where special demands are not made on their notch
similar to those for electroslag welding discussed earlier. toughness and brittle fracture resistance. If higher notch
Electrogas process is, however, more suitable for the toughness values at low temperatures as demanded by
lower thickness range of 10-50 mm. When the thickness codes have to be satisfied, it becomes necessary to
exceeds 75 mm, the electroslag process must be normalise the entire fabrication, so that all traces of the
preferred. Electrogas process has been found very useful cast structure are removed and the properties of the
for the field welding of vertical joints in large storage weld-metal including notch toughness are brought in
tanks and ship hulls. Use of self-shielded flux-cored level with those of the base metal. A brief note on
electrodes makes the equipment simpler and lighter. normalising is given later.
The process is also adaptable to two-pass welding of Thus electroslag welded pressure vessels of large
double-V joints, which gives superior as-welded impact dimensions made from C-Mn and low-alloy steels are
properties as compared to electroslag welding. often normalised, i.e. heated above the critical
temperature (i.e. much above the temperatures used
METALLURGY OF ELECTROSLAG WELD-METAL in stress-relief treatment) and slowly cooled. Such heat
Electroslag weld-metal is deposited in one pass and treatment is not only an expensive operation but causes
the temperatures attained are considerably lower than problems by lowering the yield point and tensile
in arc welding processes. With conventional arc welding strength to such an extent that the standard wires are
processes, the weld of comparable thickness, on the not capable of attaining the specified minimum
other hand, is deposited with a pointed source of heat strength in higher tensile steels. The use of basic fluxes
having much higher temperature and in multiple passes. in place of acidic fluxes, also cannot help; they only
In the electroslag process, the weld-metal stays molten improve the resistance to cracking in the as-normalised
for a sufficiently long time to permit slag-refining action, condition.
which results in the escape of dissolved gases and In recent years, improvement of the structure, and
transfer of non-metallic inclusions to the slag bath. Also toughness of the electroslag welded joints have been
388 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

achieved by the use of higher currents and the aduition
of metal p o w d e r to the molten pool, along with
o p t i m u m electrode a r r a n g e m e n t and the joints
geometry. The supply of the filler metal in powdered
form and without need of additional current increases
the weld deposition rate and reduces overheating of the
molten weld pool. In conjunction with increased
nucleation, such cooling of the molten pool affects the
weld structure favourably.
Procedure for electroslag high-speed welding with
powdered filler metal is shown in Fig. 8.9. It is to be
noted that two wires are placed side by side for 10-40
mm plate thickness range, while two such pairs (total
four wires) are used for 40-100 m m range. This
arrangement prevents lack effusion defects at the plate
edges, which are likely to occur due to high welding
speeds. For metal powder addition, special devices are
used. Using this procedure, fine-grain structural steel
of 63.5 mm thickness has been welded with two double
wires and metal flux addition using 2,600 amp current,
51 V voltage and 23 cm/min welding speed, which is
ten times faster than the conventional electroslag
method.
For obtaining good as-welded notch toughness
properties in the HAZ, the steelmaking process has been
modified. Grain growth in the HAZ due to overheating
has been restricted by the addition of active deoxidising
agents, as well as nitride- and carbide- forming elements
such as Ti, V, Ce and Zr to the parent steel. The effect is
further intensified by the use of fine dispersed nitrides.
The result is that the formation of Widmannstatten
s t r u c t u r e and p r o e u t e c t o i d ferrite at the grain
boundaries, which decrease notch toughness, is reduced
and the formation of acicular ferrite is promoted. Also
the distribution of non-metallic inclusions is more
favourable. Steels with low carbon content (around
0.12%) and alloy additions of Cr, Mn, B, Ce, Mo and Ni
are now available,which allow electroslag welding of
plate thicknesses up to 2,000 mm, in which the HAZ is
sufficiently resistant to brittle fracture without
additional normalising.
This method is applied today not only to unalloyed
and low-alloy structural and pressure vessel steels, but
also for the welding of forgings and steel castings up to
the largest cross-sections made of creep-resisting and
pressurised hydrogen-resistant QT steels as well as
austenitic Cr-Ni-Ti and Cr-Ni-Mo steels and Ni alloys.
METALLURGY OF ELECTROGAS WELD-METAL
Unlike the electroslag process, electrogas is an arc
welding process, in which the welding energy density
is much higher and more concentrated. Also the weld
pool is smaller and the solidification pattern is faster.
Since both are single-pass processes with single large
weld cross-section, the weld macrostructure is similar
but the grain sizes of the electrogas weld and its heat-

1 WATER COOLING

2. METAL POWDER SUPPLY

3. MAGNETIC SCREENING

4. WIRE ELECTRODE

•3 5. COPPER SHOE (WATER COOLED)

6 SLAG BATH

7 MOLTEN BATH

8. PARENT METAL

9 WELDING JOINT

(B)

Fig. 8.9: Electroslag high-speed welding with powdered filler metal: (A) plate t range 10-40 mm;
(B) Plate t range 40-100 mm.
 ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING 389

affected zones are smaller. Consequently, as-welded
mechanical properties of the electrogas welds are better.
In electrogas welds, too, the form factor, i.e. ratio of
width to the depth of the weld pool, controls dendrite
pattern and resistance of the weld to cracking. A high
form factor and an acute-included angle must be
achieved. The postweld heat treatment requirements
for electrogas welds are the same as for electroslag
welds.
Under abnormal welding conditions, electrogas
welds may contain defects like slag inclusions, porosity
and cracks; the last are usually hot cracks located in the
centre part of the weld.
Normalising
Normalising means heating a steel to a temperature
of about 55°C above the Ac3 i.e. above the upper critical
line of the iron-iron carbide phase diagram followed by
cooling in still or lightly agitated air. Normalising is done
for v a r i o u s reasons including grain-structure
refinement, homogenisation, removal of residual
stresses and improved machinability. The rate of heating
in the normalising process is not critical, except in the
case of parts having great variation in section size. Time
at the maximum temperature is critical, only in that it
must be sufficient to dissolve the carbides, if present,
a n d / o r for movement of alloy atoms to obtain a desired
final structure. The rate of cooling can be suitably
controlled to obtain the desired strength and hardness,
bearing in mind that the higher cooling rates result in
higher strength and hardness and lower cooling rates
result in lower strength and softness. After the steel has
cooled evenly to black heat or below Ar a , it may be
water- or oil-quenched to decrease the total cooling time.
For plain carbon steels, the normalising temperatures
range between 915 and 860°C; the actual temperature
decreases with increasing carbon content. For alloy steels
they range between 925 and 870°C

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 7, Vol. 2, 7 th Ed., published by American Welding Society.

Metals Handbook, Vol. 6, 8th Ed., published 1971 by American Society for Metals. IIW Doc. XII-A-23-1982
Review of Electroslag Welding, Weld. J., Dec. 1981.
Methods to Improve the Properties of Electroslag Welds by Vaidya et al. Weld. & Met. Fabr., May 1976.
The Development of a Consumable Guide Machine for Vertical Welding of Ship Sections by Turner & Coleman.
Conference Proceedings of "Advances in Welding Processes" 1970, by The Welding Institute.
High Speed Consumable Guide Welding of Relatively Thin Steel Plate by Haslam et al. Conference Proceedings of "Advances in
Welding Processes", 1974 by The Welding Institute.
Unusual Electroslag Welding Applications by Dorchu et al. Weld. J., Nov. 1973.
Electroslag Welding of Heavy Section 2V4 Cr-1 Mo Steel by Okumura et al. Weld. J., Dec. 1976.
Electroslag Welding Speeds Shipbuilding by Parrott et al. Weld. J., Apr. 1974.
Slag-Metal Reactions in the Electroslag Process by Patchett et al. Weld. J., Oct. 1972.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 9
Welding
Metallurgy
A WELDING ENGINEER MUST acquire a basic un-
derstanding of welding metallurgy, because it enables
him to control two important aspects of a weldment
which determine its suitability for service, namely, (a)
the chemistry and soundness of the weld-metal, and
(b) the microstructure of the weld-metal and of the heat-
affected zones (HAZs) of the base metal.
In simple words, metallurgy is the branch of science
which deals with making, shaping and treating of
metals. It can broadly be classified in two parts: process
metallurgy and physical metallurgy. Process metallurgy
involves the conversion of ores into metals, refining and
alloying of metals, and shaping them to semi-finished
and finished products by casting, forging, rolling/etc.
Physical metallurgy deals with heat treatment,
mechanical testing, metallography and many other
topics which concern the design, applica-tion, testing
and inspection of the metallic products.
Welding involves knowledge on both process
metallurgy and physical metallurgy plus many other
metallurgical features peculiar to its processes. Process
metallurgy forms the basis of formulations of electrode
coverings and submerged-arc welding fluxes. In fact,
formation and deposition of weld-metal is similar to
the production of metal in a furnace, but with the
significant difference that it takes place instantly and
on a minimum scale. The hot and cold peening of weld-
metal is like hot forging or cold finishing mill
operations. Principles of physical metallurgy are
utilised to control the cooling rates of the weld-metal
and the base metal heat-affected zones through welding
heat input control, preheating and postheating, and to
achieve desired microstructures and mechanical
properties. However, welding metallurgy differs from
conventional metallurgy in many important aspects.
To have a clear understanding of welding metallurgy,
it is necessary to acquire the basic knowledge of
conventional metallurgy, as also to appreciate the
metallurgical aspects peculiar to welding.
This chapter is divided into two sections. The first
section deals with the elements of conventional
metallurgy, which are essential for an understanding of
the second section. The second section covers the specific
aspects of welding metallurgy.
I: GENERAL METALLURGY
Structure of Metals
To understand the structure of metals, it is necessary
to follow the pattern of solidification of a metal from
the liquid state. In the liquid state, the atoms of a metal
are in constant motion and have no orderly
arrangement. As the liquid is allowed to cool and it
approaches the solidification temperature, solid
particles begin to form at specific points as shown at
(A) in Fig. 9.1. These are called nuclei. As solidification
proceeds, each nucleus grows into a large solid particle
called grain as shown at (B). When the solidification
process is complete, the large solid grains meet as a1
(C). The lines along which the neighbouring grains meel
are called grain boundaries.
A grain of a metal, when examined minutely, is found
to have a crystalline structure, in which the atoms oi
each crystal are arranged in a specific geometric pattern.
The most common crystalline structures displayed bj
metals are shown in Table 9.1 and atomic arrangements
are shown in Fig. 9.2.
All grains in a given metal and at a given temperature
have identical crystalline structure and atomic spacing
392 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

INITIAL CRYSTALS SOLID GRAINS SOLID GRAINS WITH

GRAIN BOUNDARIES
/ _ ^ / ^

-tf LIQUID -H-

^P LIQUID^s,
-44- 4f
* * *

(A) INITIAL CRYSTAL FORMATION; (B) CONTINUED SOLIDIFICATION; (C) COMPLETE SOLIDIFICATION

Fig. 9.1: Pattern of solidification of a metal

Table 9.1 : Crystal structures of common metals

Crystal structure Metals with the structure
Body centred cubic (BCC) Fe (at room temperature and again near melting point), Cr, Cb,
W, V, Ti (at high temperatures), Mo
Face centred cubic (FCC) Fe (at intermediate temperature), Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Ag, Al
Hexagonal close packed (HCP) Co, Mg, Sn, Ti (at room temperature), Zn, Zr

<r^r
k±ZJ7*

Fig. 9.2: Common crystal structures of metals.

Right: face centred cubic (FCC): Centre: body centred cubic (BCC): Left: hexagonal close packed (HCP)

However, the orientation of the grain lattice in each
grain is different from that in the neighbouring grain,
because each of them has grown independently of the
other. Therefore, the orderly arrangement of the atoms
is disrupted at the regions of the grain boundaries. The
grain b o u n d a r y d i s o r d e r has m a n y i m p o r t a n t
repercussions on the metal properties. These will be
pointed out later.
What we have discussed so far applies to pure
metals. However, metals are largely used in industry
as alloys, that is, in combination with other metals and
n o n - m e t a l s , b e c a u s e alloys p r o v i d e e n g i n e e r i n g
properties, which for most applications, are superior to
those of pure metals. Alloying elements are incorpora-
ted into the parent metal in either of the two following
ways:
a) Direct substitution: In this case, the alloying atom
directly replaces the atom of the parent metal in the
lattice (see Fig. 9.3 (a)). The new atoms are said to have
dissolved into or among the old atoms. The new atoms
are known as the solute; the remaining old atoms are
called the solvent; and the resulting alloy is referred to
as a solid solution. Solid solution results when the
alloying atoms and the parent metal atoms are similar
in size and chemical behaviour. Examples are alloying
of silver with gold or of nickel with copper. Both are
solid solutions.
b) Interstitial alloying: In this case, the alloying atom
places itself in the space between the parent metal atoms
without actually displacing any of them, as shown in
Fig. 9.3 (b). This type of alloying occurs when the
alloying atom is small in comparison with the parent

< ^ > (a)
Fig. 9.3: Modes of metal alloying: (a) substitutional solid solution; (b) interstitial alloying
atom. A common example is carbon in very small
amount, alloyed interstitially with iron in mild steel.
In most engineering alloys, however, several alloying
elements are used w h o s e atoms d o n o t dissolve
completely, either interstitially or substitutionally They
consequently give rise to what is termed a multiphase
alloy, in which several phases, each one having its own
characteristic crystalline structure, exist side by side.
The grains, grain boundaries and phases together
make up what is called the micro-structure of the alloy.
All of them are distinguished and identified by suitably
polishing and etching the alloy surface and examining
it under a microscope at high magnification. This
procedure is referred to as metallographic examination.
It is one of the important methods of studying the
characteristics of metals a n d alloys, since t h e
microstructure of an alloy is largely responsible for its
physical and mechanical properties and behaviour in
service. The microstructure is determined not only by
the alloy chemistry, but also by hot and cold working
and heat treatment, as will be explained later.
Reverting to grain boundaries, many significant
phenomena occur in these regions. For example, since
the arrangement of atoms is irregular and interatomic
space may be larger than normal at the grain boundaries,
movement of individual atoms of elements through the
solvent structure occurs, which results in so-called
segregation. This segregation often causes the formation
of undesirable phases that reduce ductility of the alloy
and make it susceptible to cracking during welding or
heat treatment.
Another u n i q u e p h e n o m e n o n of t h e grain
boundaries is that, they resist the deformation of
individual grains a n d thereby increase the room
t e m p e r a t u r e s t r e n g t h of a n alloy. At elevated
temperatures, this resistance is lowered and the atoms
in the boundaries are able to slide past one another
more easily. The result is reduced strength. This points
to the fact that for better properties at room temperature
WELDING METALLURGY 393
QQQQ QOQ
OTW^-^W
<&(pcp(p(p-e-€>
Q
(b) O (J) (b (D (D <tT(i)
and low temperature, alloys must be fine-grained,
while for high temperature service they must be coarse-
grained.
Grain size is therefore another important aspect of a
microstructure. Metals may be coarse-grained, fine-
grained or can have a mixture of both coarse- and fine-
grains, depending on the solidification rate, alloy
additions and other factors. Grain size control is all the
more important in the case of the weld-metal and it can
be accomplished when the metallurgy of the weld-metal
is correctly understood.
Phase Transformations
We have referred to the multiple phases that can
coexist in an alloy. A phase change occurs when a metal
melts or solidifies. Some metals undergo phase changes
in the solid state when heated or cooled. Such changes
are termed allotropic transformation. Iron, titanium,
zirconium and cobalt are examples of metals which are
subject to allotropic transformation. The phase changes
which occur during the heating and cooling of pure iron
are described under iron-carbon phase diagram.
Phase Diagrams
Solidification, phase changes and other phenomena
occurring in alloy systems are best understood by
referring to phase diagrams, which are also called
constitution diagrams or equilibrium diagrams. The
word equilibrium is used, because the diagram describes
the behaviour of an alloy system under equilibrium
conditions, i.e. slow heating and cooling rates and long
hold times. But such conditions are rarely met with in
practice, a n d hence t h e d i a g r a m s are at best an
approximation of how alloys actually behave in use.
A simple phase diagram for the copper-nickel alloy
system is shown in Fig. 9.4. A point to be noted is that,
these two elements are fully soluble in each other in all
proportions and at all temperatures, both in liquid and
solid states. Phase d i a g r a m s are d r a w n with
394 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

MOOO
SOLID SOLUTION

200

20 40 60 80 100
NICKEL, PERCENT

Fig. 9.4: The nickel-copper phase diagram. Points along the top curve A, represent the liquidus for each alloy
composition. Points along the bottom curve B, represent the solidus for each alloy composition

temperatures on the vertical axis and alloy content on exactly like that in the copper-nickel system, i.e. all solid
the horizontal axis. The extreme left of the horizontal alloys solidify as crystals of a solid solution of copper
axis represents zero % nickel and 100% copper, while in silver called alpha-phase. Similarly all solid alloys
the extreme right represents 100% nickel and zero % represented in the extreme right portion, and having
copper. Between them are the intermediate alloys. 92-100% copper contain a single-phase called beta (a),
For all alloy compositions, only liquid phase is present which is a solid solution of silver in copper.
above the top curve marked A, while below the bottom Figure 9.5 shows that there is one particular alloy
curve B only solid phase is present. The solid alloy, composition which solidifies at a single temperature as
whatever be its composition, is single phase only, because a pure metal does, while in the case of all the other alloy
the two elements are fully soluble in each other in the
solid state.
The diagram also shows that the solid and the liquid
LIQUID
phases coexist in the region between the two curves. 1083#C
(1981#F). 2000
This means that for all alloy compositions (except 100%
Cu and 100% Ni) there is no fixed melting point, and
the melting takes place over a temperature range. For
fi+ LIQUIDI
example, when 70% Ni-30% Cu alloy (known
commercially as monel) is heated, it begins to melt at SQUPVS J -|" 150
° a
1,330°C and the melting is complete at 1,365°C.
2
We shall next take up the silver-copper phase a.
diagram, which is useful for formulating brazing alloys 1000 Z
(see Fig. 9.5). It differs from the earlier one in that certain B
parts of the diagram show two phases existing side by
side. At temperatures above the line marked liquidus,
500
all alloy compositions are fully liquid. At temperatures
below the line marked solidus, they are fully solid. The
COPPER, PER CENT
extreme left portion marked a represents alloys with
up to 9% copper. In this portion the solidification occurs Fig. 9.5: The copper-silver phase diagram

compositions, the solidification is complete at this
temperature and goes through a range. This unique alloy
composition (28% Cu-72% Ag) is termed a eutectic and
the temperature at which it solidifies (779°C) is termed
the eutectic point. It is indicated by an arrow in Fig. 9.5.
In order to understand how changes take place in a
eutectic alloy during cooling, we shall first take up a 15
Cu/85 Ag alloy and refer to Fig. 9.6, which is a magnified
version of the relevant part of Fig. 9.5. When the liquid
alloy has reached the liquidus temperature, solid crystals
of alpha solid-solution, termed primary crystals are
formed. The early crystals do not have the same
composition as the liquid alloy from which they
crystallise, but they have the composition of the alloy
that is completely solid at the existing temperature. For
example, at the temperature marked A1, the composition
of the crystals forming will be that represented by Bv
which is obtained by drawing an isothermal line from
the point Av of the alloy over to the solidus. As cooling
proceeds, the crystals will adjust their composition so
as to meet the condition explained above. Thus at the
lower temperature A 2 , the alpha crystals will have the
composition indicated by the point B2; and at the
temperature A3 which is the eutectic temperature, they
will have the composition of point B3.
All the crystals formed so far are richer in silver than
the original alloy, and as a result, the remaining liquid
has increased proportion of copper than at the start. Its
960°C (1760*F)
n\—
tg
i ^
SOLIDUS\
BV N*2
i crystal lattice known as alpha-iron (oc-iron). As it is
2 A i 779°C
z
ID
1 (1434°F)
H
i i 1 . .
10 20
COPPER, PER CENT
Fig. 9.6: The silver-rich portion of the copper-silver
phase diagram
WELDING METALLURGY 395
composition at a given temperature is that of an alloy
which is completely liquid at that temperature. Thus
when the crystals have the compositions shown by
points Bx and B2, the liquid has the compositions shown
by points Ax and A 2 respectively. At the eutectic
temperature of 779°C, the crystal composition is that of
point B3, and the liquid composition is that of point A3,
which is eutectic-alloy composition.
Further cooling below 779°C results in the
simultaneous formation of alpha and beta solid-solution
crystals. These two phases may be intermingled, or
present as thin alternate plates in the structure. The
overall structure of the final solid alloy thus consists of
the large primary crystals of alpha formed at higher
temperatures and a eutectic mixture of alpha and beta.
Though the liquid and solid phases formed in the
above process depart from on<e another in composition,
the equilibrium conditions require that the crystals
readjust their composition to that of the initial liquid
alloy. The adjustments occur by diffusion of atoms and
it is assumed that the cooling rate is slow enough to
permit it. If the cooling is rapid as in the formation of
weld-metal, the resulting alloy may be heterogeneous
in composition.
If an original alloy of eutectic composition (28% C u -
72% Ag) is subjected to the same exercise, both the alpha
and beta phases will form concurrently and its final solid
structure will consist entirely of alpha and beta mixtures.
In the case of an alloy whose composition falls between
the eutectic and 92% copper, the structure of the solid
alloy will consist of the primary crystals of beta and a
eutectic mixture of alpha and beta.
Allotropic Transformations of Iron
Before taking up the iron-carbon phase diagram, we
shall describe the phase changes that take place in pure
iron, when heated and cooled in the solid state.
At room temperature, iron has a body-centred cubic
heated slowly, it gradually expands until 910°C, when
A3 it transforms to a face-centred cubic crystal lattice called
gamma-iron (y-iron) and suffers about 1% contraction
in volume. This crystal form persists until 1,400°C is
reached, when the iron reverts to the body-centred cubic
form known as delta-iron (5-iron). This form is retained
until the melting point of 1,540°C is reached.
1
30 The crystalline forms of alpha-iron and delta-iron
are identical, but different names are given to indicate
that they are formed at different temperatures.
On slow cooling from 1,540°C, the same phase
changes take place in the reverse order and at
396 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
approximately the same temperatures. This shows that
iron has two transformation temperatures, 910 and
1,400°C, at which phase changes occur during heating
and cooling.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Iron is used mostly in the form of steel, which is an
iron alloy with up to 2% carbon. Alloys with 2-5%
carbon are known and used as cast iron. Alloys with
more than 5% carbon cannot be practically produced.
Iron-carbon phase diagram is therefore of special
significance to the student of metallurgy. It is shown in
Fig. 9.7. The diagram shows the phases formed in iron-
carbon alloys depending on the amount of carbon
present and the temperature at which the alloy is
maintained.
Following points must be noted in the diagram:
1) Above the liquidus line, the alloy is completely
liquid and below the solidus line it is completely solid.
Between these lines a mixture of solid crystals and the
liquid phase exists.
2) Carbon up to 2% goes into solid solution in iron.
This solution in turn forms a eutectic with iron carbide,
Fe3C, which is a compound of iron and carbon and
contains 6.67% carbon.
3) The pure eutectic alloy contains 4.3% carbon and
melts at 1,130°C, the lowest melting point of any alloy
in the system.
3000
CARBON, PER CENT
Fig. 9.7: The iron/iron carbide equilibrium diagram
4) In the portion enclosed by lines A3, A ^ and A:,
the lines are similar to those of a eutectic system, except
that, only solid phases are present. This area is termed
eutectoid region, to distinguish it from a eutectic.
5) The letter A of A3, Acm and Ax indicates the arrest
point during heating and cooling. The arrest on heating
is termed Ac point and on cooling Ar point. The two
arrest points during heating are indicated as Acl and
Ac3. On slow heating, the transformation starts at Acl
and is complete at Ac3 point. On slow cooling, the
transformation starts at Ar3 and is completed at Arl. A3
is referred to as upper transformation temperature while
A1 is called the lower transformation temperature. The
temperature range between Acl and Ac3 or Ar3 and Arl is
termed the critical range or transformation range.
6) The terms ferrite, pearlite, cementite and austenite
refer to the constituents of the alloy structure.
Ferrite is pure alpha-iron. It is very soft, very ductile,
has a tensile strength of about 18 tons/sq. in. (278 N /
mm2) and a yield point of 9 tons/sq. in (139 N/mm 2 ). It
is also magnetic.
Pearlite is the strongest of any of the constituents of
steel. It has a tensile strength of about 56 tons/sq. in.
(865 N/mm 2 ) and its yield point is about half of that.
It is harder than ferrite, but cannot approach cementite
in hardness. It is quite ductile. Pearlite structure when
seen with a powerful microscope is found to consist of
alternate bands of ferrite and cementite as shown in Fig.
9.8. At 0.80%C, 100% Pearlite structure is achieved which
is referred to as eutectoid.
Cementite is the hardest of any of combinations of
carbon and iron. It is also very brittle and has very little
resistance to shock. It is probably quite strong in
compression if the stress is applied slowly, but has very
low strength in tension.
Austenite is a solid solution of iron carbide in gamma-
iron. It is stable only at high temperatures as shown in
the diagram. Below the critical range, austenite changes
into an aggregate of ferrite and pearlite or ferrite and
cementite. Austenite is extremely ductile and tough. It
is non-magnetic. It is also difficult to machine, because
it has a tendency to work-harden though it is originally
softer than pearlite and harder than ferrite.
The phase changes occurring in alloys containing 0.4
, 0.9, and 1.3% carbon during slow, continuous cooling
from above Ar, point to room temperature and depicted
in Fig. 9.7 are described below:
0.4% carbon: Above the transformation temperature
(see Fig. 9.9), the alloy has granular structure as at A.
As the alloy cools below A3 ferrite precipitates at the
grain boundaries of the austenite as shown at Band
 WELDING METALLURGY 397

pearlite with a still larger evolution of heat than occurs

in the lower carbon steels. The structure is thus pure
pearlite, without ferrite or cementite.
1.3% carbon: On reaching the temperature of 860°C
on the A line, cementite which is carbide of iron (Fe„C)
v
cm ' 3 '
separates from the austenite in the same manner as fer-
rite separates in a low-carbon steel. It forms a network
enclosing grains of austenite. The austenite becomes
poorer in carbon as it cools and on reaching Arl (723°
C), it attains the eutectoid composition and transforms
into pearlite. Thus the structure at room temperature
comprises cementite and pearlite.
Fig. 9.8: Typical lamellar appearance of As mentioned earlier, these phase diagrams are
pearlite 1500 x (before reduction): Etchant: Picral based on extremely slow heating and cooling. The al-
loys used in practice are either normalised, annealed or
hardened and tempered. These operations modify the
gradually increases in volume as the temperature drops.
steel microstructures very significantly.
When A y or 723°C is reached, the ferrite surrounds the
Normalising, as explained in chapter 8, is a method
islands of austenite, now at the eutectoid level of carbon
of heat treatment in which a steel, in whatever condi-
content (0.8%). At this temperature the remaining
tion it may be to start with, is reheated to a temperature
austenite transforms to pearlite, which is a eutectoid
exceeding the upper limit of the critical range (i.e. above
mixture of ferrite and cementite. The final structure at
A3 point) and cooled freely in air.
room temperature thus comprises ferrite and pearlite
Annealing is a method of heat treatment, in which a
as shown at D.
steel in whatever condition it may be to start with, is
0.8% carbon: In this alloy, no change occurs in the reheated to a temperature exceeding the upper limit of
structure until Arl (690°C) is reached, as denoted by point the critical range and cooled slowly. This may be done
E in the diagram. The solid solution is exactly of eutec- by putting off the furnace and allowing the steel to cool
toid composition, and at Arl (690°C) it breaks down into in the furnace.

FERRITE

FERRITE -

Fig. 9.9: Structural changes (schematic) in 0.40% carbon steel during slow cooling
398 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Hardening is a method of heat treatment, in which
the steel is heated to above the A 3 point and cooled
rapidly by immersing in oil or water.
The structure of normalised and of annealed steels
consists of ferrite enclosing grains of pearlite in the case
of low-carbon steels (below 0.8%C i.e, hypo-eutectoid
steels), and of cementite enclosing grains of pearlite in
the case of high-carbon steels (C is above 0.8%). When a
section of steel is polished and etched and examined
under a powerful microscope, the ferrite is seen as a
light-etching constituent and pearlite is seen as«a dark-
etching constituent. The proportion of ferrite decreases
and that of pearlite increases, as the carbon content of
the steel increases. With increase of pearlite (i.e. increase
of carbon up to 0.8%) the hardness, tensile strength and
elastic limit of steel increase, while elongation, reduction
of area, and shock-resisting properties diminish. This
change in properties is reflected in the uses to which
untreated steels of various compositions are put:
hypoeutectoid steels, almost all the carbon is in the
pearlite constituent, since ferrite is pure iron. That is
the reason why the relative proportions of pearlite and
ferrite change with the carbon content of steel.
It is possible to estimate the amounts of pearlite and
ferrite in a pure carbon steel by using the following
formula:
Amount of pearlite _ c
Amount of ferrite 0.9-c
where c = carbon per cent.
Thus a 0.3% carbon steel will have one-third pearlite
and two-thirds ferrite and a 0.45% carbon steel will have
half pearlite and half ferrite. These figures are true only
in the case of pure carbon steels, which have been cooled
slowly. For a given carbon content, the proportion of
pearlite to ferrite is increased by a more rapid rate of
cooling, or by an increase in manganese. Manganese is
also always present in commercial steels in varying

C% Mn% Approx. % of Uses

pearlite in the steel
as used
DTD 03 ID Thin sheet tinplate, etc.
0.15-0.20 0.5 20 Structural purposes, ship's plates
0.20-0.25 0.5 25 ^ Boiler plate
0.30-0.35 0.7 40 Axles
0.55-0.75 0.7 70-90 Tyres
0.50 1.0 70 Rails
0.60 1.0 80 Tramway rails
0.65-0.75 0.8 90-100 High tensile wire

The grain size of a n n e a l e d steel is u s u a l l y
considerably larger than that of normalised steel. This
is most frequently d u e to the h i g h e r m a x i m u m
temperature employed in annealing (this phenomenon
will be explained later), but even w h e n the same
maximum temperature is used, the annealed steel will
generally have a slightly larger grain size on account of
the longer time it is maintained at that temperature. A
more important difference between a steel in the
normalised and in the annealed condition is to be found
in the character and extent of the pearlite areas.
While describing the iron-carbon diagram, we have
stated that steel with 0.8% carbon is said to be of
eutectoid composition and its structure is entirely
pearlitic. Steels with less than 0.8% carbon are called
hypoeutectoid steels, while those with more than 0.8%
carbon are called hypereutectoid steels. In the case of
quantities, and this is used as one of the means to control
the amount of pearlite and thereby the tensile properties
of a steel.
Depending on the rate of cooling during annealing
or n o r m a l i s i n g , the pearlite c o n s t i t u e n t of a
hypoeutectoid steel assumes different characters, and
according to this character the steel attains particular
physical properties. When the rate of cooling has been
moderately rapid, an extremely fine pearlite called
sorbitic pearlite is formed. This type of structure is also
induced by the addition of manganese. Mechanically it
is the strongest type of pearlite and confers on a steel
high elastic limit and considerable hardness.
The pearlite of annealed steels, cooled slowly through
the critical range, becomes coarsely laminated. As the
coarseness of the lamellar structure increases, the elas-
tic limit, yield point and hardness of the steel decrease.

Prolonged heating at temperatures just below Aq
(i.e. at 700°C) followed by slow cooling causes the
formation of globular cementite. In this condition the
steel has minimum hardness and the lowest elastic limit
and yield point possible for a given percentage of
carbon. Hence this structure is aimed at where the steel
has to be severely cold-worked, as for example, in
spinning, cupping or the production of thin strip.
The effects of hardening depend on the steel
composition and the rate of quenching. When the carbon
is very low, hardening may be an advantage. For
example, the yield point and toughness of mild steel
containing 0.10-0.15% carbon are greatly improved by
water quenching from the normalising temperature
instead of cooling in air. This explains why a mild steel
weld is generally so strong, where its sudden cooling
by the surrounding base metal has the same effect as
water quenching. If the carbon is more than 0.30%, the
increase in hardness is very appreciable. For the same
rate of cooling, hardness increases with increase of
carbon up to 1%. Increasing hardness is generally
Stages of decomposition of the gamma-iron-carbon solid solution
AUSTENITE
On tempering at progressively higher
temperatures below the critical range,
yields
Martensite
Troostite
Sorbite
(minutely
granular)
Fine coalesced
carbide in a
groundmass of
ferrite
Coarse coalesced carbide
in a groundmass of ferrite
WELDING METALLURGY 399
accompanied by lower ductility and increasing
brittleness.
For effective hardening, the steel is first heated to
above A3 point and maintained long enough at this
temperature to ensure that the structure consists
entirely of solid solution of carbon in gamma-iron (i.e.
austenitic structure). Rapid quenching from this
temperature tends to retain the steel in the austenitic
condition, which it had acquired at that high
temperature. The less drastic the quenching, the greater
is the possibility of change. In carbon steels, however
drastic the quenching, the gamma- to alpha-iron change
always occurs and the microscopical constituents
observed in quenched steels are more or less advanced
decomposition products of the original austenitic
condition or solid solution. Some alloy steels and the
well-known austenitic stainless steels can retain the
austenitic condition at room temperature by sufficiently
drastic quenching.
The generally recognised stages of decomposition
of austenite are given on the below:
On cooling at progressively slower
rates through the critical range is
replaced by
l
Martensite
Troostite
Sorbitic
pearlite
(minutely
lamellar)
Lamellar
pearlite
Granular
pearlite
400 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Products of Quenching
Martensite is the most important constituent of
hardened (untempered) steel. In steel of any given
composition, it is the hardest of the possible constituents
obtained by heat treatment. In its formation, the
allotropic change from gamma- to alpha-iron has been
completed, but the carbon (or carbide) remains in almost
as highly dispersed a condition as in the solid solution,
austenite. It has acicular (needle-like) appearance as
shown in Fig. 9.10.
Troostite is a structureless black-etching constituent.
The carbide, though still irresolvable, is less highly
dispersed than ill martensite. Troostite is produced when
the rate of cooling is less rapid than that required to
produce martensite. With less severe quenching, a
structure intermediate between troostite and sorbitic
pearlite is formed.
Sorbitic pearlite: If the rate of cooling is still slower
(as, for example, that of large masses in oil, or of smaller
specimens in hot water, or in an air blast), opportunity
is afforded for the separation of more ferrite or cementite
from the solid solution, though the final separation of
the eutectoid, pearlite, is partially suppressed. The
lamellar pearlite formed on slow cooling is replaced by
grains of sorbitic pearlite.
Products of Tempering
A hardened steel which is too brittle for use is usually
tempered to reduce hardness sufficiently and to improve
Fig. 9.10: Quenched martensite (500 x before
reduction, etched) showing acicular structure
toughness. Tempering is a kind of heat treatment in
which a steel, in whatever condition it may be to start
with, is reheated to a temperature not exceeding the
lower limit of its critical range, followed by either rapid
or slow cooling. Tempering of martensite is further
described later in this section.
The products of tempering are martensite, troostite
and sorbite. These may have different characteristics
from those identical constituents formed in quenching.
Martensite: A mild tempering of some alloy steels
obtained in the austenitic condition by quenching gives
martensite, structurally similar to that produced by
quenching. The change is accompanied by an increase
in hardness.
Troostite: A mild tempering of quenched martensitic
carbon or alloy steels gives rise to troostite, structurally
similar to that obtained by rapid quenching, but with a
slight difference. The change from martensite to troostite
is accompanied by a slight fall of hardness and an
increase in toughness. Troostite is present in properly
hardened and tempered cutting tools, chisels, knives,
etc.
Sorbite is the essential constituent of hardened and
tempered steels intended for constructional purposes.
The sorbite in this case is not sorbitic pearlite: its
structure when resolvable is minutely granular, and not
lamellar.
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams
It is obvious from the earlier discussion on the iron-
carbon phase diagram, that it does not give information
on the transformation temperatures and cooling rates
required to produce other useful structures resulting
from hardening and tempering. A practical and useful
diagram in this respect is the isothermal transformation
d i a g r a m , which is also termed time-temperature
transformation or TTT diagram. It vividly explains the
response of a steel to increased cooling rates and indicates
the cooling rates required to transform the austenite to
pearlite, bainite or martensite as desired.
Each steel composition has its own characteristic TTT
diagram. Figure 9.11 shows the diagram of 0.80% plain
carbon steel of eutectoid composition. It was obtained
by heating several samples of the steel to approximately
850°C (above A3,) to give them a fully austenitic structure
a n d a b r u p t l y cooling t h e m d o w n to a series of
temperatures between 705°C and room temperature by
plunging them into various liquid media such as brine
solution, oil and water at the desired temperatures. Each
specimen was kept in its bath for a specified length of
time, removed and cooled rapidly to room temperature.
 WELDING METALLURGY 401

The resulting microstructure was examined under a
microscope.
If we take, as example, the temperature of 700°C on
the vertical axis of the diagram and draw a horizontal
line, we find that the specimen held at this temperature
commenced transformation only after eight minutes
(shown by point S) and completed it after about one
hour (point E). The final structure was coarse pearlite
and the steel fairly soft (hardness of 15Rc).
Next, taking 565°C, the diagram shows that the
transformation started almost at once (point T) and was
complete in five seconds (point F). The transformation
period was the shortest at this temperature of 565°C,
which is referred to as the nose of the curve. The
resulting structure was fine pearlite and the steel harder
(hardness of 41Rc).
4
At all temperatures below 565°C, the initial time for
the start of the transformation increased, the
microstructure was bainite and the hardness of the
sample had increased further.
A striking feature of this exercise is that, the samples
which were cooled rapidly enough to get past the nose
of the curve ended up with the structure of hard mar-
tensite. This is clearly depicted in the diagram. The dia-
gram also shows that the martensite transformation
started at 230°C and was complete at 120°C These tem-
peratures are indicated by the letters Ms (martensite
start) and Mf (martensite finish) respectively. Ms and
Mf temperatures vary with the steel chemistry. As its
carbon content increases, Ms and Mf temperatures are
lowered.
It is to be noted that M$ and Mf temperatures are
denoted by lines and not curves. This indicates that
martensite is not formed by normal nucleation and
growth and that its formation is independent of time. It
is temperature dependent, and its formation takes place
mostly while the temperature is falling. Thus marten-
site transformation is also called as diffusion-less shear
transformation. If a steel is held for a period between
Ms and Mf, some bainite is formed isothermally and

°F
TRANSFORMATION
AUSTENITE
800 AT 705°C
(1300 °F)
1400
A, TEMPERATURE STARTS E JENDS
700 AUSTENITE
S
1200
w 600

B
z 500 h
o
p
400
<

300

200|

lOOh

MARTENSITE

i-HV- J_8 J I 1 I L -X.

15 30 1 2 4 8 15 30 1 2 4 J8 15
I-
SECONDS -MINUTES- +\ HOURS
TIME OF TRANSFORMATION

Fig. 9.11: The T I T diagram for the transformation of austenite in an eutectoid (0.80% carbon)
plain carbon steel
402 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

some austenite remains untransformed. When the room
temperature approaches, retained austenite transforms
slowly and partly to martensite.
It has already been stated that the isothermal
diagram, which indicates transformation behaviour,
varies with steel composition. Other factors those cause
such variation are austenite grain size and austenite
homogeneity or heterogeneity. Referring to composition,
it has been observed that carbon, manganese below 1%,
silicon below 1.5%, nickel and copper shift the curves
of the diagram to the right, that is, to longer times of
transformation, without changing their shapes
markedly. Carbide formers like chromium,
molybdenum and vanadium also shift the curves to the
right and, in addition, alter their shapes to a remarkable
extent. When the curves move to the right, conditions
producing less rapid cooling can be used while still
allowing martensite to form. These steels are said to have
higher hardenability.
To explain the behaviour of the second group, the
isothermal diagram for 1.97%- chromium steel is shown
in Fig. 9.12.
It is seen that from the transformation range (A3, A1
points) to about 650°C, the pearlite transformation curve
is similar to that for 0.80% carbon steel, except that it
has moved appreciably to the right. At 540°C and below,
the slopes turn sharply to the left. The structure here is
bainite. A point to be noted is that, in this steel bainite
requires less time to form than pearlite while opposite
is the case with a carbon Heel. The carbide formers,
especially molybdenum, hardly affect the rate of bainite
formation. To avoid this structure, nickel or manganese
must be added to the steel.
The rate of pearlite transformation slows down as
the grain size of the austenite increases. (The austenite
grain size is determined by the temperature above A3-
point, to which the steel is heated before cooling it. The
higher this temperature, larger is the austenite grain

•C °F

800
1400

700
1200

600

1000
500

e
o§ 400
w
a*
2
P
300

200 L 400

100 h 200

0 L
«0 ~ <S V>
- « * S 8 8S'8-S
TIME, SEC. " " " S" 8" 8,8"
Fig. 9.12: Isothermal transformation diagram for a steel containing 0.3% carbon, 0.45% manganese, and 1.97%
chromium. Austenite grain size: 6 to 7, Austenitised at 1,600°F (870°C)

size.) This is because pearlite starts to nucleate from the
grain boundaries and grows inward through the grain.
A coarse grain means greater distances over which the
growth has to take place. On the other hand, bainite
formation is little affected by grain size.
Heterogeneity of austenite arises from segregation
and from undissolved carbides and non-metallic
inclusions. Segregation means that some areas of the
steel have lower contents of carbon and alloying
elements, while others are richer in these elements.
Austenite in the former areas will transform more
readily than it would, if the steel had homogeneous
composition. On the other hand, austenite in the latter
areas will transform more sluggishly.
Undissolved carbides and non-metallic inclusions
speed u p transformation by serving as points of
nucleation. Carbides also tie up carbon and sometimes
alloying elements too, and prevent them from being
fully effective in retarding the transformation of the
austenite phase.
Besides carbon, alloying elements also lower Ms and
Mt points. In some steels, the Mf point may be below
the room temperature. In such cases, some austenite is
retained in the steel after quenching. In the case of
austenitic stainless steels, the Ms point is below the room
temperature and hence a fully austenitic structure results
when the material is quenched from above the Appoint.
Ms and Afrtemperatures are also influenced by austenite
homogeneity, but grain size has little effect, since as
stated earlier, martensite formation does not involve
nucleation and growth.
The formation of martensite on q u e n c h i n g is
explained as follows: The extremely rapid cooling from
above A3, prevents the transformation of austenite to
ferrite and cementite. However, the face-centred cubic
lattice of the austenite reverts to body-centred cubic
lattice and the carbon remains dissolved in the resulting
alpha-iron instead of changing to cementite. Martensite
is therefore best described as a supersaturated solution
of carbon in ferrite. As the carbon content increases, the
martensite becomes increasingly hard and brittle.
The TTT or isothermal diagram provides heat
treatment procedure data, where isothermal cooling is
used. Actually continuous cooling and not isothermal,
is used in the hardening of steels and, in fact, the heat-
affected zones are subject to continuous cooling in
welding. Therefore continuous cooling transformation
(CCT) diagrams have also been derived for steels. TTT
and CCT diagrams are closely interrelated, but with the
latter the slowest cooling rate which will allow-100%
martensite to form in a steel can be easily determined.
WELDING METALLURGY 403
This information is very vital for correct hardening of
steel, because the formation of pearlite or bainite has to
be completely avoided. The CCT diagram can also give
us the conditions required for completely avoiding the
formation of martensite, which is largely responsible
for cracking in the heat-affected zones of welded joints,
and also for obtaining desirable microstructures. We
shall deal with CCT diagrams in detail in the section on
heat-affected zones.
At this point it is necessary to explain the term
hardenability, which is sometimes confused with
hardness. The maximum hardness of a steel is primarily
determined by its carbon content. A steel is said to be
highly hardenable when it will form martensite even
with slow cooling in air. On the other hand, a steel which
requires extremely high cooling rate to transform
completely to m a r t e n s i t e is said to have low
hardenability. Thus hardenability is a measure of how
easily martensite forms on quenching. It is an important
factor of weldability of steel, since it determines the
extent to which a steel will harden in the HAZ during
welding. A steel having a coarse grained micro-structure
is more prone to martensite formation over a fine-
grained steel u n d e r identical conditions of
transformation.
Tempering of Martensite
Martensite formed by quenching is hard and brittle
and therefore unsuitable for practical use. By heating
the martensite to some appropriate temperature below
Aj, its ductility and toughness can be increased, while
there is a marginal fall in its strength and hardness. This
heat treatment is termed as tempering, and the resulting
modified microstructure is called as tempered
martensite. Tempering causes the carbon originally
dissolved in ferrite to precipitate as tiny carbide
particles. By correctly choosing the time and
temperature of tempering, the desired Compromise
between hardness and toughness can be obtained. As
the tempering temperature increases, the steel becomes
softer and tougher.
Quenched and tempered steels having the optimum
combination of strength, toughness and weldability, and
high yield-to-tensile ratios, are being used in the
fabrication of structures and pressure vessels in
increasing tonnage in recent years. We shall deal with
them in detail in the Chapter on Weldability of Metals,
Grain Refinement
Fine-grained steels are superior to coarse-grained
steels in ductility, toughness and weldability. There are
404 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
several ways of obtaining fine-grained steels including
normalising, which consists of heating the steel to a
temperature slightly above A3, and cooling down to
room temperature in still air.
As the temperature above A r increases, the austenite
grain size goes on increasing. This is called grain
coarsening. The coarsened grains persist even when the
steel is cooled down to room temperature. High heat
inputs during welding encourage grain-coarsening in
the HAZ.
Precipitation Hardening
Some steels a n d alloys of nickel, a l u m i n i u m ,
m a g n e s i u m a n d t i t a n i u m can be h a r d e n e d or
strengthened by precipitation hardening (also called
age-hardening). They constitute an important class of
today's engineering alloys.
To explain precipitation hardening, we refer to the
phase diagram of an alloy system in Fig. 9.13 in which
the beta (p) phase is soluble in alpha (a) phase and the
LIQUID-na
en
i v»^""
a d
iT»i > produced from the base metal by being heated to a
1 plastic state and subjected to pressure. The resulting
Bill >
a+p
100A X superheated molten condition from the filler metal
9kp * added. During its formation, it is exposed to gases which
Fig. 9.13: Phase diagram of a precipitation hardening
system
solubility increases with temperature. Let us consider
an alloy of the composition denoted by X. This alloy
h a s t w o co-existent p h a s e s of b a n d b at r o o m
temperature. As the alloy is slowly heated, increasing
amounts of P dissolve in a, until the temperature Tl is
reached at which all of the available a of the alloy is
dissolved in the a solid solution. This means that at or
above Tlf the alloy is stable as a single-phase solid
solution.
If the alloy X is now cooled down from Tv the solid
solution becomes supersaturated and the beta-phase,
which cannot remain in solution is rejected from the
solid solution. If the cooling is slow, the beta-phase
precipitates at the grain boundaries. If the cooling is
rapid, there is no time for the rejection of beta and the
single-phase supersaturated structure is retained. Both
these sequences are shown by routes a-b-c and a-b-d in
Fig. 9.14.
The supersaturated structure at room temperature
(8) is identical with the structure at temperature Ta (a),
but is not stable. If the alloy with structure (5) is reheated
to an intermediate temperature between T2 and T4, the
excess of dissolved beta is precipitated again. But the
precipitate is a finely divided, uniformly distributed
beta-phase (e). This represents the correctly age-
hardened structure, which confers optimum strength
on the alloy. Under-aging results in low strength. Over-
aging causes the fine precipitation particles to grow and
agglomerate (f), leading to a fall in strength. An alloy
can get over-aged in service if it is exposed to
t e m p e r a t u r e s above the aging t e m p e r a t u r e for a
sufficiently long time.
II : WELDING METALLURGY
Weld-Metal
Having completed a survey of general metallurgy,
let us now take up the metallurgy of weld-metal. The
formation of weld-metal occurs in various w a y s
depending on the welding process. In the electric
resistance welding processes, for example, the weld is
weld, in some cases, contains a minute portion of fused
metal called the nugget. In dealing with the metallurgy
of weld-metal, it is customary to refer to arc welding
processes, in which the weld-metal is formed in a
are present in the arc atmosphere and to slags (if flux is
used) present in the weld pool. As the heat source moves
further, the weld-metal is cooled by the surrounding
metal. The cooling rate, which influences the final
structure and mechanical properties of the weld-metal,
may be relatively slow or extremely fast, depending on
the joint section thickness and several other factors
which will be explained later. The weld-metal itself may
be a mixture of filler metal and base metal, depending
on the depth effusion. The extent to which the filler
metal chemistry is altered by admixture with the base
metal is termed weld-metal dilution. Thus various
metallurgical and other p h e n o m e n a occur in the
formation of a weld, making it an extremely complex
material to understand.

SOLUTIONISED
(AT T,)
'a
ANNE-
JO « + £
g FINE PRECIPITATE
^ ° /
a +0 IN SOLUTION
Fig. 9.14: Microstructural changes in an age-hardenable alloy during several stages in heat treatment
Weld-metal is often termed simply as weld. Weld is
defined by the American Welding Society as follows:
A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals
produced either by heating the materials to suitable tem-
peratures, with or without the application of pressure,
or by the application of pressure alone, and with or with-
out the use of filler material.
Structure
In practice, the filler metal is designed to match the
mechanical properties and chemical composition of the
base metal as closely as possible. Quite often, the
matching of mechanical p r o p e r t i e s is the major
consideration, and therefore the weld-metal chemistry
varies to some reasonable extent from the base-metal
chemistry. The mechanical properties, as metallurgy tells
us, are determined by the structure, which in the case
of weld-metal, is a direct result of the sequence of events
occurring during welding, which include gas-metal
reactions, slag-metal reactions, solidification and solid-
state reactions which follow solidification.
Solidification: At the start of this chapter, we had
explained how the solidification of liquid metal on
cooling commences at specific points called nuclei, how
these nuclei grow into grains or clusters of crystals and
how the grains with differing orientations meet at grain
boundaries.
Thus the starting point for a grain is a nucleus.
Nucleation m a y commence from the wall of the
WELDING METALLURGY 405.
BALED
PROLONGED OR /* + " 7 ^ « \
OVERHEATING /. ". 'ALr't. \
DURING AGE JT^- /V'J
a + COARSE fi^i£>^
AGE OVERAOED
HARDENED
container (example: wall of an ingot mould in ingot
formation) or from foreign solid particles suspended in
the liquid. These are examples of heterogeneous
nucleation. In cases w h e r e such heterogeneous
nucleation is not available, nuclei must be provided by
the liquid itself. The liquid can do this only when it has
cooled well below the normal solidification temperature.
In other words, nucleation or commencement of the
solidification process requires supercooling of the liquid
metal.
In arc welding, the molten weld pool is contained
by the surrounding solid metal, which means that a
liquid-solid interface is always present at the weld
fusion boundary. This interface provides an ideal
nucleation site. Hence during the solidification of weld-
metal, there is n o h o m o g e n e o u s nucleation and
supercooling is negligible. As the nucleating grains
grow, some of them are pinched off, causing fewer but
larger grains in the weld-metal. The resulting grain size
has a marked effect on mechanical properties.
Generally the heat flow in the weld zone is highly
directional toward the adjacent cold metal and hence
the weld acquires a distinctly columnar structure, in
which the grains are long and parallel to the direction
of heat flow as shown in Fig. 9.15. In the case of the
deep pear-shaped weld shown on the right, it is seen
that columnar grains growing from opposite sides meet
at the middle of the weld. This midplane, where groups
of intersecting columnar grains have solidified last, also
406 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

grain size also has certain relationship with heat input,

but it is disturbed by other factors such as the presence
-<jflffiSB»*- of grain-refining agents and vibration.
When solidification is extremely rapid, dendrites do
not develop fully. Under this condition, projection of
the solidifying interface into the liquid weld pool is
Fig. 9.15: Columnar structure of welds much shorter. The resulting structure is called a cell
structure. In a cellular structure, the spacings between
cells are smaller than those between dendrites and
often contains impurities and porosities. It Is therefore segregation of solutes is less extensive. Cellular and
prone to fracture at low strains. This type of dendritic growth patterns and the manner of solute
solidification defect is sometimes referred to as ingotism. distribution (i.e. segregation pattern) are illustrated in
The problem of ingotism can be overcome by adjusting Fig. 9.16.
the joint gap configuration and welding procedure, so Gas-metal reactions: The molten weld-metal produced
that the geometry of the columnar grain structure is during arc welding must be protected from oxygen and
suitably changed. nitrogen of the air, because their ingress into the weld
Similarly the coarse-grained, columnar structure renders it brittle and porous. It is a little difficult to
of the weld-metal can be improved upon by reconcile to this fact when one considers that in steel
hanging the weld-metal chemistry, bearing in mind that making and casting, steel is melted and poured in air
alloys which solidify over a narrow temperature range without any detrimental effect. A valid explanation is
develop the most columnar and coarse-grained weld- that, the gases oxygen, nitrogen and water vapour ionise
metal. Another way is to vary the welding process, so and become highly reactive in an electric arc and thus
that the pattern of turbulence in the liquid metal is become harmful. They go in solution at higher
suitably altered. temperature but try to come out when the temperature
Dendrite formation: Most weld-metals are subject to drops down causing defects like, porosity, crack, etc. in
rapid solidification, which involves micro-segregation the weld metal.
of alloying elements. During the solidification process,
the alloy elements which lower the melting point are
progressively displaced by the growing solid and are
forced to shift from the liquid-solid interface by diffusion
into and through the liquid. Since diffusion is a time
consuming process, the low-melting liquid tends to
accumulate at the interface. This accumulation impedes
growth and causes the formation of so-called dendrites,
which have a characteristic configuration of filaments
and branches. A dendrite is a special feature of the weld-
metal structure and reflects the irregular shape taken
by the liquid-solid interface during solidification. In an
etched cross-section of a welded joint, one can visualise
how the growing solid dendritic arms have pushed
themselves through the surrounding layer of low-
melting liquid.
A single grain can contain thousands of dendrite NOTE GREATER
branches. This shows that dendrite arm spacing is of I DISTANCE

very minute magnitude. The more rapid the J BETWEEN SOLUJEl

(RICH REGIONS {
solidification, the more closely spaced are the dendrites. J X
This relationship between dendrite arm spacing and LOCATION LOCATION
CELLULAR GROWTH DENDRITIC GROWTH
energy input during welding is fairly consistent, and
has been used to estimate the energy inputs used on Fig. 9.16: Schematic representation of solute
specific welded jobs, for which welding data were not distribution for cellular and dendritic growth patterns
available, by measuring the dendrite arm spacing. The

Oxygen gas is soluble to the extent of 0.2% in molten
steel, and the solubility decreases as the melt cools.
Further oxygen is used up in converting iron to iron
oxide (FeO), which is a brittle non-metallic product. In
steel, which is basically an iron-carbon alloy, oxygen
combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO).
Carbon monoxide bubbles out as the molten weld-metal
cools, but a part of it gets entrapped as a result of rapid
solidification. The result is weld porosity.
Nitrogen also has a similar reaction. Quantities of
nitrogen dissolve in the molten weld and are liberated
as the metal cools. Iron also chemically combines with
nitrogen to form iron nitride, which gets entrapped in
the weld and renders it brittle.
Protection of the arc and the weld pool from the
atmosphere is therefore an important consideration in
the arc welding process. In mai .*&! metal-arc welding,
such protection is given by the ilux covering. In
submerged-arc welding, it is given by the blanket of flux
fully covering the arc and the weld pool. In TIG and
MIG processes an nert gas shield is provided around
the arc. Influ*:coreu arc welding, the shielding is done
by the fi id gas or by flux alone.
Rfc m r to TIG and MIG/C0 2 processes, the
arrun^ exposure to atmosphere is strongly
dej^ ent on the techniques adopted. When dip
t w er (short-circuiting) technique is used in the case
*>f MIG/C0 2 and with the TIG process generally, the
liquid metal is transferred in the form of large droplets
and these droplets are never in free flight through the
high temperature arc plasma. In these cases, the
exposure of the weld-metal is minimum. In MIG/C0 2
welding with spray transfer technique, the metal -passes
across the arc as tiny droplets, which offer a large surface
area for reaction. Also they are superheated to
temperatures much above the melting point. Further,
the arc atmosphere dissociates and ionises the gas
molecules, making them highly reactive.
A process such as electron beam welding is capable
of giving high quality welds even in the case of reactive
metals, mainly because welding is carried out in
vacuum. Welding of titanium is best carried out in a
closed chamber filled with an inert gas like argon,
because it completely eliminates the presence of oxygen
and nitrogen in the vicinity of the arc.
In conventional arc welding processes, in spite of the
maximum protection provided, some amount of oxygen
is present in, or available to, the liquid weld-metal. This
is more so in C0 2 welding. The reaction of oxygen with
carbon and the resulting porosity are generally
prevented by introducing deoxidising elements like
WELDING METALLURGY 407
manganese, aluminium and silicon into the weld-metal,
through the flux or the filler wire. These elements react
preferentially with oxygen thus:
Si+ 20 — > Si0 2
2 Al + 30 > A1203
Mn+O > MnO
Such oxides formed in the weld pool may rise to the
surface as slag or remain entrapped in the weld in the
form of complex oxides. They are recognised as non-
metallic inclusions. Such inclusions are present even in
high quality welds, but they have very little effect on
mechanical properties, because they are extremely fine
and widely dispersed. In badly made welds they may
be present in larger amounts. The result is low impact
properties, which mean reduced toughness.
It is important to point out here that the quantity of
deoxidisers provided in the filler wires and fluxes must
be just sufficient to balance the oxidising potential of
the weld system. Excess of silicon and aluminium in
the weld, especially the latter, leads to serious loss of
ductility and toughness, especially at sub-zero
temperatures. Achieving a correct balance requires an
intelligent selection of the process and materials.
This is best illustrated in the case of gas-shielded
processes. A mild steel filler metal, which is designed
for use with argon—2% oxygen may produce a porous
weld when 100% C0 2 is used as a shield .On the other
hand, a filler metal designed for use with 100% C0 2 may
give a weld of reduced ductility and toughness when
argon—2% oxygen is used, because of over-
deoxidation. Under-deoxidation results in porosity
which can be easily detected, but the effects of over-
deoxidation are more subtle and not detectable by non-
destructive methods. The consequences of over-
deoxidation are thus potentially more dangerous.
Water vapour is another harmful gas to be avoided.
It is introduced into the arc by moisture on the joint
surface, in the flux or in shielding gases. Water vapour
dissociates in the arc to form oxygen and hydrogen. The
harmful effects of oxygen have already been described.
Hydrogen is less liable to cause porosity in the molten
weld-metal, provided it has sufficient fluidity to allow
tha gas to escape. Hydrogen in excess can cause weld-
metal embrittlement. A far more harmful effect of
hydrogen, even when present in small quantities, is the
formation of cracks in the heat-affected zones of welded
joints in high-carbon and low-alloy steels. This will be
discussed in detail in the Chapter on Weldability of
Metals.
In the case of non-ferrous alloy welds, the gases to
be specially guarded against are hydrogen and water
408 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
vapour. Their solution in the molten weld-metal and
subsequent reactions and evolution lead to weld defects.
Porosity is often encountered in a l u m i n i u m and
magnesium welds, because of the hydrogen introduced
into the arc by hydrated oxides present on the surfaces
of the filler wires and joint surfaces. For this reason, MIG
welding wires of Al and Mg are stored in sealed,
desiccated containers, while those exposed to moist air
are mechanically cleaned or vacuum heated at 150°C
prior to use.
In the case of copper and copper-alloy welds, any
hydrogen present in the arc reacts with oxygen in the
molten metal to give rise to water vapour and porosity.
Suitable deoxidisers are therefore incorporated into
copper-alloy filler metals. Aluminium weld is not prone
to oxygen porosity, because the element itself has a
deoxidising effect. The porosity in Al is caused by
hydrogen as explained above. Nickel, nickel-copper and
other nickel-alloy welds are markedly prone to porosity.
Filler metals for these alloys must be provided with
strong deoxidisers.
Welds as well as heated base-metal area of titanium
alloys are embrittled by contact with a number of gases
such as nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen. Welding is
therefore carried out in vacuum or air-tight chambers
filled with inert gas like argon, as explained in Chapter 5.
Slag-metal reactions: Fluxes used in manual metal-arc,
submerged-arc, flux-cored arc and electroslag processes
are converted to liquid slag in the arc. Various chemical
reactions take place between the molten weld-metal and
slag, which are very similar to those which occur when
the metal produced from the ore is being refined. The
slag thus plays an important role in flux-shielded
processes. This fact underscores the significance of
correct flux formulation.
The mechanism of slag-metal reactions has been
explained in detail in the chapters dealing with the
respective welding processes. Here it may suffice to
point out that the slags are designed primarily to remove
the deoxidation products or non-metallics from the
molten weld-metal. The quantity and type of such
compounds are dependent on the welding consumables
used. In most cases they are silicates of aluminium,
manganese and iron, which rise to the surface of the
weld pool and become part of the slag. A minute
proportion of the slag, however, remains entrapped in
the weld as non-metallic inclusions. The ultimate
objective is to obtain clean weld-metal, i.e. with the
lowest amount of non-metallic inclusions. This depends
on the quantity of non-metallics generated in the weld
pool and the extent to which they are removed with the
slag. If the arc environment is strongly oxidising, it calls
for more deoxidation and this gives rise to greater
quantity of non-metallics. With reducing conditions in
the arc, these impurities are p r o d u c e d in smaller
amounts and the resulting weld-metal is much cleaner.
An i m p o r t a n t factor d e t e r m i n i n g w e l d - m e t a l
cleanliness is the choice of deoxidisers and their correct
proportions in the consumables. Aluminium is well
recognised as a powerful deoxidiser, but when used
alone it produces a fine dispersion of solid non-metallic
particles, which remain in the weld-metal and render it
unclean. The correct procedure is to use silicon and
manganese (in the form of Fe-Si and Fe-Mn) as main
deoxidising agents, even though they are less powerful,
so that they react with the bulk of the dissolved oxygen.
A small controlled a m o u n t of a l u m i n i u m is also
provided to bring the final oxygen content to a very low
level, so that any oxidation of carbon and consequent
porosity are avoided. When these three deoxidisers are
correctly used, they will leave 0.01-0.05% metallic
aluminium in the weld-metal.
Another important function of welding slags is to
control the amounts of sulphur and phosphorus in the
weld-metal. Basic slags produced from lime-fluorspar
type fluxes (for example, the coating of AWS EXX 18
class electrode) are capable of lowering the contents of
these harmful elements in the weld-metal and thereby
improving its ductility and toughness. Acidic fluxes, by
their very chemical nature, are unable to perform such
useful function.
Slag-metal reactions and the non-metallics they
produce can sometimes give rise to a weld defect known
as hot cracking. Hot cracking occurs during the last
stages of w e l d - m e t a l solidification, w h e n the
interdendritic liquid has much lower freezing point than
the bulk dendrite. This small liquid region is subjected
to s h r i n k a g e stresses p r o d u c e d as a result of,
solidification, and it develops interdendritic cracks.
Since the cracks occur at temperatures near to the bulk
solidification temperature, they are rightly termed as
hot cracks. They are likely to occur whenever the
compositional variations in the weld-metal result in the
production of a low-melting interdendritic liquid.
In low-alloy and stainless steel welds, hot cracking
is usually caused by low-melting iron and alloy
sulphides, t h o u g h in stainless steels silicates also
promote it. It therefore becomes necessary to control the
amount and type of such sulphides in the weld-metal.
In the case of mild steel and other ferrous weld-metal,
manganese-to-sulphur percentage ratios are kept above
30 to prevent hot cracking. In austenitic stainless steels,

a fully austenitic structure in the weld-metal is more
prone to hot cracking than a duplex structure consisting
of austenite with 3-8% ferrite.
Solid-state reactions: The solid-state reactions
occurring in steel weld-metal during cooling from
above A 3 point are indicated by the iron-carbon phase
diagram. Welds are subjected to very rapid cooling
rates and, unless the carbon content is kept very low,
the transformation products are likely to be martensite
and other hard constituents instead of an aggregate of
ferrite and carbide. If in addition, hydrogen is present
in the arc atmosphere, it can promote cracking in the
weld-metal. The cracking defect occurs after the weld
has cooled to quite a low temperature, even below
150°C. It is therefore termed cold cracking or delayed
cracking.
Cold cracking of the weld-metal is easily avoided
by resorting to one or more of the following steps:
a) Carbon content of the weld-metal is kept low
b) The cooling rate of the weld-metal is reduced by
using higher heat input or by resorting to pre-
heating
c) Low-hydrogen consumables are used.
Cold cracking is not much of a problem in the case
of weld-metal, but occurs quite commonly in the heat-
affected zones of the base metal. Hence it will be
discussed in detail under Weldability of Metals.
An important point to be considered with the weld-
metal is that the desired mechanical properties must be
obtained in the as-welded condition, since heat
treatments such as those used for steels are ruled out.
In some instances, weldments receive a postweld heat
treatment, which mainly relieves residual stresses and
softens a hardened heat-affected zone to some extent.
No greater changes occur, since the temperature of heat
treatment is much below the A3 point.
The tensile and other properties of the ferrous weld-
metal, whose carbon level is kept low, is usually
obtained by solid solution strengthening and fine
particle strengthening effects. This explains why the
manganese content of a weld is higher than that of the
corresponding base metal.
Most weld-metals n a t u r a l l y d e v e l o p a fine
solidification structure. The solidification dendrites are
apparently large, and yet the fine dendrite branching
between the major dendrite columns produces a fine
microstructure, which is e n c o u r a g e d by the
strengthening mechanisms.
In recent years, m u c h w o r k has been d o n e
internationally to establish relationship between weld
WELDING METALLURGY 409
microstructure and its mechanical properties, especially
toughness at low temperatures. At the same time factors
relating to the composition of welding consumables and
welding procedures (especially weld cooling rates)
w h i c h p r o m o t e the formation of favourable
microstructures in the w e l d - m e t a l have been
established. Sufficient knowledge of welding metallurgy
is available today, to obtain welds of high toughness
and ductility demanded by increasingly critical service
conditions.
Weld Microstructure
Metallurgists have always recognised that the weld
microstructure is extremely complex, because of the
unique manner in which it is formed and deposited.
Yet the microstructure of a simple mild steel weld had
not been adequately established until recently. How this
microstructure is constituted; how it is influenced by
chemistry and welding procedures; what is the relation
b e t w e e n w e l d microstructure and mechanical
properties, especially toughness; what is the influence
of non-metallic inclusions, oxygen and nitrogen contents
on toughness; these vital questions had not been
satisfactorily answered for a long time.
Until 1975 there was no universally accepted stan-
dard terminology to describe weld-metal microstruc-
tures, thereby making it difficult for investigators to
compare their work with others. In that year, Widgery
categorised the microstructural constituents in as-de-
posited weld-metal as:
1) Proeutectoid ferrite (light etching)
2) Intermediate lamellar products, mainly ferrite
side plates resembling upper bainite (light etch-
ing)
3) Acicular ferrite, consisting of a fine structure of
interlocking ferrite plates (dark etching); and
4) Other constituents such as carbides, martensite
and inclusions.
Shortly later, Widgery and Davey came out with a
method of assessing the proportion of these various
constituents, which involved a systematic point count
to determine the constituents lound at each of 1,000
points arranged in a two-dimensional array.
Dr. Evans of Oerlikon was one of the first to use
Widgery's technique to investigate the microstructural
changes taking place in mild steel weld deposit as its
Mn content increased from 0.60 to 1.8% and how they
influenced weld properties, especially toughness. He
made four experimental electrodes of iron powder basic
types (AWS E7018 class) giving Mn levels of 0.65. 1.0,
410 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1.4 and 1.8% in the weld and coded them A, B, C and D

respectively. jE-GftAlNED
Multi-run deposits were m a d e with these four COARSE-GRAINED TOP BEAD-COLUMNAR
electrodes according to the procedure described in the \ V—— , /
International Standard ISO 2560-1973. Each deposit
consisted of nine layers with three passes per layer
- \ ^#g* ~
^ 5 . ^ ^ f r ^ _ _ ^ * "^
deposited side by side. A typical cross-section, etched 1 y SSJoE^_^r y
and magnified for macroscopic effect, is shown in Fig.
9.17.
The figure reveals a very significant point that the
ill
multi-pass procedure has resulted in two distinct zones:
columnar or as-cast and a transformed zone. The latter
zone represents the portion which was heated to above
the A3, point during deposition of a subsequent pass,
J
resulting in a change from columnar structure to
equiaxed and a change in grain size. This transformed Fig. 9.18: Diagram of top bead and adjacent areas
zone itself has two distinct sub-zones: the coarse-grained
one which was heated far above the Appoint and the
fine-grained one heated a little above A3 point. Typical variation in such distribution among the four deposits
locations of these regions in and around the top bead and the average worked out to 20% columnar, 34%
extracted from the earlier figure are shown in Fig. 9.18. coarse-grained and 46% fine-grained.
The reason for using deposits made according to ISO The effect of Mn on all-weld tensile properties is
2560 for this investigation is that, all-weld tensile shown in Fig. 9.20. The tensile test results confirm that
welding consumables. The impact values obtained are
influenced to some extent by the p r o p o r t i o n a l
distribution of the columnar, coarse-grained and fine-
grained zones in the Charpy-V specimen. The zone JCOARSE- £ j | FINE-
30LUMNAR |
distribution for the four deposits in the as-welded and GRAINED GRAINED!
stress-relieved conditions (2 h/580°C), as measured in
the vertical midplane region, is shown in Fig. 9.19. The
PLATE
central 10 mm region from which the impact specimen SURFACE
is extracted is also indicated. There was a marginal

<
a, 5
O
u
<

o
PC
15
w
u

20
•STRESS-RELIEVED
Fig. 9.17: Cross-section of multi-run deposit as per ISO
2560-1973 Fig. 9.19: Zone distribution along the vertical centre line
 WELDING METALLURGY 411

250 T f T r—T r-
U.T.S. A H 30
C _ __ CHARPY-V
D
200
/ ^ - ~

> /?7>-
A
- i 20
g 150 - / / • /
/ / / /
2
u
Q
/ /.' /
CO
o ioo / /; /
09
< /''' /
- i 10
#AS-WELDED /,•/ /
OSTRBSS-RELIEVEDl
50

s'

0 "I -L i i i i i
MANGANESE IN WELD, % -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Fig. 9.20: Effect of manganese on the tensile properties TEST TEMPERATURE, °C.
of the multi-run deposits Fig. 9.21: Charpy-V notch impact results (as-welded)

manganese increases the yield strength and tensile

strength of iron-manganese alloys. For the range of
m a n g a n e s e contents investigated, solid-solution
h a r d e n i n g a n d grain refinement led to a linear
influence, an increase of 0.1% Mn increasing the tensile
parameters by 10 N / m m 2 . The tensile properties
decrease after stress-relieving, the drop being greater
in the case of yield strength and high manganese levels.
Carbide precipitation occurred at grain boundaries
during the heat treatment, but evidently no secondary
hardening occurred in the plain C-Mn weld metal
system over the time involved. Results of impact tests
in the and Charpy-V impact specimens machined out
from them are used for the standard assessment of arc
temperature range from 20° down to -80°C are shown
in Fig. 9.21. The results have been rearranged in Fig.
9.22 to highlight the effect of Mn on Charpy-V values
at different temperatures. It clearly establishes that the
maximum toughness is exhibited at the Mn level of
1.5%.
For quantitative metallographic measurements, a
portion of the top central bead of each specimen, as 1.0 1.5 2.0
shown in Fig. 9.18 was examined at x 200 magnification. MANGANESE IN WELD, %
A typical photomicrograph representing the columnar Fig. 9.22: Effect of manganese (Charpy-V)
top bead is shown in Fig. 9.23, in which light etching
proeutectoid ferrite is m a r k e d 1, light etching The results obtained on point counting are shown
intermediate lamellar products are marked 2, and in Fig. 9.24, They show that the amount of acicular
aciculai ferrite is marked 3. Carbides and martensite ferrite increases m a r k e d l y at the expense of
were not noticeable. proeutectoid ferrite as the Mn content increases. The
412 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 9.23: Photomicrograph of top bead (columnar)

proeutectoid ferrite and the lamellar products have the

100
B c D opposite effect.
-r ~r-
• AS-WELDED While the proportion of acicular ferrite keeps on
# 90 O STRESS-RELIEVED increasing throughout, optimum toughness is observed
H at 1.5% Mn and not at higher levels. This shows that the
Z 80
w pattern of behaviour is dependent on the competing
zo 70 ACICULAR actions of Mn to:
FERRITE (3) 1) Increase the yield strength by hardening the
o 60 ferrite
u
2) Increase the acicular ferrite volume fraction and
50
3 to refine the grain size in the reheated region.
40 Stress-relief does not influence Charpy-V results.
This is explained by the fact that the decrease in
Io 30

20
toughness expected as a result of carbide precipitation
is compensated for by a softening of the ferrite.
PRO-EUTECTOID Using identical four electrodes (A, B, C, D) and
u similar t e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s , Dr. Evans
10 FERRITE (1)
investigated the influence of the following factors on
0 I weld microstructure and mechanical properties:
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1) Increase of interpass temperature from 20°C to
MANGANESE IN WELD, %. 300°C while making the deposit
Fig 9.24: Effect of Mn on microstructure of top bead
2) Electrode diameter ranging from 3.25 to 6 mm
proportion of intermediate lamellar component also 3) Heat input ranging from 0.6 to 4.3 k j / mm
decreases with increasing Mn. It is obvious that acicular 4) Carbon content of the weld ranging from 0.045
ferrite is c o n d u c i v e to g o o d t o u g h n e s s , w h i l e to 0.145%

5) Manganese content from 0.6% to 1.8%
6) Silicon content of the weld ranging from 0.2 to
0.9%
7) Sulphur and Phosphorus contents of the weld
ranging from 0.005 to 0.045%.
8) Chromium and Nickel content
9) Molybdenum, Niobium, Vanadium content
10) Titanium and Boron content
11) Effects of Aluminium, Copper, Oxygen
12) Effect of Iron powder
13) Welding position
14) Effect of stress-relieving
15) Normalising for 30 min at 930°C and tempering
for 2 hours at 580°C
16) Effect of interpass temperature
17) Effect of electrode diameter
In investigations (1) to (5), intermediate lamellar
products have been substituted by the term bainite
(ferrite side plates). For (7) and (8), Dr. Evans has used
the revised weld microstructure terminology of the
Welding Institute explained in chapter no. 9.
1) He found that increasing interpass temperature re-
sulted in the following:
a) Increased the width of the recrystallised zones
and this tended to eliminate the columnar bands
from the bulk of the deposit.
b) Coarsened the microstructures of as-deposited
weld-metal, acicular ferrite being replaced by
proeutectoid ferrite and, to a slight extent, ferrite
side plates (bainite).
c) Increased the lath size of the acicular ferrite in
as-deposited weld-metal.
d) Coarsened the microstructure of the high
temperature reheated regions, the width of the
ferrite envelopes increasing.
e) Increased the grain size of the equiaxed
fine-grained regions.
f) Lowered the yield and tensile strengths,
the loss being dependent on weld-metal
Mn content.
g) Had a beneficial effect on the impact properties.
h) The optimum Mn level remained at 1.4% with
respect to impact properties.
2) Increase in electrode diameter resulted in the follow-
ing:
a) The relative percentages of the microstructural
components in as-deposited weld-metal re-
WELDING METALLURGY 413
mained unchanged but the lath size of the acicu-
lar ferrite increased.
b) The average width of the columnar grains in
as-deposited weld-metal increased.
c) The microstructure of the high temperature
reheated regions coarsened, the width of the fer-
rite envelopes increasing.
d) The grain size of the equiaxed fine-grained regions
increased.
e) The percentage amount of unrefined weld-metaJ
in the central regions of the deposits increased.
f) The hardness variations in the bulk of the
deposit became more pronounced and
corresponded to the wide unrefined regions.
g) The yield and tensile strengths decreased but not
to a marked extent.
h) The Charpy-V impact properties deteriorated, the
lateral displacement being dependent on the Mn
content.
i) The optimum Mn level with regard to impact
properties remained at approximately 1.4%.
3) Increase in heat input resulted in the following:
a) The number of beads per layer varied and the
nugget and recrystallised area increased.
b) The hardness of as-deposited weld-metal de-
creased.
c) The average width of the columnar grains in-
creased.
d) The amount of proeutectoid ferrite in as-depos-
ited weld-metal increased at the expense of the
acicular ferrite.
e) The lath size of the acicular ferrite increased.
f) The microstructure of the high temperature re-
heated regions coarsened, the width of the fer-
rite envelopes increasing.
g) The grain size of the equiaxed fine-grained re-
gions increased.
h) The amount of columnar weld-metal remaining
in the bulk of the deposit varied.
i) The yield strength and the tensile strength de-
creased.
j) The strengthening effect of manganese de-
creased.
k) Optimum Charpy-V impact properties were
achieved at 2 kj/mm, when the notch was cen-
trally located.
1) The optimum Mn level with regard to impact
properties remained at approximately 1.4%.
414 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
4) Dr. Evans found that the following occurred on in-
creasing the carbon content of the weld:
a) The average width of the prior austenite grains
decreased.
b) The amount of aciciilar ferrite increased at the
expense of the proeutectoid ferrite.
c) The aspect ratio of the acicular ferrite changed,
and increasing amount of carbide formed be-
tween the laths.
d) Grain refinement occurred in the high tempera-
ture reheated regions.
e) Grain refinement occurred in the low tempera-
ture reheated regions.
f) Increasing amounts of second phases were pre-
cipitated in the fine-grained regions.
h) The yield and tensile strengths increased linearly.
i) The Charpy-V curves were tilted the upper shelf
being depressed, whereas the lower shelf was
raised.
j) The degree of scattering in the Charpy test was
reduced.
k) Notch toughness improved at low Mn levels and
deteriorated at high Mn levels.
1) At an intermediate Mn content (1.4%), the
t o u g h n e s s initially i m p r o v e d a n d then
deteriorated, an optimum occurring in the range
0.07 to 0.09% C.
m ) A t any specific carbon content, o p t i m u m
toughness was encountered at 1.4% Mn.
5) Dr. Evans noted the following points on reverting
from the flat to the vertical-up welding position at
equivalent heat-inputs:
a) The weld-metal carbon, manganese, silicon and
oxygen were increased.
b) The nitrogen content was decreased.
c) The bead size was greater.
d) The degree of recrystallisation, in the central
region of the deposits, was less.
e) The columnar grains were inclined at a flatter
angle to the bead surface.
f) The hardness of the as-deposited weld-metal was
identical.
g) The microstructures of the as-deposited metals,
the coarse grained regions and the fine grained
regions were comparable for both w e l d i n g
positions.
h) The yield strengths and the tensile strengths were
essentially the same.
i) A reversal in impact property relationships
occurred at manganese contents above 1.2%.
j) Optimum impact properties were maintained at
a manganese content of about 1.4%.
k) The impact properties, at the optimum, were com-
parable when considered on the basis of heat in-
put.
6) The following occurred when the four deposits A,
B, C and D were stress-relieved at 580°C for two hours:
a) The m o r p h o l o g y of second-phase particles
changed, breakdown occurring to ferrite and car-
bide.
b) Pearlite and cementite films were spheroidised.
c) Grain boundary carbides developed and subse-
quently coarsened.
d) The hardness of deposited and reheated regions
decreased.
e) The yield and tensile strength decreased.
f) Notch toughness improved at low C and Mn
levels and deteriorated at high C and Mn levels.
g) At intermediate levels, no essential change in
toughness occurred, the optimum being retained
at 1.4% Mn w h e n the carbon content was
between 0.07 and 0.09%.
7) For studying the effects of normalising and tem-
pering, the all-weld metal deposits A, B, C and D were
normalised for 30 min at 930°C and a duplicate set was
additionally tempered for two hours at 580°C. Weldments
from C (1.4% Mn) were also normalised at 880,980,1030
and 1080°C for 30 min and further tempered as 0...23
mentioned earlier.
The specimens were subjected to conventional met-
allographic examination and their carbon replicas were
additionally examined under a scanning electron mi-
croscope. In this and subsequent studies, Dr. Evans has
used the revised terminology on weld-metal micro-
structure of the Welding Institute explained in chapter
no. 9.
The microstructure of the weld-metals normalised
at 930°C is seen to be polygonal ferrite existing in
combination with dark etching second phases, which
i n c r e a s e d in a m o u n t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Mn. The
microphases were identified as being cementite films
(CF),_p_earlite (P) and martensite/austenite/bainite
(M/A/B). The total amount of second-phase increased
systematically as the manganese content increased. In
addition, t h e ^ o r m of the phases was found tc be
critically dependent on the weld-metal composition.
At 0.6% Mn, the majority of the carbide existed as grain

boundary film. With increasing manganese, fewer
films were evident and more pearlite was observed
together with a lighter etching duplex phase. At 1.8%
Mn, large amounts of this latter intermediate phase,
designated as M / A / B , coexisted with a lesser amount
of pearlite.
After tempering of normalised low Mn weld-metal,
the cementite films tended to globularise at the grain
boundaries and partial breakdown of the pearlite
occurred. Similarly, the pools of M / A / B in the high Mn
deposits dissociated after tempering, with the formation
of fine carbide particles within the regions occupied by
the colonies.
Average grain size measurements for 1.4% Mn
deposit normalised at temperatures between 880 and
1080°C indicated that at 880°C, incomplete
normalisation had occurred. The extent of grain-
coarsening was only g r a d u a l w i t h increasing
temperature and even above 1,000°C, the grain size was
still by no means excessive. After normalising at the
higher temperatures, however, the pearlite colonies were
large and much better defined.
The effects of full heat-treatment (normalising) have
been summarised by Dr. Evans as follows:
a) The ferrite grain size increased with increasing
temperature.
b) The ferrite grain size decreased with increasing
manganese content.
c) The total amount of second-phase increased with
increasing manganese.
d) The m o r p h o l o g y of the s e c o n d - p h a s e w a s
dependent on weld-metal composition, grain
boundary cementite films being replaced succes-
sively by pearlite and martensite/austenite/
bainite as the manganese content increased.
e) The hardness of the deposits decreased.
f) The yield and tensile strength decreased.
g) The notch toughness deteriorated but the opti-
mum was still retained at approximately the 1.5%
Mn level.
h) Subsequent t e m p e r i n g lowered the tensile
strength and improved notch toughness to an
extent dependent on the type of second-phase
present.
8) Increase in weld-metal Si from 0.20 to 0.90% re-
sulted in the following:
a) The weld-metal oxygen decreased.
b) The amount of acicular ferrite in as-deposited
metal increased.
WELDING METALLURGY 415
c) The aspect ratio of the acicular ferrite changed
a n d increasing a m o u n t of second-phase
wasretained.
d) Although grain size in the low temperature
reheated region r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d , the
amount of second-phase increased.
e) The m o r p h o l o g y of these second-phases
changed, cementite film and B/P being replaced
by M / A .
f) The hardness increased non-linearly.
g) The tensile parameters increased non-linearly.
h) The notch toughness deteriorated to an extent de-
pendent on the manganese content.
i) A silicon content of up to 0.5% can be tolerated
when the manganese content is optimised.
9) The following was found on increasing sulphur and
phosphorus:
a) Sulphur increased the volume fraction of ferrite
with aligned MA-C in the as-deposited metal; this
change in transformation is attributed to the ex-
istence of a layer of MnS on the surface of inclu-
sions.
b) Sulphur had no effect on the grain size of reheated
weld-metal, but did change the morphology of
the second phases, from M / A to pearlitic-type
structures and cementite films.
c) Sulphur lowered the hardness, decreased the ten-
sile properties and drastically reduced notch
toughness.
d Phosphorus had no apparent effect on the micro-
structure of either the as-deposited metal or on
the reheated regions.
e) Phosphorus increased the hardness and the ten-
sile properties, but had little effect on notch
toughness.
f) Sulphur exerts its influence through non-metal-
lic inclusions and phosphorus through ferrite
strengthening.
g) Little benefit is to be gained by reducing sulphur
and phosphorus much below 0.005%.
To understand correctly the relation between weld
microstructure and toughness, one must distinguish
between two main mechanisms of fracture occurring in
weld-metal. They are (a) cleavage and (b) microvoid
coalescence as shown in Fig. 9.25. Resistance of a given
weld deposit to these two mechanisms determines the
s h a p e of the transition curve (toughness versus
temperature). In order to arrive at correct solutions for
416 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 9.25: Fracture mechanisms in weld-metal: (a) cleavage; (b) microvoid coalescence
improving weld-metal toughness, factors controlling
these mechanisms must be treated separately.
COD testing is considered to be best suited for
investigating and distinguishing between the two
fracture m e c h a n i s m s , because firstly, it assesses
resistance to initiation of fracture and, secondly the
t o u g h n e s s values can be readily linked to the
m i c r o s t r u c t u r e at the specimen crack tip by
metallographic sectioning and to the mechanism of
initiation by fractography. In Charpy-V test, it is
impossible to separate clearly the contributions of the
two fracture mechanisms, except at the extreme ends of
the transition curve, where 100% crystallinity or 100%
fibrosity are developed.
Weld-metal used in critical dynamically loaded
structures, such as offshore platforms must have high
resistance to cleavage, since fracture initiation by this
mechanism may lead to catastrophic failure of the
structure or vessel. Today data on factors controlling
resistance to cleavage of weld-metals are scarce: on the
other hand, information on factors governing microvoid
coalescence is more readily available, since upper shelf
values from Charpy tests reflect resistance to this
mechanism of fracture.
Resistance to Cleavage
In C-Mn weld deposits, resistance to cleavage is
improved and transition temperature lowered as the
proportion of interlocking acicular ferrite is raised
and what of proeutectoid ferrite and upper bainite
is l o w e r e d . Also, the finer the plate size of the
acicular ferrite the better the toughness. In the heat
input range of 2-4 k j / m m , increasing the levels of
Mn, Mo and Ni. Increases the proportion of this
constituent and results in improved toughness. Once
the level of nearly 90% acicular ferrite is reached,
any further increase of Mn or Mo will promote brittle
martensite regions and lead to a fall in cleavage
resistance.
The effects of alloying elements Mn, Ni and Mo on
the development of acicular ferrite microstructures and
the resultant toughness are very much dependent on
heat input rate, which determines the cooling time from
800 to 500°C, i.e., At 800-500. Taking the example of Mn,
at low heat inputs the increase in Mn necessary to form
a given proportion of acicular ferrite would be much
smaller. At high heat inputs (i.e. slow cooling rates), a
substantial increase in Mn would be necessary to
displace the proeutectoid ferrite and upper bainite
transformation start curves sufficiently to form acicular
ferrite. Thus in submerged-arc welding, changing from
S2 wire (1% Mn) to S3 (1.5% Mn) or S4 (2% Mn) is likely
to be beneficial at low heat inputs but detrimental at
high heat inputs, unless additional elements are used
to achieve sufficient hardenability to produce acicular
ferrite.
The same general arguments apply to Mo and Ni
additions, which are strong acicular ferrite formers.
C o n s u m a b l e s containing 0.5% Mo, 1-3% Ni or
combinations of Ni and Mo are often selected for high
toughness applications of C-Mn steels. At low heat
inputs (At 800-500°C—10 sec), Mo and Ni additions
would be expected to be beneficial to cleavage resistance
by promoting acicular ferrite, but at high heat inputs,
the situation could be reversed, unless sufficient
amounts were added to develop significant proportions
of acicular ferrite. Taking the example of Mo, the use of
Mo submerged-arc wires will probably be beneficial at
heat inputs around 3 k j / m m , but they will be less
beneficial at high heat inputs, unless other elements are
used to achieve adequate hardenability and to develop
acicular ferrite, e.g. Ni and Ti.

Microalloyed Weld-Metal
Considerable research work has been devoted to the
effects of elements such as Nb, V, Ti, B and Al on weld-
metal toughness. These elements may be present in
small quantities as deliberate a d d i t i o n s to the
consumables, or may be picked up in dilution with the
parent steel.
The role of Nb is a little puzzling, but has been
explained by the fact that Nb acts to inhibit proeutectoid
formation at austenite boundaries, but does not prevent
ferrite plates growing into the grains to form upper
bainite structures. From CCT considerations, Nb pushes
back the polygonal ferrite nose, but not that for upper
bainite. Thus for weld structures of low hardenability,
i.e. those in which the polygonal ferrite and upper
bainite fractions are high and acicular ferrite low, Nb
will tend to increase the proportion of upper bainite and
acicular ferrite at the expense of polygonal ferrite at
austenite boundaries. The yield strength will also
increase, and the net effect would be a fall in cleavage
resistance. For weld structures already containing a high
proportion of acicular ferrite due either to a low heat
input or adequate alloy content at a high heat input, Nb
will still act to decrease the polygonal ferrite fraction,
but the resulting overall increase in acicular ferrite
fraction is more important than a small increase in the
bainite fraction. However the net effect of Nb additions
in this case is zero, since the improvement in acicular
ferrite content is offset by the formation of small
segregated lath martensite regions. The aforesaid holds
good as long as Nb is below 0.04%. Above this level, Nb
has been found to markedly lower toughness even if
the acicular ferrite content is high.
While Nb inhibits the formation of proeutectoid
ferrite, vanadium has been found to inhibit upper bainite
formation. The effect of vanadium primarily depends
on heat input and hardenability of weld-metal. In cases
where high heat input is combined with low weld
hardenability, the increase in V is not sufficient to
achieve the hardenability necessary to form substantial
acicular ferrite; on the other hand the yield strength
increases with V additions, and the net result is a fall in
cleavage resistance. If the initial weld-alloy content is
sufficient to develop a reasonable proportion of acicular
ferrite for the given welding procedure, the V additions
increase the proportion of acicular ferrite by decreasing
the upper bainite fraction, and cause weld-metal
toughness to improve.
Vanadium additions to Nb weld deposits have been
found to promote proeutectoid ferrite and lower yield
strength. This effect might be explained by the role of V
WELDING METALLURGY 417
in inhibiting upper bainite formation as mentioned
earlier. The result is higher proportions of proeutectoid
ferrite and acicular ferrite and improved cleavage
resistance.
Titanium additions up to 0.04% maximum have been
found to improve Charpy-V toughness of mild steel
welds deposited by the C 0 2 process by increasingly
refining the microstructure and promoting more acicular
ferrite. Above this level, the microstructure is further
refined but the yield strength increases markedly and
the toughness gets reduced. In alloyed weld-metals
d e p o s i t e d by the MMA, submerged-arc or MIG
processes, similar good effects have been observed, but
the optimum level of Ti has been found to be 0.015% or
less. In all the above investigations, the welding
conditions and alloy contents were such as to develop
acicular ferrite even in the absence of Ti. Titanium
additions increased hardenability and in particular
inhibited u p p e r bainite formation and promoted
acicular ferrite. Evidence has been gathered that Ti and
V additions are more effective in combination than when
added alone, in the same way as Nb and V are.
As a microalloying element in weld-metal, boron has
stolen considerable limelight in the last five years. Its
useful property is that, it can eliminate proeutectoid
ferrite and promote fine-grained structures without the
disadvantage of significant solid solution hardening,
which one sees with Mn, Mo, etc.
The demand for high heat input, high deposition rate
submerged-are welding procedures together with good
low temperature weld-metal toughness properties in C-
Mn structural steels has led to the development of new
submerged-arc solid or flux-cored wire containing
controlled amounts of B, Ti and Mo (a patented solid
wire called Ti-Bor-22 contains 0.22 Mo, 0.0038 B and 0.03
Ti besides 1.50 Mn). B a n d Mo a d d i t i o n s give
hardenability and hence a low austenite transformation
temperature, producing a strong and tough acicular
ferrite, while Ti prevents contamination of the boron
by N 2 ; or 0 2 ;. The total effect is to increase the proportion
of acicular ferrite in the microstructure and refine the
acicular ferrite grain size, thereby leading to significant
increases in sub-zero Charpy-V impact values. Using
Ti-Bor-22 wire with highly basic flux (Oerlikon OP-41TT
of basicity = 3.0) to weld 50 mm t BS 4360 50 D plate by
multipass technique at heat input of 7.9 kj/mm, Charpy-
V values of over 100 J at - 60°C have been reported for
the weld-metal which had 84% acicular ferrite and no
ferrite side plates.
This concept of Ti-B additions was recently extended
to manual electrodes. The conventional 0.5-3.5% Ni type
418 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

electrodes which give good Charpy-V impact values
down to -50°C in flat position have been found to
possess inadequate COD property even at -10°C for
welds deposited in vertical position, which normally
involves high heat input rates. On the other hand, a
typical Ti-B electrode without Ni and having the
composition given below has been reported to give, in
addition to excellent Charpy-V values, COD values of
0.25 m m or more at -50°C even for the vertically
deposited welds at heat input of 3.5 k j / m m . This
exceptional resistance to fracture by cleavage has been
ascribed to the microstructure, which consists of fine
structures of proeutectoid ferrite and acicular ferrite, free
of side-plate ferrite.
This development has special relevance to site
welding of LPG storage tanks, where considerable
amount of vertical welding is involved and adequate
toughness at -50°C has to be ensured.
Resistance to Microvoid Coalescence
In C-Mn deposits, fracture by void nucleation,
growth and coalescence at non-metallic inclusions is
considered less serious with respect to catastrophic
failures than fracture by cleavage. Yet if one is concerned
w i t h Charpy-V upper-shelf v a l u e s , one m u s t
understand the metallurgical factors controlling this
mechanism.
For good Charpy-V toughness; the weld-metal must
have low non-metallic inclusion population, that is, low
volume fractions and a high mean free spacing of the
densities being 3,700-4,000 k g / m 3 . Oxygen is
determined by vacuum fusion method.
Oxygen levels vary markedly between welding
processes. In MMA welding, rutile and acid-type
electrodes give deposit oxygen content of 0.04 to 0.10%,
while basic types give 0.02-0.04%. Figure 9.26 shows a
clear inverse correlation between oxygen at 300-1000
ppm (parts per million) and Charpy-V impact energy
at 0°C for MMA deposits. In submerged-arc welding,
the oxygen content range is 0.02-0.17% depending on
the type of flux and weld-metal dilution (see Fig. 9.27);
for MIG welding 0.01-0.02% and for C0 2 -welding 0.04-
0.06%. One may now understand why for obtaining
highest toughness in gas-shielded welding, one is
advised to use an argon-rich gas shield and vacuum
deoxidised wires a n d w h y wires h a v i n g high
percentages of Mn and Si are used when welding under
the highly oxidising C 0 2 shield.
Sulphur contributes directly to the inclusion volume
fraction by forming sulphide inclusions. For highest
OXYGEN, PPM
200
500 MOO 1500
•
(J
•j
b
<
150
r ••
• .
-1

• 'x
inclusions. These can be realistically determined only H 100 h
o
<
> . . •
by using replica techniques and the electron microscope. Q.
-|
To keep inclusion volume fractions low, oxygen and >
sulphur levels in the deposit must be kept minimum.
Since the solubility of oxygen in weld-metal is extremely <
x
50 Lh . -^
• \
o
low, its main effects are related to the volume fraction
and type of oxide reaction products trapped in the solid
weld by the rapid freezing over of the weld pool surface. . l i t l__J 1 _L_J 1 _j 1 1
The m a i n oxide inclusions are (Mn, Fe)Si0 3 , 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15
OXYGEN, WT%
Si0 2 Al 2 0 3 ,Ti0 2 and (Fe Mn)0. Sulphides such as (Mn,
Fe)S, nitrides, carbides and carbonitrides are also Fig. 9.26: The effect of oxygen on Charpy-V energy in
present. MMA weld deposits at 0°C

c Si Mn Ti B YS UTS Eln.
N/mm2 N/mm2 %
0.07 0.20 1.65 0.04 0.004 510 570 30

The total oxygen level in a weld reflects the volume toughness, one must ensure that this impurity element
fraction V0 of oxide inclusions through the approximate is kept as low as possible in wires, fluxes and base
formula V0 = 5.5 (% O), based on oxide inclusion plates.
 WELDING METALLURGY 419

KEY
H-HIGH DILUTION WELD
L - L O W DILUTION WELD
ARABIC NUMERALS INDICATE NO. OF
WELD ANALYSES.

14

f I #(Mh fl
F15 Fl F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F16 F17 F18 F13
HIGH Si02. MED S1O2. LOW S1O2

CALCIUM SILICATE MANGANESE * ALUMINIUM BASIC

SILICATE

Fig. 9.27: Ranges of O content from welds made with different fluxes

Nitrogen is another impurity element one must have N 2 levels as high as 0.080-0.20%, unless the wires
guard against. Moragaki et al. have studied the effect of have correct amounts of Al and Ti to play the role of
N2 in weld-metal on Charpy-V impact property at -30°C final deoxidation and nitride fixing. TIG and MIG welds
and their results are shown in Fig. 9.28. It is observed
that the impact value falls steeply when weld N, content i i —1 1 1 1 1
exceeds 100 ppm (0.010%). Ingress of N 2 into weld-metal ELECTRODE SHIELDING
SIZE OAS J
is the result of its ionisation in the arc. The degree of 0 4 AND 5
ionisation increases with arc temperature. • 4 AND 5 Ar J
20
Cellulosic and basic electrodes have the lowest ni-
trogen levels of MMA electrodes of around 0.004- . O A
0.014%, by virtue of the heavy shielding effect of the • O
gases from the decomposition of the cellulose and basic
carbonates respectively. By comparison, acid and rutile
•
8o
0
8V
coated electrode welds have higher typical mean fig- •
ures of 0.022 and 0.027% N 2 , which is attributable to the •* H
longer arc lengths and higher oxygen levels. Over-bak- ~i
ing the acid or rutile types increases nitrogen levels be-
10 OcQ
cause of reduced H 2 / H 2 0 shielding; basic types are
unaffected up to 450-500°C, because of the carbonate
- •*-
~^8 H

stability. Submerged-arc welds have nitrogen range of

NQ°
0.005-011%, most of it derived from wire and plate. The
\£
-j
C0 2 process is prone to nitrogen entrainment in the arc.
It is usually caused by some defect in the equipment or
faulty welding technique or by windy conditions. Po- 0 L 1 i i ......_i i i j 1 J
rosity occurs in C 0 2 welds when the N; content exceeds 100 200
0.020% and this happens when nitrogen in the shield- NITROQEN, PPM
ing gas is above 3% for short-circuiting arc and above
Fig. 9.28: Relation between Charpy-V notch energy
15% for spray-type arc. The so-called open arc weld absorption at -30° and nitrogen content of weld-metals
deposits given by self-shielding flux-cored wires can
420 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
have also been known to contain nitrogen in spite of
argon shielding, more so in draughty conditions.
Wl Scheme
Having realised the inadequacy of Widgery's descriptions used elsewhere. Each of the categories has
terminology on weld-metal microstructure referred to been given a code to help in point counting and in
earlier, the Welding Institute put forth in 1980 a revised annotating micrographs as is done in Fig. 9.29.
scheme whose objective is to quantify two main features
of any weld microstructure, first the proportion of the the following respects:
various constituents present and second their effective
dimensions.
Initially, the prior austenite grain size is determined.
Its shape is usually revealed by the presence of ferrite
which formed at the austenite boundaries during
transformation on weld cooling. A linear intercept
technique is usually satisfactory for determining the
grain dimensions. Sometimes it is not possible to
determine this, because the position of the grain
boundaries cannot be recognised easily. In the next step,
Fig. 9.29: As-deposited weld microstructures showing
the various microstructural constituents:
the six categories of constituents as shown in Table 9.2
are looked for and quantified. For this purpose,
magnification of x 500 is adequate. Figure 9.29 gives
examples of the categories. Table 9.2 also lists equivalent
This new technology differs from Widgery's in
1) The term proeutectoid ferrite is replaced by more
descriptive headings, which recognise that fer-
rite can occur either in association with austenite
grain boundaries (GF) or can be apparently in
tragranular (PF)
2) Replacing the term lamellar component by
ferrite with aligned M-A-C which mean; ferrite
containing martensite-austenite (M-A) or carbide
(C) phases
3) Identifying martensite as a separate constituent
from ferrite-carbide aggregates, such as pearlite.
The term bainite is not included, because confu-
sion surrounds its use and very special details are
required to identify the constituent.
In the third step, specifically those constituents re-
vealed by a picral etch are observed at high magnifica-
tion. They are M-A phases and/or carbides whose pro-
portion, type and distribution may be correlated with
mechanical properties. Their proportions which can of-
ten be up to 10% of the microstructure can be usefully
quantified by point counts. Further subdivision into
twinned or lath martensite is possible through trans-
mission electron microscopy.
In point counting, errors may occur due to, (a)
selection of inappropriate region or section, (b) careless
specimen preparation, (c) difficulty in classifying
constituents, or (d) statistical method used.
Heat-affected Zone
Heat-affected Zone (HAZ) is that portion of the base
metal lying next to the fusion line of weld, which had
not melted but whose mechanical properties or
microstructures have been altered by the heat of
welding. The HAZ is subjected to a complex thermal
cycle (sudden heating followed by rapid cooling), in
which all temperatures from the melting range of the
steel down to mere warming are involved, and therefore
consists of a series of graded structures ringing the weld
bead.
HAZ structure: A typical HAZ in a carbon steel can
be divided into four distinct regions according to the
 WELDING METALLURGY 421

Table 9.2 : Proposed scheme for the quantitative description of weld-metal microstructural constituents
using the light microscope
Orientational
(Please indicate) Transverse
Longitudinal Sketch (if required)
Plan
Other
1) Determination of prior austenite grain size—nital etch
Mean linear intercept = mm
2) Examination of constituent phases—nital etch
Preferred magnification = x 500 Magnification used = x
Microstructural constituent Code Previous descriptions Characteristic Proportion
dimension of o/
/o
constituent of
colony* um
Grain boundary ferrite, GF Proeutectoid ferrite,
ferrite veins, blocky
ferrite, polygonal ferrite

Polygonal ferrite PF Ferrite islands

Acicular ferrite AF Acicular ferrite

Ferrite with aligned M-A-C AC Ferrite side plates, upper

bainite, feathery bainite,
lamellar product
Ferrite-carbide aggregate FC Pearlite, ferrite+ interphase
carbide
Martensite M Martensite
3) Examination of microphases—picral etch
Preferred magnification range = x 1000 to x 2000 Magnification used
Microstructural constituent Code Characteristic dimension Proportion
of constituent, um %
Ferrite

Ferrite-carbide aggregate FC

M-A constituent (includes M-A

retained austenite, lath
martensite and twinned
martensite)
'e.g. Ferrite band width, acicular ferrite lath width, colony size offerrite with aligned M-A-C
* Quote to nearest whole number

maximum temperature reached. These regions along
with the pertinent iron-carbon phase diagram are shown
in Fig. 9.30.
Region 1 which lies in contact with the fusion line
was heated high into the austenite temperature range
and is therefore extremely coarse-grained. It is
normally a high hardness zone and, if the cooling rate
is high enough, can readily transform to brittle
martensite. This is the most potentially dangerous area
of the HAZ.
Region 2 was heated slightly above A, into the fully-
austenitic range. It is normally fine-grained, of
moderate hardness and not likely to transform to
martensite.
422 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 9.30: Relation between the peak temperatures
experienced by various regions in HAZ, and how these
correlate with the iron-corbon phase diagram
Region 3 was heated between A2 and A3, i.e. partially
into the austenite range and thus acquires a mixed
structure. A small amount of martensite may form in it,
if the cooling rate is high enough. It is usually not very
hard and yet may be brittle if martensite is present.
Region 4 was not heated high enough to form
martensite, but the wilding heat has served to temper
the metal to a soft condition.
Factors controlling microstructure: The H A Z
microstructure is determined by the composition of the
steel and the welding thermal cycle. The higher the
carbon content, the harder and more susceptible to
cracking will be the transformed HAZ microstructure.
A higher content of alloying elements will increase the
hardenability, enabling a hardened HAZ to be formed
more readily; the particular alloying elements can also
influence the susceptibility to cracking. The entire factor
of carbon and the alloying elements can be expressed
as carbon equivalent, which is given by the following
formula:
Mn Cr + Mo + V Ni+Cu
The cooling rate of the HAZ is dependent upon
thickness of the plate being welded (an increase of which
increases the cooling rate), size of weld bead (process
energy input) and preheat temperature (increase in both
will decrease the cooling rate).
Hydrogen-induced cracking: Taking steel of a
particular composition and thickness, heat input rate
coupled with preheat, if necessary, should be so chosen
as to avoid the formation of martensite in the HAZ.
Martensite is not acceptable, because it is brittle. In
addition, in the presence of hydrogen and restraint-
induced stresses it can cause delayed cold cracking in
the HAZ. Hydrogen is generated in the welding arc by
the dissociation of moisture present in the electrode
coating or submerged-arc flux, or by the combustion
of organic compounds which are sometimes present in
the electrode coatings of the rutile and cellulosic types.
Hydrogen is also generated from the oil and grease,
which may exist on the plate edges or on the bare
welding wire.
Hydrogen-induced cracking can be controlled by, (1)
using hydrogen-controlled electrodes and dry, clean
submerged-arc welding consumables, (2) by control of
joint design, and (3) by delayed cooling of the HAZ after
transformation to allow hydrogen to diffuse out. Here
it must be understood that removal of hydrogen above
the transformation temperature is not possible, because
the diffusion rate of hydrogen in austenite is too low.
The phenomenon of hydrogen- induced cracking and
methods of preventing its occurrence will be explained
at length in Chapter 10.
Sometimes one has to weld hardenable steels under
restraint, where martensite formation and cold cracking
are likely to occur even after using best welding
procedures and hydrogen-controlled electrodes. In such
cases, the remedy lies in ensuring delayed cooling of
the HAZ by extending preheating into postheating
without interruption. Postheat temperature of 200°C
maintained for several hours (up to a maximum of ten
hours) will drive off all hydrogen, while raising this
temperature to 600°C to stress-relieve the fabrication will
remove all hydrogen within an hour or so. The stress-
relief must be insisted u p o n where brittle (though
uncracked) martensite in the HAZ may endanger the
safety of the structure in service.
HAZ hardness: The HAZ hardness is usually a good
indication of the presence of martensite and thus
potential cracking. In a general way it can be stated that
cracking rarely occurs when the HAZ hardness is 250
HV or less, but is common as the HV approaches 450.
The maximum hardness that can be tolerated in the
HAZ without hydrogen-induced, cracking under given
welding conditions is called critical hardness. For
carbon-manganese structural steels, a critical hardness
of 350 HV has been suggested while welding with rutile
electrodes, and 400 HV with basic well-dried hydrogen-
controlled electrodes.
Figure 9.31 shows three welds in a 25 mm thick 0.25%
C steel plate that underwent three different thermal
 WELDING METALLURGY 423

NO PREHEAT PREHEATED POSTHEATED

Fig. 9.31: Weld zone hardness. Weld bead on 25 mm 0.25% carbon steel. Knoop indenter, 500 gram load,
Nital etch. (100 x)

regimes. The first weld was made without preheat and

using low heat-input rate, thus hard martensite formed
in the HAZ. The second weld was made with sufficient IFFERENTIAL
preheat to lower the cooling rate a n d eliminate TRANSFORMER
martensite. The third plate was welded with preheat COILS
and was also postheated at 600°C to duplicate the stress-
relief operation. The hardness values for the three zones MOVING
of each w e l d m e n t speak for the favourable and CORE
unfavourable microstructures formed in each case.
AS COOLING
Dilatometric study: It is possible to simulate the weld ANNULUS
HAZ microstructures of a steel in the laboratory by
dilatometric investigations. In a typical apparatus de- AS INLET
signed by the British Welding Institute (Figs. 9.32 and
9.33), small hollow specimens of the steel are heated by
high frequency induction to 1,325°C and quenched im-
mediately by a blast of argon gas. By pre-selection of
the stored volume and pressure of gas for quenching
and by passing it through standard orifices, it is pos-
sible to subject them to six basic thermal cycles, repre-
INDUCTION
sentative of those which can occur in the HAZ of welds
HEATING
over a wide range of welding conditions. COIL
Thermocouples are attached to the inside wall of the
specimen at m i d - l e n g t h , diametrically opposite TEST SPECIMEN
positions.The thermocouple output is used as one
function of an x-y recorder. SILICA
SEATIN
Changes in length of the specimen are transmitted TUBE
by a push-rod to the moving iron core of a differential
transformer. The output of the transformer is used as Fig. 9.32: Section of BWI's dilatometer
424 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

DILATOMETER
PUSH-ROD FROM SPECIMEN

PRESSURE GAUGE
DILATION CONTROLS
PEN MOVEMENT

,$3C00LING

^HEATING
^THERMOCOUPLE ^ THERMOCOUPLE
WIRES GAS CYLINDERCOLD JUNCTION H.F. FILTER |
TEMPERATURE CONTROLS CHART MOVEMENT
SECOND PEN MOVES AT CONSTANT RATE AND
DRAWS COOLING CURVE
Fig 9.33: Diagram showing relationships of ancillary equipment to dilatometer

the second function of the x-y recorder. A second pen
on the recorder is moved at constant speed across the
chart on the same axis as the length changes. Thus two
lines are drawn on the same record; one records length
changes against temperature, the other temperature
changes against time. Thus it is possible from each
record to determine the temperature and time of start
and finish of transformation. This information is used
to construct the CCT diagram. A typical CCT diagram
for a 38 mm thick plate to BS: 968-1962 is shown in Fig.
9.34.
Hardness measurements are made on each of the
individual dilatometer specimens. These hardness
values are then recorded on the CCT diagram.
Relationship between hardness and cooling rate at 300°C
is also represented graphically, since cooling rate at
300°C is used as the most typical single parameter of
the cooling curve.
Research workers of the British Welding Institute
have produced CCT data for a range of C-Mn steels
having carbon contents between 0.15 and 0.27%. From
the results, they have produced diagrams showing the

("GRAIN SIZETS5 I
SAMPLE FROM 1/2 IN PLATE TO B.S. 968:1962
j RECEIVED (ASTM) | CAST NO 87326
C iMn Si s P Ni 1 Cr 1 M o l rsib
I
1

I'o.i 6[1.32 B . Q 2 3.046 0.019 — |o.031 - 0. 024 1

s-
I 1 1
1LB e n l
K
800
^ N
^ X
\ Ss H4
S\ Sv
N

\ >
fid ^ \
600 1 j
\
\\Y\
400 Jr\ L^^^^

\[ \
i
[S
200
N
i \\
\I N \ N
0 U It\Y 420^414 3: 5 2 36 22 4.214
2 4 68 j 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 68 102 2 4 6 8 1Q 3

TIME TO COOL FROM 1000°C, SEC

Fig. 9.34: CCT diagram for steel to BS: 968-1982 W mm f


critical welding conditions necessary to produce an
unhardened HAZ structure (i.e. microstructure with a
hardness less than 350 HV) and hence to give complete
freedom from hydrogen-induced HAZ cracking. They
have finally been able to recommend specifications for
ladle analysis to be so fixed that plate compositions
would never exceed a carbon equivalent of, say, 0.45
(as given by the CE formula mentioned earlier) if the
material were to be capable of welding without preheat
at combined joint thicknesses up to about 75 mm.
In recent years, the Welding Institute have preferred
to study real HAZs w h e r e possible, rather t h a n
simulated ones. This is for a number of reasons, but
principally because of the difficulty of matching both
thermal history (particularly peak temperature and time
at high temperature) and austenite grain size. They
believe that it is important to reproduce both these
factors, and not only the austenite grain size; since
particularly in microalloyed steels, reproduction of time
at temperature in the high temperature HAZ may also
be important with respect to the dissolution of various
carbides and carbonitrides. According to WI, a
convenient method is to use un-notched implant
specimens (see page 718) of the steel under test, or in
some circumstances, to make a series of bead-on-plate
welds.
Significance of Ms and Mf. Ms and Mf points (see
Figs. 9.11 and 9.12) indicated on the isothermal
transformation and continuous cooling transformation
of a steel have an important bearing on HAZ cold
cracking. Mf is the temperature at which transformation
of austenite to m a r t e n s i t e starts, a n d Mf is the
temperature at which it is completed. These points arc
important in transformations occurring in the HAZ,
because hydrogen is far more soluble in austenite than
in martensite. If, therefore, the Mf is sufficiently high
(above 260°C as is indicated by experience in welding
alloy steels), the chances of cold cracking are reduced,
because of t w o p h e n o m e n a w h i c h occur
simultaneously: because of the lower solubility of
hydrogen in martensite the dissolved hydrogen in
austenite diffuses out during transformation, and at the
same time the higher Mf results in some tempering of
the martensite, which reduces the hardness and lowers
residual stresses. However, many of the commercial
steels display Mf temperatures appreciably below
260°C, and therefore d e m a n d special w e l d i n g
procedures.
Hot cracking in the HAZ: Weldable alloy steels having
yield strengths of 56 k g / m m 2 and higher, sometimes
develop hot cracking in the HAZ after welding. It is
WELDING METALLURGY 425
important to distinguish this phenomenon from cold
cracking, because if it is mistaken for cold cracking and
preheat is used as a remedial measure, it might
aggravate the overall problem rather than eliminate it.
Sulphur is considered the most offensive element in
the hot cracking problems. Carbon and phosphorus lend
support to sulphur in causing hot cracking. As shown
in Fig. 9.35, if the sulphur content of a high-strength
alloy steel is near the permissible maximum of 0.04%, it
is likely to develop hot cracks in the HAZ when welded
under conditions of high restraint. Hot cracking tests
carried out on AISI4340 steel show that hot cracks under
high restraint can be reduced to zero only when the
combined S and P contents are below 0.02%.
Carbon increases cracking tendency appreciably.
Carbon has been shown to promote interdendritic
segregation of sulphur, which increases the likelihood
of concentrating lower-melting compounds in grain
boundary areas. Decreasing the carbon content, even
by decarburisation, reduces the hot cracking tendency.
An annealing treatment which produces spheroidised
carbide particles also t e n d s to reduce cracking
propensity, apparently because the short austenitising
time in welding does not dissolve all the globular
particles. Therefore, the actual carbon content in the
matrix is lower than the overall carbon analysis for the
steel.
SEVERE CRACKING
u Q
O <
X
<
8
2
NO CRACKING
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06
SULPHUR. PERCENT
Fig. 9.35: Typical effect of sulphur on susceptibility of a
high-strength alloy steel (e.g., AISI 4340) to hot cracking
in base metal heat-affected zone of highly restrained weld
test specimen
426 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Manganese has been found to counteract the effect
of sulphur with respect to hot cracking tendency. This
benefit is believed to arise from the strong tendency of
m a n g a n e s e to form stable, higher m e l t i n g - p o i n t
sulphides in steel. Rather than attempt to use large
manganese additions as a cure-all, however, good steel
makers attempt to reduce hot cracking tendency
through reduction of sulphur content.
Phosphorus already has been cited as a strong
promoter of hot cracking. It appears to act in this manner
by increasing the segregation of sulphur and carbon in
the steel—to the point where banding of the sulphide
inclusions and carbide particles can be observed in the
microstructure of w r o u g h t material. This b a n d e d
condition greatly increases the likelihood of hot
cracking, and if the banding of carbon is particularly
marked, these localised areas of high carbon may be
particularly prone to cold cracking as a continuation of
the hot cracks.
Silicon is believed to cause sulphur to segregate, and
in this m a n n e r is likely to increase hot cracking.
Ordinarily, silicon does not have a marked effect on
hot cracking susceptibility, because less than 0.50%
usually is present in high-strength alloy steels and the
content varies over a relatively narrow range. However,
some of the very high strength (heat-treatable) alloy
steels make use of silicon contents of about 1%, because
this element inhibits softening during tempering in
certain temperature ranges. These steels usually are
made with very low sulphur content to avoid undue
segregation, which might be promoted by the high
silicon content.
C h r o m i u m , m o l y b d e n u m a n d v a n a d i u m are
believed to have a mild beneficial effect upon hot
cracking, particularly if a high carbon content is present
to aggravate the problem. These elements possibly tie
up some carbon as complex carbides, thus reducing
cracking susceptibility by lowering the effective carbon.
Nickel exerts an adverse effect u p o n hot cracking
tendency. Its effect is particularly noticeable when
significant sulphur also is present. Presumably, the
presence of nickel affects the composition of sulphides
formed in the grain boundaries. Aluminium is another
element that seems to influence the composition and
distribution of sulphide inclusions. Residual aluminium
in the range of about 0.02/0.06% appears to foster
intergranular sulphides, which noticeably increases
cracking susceptibility.
Here we have dealt with the HAZs of only carbon
steels and low-alloy steels. It is equally important to
know how similar microstructural and related changes
take place in the HAZs of other industrial metals and
alloys as a result of welding, how far they have a
deleterious effect on joint properties and serviceability,
and how these ill-effects can be controlled. These aspects
will be dealt with in the next chapter.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introductory Welding Metallurgy, published 1968, by American Welding Society.

Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels by Pickering, published 1976, by Applied Science Publishers, London.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 4, Vol.1, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Welding Metallurgy, Vols. 1 & 2, by Linnert, published by American Welding Society.
Weldability of Steels by Stout & Doty, published 1978, by Welding Research Council, New York.
Metallurgy for Engineers by E.C. Rollason, published 1973, by The English Language Book Society & Edward (Publishers)
Ltd.
Deoxidation Practice for M.S. Weld Metal by Widgery. Weld. J., Mar. 1976.
A Technique for the Chracterisation of Weld Metal Microstructure by Widgery & Davey. IIW Doc.II A- 389-1976.
Factors Controlling Weld Toughness—The Present Position Part 2 by Dolby, WIRR 14/ 1976.
A Scheme for the Quantitative Description ofFerritic Weld Metal Microstructures by Abson & Dolby. WIRB, Apr. 1980.
Weldability
of
Metals
THE TERM WELDABILITY is not easy to define, and
different authorities have interpreted it in different ways
according to their own viewpoints. Yet the following defi-
nition worked out by the International Institute of Weld-
ing and given in ISO document R 185/1967 has been
widely accepted as standard:
A metallic substance is considered to be weldable to a
stated degree by a given process and for a given purpose,
when metallic continuity can be obtained by welding
using suitable procedure, so that the joints comply with
the requirements specified in regard to both their local
properties and their influence on the construction of which
they form a part.
The definition underlines the fact that weldability is
not an intrinsic property of a metal like density or
hardness, but is determined by several extraneous factors.
Also a metal can have several degrees or levels of
weldability depending on the process, procedure and
service conditions.
For example, aluminium is not easily weldable if
manual metal-arc welding is used, but is readily weldable
by the GTAW process or resistance welding process. Cast
iron is considered weldable if the given purpose is to
repair a crack, but is unweldable if the purpose is to
fabricate a pressure vessel out of it. Mild steel is normally
considered to have excellent weldability, but is not
suitable for sub-zero applications in the welded form,
because of its low notch toughness at low temperatures.
Referring to carbon steels and low-alloy steels, it will
be shown in the following p a r a g r a p h s that their
weldability is dependent on several factors including
hardenability, joint thickness and hydrogen levels
generated in the welding process. As the degree of
weldability of the alloy decreases, its welding demands
special precautions, such as increasing the preheating
temperature and use of consumables of lower potential
hydrogen, to prevent embrittlement and possible cracking
in the HAZ.
The study of weldability is usually confined to the
heat-affected zones and its primary objective is to help
achieve good properties and characteristics of the weld-
metal as well as of the HAZ. However, it must be
appreciated that the suitability of a welded structure for
the intended service depends equally on the design of
the structure as a whole, and the properties and
characteristics of the base metal away from the welds.
The American W e l d i n g Society has defined
weldability in a simpler way as follows:
Weldability is the capacity of a metal or combination
of metals to be welded under the fabrication conditions
into a specific and suitably designed structure to meet
satisfactorily in the intended service.
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels represent a broad range of steels with
u p to 1.70% m a x i m u m carbon, 1.65% m a x i m u m
manganese and 0.60% maximum silicon. They do not
contain alloying elements like Cr, Ni and Mo. They are
sub-divided into four categories as:
1) Low-carbon steels up to 0.15% C
2) Mild-carbon steels 0.15-0.29% C
3) Medium-carbon steels 0.30-0.59% C
4) High-carbon steels more than 0.60% C
1) Low-carbon steels: These steels are available as
rimmed, semi-killed or killed grade (killed with Al or Si).
Mn ranges between 0.30 and 0.60%. They have low yield
strength and are mainly used in sheet or coil form in cold
428 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
rolled or hot rolled condition. Commonly they are welded
by electric resistance process, though manual arc welding
can be used for thicker sections.
2) Mild-carbon steels: This group is the most common
material in industrial use. In as-rolled condition they
give yield strength in the range of 25CM50 N / m m 2 . In
heat-treated condition, they give yield strengths up to
690 N / m m 2 along with excellent notch toughness. They
are commonly used in the form of plates, have excellent
weldability and are welded with the conventional
welding processes.
Some grades of mild-carbon steels are heat-treated to
improve mechanical properties. They are known as heat-
treated carbon steels. The heat treatment is either
normalising or quenching followed by tempering. When
heavy sections of coarse-grained steels are normalised,
the microstructure becomes uniformly finer (example:
ASTM A515 grade steel). Fine-grained steels in thin as
well as thick sections are normalised in order to improve
their notch toughness, so that they meet the impact test
requirements at sub-zero temperatures. Very heavy
sections of fine-grained steels are quenched and tempered,
so that they acquire a microstructure whose toughness
matches that of the thinner normalised sections of those
steels (example: ASTM A516 grade steel over 100 mm
thick).
Normalised grades can be welded as easily as mild
steel without any special precautions. In the case of
quenched and tempered steels, heat input control is
necessary when the submerged-arc process is used. For
example, in the case of A516 type steel, it should be below
3.2 kj/mm. The important consideration in welding all
these heat-treated steels is to select welding consumables
and procedure that will give joints of matching strength
and sub-zero impact values. For manual welding, low-
hydrogen mild-steel electrodes (AWS E7015, -16 or -18)
are suitable. For submerged-arc welding, high manganese
(2% Mn) or manganese- molybdenum wire with neutral
or basic flux should be preferred.
3) Medium-carbon steels: These are high-strength
materials with comparatively high hardness. They are
used for machinery parts and machine tools. They can
be successfully welded by using proper preheat and
postheat p r o c e d u r e s a n d l o w - h y d r o g e n w e l d i n g
consumables.
Typical welding procedure for 0.58% carbon steel
would be as follows:
a) Preheat to around 300°C
b) Use low-hydrogen consumable in perfectly dry
condition (manual electrodes should be baked at
400°C for 1 hour)
c) Deposit the first few passes at low currents to
minimise base metal dilution
d) Deposit further passes with increased heat input
e) Maintain minimum interpass temperature of
250°C
f) Without allowing the base metal to cool below
235°C, give it a postweld heat treatment at 550°C
Then cool slowly under an insulation blanket.
4) High-carbon steels: These are hard materials referred
to as tool steels. They are used in dies, mill rolls,
railway wagon wheels, rails, etc. Welding of these
steels is avoided as far as possible, since it is diffi-
cult to guarantee crack-free welds.
Low-Alloy Steels
These steels can be divided into four groups according
to strength, heat-treated condition or service application.
• Group 1: These steels have yield strength range of
310-480 N / m m 2 They are supplied in the as-rolled or
normalised condition and can be welded as simply as
mild-carbon steels.
These steels are referred to as high-strength structural
steels. Carbon is kept below 0.25%, while small additions
of alloying elements such as Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, P, V or Zr are
made to produce a finer microstructure, which results in
higher strength and increased toughness of the steel.
Further increase in yield strength is achieved by adding
0.01 to 0.05% Cb or V. In the case of higher strength steels,
whose welded fabrications have to be stress-relieved in
practice, the stress relief treatment results in increased
strength due to precipitation of copper or alloy carbides.
Addition of nickel improves sub-zero toughness to a
remarkable degree.
Well-known ASTM grades suitable for structural
fabrication are A242, A441, A572 and A588 and those
for pressure vessel fabrication are A203, A204, A225,
A353 and A537. Nickel steels are represented by ASTM
A203 Gr. D (with 3.5% Ni for service at -100°C) and A353
(with 9% Ni for service at -196°C).
This group also includes a class of structural steels in
which additions of Cu, Cr and sometimes P are made to
increase strength as well as resistance to atmospheric
corrosion. It is represented by ASTM Gr A374 and A375.
A well-known example is COR-TEN which will be dealt
with in detail later.
A basic consideration in welding these steels is the
prevention of hydrogen-induced cracking or cold
cracking in the heat-affected zone of the welded joint.
The procedure for avoiding this defect is explained in
detail later. Generally speaking, stress-relief does not alter

the strength level of the weld significantly, but improves
its ductility and notch toughness.
• Group 2: It includes steels with yield strength range
of 350-1240 N/mm, which are supplied in quenched
and tempered (Q&T) condition. Some of them have
excellent toughness at sub-zero temperatures. Postweld
treatment including stress-relief is avoided in the case of
these steels as far as possible, because it may reduce the
toughness of the base metal as well as the weld-metal.
Popular ASTM grades of this group are:
a) A537 Gr. B is used in pressure vessel fabrication.
b) A514/517 is used widely for fabricating earth-
moving equipment, bridges, buildings, steel mill
equipment, pressure vessels and penstocks. The well-
known commercial steel of this category is T-l marketed
by United States Steel Corp. of the USA.
c) A543 is intended for nuclear reactor vessels. A543
Gr. B class 1 and 2 steels are better known as HY-80 and
HY-100 steels and are used for military and marine
construction and hydrospace vehicles.
d) A553 is 9% Ni steel, a Q&T version of A353 steel,
which is used at temperatures as low as -196°C (liquid
nitrogen).
e) HY-130 with yield strength range of 900-1030 N /
mm2 and excellent toughness is used in hydrospace and
aerospace applications.
Weldability of each of these steels will be discussed
in detail later.
• Group 3: This group includes steels which are
quenched and tempered after welding to achieve an
optimum combination of strength and hardness. They
are used in lighter sections and on applications where
toughness is not important, but high hardness or high
strength-to-weight ratio is required. Hence the carbon
content is kept high (0.30-0.45%) and suitable alloy
additions are made to ensure deep and complete
hardening of the section.
Weldability of these steels is not good because of their
high hardenability, which encourages the formation of
brittle martensite in the HAZ and cracks in this region
due to contraction stresses. Weldability is further reduced
by sulphur and phosphorus. Sulphur increases the hot
cracking susceptibility (particularly in the weld-metal)
while phosphorus reduces ductility and toughness and
increases hot cracking susceptibility in the base metal as
well as the weld-metal. Hence the levels of these elements
have to be kept below 0.02% each.
Typical AISI grades of this group are:
a) 4340 whose approximate composition is 0.40 C, by their remarkable oxidation resistance, resistance to
0.80 Mn, 0.28 Si, 1.8 Ni, 0.80 Cr, 0.25 Mo (%)
WELDABILITY OF METALS 429
b) 4335 V with approximately 0.35 C, 0.85 Mn, 0.25 Si,
1.8 Ni, 0.80 Cr, 0.35 Mo, 0.20 V (%).
Welding is carried out with perfectly dry high-tensile
steel low-hydrogen electrodes (for example AWS E10015)
and with preheat. The preheat temperature depends on
various factors as pointed out later in the discussion on
hydrogen-induced cracking. The preheat is maintained
at a temperature equal to or above the preheat temperature
for a long time after the welding is completed to allow the
harmful hydrogen to escape completely. The steel is then
cooled down if no stress-relief is called for, or placed
directly in a furnace for stress-relief.
For example, in one typical case, a 4335 V steel is
preheated to 150°C and maintained at this temperature
until welding is completed. The temperature is then
raised to 315°C and maintained until the weldment is
placed in a furnace at 650° C for stress-relief. In a typical
procedure with 4340 steel, preheat of 315°C is used and
is maintained for one hour after welding is completed,
and then the weldment is allowed to cool to room
temperature. Weld-metal cracking in the 4340 steel
welded joint is minimised by using a filler metal whose
carbon and alloy content is as low as possible and the
combined S and P content is below 0.025%.
The procedure for quenching and tempering consists
of heating the steel above A3 point to its austenitising
temperature, holding at that temperature for sufficient
length of time and quenching in a suitable medium such
as water, brine or oil. Then tempering is done at a suitable
temperature in the range of 260-704°C, depending on
the strength or hardness desired. It must be noted that as
the tempering temperature increases, strength and
hardness decrease while ductility and toughness
increase. For example in the case of AISI 4340 steel, the
austenitising temperature range is 800-843°C, the
quenching medium is oil, and the variation of strength
with tempering temperature is as follows:
Tempering Room temp.
temp.,°C tensile strength,
N/mm 2
454 1,380-1,520
495 1,240-1,380
566 1,110-1,240
635 960-1,110
• Group 4: This group consists of chromium-
molybdenum steels used mainly in power plants, fertiliser
plants and oil refineries at service temperatures up to
704°C. They are distinguished from other low-alloy steels
sulphide corrosion and high-temperature strength or
430 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

creep resistance. These properties are derived from Cr
and Mo and they improve with the increase of these
alloying elements.
There are nine standard types as shown in Table 10.1
along with their chemical compositions. It is seen that
the Mo content is either around 0.50 or 1.0% according to
the Cr content of the steel. The 2.25 Cr-1% Mo steel has
the best high-temperature strength. They are usually
supplied in the annealed or normalised and tempered
condition.
These Cr-Mo steels are air-hardening steels and
undergo microstructural transformations that depend on
the rate of cooling from above the u p p e r critical
temperatures. The mechanical properties are dependent
on these transformations. With faster cooling rate,
strength and hardness increase and ductility is reduced.
However, because of the lower carbon content (0.15%
maximum), carbides are present in limited amounts and
this results in higher ductility at any given strength level
than that obtained from high-carbon steels.
When these steels get h e a t e d above their
transformation temperatures in operations like rolling,
forging, hot forming and welding with consequent loss
in ductility and toughness due to their air-hardening
characteristics, they require further heat treatment to
restore these useful mechanical properties. The alternate
types of heat treatment applied are:
a) Annealing
b) Normalising and tempering
c) Quenching and tempering
d) Simply tempering.
(a), (b) or (c) restore proper grain size and confer
mechanical properties as desired, (a) and (b) provide
enough strength to meet the design requirements of ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, (d) is employed to soften
the hardened HAZ of a welded joint. The postweld heat
treatment of welded joints in Cr-Mo steels consists of
heating them to a temperature below the lower critical
temperature (approximately 740°C), holding it for a
proper length of time and cooling in still air. It not only
tempers the HAZ martensite but also relieves the locked-
up stresses caused by welding. Air cooling does not result
in appreciable hardening, because the cooling takes place
from below the critical range. However, rapid cooling
caused by cold draughts, if present, can introduce new
stresses.
These steels are readily weldable with the conventional
arc welding and electroslag welding processes. The air-
hardening property of the base metal and high alloy
content of the weld-metal demand that correct welding
procedures including preheat, postweld heat treatment,
low-hydrogen consumables, and filler metal chemistry
are used to prevent HAZ and weld-metal cracking.
Recommended preheating temperatures are indicated in
Table 10.2. It is obvious that the preheat temperature must
be increased as the thickness and carbon and alloy
contents increase to ensure crack-free joints. The welding
process can also determine the preheat condition. With a
low-hydrogen process such as TIG, or a high heat input
process such as electroslag, much lower preheat would
be justified or even none at all. The chemical composition
of the filler metal must be the same as of the base metal,
except for carbon content which is lower for the weld-
metal. When different Cr-Mo steels are to be welded at
the same time, filler metal selection can be restricted by
using the same filler metal for a variety of steels. For
example, 1.25 Cr-0.5% Mo filler metal can be used for
three base metals: 0.5% Cr-0.5% Mo, 1% Cr-0.5% Mo and
1.25% Cr-0.5% Mo. Similarly 2.25% Cr-1% Mo filler metal
can be used for 2% Cr-0.5% Mo and 3% Cr-1% Mo steels.

Table 10.1:: Nominal chemical composition of chromium-molybdenum steels

Composition percentage
Type C* Mn S* P* Si* Cr Mo
0.5Cr-l/2Mo 0.10-0.20 0.30-0.60 0.045 0.045 0.10-0.30 0.50-0.80 0.45-0.65
lCr-l/2Mo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.045 0.045 0.50 0.80-1.25 0.45-0.65
1.25Cr-l/2Mo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.045 0.50-1.00 1.00-1.50 0.45-0.65
2Cr-l/2Mo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 1.65-2.35 0.45-0.65
2.25Cr-lMo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 1.90-2.60 0.87-1.13
3Cr-lMo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 2.65-3.35 0.80-1.06
5Cr-l/2Mo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 4.00-6.00 0.45-0.65
5Cr-l/2MoSi 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 1.00-2.00 4.00-6.00 0.45-0.65
5Cr-l/2MoTi 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 4.00-6.00 0.45-0.65
7Cr-l/2Mo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50-1.00 6.00-8.00 0.45-0.65
9Cr-lMo 0.15 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030 0.25-1.00 8.00-10.00 0.90-1.10
* Max unless ranges are shown
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 431

Table 10.2: Recommended preheat temperatures Table 10.3: Stress-relief temperatures for Cr-Mo steels
for Cr-Mo steels
Alloy type Temperature range, °C
Thickness 12.7 mm 12.7 to 57 mm Above 57 mm
0.5Cr-l/2Mo 590-700
Cr-Mo steel Preheat temp.°C
lCr-l/2Mo 590-730
0.5Cr-l/2Mo 20 95 150 1.25Cr-l/2Mo 590-745
lCr-l/2Mo 120 150 150 2.25Cr-lMo 680-760
1.25Cr-l/2Mo 120 150 150 3Cr-lMo 680-760
2Cr-l/2Mo 150 150 150 5Cr-l/2Mo 680-760
2.25Cr-lMo 150 150 150 5Cr-l/2MoSi 680-760
3Cr-lMo 150 150 150 5Cr-l/2MoTi 680-760
5Cr-l/2Mo 150 150 150 7Cr-l/2Mo 680-760
5Cr-l/2MoSi 150 150 150 9Cr-lMo 680-760
5Cr-l/2MoTi 150 150 150
7Cr-l/2Mo 200 200 200
9Cr-lMo 200 200 200 Cr-Mo steels in lower thicknesses can be put into
service without postheat treatment, provided proper
Minor repairs on Cr-Mo steels can be carried out with preheating procedure has been applied during welding.
25 Cr-20 Ni or 25 Cr-12 Ni type austenitic stainless steel For example, 2.25% Cr-1% Mo steel welded with extra-
filler metals, when postweld heat treatment is not low carbon filler metal (C-0.03%) has enough as-welded
possible. The weld-metal has lower yield strength ductility to meet code requirements. Postheating may
compared to the matching Cr-Mo composition, but is therefore be avoidable in some cases.
extremely ductile and can resist cracking due to shrinkage Cr-Mo steel vessels are sometimes wholly annealed
stresses. Though hardness in the HAZ cannot be to obtain a softer ferritic structure in the entire base metal,
avoided, the austenitic weld-metal prevents occurrence HAZ and weld-metal. Annealing procedure is as follows:
of cold cracking in this region. The limitations of the the weldment is heated in the critical temperature range
austenitic weld-metal are: of 843-913°C, held at that temperature for one hour per
a) It may cause failure at the fusion line w h e n 25 mm thickness, cooled to 538°C at a maximum rate of
subjected to cyclic temperatures in service 28°C per hour, then furnace or air cooled to room
b) Carbon can migrate from the lower Cr base metal to temperature.
higher Cr weld-metal at high service temperatures, As far as possible, Cr-Mo steels must be preheated,
resulting in the weakening of the weldment w e l d e d a n d p o s t w e l d h e a t e d in one continuous
c) Brittle sigma-phase may develop at high service operation. Experience, however, has shown that steels
temperature with 2.25 Cr and less can be safely cooled to room
d) Difference in coefficient of thermal expansion temperature before being postweld heat treated.
between the weld-metal and base metal may give rise to For steels having higher Cr contents, an interruption
stresses at high or under cyclic temperatures. between preheat and postheat is likely to produce
Welding with austenitic weld-metal is more prevalent cracking in the weldment. If interruption is inevitable for
in the petroleum industry, where more-or-less steady some reasons, a practical step to prevent cracking consists
temperatures exist than in thermal power stations, where of raising the weldment temperature from the preheat
demand fluctuation causes cycling of temperature and temperature to above 427°C and maintaining there for
pressure. three minutes per 25 mm thickness before cooling to room
temperature. This results in removal of most of the
POSTWELD HEATTREATMENT hydrogen from the weld and the HAZ. The postweld
Cr-Mo weldments, especially in pressure pipings, heat treatment is finally carried out at any convenient
have to be stress-relieved as required by relevant codes. time.
Welded joints in pipings are given local stress-relief while
vessels and similar fabrications are wholly stress- HYDROGEN-INDUCED CRACKING
relieved. Table 10.3 gives the stress-relief temperatures The most serious problem of weldability in carbon
which are below the critical range and result in reduced and low-alloy steels is hydrogen-induced cracking in
hardness and residual stress level and increased ductility the heat-affected zone of the base metal. This type of
of the weld-metal and the HAZ. cracking often occurs after the welding has been
432 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

completed and the weldment has cooled down. It lies when it comes to plate thickness, the main criterion is
underneath the weld bead and is not easily detected. combined thickness (i.e. total thickness of the plates
Many service failures due to fatigue and brittle fracture
have been traced to pre-existing cracks in the HAZ. Such
cracks have led to the fracture of pressure vessels during
hydraulic testing and collapse of bridges and storage
tanks in service.
Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) is also known as:
a) Cold cracking, because it occurs when the metal
has cooled below 150°C
b) Delayed cracking, because its formation is
sometimes delayed for 20 hours or more
c) Underbead cracking, because in most cases it is
located at the HAZ underneath the weld bead.
HIC occurs in the HAZ when:
a) Sufficient hydrogen is present in the arc. Hydrogen
is derived from organic materials and minerals having
chemically combined water used in the covering of
manual electrodes. The main source, however, is moisture
which is inevitably present in all types of fluxes. Oil,
grease paint and moisture on the base metal surface or
electrode-wire surface can also generate hydrogen during
welding.
b) Shrinkage stresses, supplemented by other stresses
developed as a result of joint restraint, acting on the weld.
c) A sufficiently hard and brittle microstructure
develops in the HAZ as a result of its being heated to Fig. 10.1: Hydrogen-induced cracks in HAZs of (A) fillet
above A3 temperature and cooled rapidly. weld and (B) butt weld
The usual sites of HAZ cracking in butt and fillet
welds are shown in Fig. 10.1.
Cracks can also occur in welds if their alloy content is
high and the conditions leading to HAZ cracking as
enumerated above are present. They appear to be
transgranular under the microscope as shown in Fig.
10.2(a). At (b) is shown a root bead which has cracked
through under severe restraint.
HIC depends on the following factors:
1) Carbon equivalent of the steel
CE is given by the formula
CE ='C% + Mn% + Cr% + Mo% + V% + Cu% + Ni%
6 5 15
Higher the CE, Harder will be the HAZ with increased
risk of cracking. In normal structural steels, we are
concerned only with C and Mn. Therefore weldability
will be controlled not by C content alone, but by the joint
action ofC and Mn through the expression
C + M n
6
2) Thickness of sections Fig. 10.2: Weld-metal hydrogen cracks in (a) single-run
Thicker the plate, faster is the cooling rate of the HAZ MMA fillet weld on low-alloy steel x150, and
(b) root bead of a Y-groove welding test x 10
with increased risk of cracking. Accurately speaking,
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 433

Higher the heat input rate a n d / o r higher the preheat

—f
t1 = 25
¥3 ^
and interpass temperature, lower will be the HAZ cooling
and lesser will be the chances of cracking, and vice versa.
Heat input rate can vary widely (0.6 to 8 kj/mm), con-
sidering at one extreme a root pass with a small diameter
t1+t2=50MM
electrode and intermittent arc in a pipe of large wall
thickness, and at the other extreme a multi-wire sub-
merged-arc weld using a combined value of over 1,500
II
CO amps and a low speed of travel. Higher current and lower
speed of travel will obviously necessitate lower preheat
temperature or no preheat at all for a given set of
T conditions.
t1 = 17* t2 = 17
—I v Values of heat input rate under a few typical MMA
tl -h t2H-13= 51. MM welding conditions are given in Table 10.4.
4) Hydrogen rating of the welding consumable
H y d r o g e n rating means the level of hydrogen
k t i -»
potentially available from a consumable after any
appropriate drying treatment, which will be absorbed by
t the weld pool during welding. The four standard
t4 t2 hydrogen ratings are as follows:
-JlL
H Rating Weld hydrogen level Critical HAZ
ml/100 g of deposit hardnes HV
k- t3
1) High Above 15 390
2) Medium Above 10 and below 15 375
t1 8 t 3 = 12 MM 3) Low Above 5 and below 10 400
t2 8 t 4 = 13 M M 4) Very low Below 5 450
t 1 + t 2 + t3 + t 4 = 5 0 M M For each hydrogen rating, the critical HAZ hardness
is indicated. To ensure freedom from HIC, this value of
Fig. 10.3: Combined thickness in different joints
hardness of the HAZ must not be exceeded. It is obvious
that with decreased weld hydrogen level, higher HAZ
meeting at the joint line) and therefore we have to hardness can be tolerated and generally lesser are the
distinguish between different joint configurations. For chances of cracking.
example, a butt weld between two 25 mm thick plates is The approximate conditions under which welding
equivalent to a fillet weld between two 17 mm thick plates consumables give these ratings are indicated below:
or a cruciform joint among 12 and 13 mm thick plates, as Rating Examples
far as the rate of cooling they will impose on the weldment 1 Manual electrodes of rurile and cellulosic type; LH
is concerned. This is because in the fillet weld the heat electrodes which have become wet. Wet sub-
loss is in three directions, in the cruciform it is in four merged-arc flux and unclean wire and plate sur-
directions, whereas in the case of butt weld it is in two faces. Flux-cored wires for C0 2 -welding with open
directions. This is shown in Fig. 10.3. seam stored in open for a long time.
3) Heat input rate 2 LH electrodes taken fresh from airtight cartons,
Heat input rate, or arc energy is an important but not dried before use. Dry submerged-arc flux
parameter, which is given by the following formula: and clean wire and plate surfaces, but flux not
Arc Energy = V x A x 60 heated before use. Flux-cored wires for C0 2 -weld-
S x 1000
ing with open seam, but kept in airtight container
V = arc voltage
A = welding current 3 LH electrodes dried above 250°C for one to two
S = welding speed or arc travel speed (mm/min) hours before use. Submerged-arc flux dried at
To this heat input rate, we have to add the preheat 250°C for one hour before use, clean wire and clean
and interpass temperature, which may be maintained by plate surfaces. Solid unclean C0 2 -wires and un-
additional heating. clean flux-cored seamless C0 2 -wires
434 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.4: Heat input rates various electrode sizes

Arc energy
KJ/mm
Run length per
Electrode dia. 450 mm electrode 3n powder With iron powder
3.2 100 2.0 2.5
1.35 1.6 1.8
180 1.2 1.4

4 150 2.2 2.5

185 1.8 2.0
235 1.4 1.6

5 150 3.5 4.0

205 2.5 3.0
260 2.0 2.35

6.3 150 5.5 6.5

200 4.0 5.0
275 3.0 3.5

4 LH electrodes dried above 400°C for one hour or
at 350°C for two hours before use. Agglomerated
submerged-arc flux dried at 500°C and fused flux
dried at 250°C used with extremely clean wire and
plate surfaces. Solid clean C0 2 -wire and clean
flux-cored seamless C0 2 - wire. Clean solid wires
used with the TIG process
British research workers have linked these factors
mathematically and produced prediction diagrams
which bring together information on carbon equivalent
and joint thickness, so that preheat levels and arc ener-
gies can be selected for welding without the risk of HIC.
Such diagrams are provided in BS: 5135-1974 "Metal-
Arc Welding of Carbon and Carbon-Manganese Steels"
and the equivalent Indian Standard IS : 9595-1980.
The above discussion suggests several practical steps
for preventing HIC cracking. In depositing a root pass in
a thick-walled alloy steel piping, for example, TIG process
could be preferred to manual metal-arc, since it is a
hydrogen-free process. MIG/C0 2 is another process to
be preferred to manual metal-arc and submerged-arc
processes if HIC is to be overcome, because it generates
least amount of hydrogen in the arc.
In the case of steels in which formation of a hard,
susceptible microstructure during welding is inevitable,
HIC can be avoided by maintaining a preheat of above
150° C throughout the welding operation and for a
sufficiently long time thereafter. This allows most of the
dissolved hydrogen to escape before the weldment has
cooled down to below 150°C, the temperature at which
HIC begins to occur. If postweld heat treatment is to be
given, the preheating operation must be extended without
interruption to the postheat treatment. In that case, not
only is the possibility of HIC completely eliminated but
the hard martensite formed in the HAZ is transformed to
tough tempered martensite.
It is also possible to prevent the formation of HAZ
martensite in the case of higher carbon steels, showing
high hardenability, without recourse to postweld heat
treatment if its isothermal transformation diagram is
available. In Fig. 10.4, it is indicated through the
superimposed arrow that a minimum preheat, interpass
and postheat temperature of 360°C should be specified
to produce a non-martensitic microstructure. Unless the
diagram is based on very high austenitising temperatures
(much above the conventional 1,250°C), reflecting those
attained by the coarse-grained region of the HAZ, the
minimum holding time should at least be twice that
indicated on the diagram for 100% transformation. It
must be noted, however, that the microstructures
produced in this way are certainly harder and less tough
than tempered martensite.
In cases where preheating even to 150°C is ruled out
due to large job size or difficulty of access, a simple
method to avoid HAZ cracking is to use an austenitic
stainless steel manual electrode. Hydrogen is highly
soluble in austenitic weld-metal even at room temperature,
and therefore diffuses from it more slowly than through
ferritic weld-metal and HAZ microstructures. Any
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 435

n1 1
y
(
\

t
START OF | \
\

V
TRANSFORMATION
1
LU
s~ FINISH OF |
TRANSFORMATION

k.
CC

<
_Z
— ♦ ♦

QC
LU
u HOLDING
!♦ "
5 | \
TEMPERATURE 3 6 0 ' \

Ms 0% 100% |

[HOLDING TIME

TIME •

Fig. 10.4: Selection of postweld heating time and temperature from the transformation characteristics
of a steel to ensure the softest microstructure in the HAZ

hydrogen entering the HAZ from the weld is thus diffused
away faster than it is replaced and hence it does not
reach dangerous levels of concentration in the HAZ.
Since HIC is a delayed process, it is an usual practice
to carry out non-destructive testing of a welded
fabrication at least 48 years after completion, to make
sure that all possible hydrogen-induced cracks are
accounted for.
We shall now discuss in detail the weldability of the
following important constructional steels referred to
under Groups 1 and 2:
1) ASTM A374/375 represented by COR-TEN steel
2)A537Gr.B
3) A514/517 represented by USS T-l steel
4) Nickel steels for cryogenic service
5) High-strength steels HY-80, HY-100 and Hy-130
1) COR-TEN steels (ASTM A374/A375): These are
structural steels with minimum tensile strength of 480
N / mm2, which are alloyed with small amounts of Cr
and Cu (Ni optional) to make them highly resistant to
atmospheric corrosion in service. Hence they are termed
weathering steels. On exposure to atmosphere, these steels
develop a corrosion-resistant oxide coating of pleasing
natural colour. Hence they are used in a bare state, thus
saving on initial and subsequent periodical painting.
Many imposing buildings and bridges have been
constructed in the U.S.A. with these steels. There are two
grades available: COR-TEN 'A' and COR-TEN 'B\ The
latter was developed for use on large structures such as
bridges, where yield strength level of the 'A' grade is
demanded in higher thicknesses. Tables 10.5 and 10.6
give the mechanical properties and chemical
compositions of these steels.
In choosing a welding consumable, it is important to
bear in mind that the weld-metal must have corrosion-
resistant properties equal to those of the parent plate and

Table 10.5: Mechanical properties of COR-TEN steels

Yield stress minimum, N / mm 2 Elon. min. Charpy-V notch
on gauge impact test
length of
Grade Tensile Up to Over Over Over Over 200 5.65 Max. Temp., Energy Thickness
strength and 12 mm 25 mm 40 mm 63 mm mm VSo bend °C min. max.,
minimum including up to and up to and up to and up to and radius average, mm
N / mm2 12 mm including including including including joules
25 mm 40 mm 63 mm 100 mm
COR-TEN'A 480 345 325 325 By agreement 19 21 lj/2T 0 27 12
COT-TEN'A 480 345 345 345 By agreement 19 21 1V2T 0 27 40
-15 27 40
436 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 10.6: Chemical compositions of COR-TEN steels
5
Grade
C Si Mn
COR-TEN'A' 0.12 max. 0.25-0.75 0.60 max.
COR-TEN 'B' 0.10-0.19 0.15-0.50 0.90-1.25
m u s t d e v e l o p a m a t c h i n g colour on s u b s e q u e n t
weathering. Basic low-hydrogen electrodes of matching
or near-matching chemistry, satisfying this condition, are
available. Sometimes a 2.5% Ni-alloyed steel electrode is
used in applications w h e r e t o u g h n e s s at low
temperatures is required. Exposure tests have shown that
the 2.5% Ni deposit gives a darker appearance after six
months' exposure, but develops a close colour match after
a weathering period of two years.
To save on costs, unalloyed C-Mn electrodes which
achieve the required mechanical properties can be used
for all the passes except the capping pass, of butt and
fillet welds. The final capping pass is then deposited
with a matching or 2.5% Ni electrode.
In submerged-arc or M I G / 0 2 w e l d i n g , use of
standard C-Mn steel consumables is satisfactory if deep
penetration technique is adopted. The weld-metal picks
up sufficient alloying elements to develop the weathering
characteristic. If multi-pass low penetration technique is
used, one can fill the weld with C-Mn consumables and
cap it with matching or 2.5% Ni electrode. Alternately,
the entire weld can be made with COR-TEN electrode
wire. Electrode wires matching the composition of COR-
TEN steels are available in many countries.
COR-TEN 'A' is normally used in thicknesses less
than 12 mm and can therefore be welded in the same
way as ordinary mild steel without any danger of HIC. If
the thickness exceeds 12 mm, slightly more stringent
precautions are necessary, such as the use of well-dried
low-hydrogen electrodes and sufficiently high welding
heat input.
The danger of HIC exists more in the case of COR-
TEN 'B', since it is used in heavy sections. When
compared with ordinary C-Mn structural steels of the
Table 10.7: Composition of A537 steels
C Mn
0.24 (typical 0.20 max.) 0.70/1.35 (typically
1.00 min)
Al Cr
(for fine grain practice) 0.35 max
Chemical composition % ladle analysis
S P Cr Cu V Ni
0.05 max. 0.07-0.15 0.30-1.25 0.25-0.55 0.65 max.
0.05 max. 0.04 max. 0.50-0.70 0.25-0.40 0.02-0.10
same strength levels, it is seen that CO R-TEN 'B' contains
Cr and Cu, and hence has a slightly higher carbon
equivalent value and hence higher hardenability for a
given thickness. The question therefore arises: Are the
w e l d i n g p r e c a u t i o n s defined in BS 5135-1974
(specification for metal-arc welding of carbon and carbon-
manganese steels) valid for COR-TEN 'B' Experimental
work has shown that they are valid, which means that
COR-TEN 'B' and C-Mn steels of similar CE and strength
levels have similar weldability with regard to hydrogen-
induced cracking.
2) A537 Gr. B steel: This is a typical low-alloy steel
which is m a d e to fine-grain practice and is then
quenched and tempered to attain high strength with
excellent low-temperature notch toughness (Charpy-V
impact value of 15 ft. lb or 20 J min. at -60°C)in thicknesses
up to 100 mm. Small residual elements such as Cr, Ni,
Mo and V enhance the response of the steel to heat
treatment, which does not produce any martensitic
hardening. Applications include containment vessels,
pressure vessels and other structures for low-temperature
service. A537 B is used in preference to the normalised
A537 A grade, where critical low-temperature structures
are to be used without postweld heat treatment, because
of its inherently superior notch toughness.
Chemical c o m p o s i t i o n limits a n d mechanical
properties of the steel are given in Tables 10.7 and 10.8.
For welding Gr. B steel, low-hydrogen consumables
must be used. Preheating may be necessary depending
on plate thickness, ambient temperature and degree of
restraint. Preheating temperatures range between 40 and
100°C. Higher temperatures must be avoided.
Welding consumables must not only match the
strength but also the sub-zero impact property of the
Composition %
P S Si
0.035 max 0.040 0.15/0.50
NI Cu Mo
0.25 max 0.25 max 0.08 max
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 437

Table 10.8: Mechanical properties of A-537 steels

Tensile strength, Yield strength, Elong. in 8 in. Elong. in 2 in.
Grade Heat treatment N / mm2 min. N / mm2 min. % min. %
A Normalised 480-620 345 18 22
B Quenched and tempered 550-690 410 22

parent plate. Manual electrodes conforming to AWS class J Mn-Mo-B

E 8018 Cl (2% Ni) or E 8018 C2 (3% Ni) normally meet K Mn-MoB
these conditions in all welding positions. Type E 8018 L Cr-Mo-Cu-Ti-B
C3 (1% Ni) matches A537-B toughness properties in the M Mn-Ni-Mo-B
flat position, but may not do so in the vertical position, United States Steel supplies T-l steel in three types as
because of the comparatively high heat input rates follows:
associated with vertical welding. The slower cooling of USS T-l steel: A multi-purpose constructional alloy
the weld deposit results in lower impact strength. For the steel with a minimum yield strength of 1,00,000 psi. This
same reason, in submerged-arc welding it is advisable to low-carbon alloy steel combines high yield strength,
make multiple-pass welds at high welding speeds, in excellent toughness, excellent resistance to corrosion and
preference to fewer passes at low welding speeds. High impact/abrasion, and is weldable in all its forms. Meets
welding heat input can also lower the toughness of the all requirements of ASTM Specification A514 Grade F
heat-affected zone of the welded joint. The submerged- and A517 Grade F.
arc welding wire is usually 2.25% Ni-Cu or Ni-Mn-Mo USS T-l type A steel: A multi-purpose constructional
alloy steel. A wire carrying the designation MIL-100501 alloy steel which features the advantages of USS T-l
is used in the U.S.A. for critical applications and it has steel, but with a change in chemical composition which
the following chemistry. It provides a much higher tensile makes it more economical for many applications in plate
strength compared to the plate which is not regarded as sizes from 5 to 32 mm including. Meets all requirements
objectionable: of ASTM Specification A514 Grade B and A517 Grade B.
C—0.04% Mo—0.30% USS T-l type B steel: A multi-purpose constructional
Mn—1.6% Ni—1.7% alloy steel which offers the same advantages of strength,
Si—0.30% S&P—0.005% each toughness, resistance to impact/abrasion, and
3) USS T-l steel (ASTMA514/A517): This is a multiple-weldability, with a change in chemistry which makes it
alloy boron-containing steel with minimum yield economical in the thickness range over 32 mm through
strength of 1,00,000 psi (690 N/mm 2 ), which is used 50 mm. It is available from 5 mm through 50 mm
extensively in earth-moving and mobile equipment, including. Meets all requirements of ASTM Specification
bridges, buildings, pressure vessels, storages tanks, A514 Grade H.
penstocks, spiral cases and ships. The steel is water- Chemical compositions of the three types are given in
quenched from 890°C (minimum) and tempered at 620°C Table 10.9.
(minimum) to produce a microstructure of tempered The discussions that follow are generally applicable
bainite and tempered martensite. to all the three grades.
ASTM A514/A517 specifies several grades as
indicated below, so that within carefully chosen limits of ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF T-1 STEEL
thickness they provide high strength and toughness with The welding metallurgy of T-l steel is better
the least amounts of costly alloying elements: understood by studying its isothermal diagram shown
A517 grade Composition type in Fig. 10.5. A notable feature is that considerable time
A Mn-Si-Cr-Mo-Zr-B elapses before transformation starts in the pearlite
B Mn-Cr-Mo-V-B transformation temperature range of 704-593°C. This
C Mn-Mo-B means that transformation at high temperature, which
D Cr-Mo-Cu-Ti-B results in an undesirable microstructure will not occur
E Cr-Mo-Cu-Ti-B unless the cooling is abnormally slow.
F Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo-Cu-V-B Another important feature is that a sufficiently long
G Mn-Si-CrMo-Zr-B time elapses before transformation starts in the ferrite
H Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo-V-B and upper bainite range of 593-510°C, to permit the
438 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.9: Compositions of T-1 steels

Mn Ni Cr Mo V Cu Ti

T-1 0.10- 0.60- 0.15- 0.70- 0.40- 0.40- 0.03- 0.15- 0.002
0.20 1.00 0.35 1.00 0.65 0.60 0.08 0.50 0.006
T-1 type A* 0.12- 0.70- 0.20- - 0.40- 0.15- 0.03- 0.0005 0.01-
0.21 1.00 0.35 0.65 0.25 0.08 0.005 0.03
T-1 type B* 0.12- 0.95- 0.20- 0.30- 0.40- 0.20- 0.03- - 0.0005
0.21 1.30 0.35 0.70 0.65 0.30 0.08 min.
*Cu addition is made for better corrosion resistance if desired.

quenching of heavy plates up to 50 mm t with negligible
transformation in this range. It is important to avoid the
formation of ferrite and upper bainite, because in this
case, the surrounding austenite which is rich in carbon
may either remain as such or be transformed to high-
carbon martensite or high-carbon bainite as the steel cools
to room temperature. Thus if the cooling rate is sufficiently
slow to permit considerable transformation in the 593-
510°C range, the final microstructure will consist of a
mixture of ferrite, upper bainite and retained austenite,
together with high-carbon martensite or high-carbon
bainite. Such a combination will not confer good
toughness on the steel even when tempered.
At temperatures below 482°C, a short time is
required to produce a homogeneous lower bainitic
microstructure, which is essential for high toughness,
particularly after tempering. An important feature is
that martensite formation starts at a relatively high
temperature of 393°C. This factor makes the steel
highly resistant to quench-cracking. This is important
from the welding viewpoint, because cooling from
such a high temperature provides a self-tempering
treatment.
The beneficial effect of quenching and tempering on
the mechanical properties of 12.5 mm thick steel of this
type is shown in Fig. 10.6. When hot-rolled, the steel
acquires microstructure of proeutectoid ferrite and high-
carbon martensite, has a comparatively low yield strength
of 550 N / mm 2 and very poor Charpy-V notch value at -
46°C. In as-quenched condition, the microstructure
contains high proportions of the low-temperature
transformation products, martensite and bainite, and the
steel has much higher yield and tensile strengths and
better toughness. When the quenched steel tempered at
temperatures above 593°C, the yield and tensile strengths
are markedly lowered, while the elongation % is almost

5 TO 103 10*
TIME. SECONDS
A—Austenite, C—Carbide, F—Ferrite, I-T—Isothermal Transformation

Fig. 10.5: Isothermal transformation diagram for a typical A514/517 steel

 WELDABILITY OF METALS 439

TEMPERING TEMPERATURE °C
100 200 300 400 SQQ 6SQ 750

200h •
TENSILE STRENGTH

160h

z
120h YIELD STRENGTH \ V
HOT ROLLED

80
40h

30
CHARPY V. NOTCH ENERGY
AT -50'f ~i
~r uj
4= u
a cc ^ H O T ROLLED
20h *
S
</> O
<< roh *^=2^^° TENSILE ELONGATION

flc O •^HOT ROLLED

-L-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERING TEMPERATURE T

Fig. 10.6: Effect of quenching and tempering on the longitudinal mechanical properties of
12.5 mm thick A517F steel

doubled. The toughness as indicated by Charpy values
at -46°C is also vastly improved.
WELDING OF T-1 STEEL
For welding T-1 steel, consumables of matching
strength, ductility and toughness must be used. Manual
electrodes classified as E 11018-M or El 1018-G in AWS
A5.5 'Specification for low-alloy steel covered arc
welding electrodes' are considered to be most suitable
for welding these steels. Some fabricators also use
electrodes of classification E10018-M or E10018-G as
an alternative.
According to AWS A5.5, the electrode must meet the
chemical and mechanical requirements as given in
Tables 10.10 and 10.11. Electrodes conforming to
classifications El 1015 or El 1016 have also been used. It
is generally known that the only major difference between
XXX15 or 16 and XXX18 is the addition of iron powder
to the covering of the latter, which improves welding
performance and minimises undercut.

Table 10.10: Chemical requirements for weld-metal as per AWS A5.5

Electrode C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo V
class
E11018-G* 1.0 min. 0.80 min 0.50 min. 0.30 min. 0.20 min. 0.10 min.
E11018-M 0.10 1.30-1.80 0.030 0.030 0.60 1.25-2.50 0.40 0.25-0.50 0.05
E19918-D2 0.15 1.65-2.0 0.030 0.040 0.80 — — 0.25-0.45 —
E10018-G* — 1.0 min. — — 0.80 min. 0.50 min. 0.30 min. 0.20 min. 0.10 min.
E10018-M 0.10 0.75-1.70 0.030 0.30 0.60 1.40-2.10 0.35 0.25-0.50 0.05
Note: Single values shown are maximum percentages, except where otherwise specified.
* To meet the alloy requirements of the G group, the weld deposit need have the minimum, as specified in the Table, of only one of the
elements listed.
440 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.11: Mechanical requirements for weld-metal as per AWS A5.5

Electrode TS, min. YS, min Eln ., min % V-notch impact
class N / mm2 N / mm2 values, min.
E11018-C 760 665 15 Not required
E11018-M 760 672 20 27J at -51°C
E10018-D2 690 600 16 27J at -51°C
E10018-G 690 600 16 Not required
E10018-M 690 607 20 27J at -51°C

It is obvious from Table 10.11 that electrodes whose
classification carries the suffix M will be preferred to
those having the suffix G for important applications,
since in the latter, ductility requirements are low and
impact requirements are not specified.
It is to be noted that the chemical compositions of the
weld-metal and parent metal differ widely. This is because
the main objective is to match tensile strength, ductility,
and notch toughness properties, and this can never be
accomplished by matching the chemistry. It must be
appreciated that the morphology of weld-metal is so
distinctly different from cast, forged, or rolled metal that
changes must be made in the composition of weld-metal
to adjust its properties to match those of a given parent
metal. In a Q and T steel, this is all the more so, since the
weld-metal has to attain the properties in the as-welded
condition, which the parent metal acquired through
controlled heat treatment.
To u n d e r s t a n d the basis on which high tensile
electrodes such as E11018 are developed, one must know
the effects of various alloying elements on the high tensile
weld-metal. They are described below:
C: Carbon is an inexpensive and a potent strengthening
agent, but it is kept as low as possible in the weld-
metal. Carbon above 0.10% reduces notch toughness
and causes weld-metal to crack, especially in the root
pass under heavy restraint, where the carbon content
increases further by dilution with the plate. Although
the AWS A5.5 specifies 0.10% maximum, the electrode
producer would like to restrict it to around 0.05%.
Si: Silicon is always added through the covering as a
deoxidiser to avoid weld-metal porosity. Beyond
0.50% it lowers the Charpy impact value.
Mn: Manganese increases strength and hardness, com-
bines with sulphur, and acts as a mild deoxidant to
avoid porosity. Being comparatively inexpensive, one
would like to use it to the maximum, but our experi-
ence is that beyond 1.65% it lowers the Charpy im-
pact value.
Ni: Nickel increases strength, also notch toughness, but
beyond 2% and when it approaches 2.5% hot crack-
ing of the weld-metal is likely to occur, though this
can be taken care of by keeping S and P on the ex-
tremely low side.
Cr: Chromium increases tensile strength and hardness,
but lowers ductility and Charpy impact values, hence
it is used in small quantities.
Mo: Molybdenum increases hardenability, strength, and
hardness. However, beyond 0.5% it reduces Charpy
impact values.
Ti: Use of ferrotitanium as deoxidiser is avoided, because
Ti in the weld-metal (unless in minute quantities) low-
ers Charpy impact value.
V: Vanadium serves as a great strengthener of weld-
metal, but we avoid its use as it lowers Charpy impact
properties severely, particularly after stress-relief.
The two electrodes developed by the Oerlikon group
for welding T-l steel are detailed in Table 10.12. Type A
is of E11008-M class and type B is of E10018-M class.
T - l steel is extremely susceptible to hydrogen-
induced cracking, more so because the procedure
demands that welding is performed with limited heat
input and preheating is restricted to relatively low
temperatures. The low-hydrogen manual electrodes are
baked during manufacture at a temperature of 425°C to
meet the AWS requirement that the coating moisture

Table 10.12: Specifications of Ador Welding electrodes for welding T-1 steel
Typical weld-metal composition % Mechanical properties
Electrode C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo S P TS, YS, %EL, Charpy-V
min. min. l=5xd at-51°C, J
A 0.06 0.50 1.45 2.15 0.35 0.40 0.015 0.020 765 675 20 38
B 0.06 0.50 1.45 1.90 0.25 0.30 0.015 0.020 715 715 22 45
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 441

content must be below 0.2%. They are then packed in
sealed airtight metal containers. Such electrodes are
suitable for use directly from the container, provided the
contents once opened are kept in a dry place and used
up within a few hours. If the electrodes are packaged in
cardboard containers with moisture-proof wrapping, it
is quite likely that they have picked up moisture during
storage and require rebaking at the user's place.
For submerged-arc welding, combinations of Mn-Ni-
Cr-Mo alloyed wires and neutral flux or carbon-steel
wires and alloyed flux specially designed for T-l steel
are available. Similarly Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo wires for MIG
welding with argon-oxygen shield are also available.
A very important condition for welding T-l steel is to
restrict heat input by controlling arc energy and
preheating/interpass temperature. If the heat input is
too low, hydrogen-induced cracks may develop in the
HAZ or the weld-metal owing to extremely fast cooling.
If the cooling rate is too low, as a result of very high
input, the original microstructure of tempered bainite and
tempered martensite will transform to ferrite with high
carbon m a r t e n s i t e regions or to coarse bainite.
Consequently, the strength and toughness of this zone
will be adversely affected. The weld-metal also will have
lower strength and toughness.
Suggested preheating temperatures for different
welding processes are given in Table 10.13, which shows
that it is possible to use higher preheat temperatures in
thicker plates, because heat is dissipated more rapidly in
thick sections than in thin sections. For the same reason
higher arc energy can be used in thicker plates. This is
indicated in Table 10.14, which gives the upper limits of
heat inputs for different plate thicknesses at various
preheat levels.
To prevent cracking in welds the following steps are
recommended for the conditioning and handling of low-
hydrogen electrodes:
a) As soon as an electrode container is opened, the
electrodes should be removed from the container and
placed into a baking oven.
b) Electrodes should be baked according to the
manufacturer's instructions, usually 427°C for one hour.
The electrodes should be charged at 260°C maximum
and heated to 427°C, with the electrodes placed no more
than three layers deep on a tray. (This baking may be
omitted only if the user has satisfied himself that the
electrode coating, as ready for use, contains less than
0.2% moisture.)
c) Whether baked or not the electrodes should be
immediately transferred to a storage or holding oven at
121±14°C
d) Both, the baking oven and the storage oven should
be equipped with air-circulating systems and temperature
controls and indicators.
e) Electrodes should not be placed in the storage oven
unless sufficiently dry as-received or properly baked.

Table 10.13:: Preheating data for weldincj T-1 steel using various processes
Minimum preheat or jLnterpass temp.,°C
Submerged-arc process
Plate thicknc?ss, Shielded metal-arc Gas metal-arc, gas Alloy or carbon Carbon-steel
mm process tungsten-arc or flux- steel wire wire
cored-arc processes neutral flux alloy flux
Up to 19 10 10 10 10
Over 19-45 50 50 50 94
Over 45-64 80 80 80 150
Over 64 110 110 110 200

Table 10.14 : Maximum heat input rates for T-1 steel

Plate thickness, mm
Preheat and inteirpass 4.8 6.3 12.7 19 25.4 32 45 51
temp.,°C
Max. heat input rate KJ / mm

21 1.06 1.40 2.75 4.76 Any Any Any Any

93 0.82 1.14 2.2 3.40 6.80 Any Any Any
150 0.67 0.95 1.85 3.23 4.96 6.90 Any Any
200 0.50 0.75 1.57 2.56 3.66 5.0 6.50 Any
442 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
f) The lower-strength welding electrodes (E7018 and
E7028) should be used within one hour after removal
from the storage oven. The higher strength electrodes (E
10018 and E 12015) should be used within 30 min after
removal from the storage oven.
g) Electrodes removed from the storage oven and
exposed in a clean, dry location for times longer than
those specified should be rebaked as described under
item b. Electrodes exposed to water, grease, or dirt should
be destroyed.
h) When welding is done in areas of high humidity, it
is advisable to store a suitable quantity of electrodes in a
small portable oven, from which electrodes may be drawn
one at a time by the welder.
The stringer bead technique, in which beads are
deposited without weaving is preferred for T-l steel
welding. Weaving means lower arc travel speed and
hence increased heat input. Special care is necessary in
vertical welding, where wide weaving is normally
employed. Stringer bead technique reduces distortion
and ensures good weld-metal toughness.
Experience and full-scale tests have established that
stress-relief is not necessary in welded quenched and
tempered steels, including T - l steel. In fact, a heat
treatment in the temperature range of 510-694°C lowers
the toughness of the weld-metal as well as the HAZ,
particularly if slow cooling is resorted to. It can also cause
intergranular cracking in the coarse-grained regions of
the HAZ. The cracking occurs in the early stages of the
heat treatment, before the high residual stresses have been
reduced. It may be interpreted as a kind of stress rupture.
If stress-relief must be used to retain dimensional
stability during machining or to avoid possible stress-
corrosion in service, the temperature employed must not
exceed that used for tempering the steel (620°C for T-l
steel). In fact, it should be about 30°C below the tempering
temperature, to avoid lowering the strength of the steel.
4) Nickel steels for cryogenic service: Cryogenic service
is generally understood to mean service involving
temperatures below -50°C. Steels meant for cryogenic
service are termed cryogenic steels. Steels in general lose
their toughness as temperature is lowered, and sometimes
register a sharp fall over a narrow temperature zone called
transition range. A cryogenic steel must have the fracture
toughness transition temperature below the intended
service temperature. In other w o r d s , it must give
minimum Charpy-V impact value of 20 J or 15 ft-lbs
(sometimes more) at service temperature.
Factors which help to lower the transition temperature
of a steel are: (a) minimal carbon, (b) deoxidation or
thorough killing, (c) fine grain size, (d) normalising or
quenching and tempering, and (e) alloying with nickel.
Among these, the last factor is most effective as indicated
in Fig. 10.7, which compares the sub-zero notch
toughness properties of carbon steel with four grades of
nickel steels. It shows that with increasing amounts of
nickel in the steel, the range of applicability is extended
as follows:
Ni content in steel Lowest service temperature
% CQ
2 V4 -60
3% -100
5 -130 (-162°)
9 -196
The condition of heat treatment is also important as
shown for 3.5 Ni steel in Fig. 10.8. In the hot rolled
condition, the steel gives widely scattered impact values.
Normalising improves the impact strength, mainly
through grain refinement. Quenching and tempering is
even more effective, because in addition to producing a
fine grain size, it distributes the carbide particles more
favourably in the alloyed matrix. However, with all the
best possible factors, the service applications of Ni steels
cannot be extended below -196°C. For such extremely
low temperatures, austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steel (type
304) is ideal, because as indicated in Fig. 10.7, this
material does not show a toughness transition range and
maintains superior impact strength down to the lowest
testing temperature of -270°C. This unique property of
Cr-Ni austenitic steel is attributable to its face-centred
cubic crystalline structure. However, its comparatively
low yield strength at room temperature is sometimes a
handicap.
Although Al helps to produce a deoxidised (fully-
killed) and fine-grained steel, residual Al in excess of
about 0.05% has an adverse effect on sub-zero fracture
toughness. S and P should also be restricted to lower
levels t h a n found in steels for n o r m a l service
t e m p e r a t u r e s . C a r b o n content is also i m p o r t a n t .
Specifications for nickel steels specify relatively low
carbon levels and yet the steelmaker must keep carbon
percentage as low as possible, while complying with the
specified strength levels. For a given steel, impact strength
falls as thickness increases. Severe cold working (more
than 3%) can affect toughness, more so if the steel is
sensitive to strain hardening.
Cryogenic steels are mostly used in the fabrication of
containment plant for liquefied gases, in which case the
service temperature is the boiling point of the liquefied
gas. Boiling points of the commonly handled commercial
gases are given below:
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 443

TEMPERATURE.°C
-200 -150 -10

-300 -200 -100

TEMPERATURE. *F

Fig. 10.7: Impact properties of nickel steels and stainless steel over a wide range of temperature. Boiling points of
gases are shown on abscissa

Gas Boiling point, °C and propane. Voluminous cargo tanks have been built
into ocean-going ships to transport these materials.
LPG 20 (under pressure)
The steel is welded with electrodes of AWS class
(liquefied petroleum gas)
E8016-CI or E8018-CI which deposit approximately
Ammonia -30
2.5% Ni steel, using preheat temperature of 100-125°C. If
Butane -32
the carbon level is above 0.20% or the joint is heavily
Propane -42
restrained, a 150°C preheat is advisable. The standard
Carbon dioxide -80
codes usually demand that welded pressure vessels or
Ethylene -105
pressure pipings for cryogenic service be stress-relieved
LNG (liquefied natural gas, -162
at about 625°C.
mainly methane)
Methane 3.5% Ni steel (ASTM A203/300): This steel has also
-165
Oxygen two grades D and E, the latter having higher carbon levels
-183
Nitrogen for different thicknesses. It is usually supplied in the
-196
Hydrogen normalised condition, though further improvement in
-253
Helium t o u g h n e s s can be obtained by t e m p e r i n g after
-269
normalising or tempering after quenching.
2.25% Ni steel (ASTM A203): The steel consists of two The steel is welded with electrodes of AWS class
grades. Grade A has carbon percentage limits of 0.17, E8016-C2 or E8018-C2 using preheat in the temperature
0.20 and 0.23 for plate thicknesses of up to 51 mm, over range of 100-125°C. The weldment has to be stress-
51 to 102 mm, and over 102 mm respectively. Grade B relieved at about 625°C.
has maximum carbon levels of 0.21, 0.24 and 0.25% for As mentioned earlier, the 3.5% Ni steel has been found
the same plate ranges. Grade B has higher strength levels suitable for service temperatures down to -100°C. In order
and is-naturally more difficult to weld than Grade A. to ensure its suitability for handling liquefied ethylene,
The steel is normally supplied in normalised state. It is which has a boiling point of -105°C and is used
widely used for storing and transporting of liquid butane increasingly in the manufacture of plastics, it is being
444 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

TEMPERATURE. °C
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 , 50
| i i i i r *
1
1
1
1
1
1
I ! 1
1
1
100 1

1 !
< 80
>
a CC

< 1 | *A 8// <

&/ ^11 CC

f
UJ
x 60
u 5
o CC UJ

z
M
UJ
o/ O

¥-4
> 40^—tr O
>- —'
I1 W° CC
CC
< CO
i
X
CJ
20 < crtfcD [
1 Z>^\#
1
L i
1 1
u i i 1 4 I . . 1
-400 -300 -200 -100 100 200
TEMPERATURE. °F

Fig. 10.8: Effect of condition of heat treatment on impact properties of 31/2 nickel alloy steel

subjected to quenching and tempering, which shifts the
transition temperature of the steel to below -105°C.
However, improvement in the E80XX-C2 class electrode
to match this toughness level has not been possible, and
the specification AWS A5.5 still specifies for the weld
deposit minimum impact value of 27 J (20 ft-lb) at -73°C
For the present, for liquid ethylene service a stainless
steel (E309) or an Inconel electrode is considered more
suitable.
To obtain adequate toughness in submerged-arc
welding, the practice has been to use a special 3.0% N i -
1% M n - 0 . 2 5 % Mo wire a n d m u l t i - p a s s w e l d i n g
technique with relatively low heat input rate. MIG
welding with the same wire, but containing additional
Al has been quite successful.
5% Ni steel (ASTM A645) : This steel was first
introduced in Europe for service applications down to -
130°C, but did not gain acceptance in the U.S.A.,
presumably because it did not offer sufficient advantage
over the 3.5% Ni steel to justify its higher cost. Also a
matching filler metal of 5% Ni was found to be unsuitable,
as the weld-metal was seriously prone to cracking. Hence
austenitic stainless steel or nickel-base electrodes had to
be used, whose weld deposit has comparatively lower
strength at room temperature.
Recently the steel has been upgraded to make it
suitable for service temperatures down to -162°C, so
that it can be used for handling liquefied natural gas
(LNG). A typical steel is Armco cryonic 5. It is essentially
a l o w - c a r b o n , 5% Ni steel w i t h a d d i t i o n of
approximately 0.25% Mo. Mn and Si are normal for alloy
steels, but P and S are kept at low levels to ensure
maximum notch toughness. The key feature of cryonic
5 is a new three-step heat treatment that produces the
excellent combination of properties. This treatment
involves conventional quenching, temperising, and
reversion annealing. These latter two treatments involve
heating to specific temperature ranges in the two-phase
(a+y) region and cooling therefrom at specific rates. They
refine the microstructure by controlling the amount of
stable austenite, ferrite, and low-carbon tempered
martensite. This structure accounts for the combination
of high strength, ductility, and exceptional notch
toughness.
The steel is welded with filler metals and welding
procedures, which have been found suitable for 9% Ni
steel (for example, Inconel 92 filler metal conforming to
AWS class ERNiCrFe-b for MIG welding or electrode
Inco-Weld B of AWS class ENiCrFe-4 for manual
welding).
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 445

9% Ni steel (ASTM A353/A553): A353 refers to the steel mm 2 ). It is used extensively in the U.S.A. for military
supplied in the double normalised and tempered equipment, particularly as submarine hull plate, because
condition and A553 to that supplied in the quenched of its exceptional fracture toughness at low temperatures
and tempered condition. Both grades show extremely and under ballistic shock loading. Typical composition
good notch toughness at -196°C, but A553 has a higher of HY-80 steel plate is as follows (%): C-0.16, Mn-0.25,
yield strength (85 ksi or 585 N / m m 2 minimum) as P-0.012, S-0.024, Si-0.22, Cr-1.30, Ni-2.5, Mo-0.35, V-
compared to A353 (75 ksi or 515 N / mm 2 minimum). 0.0015, Ti-0.004, Al-0.004, B-0.0005.
Both have the tensile strength range of 100-120 ksi (690- For welding, preheat and interpass temperatures and
825 N/mm 2 ) and require identical welding procedures. heat input should be controlled within the limits given
Normally no preheat is required but as plate thickness in Table 10.15. However, it is a common practice to preheat
increases and joint restraint becomes more severe, it is to 100-150°C wherever possible, and use stringer bead,
advisable to preheat in the temperature range of 100- multiple-pass technique. The most suitable electrodes are
200°C to prevent cracking. 9% Ni steel electrodes are not AWS class E10018-M or E11018-M specified in AWS
suitable, because they deposit weld-metal of inadequate A5.5, 'Specification for low-alloy steel/covered arc
toughness which is prone to severe cracking. Electrodes welding electrodes'. Welded joints exhibit excellent
of the E310 class (25 Cr/20 Ni stainless steel type) give toughness and matching strength in the as-welded
adequate weld-metal toughness at -196°C, but the tensile conditions. Fillet welds are sometimes made with E9018-
strength is much lower. Nickel alloy electrodes of AWS M electrodes. Stress-relief is provided only in cases where
class ENiCrFe2 or ENiCrFe3 (for example, Incoweld 'A' dimensional stability is to be achieved or stress-corrosion
or Inconel 182) are a better choice, because the weld-metal cracking is to be avoided in certain service environments.
deposited by these electrodes has approximately 95% The temperature is limited to 550°C.
joint strength efficiency, besides good notch toughness For M I G / C 0 2 welding, the Military Specification has
at -196°C. MIG welding can be satisfactorily carried out set the compositional limits as follows:
using Ni-alloy wires of AWS class ERNiCr-3 or ERNiCr- C-0.08 max., Mn-1.15-1.55, P-0.025 max., S-0.025
6. Ferritic steel wires of matching chemistry have also max., Si-0.35-0.65, Ni-1.15-1.55, Mo-0.30-0.60, V-0.10-
been found suitable for MIG welding in Japan, provided 0.20.
Ni content is raised to about 10.5% and levels of S and P Since the weld-metal contains V, stress-relief heat
are maintained very low in the parent plates (each below treatment has to be avoided, because of the embrittlement
0.015%) and in traces in the weld deposit (each below caused by its presence.
0.006%). For submerged-arc welding, a 65% Ni-27% Mo The specification also lays down that for submerged-
wire used in combination with a basic flux has been found arc welding, the flux-wire combination should give weld-
suitable. Recently submerged-arc wire of modified metal compostion A or B as detailed below:
chemistry (75% Ni-20% Mo-3% W) has been developed
in Japan, which in combination with a low silica
agglomerated flux, is claimed to deposit weld-metal of Weld-metal composition
adequate strength and toughness, matching the parant "A B~
metal. A m a n u a l electrode of s o m e w h a t similar c 0.12 max. 0.06 max.
composition has also been developed. 9% Ni steel Mn 0.80-1.25 1.00-1.50
fabrications are used in the as-welded condition without P 0.020 max. 0.010 max.
postheat treatment even for service at -196°C. S 0.020 max. 0.010 max
Whereas the hardness of 9% Ni steel in tempered Si 0.80 max. 0.50 max.
condition is in the range of C-22 to C-26 Rockwell, it Ni 0.80-1.25 1.40-1.90
increases to approximately C-38 to C-40 at a point about Cr 0.30 max. 0.10-0.30
1 mm from the fusion line in the HAZ. Despite this increase Mo 0.15-0.60 0.20-0.40
Cu 0.40-1.10 0.10-0.30
in hardness, there is no marked decrease of toughness in
V 0.05 max. 0.05 max.
the HAZ. Some fabricators insist on restricting the carbon
Ti 0.10 max.
in the parent plate to 0.08% maximum so that the HAZ
Zr 0.10 max.
hardness does not exceed C-36.
Al 0.10 max.
HY-80 steel: This is a quenched and tempered alloy
steel produced according to Military Specification in the HY-100, HY-WO(T) and HY-130 steels: These steels
U.S.A. to give a minimum yield strength of 80 ksi (550 N / developed in the U.S.A. have been described as
446 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.15: Preheat and related data for HY-80 steel

Preheating temperatures for air carbon-arc gouging
Plate thickness, mm Minimum temperature,°C
28.5 or less 25
Over 28.5 66
Preheating for arc welding
Plate thickness, mm Minimum preheat and
Interpass temp.,°C
12.7 or less 25
Over 12.7 butt under 28.5 52
Over 28.5 95
Under no circumstances shall 150°C be exceeded
Heat input during arc welding
Plate thickness, mm Joules/mm, Maximum
12.7 or less 1,772
Over 12.7 but under 35 2,362
Over 35 3,150

'premium-toughness high-yield strength steels of the
quenched and tempered type'. Like HY-80 steel, HY-
100 is used in the construction of military, marine and
commercial hydrospace vehicles. HY-130 has been
specially developed for use in the more demanding
hydrospace and aerospace applications.
HY-100 is a 100 ksi (690 N / m m 2 ) yield steel based on
HY 80 composition, but with higher Ni and Cr contents.
It is specified in ASTM A543 class 2. HY 130 is a steel
with a yield strength in the range of 130-150 ksi (895-
1030 N/mm 2 ) and is based on 5% Ni with additional Cr,
Mo and V. A modified version of HY-100, designated by
the U.S. Navy as HY-100 (T) is based on HY-130 and
has better weldability. It is an electric furnace vacuum-
degassed 3% Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel, which exhibits better
fracture toughness properties. Chemical compositions
of these three steels are given in Table 10.16.
Electrodes of over-matching strength conforming to
AWS E120-18 are used for welding HY-100 steel. HY-
80 welding procedures are used, but the risk of HAZ and
w e l d - m e t a l cracking d u e to h y d r o g e n is m o r e
pronounced, because of higher carbon equivalent and
higher strength of weld-metal. In the case of HY-100(T)
steel, the risk of cold cracking is much less than in the
case of HY-80 steel, because of lower CE (0.85 maximum
for the maximum composition as compared to 0.95 for
HY-80). HY-100(T) is also welded by the MIG process,
using the wire whose composition is given in Table 10.17.
For welding HY-130, special E14018 class electrodes
have been developed in the U.S.A. For MIG welding, a

Table 10.16: Chemical compositions of high-strength QT steels

HY 100(T)
Element HY100 12.7-25.4 38-89 102-152 HY130
mm mm mm
C 0.20 max. 0.09-0.13 0.09-0.13 0.09-0.13 0.08-0.12
Mn 0.10-0.40 0.20-0.40 0.20-0.40 0.20-0.40 0.60-0.90
Si 0.15-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35
Ni 2.25-3.50 2.5-3.0 3.0-3.5 4.0-4.5 4.75-5.25
Cr 1.00-1.80 0.95-1.25 1.20-1.60 1.40-1.80 0.40-0.70
Mo 0.20-0.60 0.25-0.35 0.35-0.45 0.45-0.60 0.30-O.65
V 0.03 max. 0.05-0.10 0.05-0.10 0.05-0.10 0.05-0.10
S 0.025 max. 0.020 max. 0.020 max. 0.020 max. 0.015 max.
P 0.025 max. 0.020 max. 0.020 max. 0.020 max. 0.010 max.
S+P 0.045 max. — — —
Ti 0.020 max. — — — 0.020 max.
Cu 0.25 max. 0.25 max.
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 447

special Mn-Ni-Cr-Mo wire described in Table 10.17 is vanadium, aluminium, tantalum and zirconium, which
used with argon-2 to 5% oxygen mixture as a shielding readily form carbides, nitrides or carbonitrides. The total
gas. Hydrogen-induced cracking in the HAZ is not a content of these elements seldom exceeds 0.15%. These
serious problem in the case of HY-130 steel, but weld- steels are usually delivered in normalised or control-
metal cold cracking is a significant problem. To avoid it,rolled condition as fine-grained steels with good
the interpass temperature during welding with E 14018 toughness properties. They are generally categorised with
electrodes should be 135°C minimum and one hour high strength low-alloy steels.
should elapse between the deposition of adjoining beads Micro-alloyed steels are actually structural C-Mn
within a layer or the beads in one layer to the next. The steels, in which minute additions of the above-
interpass temperature should be prolonged for at least mentioned alloying elements raise the yield and tensile
one hour as a postweld heat treatment. Minimum preheat strengths, lower the transition temperature and improve
and interpass temperatures for welding various ductility. These additions also produce a fine, rather
thicknesses of HY-100 and HY-130 steels are given in than coarse microstructure in these steels during air-
Table 10.18. In one particular HY-130 fabrication cooling. This fine microstructure is the cause of
programme, heat input limits were set as shown in Table improved strength and toughness properties. With their
10.19 and the procedures adopted for welding in the flat good weldability and fabrication properties, these steels
position using stringer bead technique were as given in are now widely used for structural purpose including
Table 10.20. construction of bridges, buildings, material handling
equipment, etc.
Micro-Alloyed Steels Though these steels fall under the category of alloy
Micro-alloyed steels are defined as steels treated with steels, they are not strictly so, because the alloying
small additions of elements such as niobium, titanium, elements are not subject to chemical check analysis limits

Table 10.17: Compositions of typical MIG wires for welding HY-100(T) and HY-130 steels
% C Mn Si S P Cr Mo Ni Ti Cu Al V
For HY-100(T) 0.085 1.70 0.46 0.009 0.005 0.05 0.50 2.40 0.025 — — —
For HY-130 0.11 1.60 0.34 0.008 0.007 0.62 0.89 2.75 0.010 0.34 0.02 0.02

Table 10.18: Preheat temperatures for welding HY-100 and HY-130 steels
Temperatures, °C
Plate t, mm HY-100 HY-130
steel steel

To 12.5 38 24
Over 12.5 to 15.8 52 24
Over 15.8 to 19 52 52
Over 19 to 22.2 66 52
Over 22.2 to 25.4 66 93
Over 25.4 to 35 93 93
Over 35 to 36 93 107

Table 10.19: Heat input data for welding HY 130 steel

Thickness, Preheat temp., Max. interpass Max. heat input,
mm °C temp.,°C KJ / mm
6.3 Room temp. 121 1.2
8 Room temp. 121 1.2
9.5 Room temp. 121 1.4
12.7 Room temp. 149 1.6
19 93-121 149 1.6
448 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.20: Procedure data for MIG and MMA welding HY-130 steel
a) MIG welds
Plate thick- Fillet metal Travel Number of Shielding gas
ness, diameter, Voltage, Current, speed, passes mixture
mm mm V amp mm/sec (total)
6.3 1.2 25.5 220 4.7 2 98%A/2%0 2
9.5 1.2 26.0 270 4.2 2 98%A/2%0 2
12.7 1.2 25.0 270 5.0 4 98%A/2%0 2
19 1.2 26.0 270 4.2-6.0 10-11 98%A/2%0 2
b) MMA welds
Plate thick- Electrode Travel Number of
ness, diameter, Voltage, Current, speed, passes
mm mm V amp mm/sec (total)
63 4 225 160 3.4 to 4.2 4 to 5
8 4 22.5 160 3.4 to 4.2 4 to 5
9.5 4 22.5 160 3.4 to 4.2 6 to 7
19 4 22.5 160 3.4 to 4.2 14 to 16

and other tolerances regularly imposed upon an alloy With such a flexible type of classification of these
steel. These steels are furnished to specified mechanical steels, a large number of different brands are available
requirements for designated thickness ranges. Limits of with a variety of chemical compositions, but similar
chemical composition are generally published for mechanical properties from different manufacturers.
information only, since adjustments in carbon and other
alloying elements are made by the steel producer as Metallurgical Aspects
necessary to maintain mechanical properties in products In micro-alloyed steels, strength improvements are
of various thickness ranges. In general, these steels must achieved by judicious control of transformation. To
produce the required properties with smallest possible achieve the desired properties, steelmakers control the
alloying contents in order to compete costwise. microstructure by using special metallurgical techniques.
International Institute of Welding has divided micro- Microstructure of micro-alloyed steels consists of a
alloyed steels into three categories, depending on their mixture of ferrite grains with isolated islands of pearlite.
strength, as follows: In some cases a small amount of bainite may also be
present, which does not differ very much from pearlite in
U.T.S. Y.P. Elongation its mechanical properties. The general features of
(kgf/mm2) (kgf/mm2) (%on5d) microstructure, on which mechanical properties of micro-
min. min. alloyed steels depend, are as follows:
1) Class 36 55-65 36 22
1) The relative proportion of pearlite
2) Class 40 55-70 40 20
2) The structure of pearlite, i.e. the interlamellar
3) Class 45 58-75 45 20
spacing
Majority of the steels in the above three groups have 3) The nature of ferrite, which can be influenced by
the following base analysis: solid solution and by precipitation
Carbon 0.22% max. 4) The grain size.
Manganese 1.0-1.5% Out of these four factors, the last two, namely, nature
Silicon 0.3% approx. of ferrite and the grain size play a major role in achieving
Sulphur and Phosphorus 0.04% max. each high strength and good toughness properties.
In class 36 steel, the most common micro-alloying 1) Proportion and structure of pearlite
element is aluminium. Several of the steels are also Carbon markedly increases pearlite content, and is
niobium treated and a few have vanadium, niobium, one of the most potent economical strengthening ele-
zirconium and titanium additions. The class 40 and 45 ments. Effect of manganese on strength is similar to car-
steels are rendered fine-grained by treating with bon but to a milder degree. With increase in relative
aluminium, niobium, vanadium and titanium or a amount of pearlite, tensile strength increases, but the
combination of two or three of these elements. yield strength does not increase significantly. The tough-

ness properties ar£ worsened with increase in the amount
of pearlite. Pearlite formers also help in the hardening of
steel. Thus their role in improving yield strength is lim-
ited by deterioration in weldability. The practical maxi-
mum carbon content, at which micro-alloyed steels can
be used in as-rolled condition without martensite or
bainite formation is approximately 0.20%. For manga-
nese also, there is an upper limit depending on the over-
all composition in general and carbon in particular.
With refinement of pearlite, i.e. decrease in
interlamellar spacing, tensile strength, yield strength and
toughness are improved. Addition of manganese makes
austenite transformation occur at lower temperatures,
leading to formation of fine pearlite.
2) Strengthening ferrite
a) By solid solution: The fine pearlite is undoubtedly
the major source of strength, but strengthening of the
ferrite matrix is an indispensable adjunct. At low carbon
levels, elements like silicon a n d m a n g a n e s e are
distributed between cernentite and ferrite. These elements
improve strength of the ferrite by formation of solid
solution.
The effectiveness of the impurity (solute) additions
depends on the size differences of solute and solvent at-
oms and the percentage present. If the solute atom is larger
than the solvent atoms, compressive strain-fields are set
up and if it is smaller, then tensile strain-fields are set up.
In general, the higher strength levels obtained by this
method of ferrite strengthening will be accompanied by a
relatively smaller loss in plasticity, as compared with
considerable loss in ductility accompanying the hard-
ness increase resulting from microstructural changes. In
steel, the order of increasing effectiveness of various ele-
ments for ferrite strengthening by solid solution appears
to be as follows: chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molyb-
denum, nickel, manganese, silicon and phosphorus.
b) By precipitation: Precipitate formation is one of the
main mechanisms that operate in the micro-alloyed steels.
Precipitated particles can work in two ways:
i) The direct way in which they influence the
mechanical properties by local deformation of the ferrite
matrix and by multiplication of dislocations.
ii) The indirect way by which the precipitates af-
fect the grain size by influencing the austenitic grain or
act as nuclei for ferrite during the austenite to ferrite trans-
formation.
The hard precipitates in micro-alloyed steels are nor-
mally carbides, carbonitrides or nitrides. In relation to
carbon, all the alloying elements added to steel can be
classified into two categories—elements which facilitate
formation of graphite and elements which form the stable
WELDABILITY OF METALS 449
carbides in steel. Carbides can be further classified into
two classes. The first group includes carbides like Fe3C,
Cr7C3, etc., which have high solubility in austenite upon
heating, and are of prime importance in the heat treat-
ment of steels. The second group includes W2C, VC, NbC,
TiC, ZrC, TaC, etc., which do not dissolve in the austenite
when steel is heated under actual practical conditions.
These carbides are formed by micro-alloying elements
added in micro-alloyed steels. The characteristic feature
of these carbides is that, they are built up of ions of metal-
lic elements with carbon occupying interstitial positions
and have exceptionally high melting point and hardness.
Elements like a l u m i n i u m , v a n a d i u m and
molybdenum form nitrides and carbonitrides in the
presence of nitrogen (0.02%), which are also very hard
and have a high melting point. These precipitated
particles act as hard second phase particles within the
matrix, and impede the motion of dislocations through
the material. This leads to the formation of dislocation
loops around the particles and decreases the effective
spacing between them. Therefore increasing amount of
stress is required to push each successive dislocation
through. For a given volume of second-phase precipitates,
a higher stress is required for finer particle size because
of lesser interparticle spacing.
In micro-alloyed steels, 0.02 to 0.05% aluminium is
normally added to form aluminium nitrides. Aluminium
nitride is present in a large number of morphological
variations, from simple geometrical forms to large two
dimensional forms. A fine dispersion of these precipitates
throughout the volume of the steel gives best results.
Along with aluminium, sometimes titanium is also
used. Titanium forms carbides, nitrides or carbonitrides
with carbon and nitrogen, which have very high melting
points. Niobium is most commonly used and is usually
added in an amount ranging from 0.01 to 0.10%. It forms
finely dispersed niobium carbide, which at high
temperatures takes the form of thin film at the primary
grain boundaries. This leads to deterioration in impact
properties. Therefore niobium is usually restricted to
0.05%. Vanadium is added in quantities 0.05-0.2%, and
forms carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides.
3) Grain size
Grain size plays a decisive part in raising the strength
of micro-alloyed steels. In these steels, fine grain size is
obtained through fine precipitation, controlled rolling or
normalising. Fine precipitated particles formed by the
micro-alloying elements act as nucleating centres during
transformation, leading to heterogeneous transformation
with lower free energy, causing faster transformation with
less supercooling and fine grain size.
450 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
In the controlled rolling method, rolling temperature,
amount of reduction applied and time between passes
are controlled. Grain size becomes finer as the
temperature at which substantial reductions are made is
lowered, provided this temperature is not too much below
Ary Furthermore, reductions should be made regularly
and quickly as the temperature decreases, so as to have a
uniform repetition of deformation and recrystallisation
of the grains, but with minimum time for grain growth.
Below Ar3 there is limited additional grain refinement
and cold-worked grains begin to appear in the
microstructure. This means that only partial
recrystallisation has occurred. The cooling rate during
transformation from austenite is also important, and this
is especially true when cooling immediately after plastic
deformation of austenite. In the case of niobium treated
plates thicker than 10 mm, controlled rolling procedure
is adopted for grain refinement to improve notch
toughness.
Some micro-alloyed steels are normalised for grain
refinement. Normalising is most effective when the
normalising temperature is as low as possible above Ac,
temperature, and time at this temperature is short. During
heating and holding at normalising temperature,
precipitation of particles and grain refinement take place.
If this temperature is higher, coarsening of precipitates
may start. In the case of micro-alloyed steels with
aluminium, normalising leads to the formation of fine
grains of aluminium nitrides. As mentioned earlier, the
finer the precipitates, the finer will be the grains.
The grain size plays a decisive part in improving the
strength and toughness properties of the steel. For the
same metallurgical structure, the yield stress increases
as the grain size decreases. This is because of the fact
that grain boundaries act as a barrier to slip across the
grain boundaries. Finer grains also help in improving
toughness properties.
Grain boundaries at low temperatures are usually
stronger than the material in the grain itself. Thus, fracture
in most metals at low temperature is trans-crystalline.
This signifies that fracture goes through the interior of
the grains rather than along the grain boundaries. This
is why low temperature impact properties improve
markedly with finer grain size.
Weldability of micro-alloyed steels is more complex
than that of ordinary C-Mn steels, which are usually
welded without hydrogen control and with no
limitations on arc energy input. Micro-alloyed steels are
satisfactorily welded by the manual metal-arc process
without heat input restrictions, provided low-hydrogen
electrodes are used. But when high heat input processes
such as MIG/C0 2 , submerged-arc and electroslag are
used, grain-coarsening is likely to occur in the HAZ
leading to a loss in strength and toughness, unless heat
input is restricted. More recent research has revealed that
the greater difficulties faced in micro-alloyed steel
welding are not due to microstructural changes in the
heat-affected zone, but due to the transfer of alloying
elements from the base metal into the weld, which is a
function of composition of the parent plate and heat input
(dilution).
The major variables affecting the weldability of micro-
alloyed steels can be classified into two broad categories:
1) Cleanliness of steel and its chemical composition
2) Welding process.
1) Cleanliness and chemistry of steel: The cleanliness
of steel and its chemical composition together determine
the metallurgical quality of steel and affect the heat-
affected zone and general properties of the weldment.
Cleanliness of steel is measured in terms of inclusion
content. Possibility of crack formation is more if a larger
number of non-metallic inclusions are present in the zone
adjacent to weld-metal, which is subjected to high
temperatures and subsequently to upsetting caused by
thermal expansion. Most harm is caused by sulphur.
Keeping a manganese-to-sulphur ratio of 20 is normally
taken as a safeguard against hot cracking tendency. I.
Hrivnak has made a detailed investigation on the effect of
aluminium, niobium and titanium on the nature and
properties of the inclusions with electron probe micro-
analysis method. He divided inclusions into three
groups:
The first group includes inclusions in manganese
steels in which aluminium is added These inclusions
are mainly manganese sulphide type with some bordered
with a layer of aluminates. The number of aluminium
sulphide inclusions are very small. Because of their high
melting point, up to fusion line, these inclusions are not
dissolved.
Inclusions formed in steels, in which aluminium and
titanium are added, make up the second group. In these
steels, manganese sulphide bordered with aluminates
are formed and along with this (Mn, Ti) S inclusions are
also formed. (Mn, Ti) S inclusions have a very low melting
point; therefore they are unfavourable from welding point
of view.
The third group consists of inclusions formed in steel
containing aluminium, titanium and niobium. In this
group more sulphide inclusions of combined MnS and
AIS type are formed. Titanium and niobium inclusions
are present in a lower proportion. These inclusions

behave like those in the previous group and render the
steel more susceptible to hot cracking.
The microconstituents present in micro-alloyed steels
play a major role in weldability of micro-alloyed steels,
more so in deep penetration welding techniques
associated with submerged-arc welding and electroslag
welding, since a large amount of micro-constituents is
transferred into the weld pool. For this reason, during
the last few years the upper limit of niobium content in
the micro-alloyed steels has been reduced from 0.10 to
0.06%. It has been shown that the content of about 0.001%
niobium in the weld increases the transition temperature
by about 2°C. Similarly there is an urge an^ong steel
makers to reduce vanadium and nitrogen content in
micro-alloyed steels.
The low impact strength shown by the weld-metal
when it picks up micro-alloying elements by dilution is
explained thus: the rapid freezing of the weld pool and
the intense cooling cause strengthening of ferrite by
precipitation of highly dispersed carbides and nitrides.
This leads to high density of dislocations and the
consequent state of stress.
2) Welding process: As mentioned earlier, the
weldability of micro-alloyed steels depends to a large
extent on the welding process. The welding process
influences the weldability by affecting the heat-affected
zone properties and the weld properties by dilution from
the parent plate.
a) Effect on heat-affected zone properties: In the case of
mild and low-alloy steels, the HAZ properties are usually
predicted by the carbon equivalent formula:
C - r x ^ f e x Cr + Mo + V __, Ni + Cu
+ was observed.
^ 6 5. 15
This carbon equivalent is related to the hardenability
of steel, i.e. the ability of steel to form hard martensite in
the HAZ adjacent to the weld. The effect of various
alloying elements mentioned in the above formula
actually depends upon whether they are present in solid
solution, in which case they assist hardenability.
Elements which form complex carbides and do not go
into solution during the period when HAZ is
austenitised, are not considered in the formula.
Vanadium, being present in very low concentrations in
micro-alloyed steels and forming complex carbides, is
not to be considered in the formula. Further, carbon being
taken up by complex carbide particles present in a micro-
alloyed steel, also prevents it from performing its role as
promoter of hardenability and as a major element for
establishing hardness in transformed structures.
Heat-affected zones of micro-alloyed steels, thus, will
be comparatively softer than those of mild and low-alloy
WELDABILITY OF METALS 451
steels of the same C Since one of the major factors causing
hydrogen-induced cracking is the HAZ hardness, micro-
alloyed steels are relatively less susceptible to this type
of cracking, and therefore may tolerate more hydrogen in
the welding consumable.
The phenomenon taking place in the HAZ of micro-
alloyed steels is entirely different from that of low-alloy
and mild steels. The thermal cycle during the welding of
micro-alloyed steels produces a softer microstructure in
the HAZ as compared to the parent plate. The magnitude
and extent of this phenomenon increases with increase
in heat input. During welding, different regions in the
HAZ pass through thermal cycles, which vary both in
peak temperatures attained and the cooling rate thereafter.
In micro-alloyed steels in the immediate vicinity of the
fusion zone, carbides and carbonitrides are dissolved.
The zone of reprecipitation will vary depending on the
cooling time. Below this temperature where dissolution
takes places, grain coarsening will occur. Further in the
region where the peak temperature is below ACX, there
will be modification in distribution and density of
dislocations.
J.L. Kaae has carried out butt welded tensile tests of
micro-alloyed steels using different welding processes.
He observed that the yield stress, tensile strength and
reduction in area of fracture were very much the same
regardless of the process, which did not indicate any
loss in strength of welded joint. But, the limit of
proportionality decreased in the order of manual metal-
arc (MMA), submerged-arc and electroslag welding.
Compared to MMA welding, a decrease of about 20% in
proportional limit in the case of electroslag weld assembly
By simulating welding conditions, the mechanical
behaviour of the HAZ in Nb-bearing micro-alloyed steels
was studied by A.H. Arson. He obtained variation in the
yield strength of HAZ as a function of peak temperature,
which is shown in Fig. 10.9. As can be seen in the figure,
the yield strength decreases with increasing peak
temperature in the HAZ because of softening. But after
attaining a minimum it increases because of
reprecipitation of the dissolved precipitates.
The factors affecting the HAZ in micro-alloyed steels
are also responsible for variation in its impact
properties. The transition temperature increases
with increase in amount of pearlite and decreases
with decrease in grain size, which in turn is related
to the peak temperatures attained in the HAZ. The
results obtained by A.H. Arson on effect of peak
temperature attained during welding on transition
temperature for niobium-bearing microalloyed steels
452 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

transferred into the weld by dilution. Dilution depends

50
48
E
E like the submerged arc and electroslag cause the weld-
5s
46
44
42
40
38
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
PEAK TEMPERATURE C O
Fig. 10.9: Effect of peak temperature on HAZ yield
strength of Nb-bearing micro-alloyed steel
is shown in Fig. 10.10. With peak temperature, the
transition temperature increases initially because of
precipitation hardening. But at higher peak temperatures,
the transition temperature decreases because of total effect
of overaging of precipitates and decrease in grain size.
With further rise in peak temperatures, grain size
increases and coarsening of precipitates takes place
which cause increase in the transition temperature.
From the study of influence of peak temperature on
the tensile and impact properties of the HAZ, it is clear
that these properties deteriorate with increase in heat
input, which is a function of the welding process adopted.
b) Effect of dilution: Dilution is the decrease or increase
in alloy content of a weld deposit by virtue of base metal
melting and its incorporation into the weld puddle. In
micro-alloyed steels, the micro-alloying elements are
on the heat input. Thus with low heat input process,
namely manual metal-arc welding, the dilution problem
is minimum. On the other hand, high heat input processes
metal to pick up significant amounts of micro-alloying
elements from the base metal and consequently highly
dispersed carbides and nitrides are formed in the weld-
metal, probably with high density. The ductility of the
weld-metal is thereby adversely affected.
In IIW Doc. IX-1027-77, influence of micro-additions
on microstructure of weld-metal is reported. The
microstructure was studied with the help of electron
microscope, and not with the optical microscope, because
the latter does not reveal the significant difference caused
by micro-alloying elements in the w e l d - m e t a l
microstructure. Weld-metal containing micro-additions
have finely dispersed carbide or carbonitride. The
dislocation density was determined by X-ray diffraction
method, and it was also found that the dislocation density
increases with increase in micro-additions. This increase
can be due to the presence of stress of the second order
caused by the finely dispersed carbides and nitrides of
micro-additions.
The presence of fine carbide and carbonitride
precipitates along with high dislocation density affects
the mechanical properties of the weld. Studies have been
carried out on the influence of vanadium and niobium in
micro-alloyed steels on the weld mechanical properties
t I
"D
10
Z
—► T
e> # a-
? 7Z> >

+ 20 T.S
70L
30k5 220

3
< -20h 210|
60-

25j65f- 4<00
Z 5oL
o
t 1|90|
</>
z
< -80
20H534(il8k)
-100
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 0 4 8 12 15 20 24
PEAK TEMPERATURE (°C) CONTENT OF VANADIUM IN WELD-METAL (% 10"2)

Fig. 10.10: Effect of peak temperature on Fig 10.11: Effect of V on mechanical properties
HAZ transition temperature of weld-metal
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 453

% i
•o z
C9 # OL I4h
LU AC H
E 12
o

; 10
01
|70L
30k5 220
z
UJ
0C
2101
|6Q- </>
I-
o
25(-65f- 2<0 0
2
50-
190

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
20K534(il8k)
CONTENT OF NIOBIUM IN WELD METAL (% 10'2)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Fig. 10.14: Effect of Nb on impact strength of weld-metal
Nb
Fig. 10.12: Effect of Nb on mechanical
properties of weld-metal

16
<<
O CC

O i 20
_ 14 O Z
<-> O
E
o £ en
12 + 20 C
! 2
£-
£ 10h

o 8 -60
20 40 60 80 100
CONTENT OF NIOBIUM IN WELD METAL (% 10'2)

Fig. 10.15: Effect of Nb on COD transition temperature of

< weld-metal (in two thicknesses)
Q.

0h
0 4 8 12 16 20 24

C O N T E N T OF V A N A D I U M IN W E L D M E T A L (% 10" 2 )
< <
Fig. 10.13: Effect of V on impact strength of weld-metal
o 2
Q »-
O Z
and variation in critical crack opening displacement O O

(COD) for different plate thicknesses. The results are

shown in Figs. 10.11-10.16. e <
From these graphs it can be seen that the weld
properties deteriorate with increase in the percentage of -60
microconstituents. In welding with deep penetration 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

processes, dilution can be up to 50% and micro-element CONTENT OF VANADIUM IN WELD METAL (% 10~2)

content in the weld will be proportionately high. Fig. 10.16: Effect of V on COD transition temperature
Therefore, in order to ensure optimum weld-metal of weld-metal (in two thicknesses)
454 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
properties, niobium and vanadium in the micro-alloyed
steel should not exceed 0.03% and 0.1% respectively.
Other micro-alloying elements will also behave in a
similar fashion.
J. Wegrzyn has suggested a comprehensive
weldability index, Cw, for assessing the weldability of
micro-alloyed steels. In his formula besides carbon and
manganese, micro- additions are also taken into account.
For niobium steels
c = (%C) + (%Mn) + 3x(%Nb)
10
For vanadium-nitrogen steels
c =<%Q + eufo) + <auD +3 x(%N)
w v
' 10 3
From the above formulae it can be seen that the effect
of manganese is markedly diminished, while that of
micro-alloying elements and carbon is very pronounced.
He suggested that for weldability index up to 0.35, the
steel can be welded with no restrictions and it is possible
to obtain good impact properties at sub-zero
temperatures. In 0.35 to 0.45 Cw range, a thoughtful
procedure should be adopted in submerged-arc and C0 2
welding, and the heat input should be limited to 35 kj/
cm. For steels having Cw above 0.45, welding should be
carried out only by manual metal-arc process, using
electrodes of matching strength and impact properties of
the parent plate.
The effect of heat input (i.e. weld dilution) on crack
opening displacement is illustrated in Fig. 10.17 for
vanadium-nitrogen type micro-alloyed steel.
r 0.016 NITROGEN
STEEL COMPOSITION
0.17 VANADIUM
L 1.47 MANGANESE
-20
TEMPERATURE (°C)
Fig. 10.17: Effect of welding process on COD value
Preparation of parent material: General cutting
operations and weld joint preparations as used on
common structural steels can be performed on micro-
alloyed steels. Gas cutting is normally used in large-scale
fabrications.
At TISCO, Jamshedpur, studies were carried out on
the influence of gas cutting process on manganese-
vanadium-nitrogen type steels. Figure 10.18 shows the
variation in hardness away from the gas-cut edges. This
clearly shows that in vanadium-nitrogen type steels,
hardness is never excessive and the plates can be gas-cut
without any danger of introducing incipient cracks or
deterioration in the quality of the material. The narrow
region where hardness is very high is normally removed
by grinding.
Preheat: In general, for welding micro-alloyed steels
preheating is not required, since the cooling rate after
welding does not affect the properties of micro-alloyed
steel weld and heat-affected zone. However, Table 10.21
gives the recommended minimum preheat temperatures
for vanadium-nitrogen containing steels of various yield
strengths, to be welded by basic-coated low-hydrogen
electrodes.
Welding consumables: Micro-alloyed steels can be
welded by any of the arc welding processes. Manual metal-
arc welding is used most often, mainly because of the
nature (and very often the location) of the joints to be
welded. When conditions permit, flux-cored arc, gas-
shielded metal arc and submerged-arc welding may be
used to realise the advantages that are obtained from
these processes in welding other steels. Submerged-arc
welding often proves more economical than other arc
"1
processes. Excessive travel speeds and very thin or very
-*
short welds (in relation to the workpiece dimensions)
and welding sequences that induce accumulation of
shrinkage deformations are to be avoided.
o o o 3 MM FROM SURFACE
300
A x * * 12 MM FROM SURFACE
A A A
19 MM FROM SURFACE
o % PLATE THICKNESS 25 MM
> it
©
260 0 o
X
0>
» &
X
S o A O & o
200 _ J
__ 1 1 1
O
i
• i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
DISTANCE FROM GAS CUT EDGE (MM)
Fig. 10.18: Hardness of gas cut edge of a
Mn-V-N steel
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 455

Table 10.21: Recommended preheat temperatures for V-N steels

Thickness Preheat (°C) for steels of Y.S. (kgf /mm2)
(mm) 32 35 39 42 46
10 none none none none none
10 to 20 none none none 38 66
20 to 38 none none 38 66 —
38 to 50 66 66 93 — —
50 to 75 93 120 150 — —

Electrodes recommended for ASTM A 572 grade plates
are tabulated in Table 10.22. Electrode wires of medium
manganese type, such as EM 5K, EM 13K, EA 2 (see Table
10.23) have proved successful for submerged-arc welding
of micro-alloyed steels. Electrode wire for flux-cored arc
welding of alloy steels is usually of E 70 T-l type. Low-
alloy steel electrode wire such as E 70 T-4 (see Table
10.24) are frequently used in flux-cored arc welding of
high strength steels. Electrode wires of gas-shielded metal-
arc welding such as E 70 S-3 and E 70 S-18 (see Table
10.25) are also often used for welding micro-alloyed steels.
Postzveld heat treatment: Postweld heat treatment of
weldment fabricated from micro-alloyed steels is required
for some code applications, but for many it is not required.
Little data are available on the effect of thermal stress-
relief on the HAZ of micro-alloyed steels. Evidence of
secondary hardening producing an embrittled structure
in HAZ has been observed in higher tensile steels, but no

Table 10.22: Recommended MMA consumables for ASTM steels

Plate material AWS class of consu-
mable recommended
ASTM A 572, Gr. 42,45 E 7016, E 7018
Gr. 50, 55 E 7016, E 7018
Gr. 60, 65 E 8016-C3, E8018-C3

Table 10.23: Composition of some electrode wires for submerged-arc welding

Chemical composition (%)
AWS class
Mn Mo Cu Total other
elements
EM5K1 0.06 0.90- 0.40- — 0.035 0.030 0.15 0.50
1.40 0.70 —
EM 13K1 0.07 0.90- 0.45- — 0.035 0.030 0.15 0.50
0.19 1.40 0.70
EA22 0.07- 1.00^ 0.05 0.45- 0.035 0.025 0.30
0.15 1.30 0.65
Notes: 1. Extracted from AWS A5.17-1997 "Specification for bare carbon-steel electrodes and fluxes for submerged-arc welding"
2. Extracted from AWS A5.23-1997 "Specification for bare low-alloy steel electrodes andfluxesfor submerged-arc welding"

Table 10.24: Weld-metal composition of some flux-covered arc welding electrodes

Chemical composition (%)
AWS class
C Mn Si Cr Mo V Ni Al
3
E70 T-l — 1.75 0.90 0.20* 0.30* 0.08* 0.30*
E70 T-43 1.50 0.90 0.20* 0.30* 0.08* 0.50 1.8

* These elements may be present

3. Extracted from AWS A5.20-1995 "Specification for mild-steel electrodes forflux-coredarc welding"
456 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.25: Composition of some electrode wires for gas-shielded metal-arc welding

Chemical composition %
AWS class
Mn Ni Mo
4
E70 S-3 0.06- 0.90- 0.45- 0.025 0.035
0.15 0.15 1.4 0.70
E70 S-1B4 0.07- 1.60- 0.5- 0.025 0.035 0.15 0.4-
0.12 0.12 2.10 0.8 0.6
4. Extracted from AWS A5.18-2001 "Specification for mild-steel electrodes for gas-metal arc welding"

data are available on micro-alloyed steels. Low impact
values have been reported with C 0 2 shielded welding
and submerged-arc welding of C-Mn-Nb and C-Mn-V
micro-alloyed steels. It has been suggested that the
phenomenon is generally associated with welds of high
heat input. Prolonged stress-relief of micro-alloyed steel
produces a deterioration in tensile properties.
Maraging Steels
These constitute a relatively new breed of high-
strength low-alloy steels introduced in 1959. The term
maraging, is derived from the words martensitic and
aging; though, strictly speaking these steels are neither
martensitic nor age-hardenable.
The original group of maraging steels consisted of
three nickel steels containing 18%, 20% and 25% Ni
respectively, and some other alloying elements to act as
hardening agents. Carbon, manganese and silicon were
treated as undesirable residual elements and kept below
0.03, 0.10 and 0.10% respectively. Ultimately, the 18%-
Ni steel emerged as the most popular, since it could be
more simply heat-treated than the others to gain the
optimum mechanical properties. We shall therefore deal
only with this steel in detail.
The 18%-Ni steel is available in three types with
progressively higher levels of tensile strength, which are
identified as 18 Ni (200), 18 Ni (250) and 18 Ni (300).
They are specified as grades A, B and C in ASTM A538.
The fourth type designated as 18 Ni (350) is also currently
available. Their typical chemical compositions and
mechanical properties are given in Tables 10.26 and 10.27.
The different tensile strengths are obtained mainly by

Table 10.26: Nominal compositions of 18% Ni maraging steels

Nominal composition, %
3
Grade Ni Co Cr Mo Ti Al
ASTM A 538
Gr.A (200) 18 8 4 0.2 0.1
Gr.B (250) 18 8 5 0.4 0.1
Gr.C (300) 18 9 5 0.7 0.1
18 Ni (350) 18 12 4 1.3 0.1
a
Carbon—0.03% max.

Table 10.27: Typical mechanical properties of aged 18% Ni maraging steels

Tensile Yield Elongation Reduction Fracture Charpy-V
strength, strength, in 2 in., in area, toughness, notch impact
Grade 3 ksi ksi °/ o/
/o ksi in strength,
/o
'ft-lb(RT)
ASTMA538
Gr. A (200) 218 203 10 60 140-120 35
Gr. B (250) 260 247 8 55 110 20
Gr. C (300) 297 290 7 40 73 15
18 Ni (350) 355 348 6 25 32-45 8
a
Solution treated at 816°C, aged at 482°C
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 457

SOAK AT 1500 F TO
1500 h DISSOLVE ELEMENTS
1 Hr 800
WHICH FORM HARDEN
ING COMPOUNDS
1300 h 700

1100 600

"AGE" At 900 F
TO PRECIPITATE . 1 500 p
u. 900
1 to 4 Hr HARDENING
COMPOUNDS 400
700 IN THE MARTENSITIC
STRUCTURE
_J
O
300 2
500 o
o
200
-M,
300

U
100
100 MAATENSlTE MARAGED
30 Re 52 Re -JO
0
-100
100

STEP- ANNEAL MARAGE

PURPOSE SOLUTION TREATMENT PRECIPITATION
HARDENING.

Fig. 10.19: Heat treating sequence for the 18% Ni maraging steels

adjusting the levels of Co, Mo and Ti. The sequence of
heat treatment is shown in Fig. 10.19. The steel is heated
to 816°C to dissolve hardening elements Ti and Al and
air-cooled (annealed). At the Ms temperature of about
200°C for 18 Ni (250) steel and 160°C for 18 Ni (300) steel,
the austenite begins to transform to martensite. The
transformation to martensite is completed at about 93°C.
The transformation to martensite proceeds over a wide
range of cooling rates. The fully martensitic steel is then
given a maraging treatment of one to four hours at about
482°C, to produce a highly dispersed precipitate within
the matrix. This is actually a precipitation hardening *
process and not aging. H a r d n e s s increases w i t h
increasing maraging time. A minute study of the
microstructures has shown that Mo enters directly into
particles which harden the matrix by precipitation.
Cobalt, on the other hand, does not contribute much to
h a r d e n i n g b u t only s p e e d s u p the precipitation
hardening response. Both the elements, however,
influence the transformation of austenite during cooling
from the annealing temperature.
It is a peculiar characteristic of maraging steels such
as 18%-Ni type, that during heating, the transformation
from alpha- to g a m m a - p h a s e occurs in a n a r r o w
temperature zone of approximately 650-680°C. On the
other hand during cooling, the reverse transformation
from gamma to alpha occurs at a much lower temperature
r a n g e , w h i c h is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 260-300°C. This
behaviour permits the aging of martensite at 482 °C for
several hours without transformation to austenite.
Welding metallurgy: The HAZ of a welded joint in a
maraging steel consists of three distinct regions as
follows:
1) The region next to the weld interface which is heated
to a sufficiently high temperature to become fully austen-
itic. On cooling it transforms to coarse martensite. It is
relatively soft but regains full hardness on subsequent
aging.
2) A narrow region next to the above which gets heated
in the range 590-730°C and consists of martensite with
fine, reverted austenite. The proportion of such austenite
increases with increasing heat input. This region is soft
and does not harden during subsequent aging. Special
care must be taken during welding to restrict the width
of this region.
3) A region further away which is martensitic and
gets aged to various extents at temperatures below 590°C.
It can be ignored for practical purposes.
Hydrogen-induced cracking rarely occurs in the
welding of maraging steels, mainly because the low-
carbon martensite formed in the HAZ is relatively soft in
the as-welded condition. Hot cracking, however, is a
potential problem because the low-Mn content makes
these steels p a r t i c u l a r l y sensitive to s u l p h u r
458 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

embrittlement. In a joint of poor fit-up, cracking can occur
even when S content is around 0.005%; with good fit-up,
S levels up to 0.010% can be harmless. Hot cracking is
also ascribed to the formation of titanium sulphide.
Susceptibility to hot cracking increases with increasing
Ti content in high strength maraging steels. They should
therefore be welded with greater care. To avoid hot
cracking and lowering of mechanical strength, maraging
steels should be welded without preheat and the inter-
pass temperature should not be allowed to exceed 120°C.
Welding of 18% Ni (250) steel: The chemical
compositions of typical filler metals for TIG and MIG
welding of this steel are given in Table 10.28. Manual
electrodes and submerged-arc flux-wire combinations
contents must be carefully regulated to ensure thorough
deoxidation of the weld pool (resulting in extremely low
O and N contents) as well as adequate hardening of the
weld-metal. For TIG welding, Ti content of 0.5% is
adequate, but for the submerged-arc process, Ti content
must be around 2.5% to ensure porosity-free welds. The
fabricator must choose filler metal of correct Ti and Al
contents depending upon the welding process to be used.
C, Mn, Si and S must be kept at a low level to ensure
adequate fracture toughness of the weld-metal. For SA
welding, specially formulated flux is necessary to ensure
extremely low levels of these elements in the deposit.
Hydrogen, even in small amounts, causes underbead
cracking. Hence TIG and MIG processes which have low-

Table 10.28: Compositions for TIG and MIG wires for 18 Ni (250) steel
Elements TIG welding rod MIG electrode
Carbon 0.025 max. 0.025 max.
Manganese 0.10 max. 0.10 max.
Phosphorus 0.010 max. 0.010 max.
Sulphur 0.010 max. 0.010 max.
Silicon 0.10 max. 0.10 max.
Chromium 0.50 max. 0.50 max.
Nickel 17.5-18.5 17.5-18.5
Cobalt 9.0-10.5 9t.0-10.5
Molybdenum 4.0-5.0 4.0-5.0
Titanium 0.40-0.60 0.90-1.25
Aluminium 0.05-0.15 0.05-0.15
Zirconium 0.005 max. 0.005 max.
Calcium 0.05 max. 0.05 max.
Boron 0.003 max. 0.003 max.
Nitrogen 25 ppm max. 25 ppm max.
Oxygen 50 ppm max. 50 ppm max.
Hydrogen 5 ppm max. 5 ppm max.

giving weld deposits of similar chemistry are also
available in some countries. The steel is sometimes
welded in the annealed condition, and the entire welded
structure is given a maraging treatment at 482°C for one
to three hours to obtain nearly full strength at the weld
joints. If the steel has been maraged prior to welding, the
joint area is locally subjected to the maraging treatment.
The welded joint in either case has a strength level 5 to
15% lower than the base metal strength. If 100% joint
efficiency is desired, the weld-metal must be annealed
prior to maraging.
Typical mechanical properties of welded joints
obtained with the most common welding processes are
given in Table 10.29. Preheating is avoided and multi-
pass welding procedures with low heat input are used.
High heat input results in HAZ cracking. Ti and Al
potential hydrogen and vacuum-melted filler rods are to
be preferred.
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels mean those steels which do not rust
in air or corrode in contact with certain corrosive media.
The ability of stainless steels to resist corrosion is due to
high chromium content. Chromium forms a tight, hard,
continuous and highly insoluble oxide film on the metal
surface, w h i c h shields it from further attack by
atmosphere or corrosive substances. The stable, bright
a n d s h i n i n g surface of stainless steels is d u e to
chromium. The Cr content varies between 11 and 27%.
Corrosion resistance is usually proportional to the
amount of chromium present: higher the chromium
content, better is the corrosion resistance. Stainless steels
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 459

3
Table 10:29:: Typical mechanical properties of welded joints in 18% Ni (250) maraging steel
UTS YS Elong. Red. of Weld-metal Charpy-V
ksi 0.2% ksi in 1 in, % area, % hardness Re at 21°C
Unwelded base metal
Annealed 0 158 122 15 63 — —
Maraged d 276 272 9 42 (52) —
Shielded metal-arc b
As-welded 160 130 5 35 35 25
Maraged d 242 225 6 26 50 10
Gas Metal Arc
As welded 154 134 — — — —
Maraged d 235 220
Submerged-arc b
As-welded 155 130 6 24 *32 33
Maraged d 235 220 6 25 49 10
b
" Typical properties with Vi in. thick plate. All welded specimens fractured in the HAZ '. "Annealed at 816°C.
d
Maraged at 482°C for 3 hours.

which do not contain Ni or contain it in insignificant
quantities (below 2%) are termed straight chromium steels.
When these steels contain more than 27% Cr, they become
much too brittle for engineering applications.
The hardenability of steel increases with Cr content
up to a point. Beyond it, Cr makes the steel incapable of
being hardened, because this element is a strong ferrite
former. At such a high level of Cr, the austenitic
transformation is suppressed and the normal quenching
does not cause the steel to harden. For steels containing
14 to 17% Cr, increase of carbon gives them the ability to
be hardened by heating and quenching. Steels with more
than 18-20% Cr cannot be hardened, however high is
their carbon content.
Thus, metallurgically speaking, there are two distinct
classes of straight chromium steels, martensitic and
ferritic, according to their microstructure. The two classes
differ widely in their physical properties and weldability.
Normally, the martensitic type is hard and brittle and
difficult to weld. The ferritic type is soft and ductile and
comparatively easier to weld. But welding can change
the properties in the HAZ and so a careful procedure of
welding m u s t be applied. These two classes are
distinguished from each other by their chemical
composition, in which the key elements are chromium
and carbon.
The main difference between martensitic and ferritic
steel is that, the former has higher carbon while the latter
has higher chromium. It is difficult to draw a demarcating
line for alloy contents in ferritic and martensitic steels;
there is a certain amount of overlap. But it is important to
know that higher carbon contents push the steels towards
the hard martensitic class and higher chromium contents
push them towards the softer ferritic class.
When enough nickel is present in a straight chromium
steel, it provides an essentially austenitic matrix at all
temperatures including room temperature. This is
because nickel is a powerful austenitiser. The steel is
termed chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steel or
simply austenitic stainless steel. This type is moderately
strong but extremely ductile and tough. It is the easiest
stainless steel to weld. The limits of C, Cr and Ni for this
class are indicated in Table 10.30, which also gives the
composition ranges of martensitic and ferritic stainless
steels. AISI classification system and detailed chemical
analyses of these steels are given in Table 10.31.
Martensitic Steels
The internationally recognised standard martensitic
stainless steels are AISI types 403,410,414,416,416(Se),
420, 431, 440A, 440B and 440C, in which the Cr content
ranges from 11.5 to 18% (see Table 10.31). The last three

Table 10.30: Compositional limits of the three stainless steel types

Classification Carbon Chromium Nickel
Martensitic 1.0 max. 11.0-18.0 Residual
Ferritic 0.20 max. 14.0-30.0 Residual
Austenitic 0.25 max. 14.0-30.0 6.0-36.0
460 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.31:: AISI stainless steel classification system

Chemical analyses of stainless steels,, %
AISI No. Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium Nickel Other elements

Chromium -nickel manganese--austenitic-non- hardenable

201 0.15 max. 5.5/57 1.0 16.0/18.0 3.5/5.5 N 2 0.25 max.
202 0.15 max. 7.5/10 1.0 17.0/19.0 4.0/6.0 N 2 0.25 max.
Chromium-nickel-austenitic-non-hardenable
301 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 6.0/8.0 —
302 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0 —
392B 0.15 max. 2.0 2.0/3.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0 —
303 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0 S 0.15 min.
303Se 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0 Se 0.15 min.
304 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 8.0/12.0 —
304L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 8.0/12.0 —
305 0.12 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 10.0/13.0 —
308 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 19.0/21.0 10.0/12.0 —
309 0.20 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0/24.0 12.0/15.0 —
309S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0/24.0 12.0/15.0 —
310 0.25 max. 2.0 1.50 24.0/26.0 19.0/22.0 —
310S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.50 24.0/26.0 19.0/22.0 —
314 0.25 max. 2.0 1.5/3.0 23.0/26.0 19.0/22.0 —
316 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 10.0/14.0 Mo 2.0/3.0
316L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 10.0/14.0 Mo 2.0/3.0
317 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 11.0/15.0 Mo 3.0/4.0
321 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0/12.0 Ti 5 x C min.
347 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0/13.0 Cb+Ta 10XC min.
348 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0/13.0 Ta 0.10 max.
Chromium-martensitic-hardenable
403 0.15 max. 1.0 0.5 11.5/13.0 — —
410 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/13.5 — —
414 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/13.5 1.25/2.5 —
416 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0/14.0 — S 0.15 min.
416Se 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0/14.0 — Se 0.15 min.
420 Over 0.15 1.0 1.0 12.0/14.0 — —
431 0.20 max. 1.0 1.0 15.0/17.0 1.25/2.5 —
440A 0.60/0.75 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 — Mo 0.75 max.
440B 0.75/0.95 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 — Mo 0.75 max.
440C 0.95/1.2 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 — Mo 0.75 max.
•
Chromium-ferritic-non-hardenable
405 0.08 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/14.5 — Al 0.1/0.3
430 0.12 max. 1.0 1.0 14.0/18.0 — —
430F 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0/18.0 — S 0.15 min.
430FSe 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0/18.0 — Se 0.15 min.
446 0.20 max. 1.50 1.0 23.0/27.0 N 0.25 max.

440 types are rarely welded. The standard steels are
sometimes modified by adding elements like Ni, Mo, V
and W, primarily to raise the permissible service
temperature above the 593°C limit for the standard steels.
The carbon content is also increased in these
modifications, with the result that they are more prone to
cracking in the hardened HAZ of weldments than the
standard counterparts.
The standard steels can be welded in the annealed,
hardened or hardened and tempered conditions.
Whatever be the prior condition, the steel when welded
produces a hard martensitic zone in the HAZ, the
hardness increasing with carbon content. As hardness
increases, toughness decreases and the HAZ becomes
EXAMPLE A
NO PREHEAT
NO POSTHEAT
TIME
EXAMPLE C
PREHEAT
6*°\ COOL BELOW Mf
| \ POSTHEAT
"T—"\"TfiTT—Al
LU
TIME
EXAMPLE E
PREHEAT
DID NOT COOL BELOW Mf
POSTHEAT NOT EFFECTIVE
TIME
Fig. 10.20: Relationship between pre- and postheating and metallurgical structure of air-hardening welds
WELDABILITY OF METALS 461
more susceptible to cracking. Cracking is avoided by
preheating and controlling interpass temperatures. If the
steel contains less than 0.10% carbon, preheating can be
avoided. For steels with higher carbon the preheating
temperature depends not only on carbon content but also
on the mass of the joint, degree of restraint, presence of
notch effect and the chemical composition of the filler
metal. Postweld heat treatment is also sometimes required
to obtain optimum properties.
The relationship between preheat and postheat
temperature must be clearly understood, as it has a
significant influence on the resulting weld and HAZ
structure. This relationship is schematically illustrated
in Fig. 10.20.
EXAMPLE B
PREHEAT
NO POSTHEAT
TIME
EXAMPLE D
PREHEAT TOO HIGH
DID NOT COOL BELOW Mf
POSTHEAT NOT EFFECTIVE
TIME
LEGEND
A, CRITICAL TEMP.
(ABOUT 1450°F) -788°C
Mf MARTENSITE FORMATION
TEMP. (ABOUT 600°F) -316°Q
FERRITE. CARBIDES
OOOAUSTENITE
•••MARTENSITE
-H-TEMPERED MARTENSITE
462 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Example A shows the thermal cycle of the weld and
the HAZ in a hardenable Cr steel welded without
preheating. During welding, the weld-metal and adjacent
base metal are transformed to austenite. On cooling below
Mf temperature, the austenite transforms to martensite.
The final result is a highly-stressed, hard, untempered
martensitic weld and HAZ which are highly susceptible
to cracking.
Example B shows the thermal cycle when preheating
below Mf temperature is used. Upon cooling the metal
transforms to martensite exactly as at A, but the final
cooling to room temperature occurs at a lower rate. In
this case, the shrinkage stresses may be lower, but the
weld and HAZ structure is still hard, brittle, untempered
martensite.
In example C, preheat temperature below Mf is used,
so that the weld-metal and HAZ are transformed to
martensite on cooling to the preheat temperature. When
transformation to martensite is complete, a postweld heat
treatment is applied to temper the martensite, so that its
ductility and toughness improve.
In example D, the preheat temperature is above Mf so
that when the weldment cools to the preheat temperature,
no martensitic structure is formed. The final postheat
tempering treatment has therefore no effect on the
structure, which upon final cooling to room temperature
is hard, untempered martensite.
In example E, the preheat temperature is correctly
below Mf but the postweld heat treatment is commenced
before the weld-metal has cooled down to the preheat
temperature. Since the martensitic structure has not been
allowed to form, the postweld tempering treatment is not
effective. The final structure is identical to that obtained
inD.
Thus example C depicts the correct procedure. The
postweld heat treatments represented in examples C, D,
E are known as subcritical annealing treatments, since
their temperatures are below A1
For steels with the carbon range of 0.10-0.20%, it is
advisable to use preheat and interpass temperature of
260° C and to cool the weldment slowly after welding is
completed. For steels with carbon content between 0.21
and 0.50%, the same preheat and interpass temperature
are used and the weldment is annealed after welding.
For steels with carbon content more than 0.50%, the same
heat treatments are used together with high heat input
during welding.
Annealing should be done immediately after welding
w i t h o u t allowing the w e l d m e n t to cool to room
temperature. Annealing can be omitted if the weldment
is to be hardened and tempered immediately after
welding. The temperature ranges for subcritical and full
annealing for the standard martensitic steels are given
in Table 10.32.
Table 10.32: Annealing temperatures for martensitic
stainless steels
AISI type Subcritical Full
annealing, °C annealing, °C
403, 410, 416 732-788 843-871
420 748-770 871-899
414 —
662-704
431 621-662 —
440 (A, B & C) 732-788 899
The only standard martensitic stainless steel filler
metals available are E or ER 410 and 420. This limitation
must be borne in mind when attempting to obtain
matching properties in the weld-metal and base metal.
The weld deposits of 410 and 420 filler metals have low
toughness and must be correctly heat treated to improve
toughness before the weldment is placed in service.
Austenitic stainless steel filler metals are often preferred,
because they provide an as-welded deposit of greater
toughness but of somewhat lower strength than the
martensitic types.
403, 410, 416, 416(Se) steels: E/ER410 filler metal is
preferred for welding these steels. The weldments are
annealed or hardened and stress-relieved before use.
Annealing softens and imparts ductility equally to the
HAZ and the weld, since both respond to heat treatment
in a similar manner. 403 and 410 steels are sometimes
welded using the austenitic filler metal types 308, 309
and 310, while 416 and 416 (Se) are welded with types
308,309 and 312. Such weldments are used for service in
the as-welded condition. In these cases, the weld-metal
is soft and ductile but the HAZ has limited ductility.
420 steel: E/ ER 420 filler metal is preferred for welding
and the weldment is annealed or hardened and stress-
relieved before use. Great care has to be taken during
preheating and postweld heat-treatment to avoid cracking.
431 steel: It is welded with E/ER 410 type filler metal
or with either of 308, 309 and 310 austenitic type filler
metals. In the former case, it is used in the annealed or
hardened and stress-relieved condition, and in the latter
case it is used in the as-welded condition. In this case
also, preheating and postheating must be correctly and
carefully executed.
Ferritic Stainless Steels
The standard types are: 405 and 409 (13% Cr); 430,
430 (F) and 430 F(Se) (17% Cr): 446 (25% Cr) [see Table

10.31]. Type 409 is ferritic, because its carbon content is
less than 0.08% and its minimum Ti content is equal to
six times the carbon content. Ti is a strong ferrite former.
Type 405 also contains only 0.08% maximum carbon and
approximately 0.20% Al, which is also a strong ferrite
former.
It w a s stated earlier that ferritic steels h a v e
compositions which completely suppress the austenite
transformation and ensure a completely ferritic structure
at room temperature. This is not practically so. Variations
in compositions within the standard limits can result in
the formation of small amounts of austenite during
heating to temperatures nearer above 870°C, which
occurs during welding. On cooling, this austenite
transforms to martensite, thus conferring on the metal
the duplex structure of ferrite and some martensite. The
martensite reduces both the ductility and toughness. This
can happen with the HAZ of ferritic steel weldments.
The martensite can be eliminated and normal ferritic
properties restored by annealing, but annealing is a costly
operation and can result in considerable distortion.
In the region of the H A Z which is h e a t e d to
temperatures above 954°C during welding, enlargement
of ferrite grain size occurs and this also results in reduced
ductility and toughness. Although martensite can be
eliminated by annealing, coarsened ferrite grain remain
unaffected by this treatment. Since martensite inhibits
ferrite grain growth, martensite formation is encouraged
in cases where the workpiece can be annealed after
welding. For example, the Cr content of a 17%-Cr steel is
sometimes lowered to 15 or 16%, so that some amount of
martensite is formed which is subsequently removed by
postweld annealing. But in this case, preheat may have
to be used before welding, or the carbon content of the
steel lowered in order to prevent cracking in the HAZ.
In cases where annealing is not possible, it is advisable
to select a ferritic steel containing sufficient amount of a
strong ferrite former such as Al, Cb or Ti. An example is
the steel type 430 (Ti), which is a 17%-Cr steel containing
0.12% maximum carbon and minimum Ti content equal
to six times the carbon content. Ti forms stable Ti carbides
and promotes ferrite formation. When such a steel is
welded, martensite is totally absent in the HAZ but grain
coarsening cannot be avoided. Grain coarsening is
controlled to some extent by using minimum heat input
during welding, and ensuring rapid cooling from the
welding temperature.
For w e l d i n g ferritic steels, p r e h e a t i n g in the
temperature range of 150 to 230°C is recommended. The
need for preheating and the preheat temperatures depend
on composition, joint thickness, restraint, heat input rate,
WELDABILITY OF METALS 463
and mechanical properties desired. Postheating or post-
weld annealing, if required, is carried out in the
temperature range of 790-840°C This range is much
below the temperatures for austenite formation and grain
coarsening. Cooling from the annealing temperature is
done in air or by water quenching. It is advisable to remove
weldments from the furnace after they have cooled down
to approximately 593°C, in order to avoid possible
distortion caused by handling. However, cooling in the
temperature range of 566-400°C must be fairly rapid, as
otherwise the steel becomes brittle. Such brittleness is
termed 885 F brittleness in the U.S.A., and it increases
with increasing Cr-content of the steel. In the case of heavy
sections, spray quenching may be necessary to bring
them safely through this temperature range.
Both ferritic and austenitic stainless steel filler metals
are used for welding these steels, but the selection must
be made with care, depending on the specific application.
Ferritic filler metals are less ductile in the as-welded
condition, but have the advantages of matching colour
and appearance, matching coefficient of thermal
expansion and matching corrosion resistance. Austenitic
filler metals give welded joints of high ductility, but they
cannot p r e v e n t m a r t e n s i t e formation and grain
coarsening in the HAZ. Also austenitic weld-metal, unless
it is of extra-low carbon content or is stabilised with Cb,
Ta or Ti, suffers a loss of corrosion resistance as a result
of annealing, since the normal range of annealing
temperature falls within the sensitising temperature range
for austenitic steels. The phenomenon of sensitisation of
austenitic weld-metal will be explained later. Further,
annealing treatment is also expected to relieve residual
stresses in the weidmeiit, but this cannot be fully realised
because of the difference in the coefficients of thermal
expansion of the austenitic weld-metal and the ferritic
base metal.
It must be remembered that the corrosion resistance
of ferritic stainless steels is generally less than that of
austenitic stainless steels and besides, the presence of
martensite or the precipitation of sigma-phase at the grain
boundaries can give rise to severe intergranular corrosion
in the HAZ. Completely ferritic steels such as the type
430 (Ti) are not prone to intergranular attack at the
welded joint. The phenomena of sigma-phase formation
and intergranular corrosion are explained later. For
maximum corrosion resistance, the welded steels must
be used in the annealed condition.
405 steel: This steel is welded either with a ferritic
filler metal such as E/ ER 405 (Cb) or 430, or an austenitic
filler metal such as E/ER 308, 309, or 310. In the former
case, the weldment is used in the as-welded condition,
464 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

while in the latter case it is used in the annealed condition,
as annealing increases ductility of the HAZs and the
weld-metal. In type 405 weld-metal, Cb is used in place
of Al to reduce hardening. Austenitic weld-metals &re
ductile in the as-welded condition but the HAZ has
limited ductility.
430 steel: In this case E/ER 430 ferritic type or either of
the E/ER 308, 309 and 310 austenitic types is used as
filler metal. The other comments on 405 steel also apply
to this steel.
430 F and 430 F(Se) steels: They are welded with E/ER
430 or either of the E/ER 308, 309 and 312. The other
comments on 405 steel also apply here.
446 steel: This steel is welded with E/ER 446 or with
either of E/ER 308,309 and 310. It must be borne in mind
that the scaling resistance of 308 filler metal is not equal
to that of the base metal.
Austenitic Stainless Steels
As mentioned earlier, these steels contain enough
chromium to prevent them from rusting in air or corroding
in contact with certain corrosive media, and enough
nickel to provide an essentially austenitic matrix at all
temperatures including the room temperature. The
commonly available types in the wrought form are
indicated in Table 10.31 along with their AISI type
numbers and compositions.
The tensile strength of these steels in annealed condi-
tion and in wrought sheet form ranges between 585 and
655 N / m m 2 , and yield strength in terms of 0.2% offset
between 240 and 310 N/mm 2 . They are extremely ductile
and give elongation values of around 45-50%. In addi-
tion to extraordinary corrosion resistance, they exhibit
excellent creep and oxidation resistance at elevated tem-
peratures. They also give high impact strength and duc-
tile fractures at subzero temperatures down to -196°C.
These facts explain the wide use of austenitic stainless
steels in critical applications involving corrosive media
and extremes of service temperature.
While the principal alloying elements of these steels
are Fe, Cr and Ni, they also carry deliberate additions of
other elements. Some of them are meant to augment the
austenite stabilising action of Ni, while others are meant
to promote the formation of delta-ferrite in the structure

Table 10.33: Effects of alloying elements in austenitic stainless steels

Types
Element of steels Effects
Carbon All types Strongly promotes the formation of austenite. Can form a carbide with chromium that
can lead to intergranular corrosion.
Chromium All types Promotes formation of ferrite. Increases resistance to oxidation and corrosion.
Nickel All types Promotes formation of austenite. Increases high temperature strength, corrosion
resistance, and ductility.
Nitrogen XXXN ' Very strong austenite former. Like carbon, nitrogen in 30 times as effective as nickel in
forming austenite. Increases strength.
Columbium 347 Primarily added to combine with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion. Acts as a grain refiner. Promotes the formation of ferrite. Improves creep
strength.
Manganese 2XX Promotes the stability of austenite at or near room temperature but forms ferrite at
high temperatures. Inhibits hot shortness by forming MnS.
Molybdenum 316, 317 Improves strength at high temperatures. Improves corrosion resistance to reducing
media. Promotes the formation of ferrite.
Phosphorus, 303, 303Se Increase machinability, but promotes hot cracking during welding. Lowers corrosion
selenium, or resistance slightly.
1
sulphur
Silicon 302B Increases resistance to scaling and promotes the formation of ferrite. Small amounts are
added to all grade for deoxidising purposes.
Titanium 321 Primarily added to combine with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular
corrosion. Acts as a grain refiner. Promotes the formation of ferrite.
Copper CN-7M Generally a d d e d to stainless steels to increase corrosion resistance to certain
environments. Decreases susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking and provides age-
hardening effects.

and to be carbide formers. These austenite and ferrite
forming elements are suitably balanced according to the
application needs of these alloys. The effects of these
elements are summarised in Table 10.33.
Carbide precipitation: When austenitic stainless steels
are heated or cooled slowly through the temperature
range of 425-870°C, the carbon precipitates from the solid
solution mainly at the grain boundaries, where it com-
bines intergranularly with chromium to form chromium-
Fig. 10.21: Intercrystalline corrosion of austenitic stainless steel weldment
rich carbide. This is termed carbide precipitation. As a
result, chromium in the adjacent matrix material gets de-
pleted and the steel suffers localised intergranular at-
tack when it is exposed to certain corrosive service con-
ditions. The severity of such attack depends on the time
and temperature of exposure, as also on the composition
and heat-treated condition of the steel.
The temperature range of 425-870°C is known as the
sensitising temperature range, and the steel which has
undergone carbide precipitation is said to have become
sensitised. The resulting corrosive attack is referred to as
intercrystalline corrosion.
During welding, a narrow band in the heat-affected
zone of the base metal gets heated within the temperature
range of 425-870°C for a sufficient time to undergo
carbide precipitation. This can also h a p p e n to the
previously deposited weld bead as shown in Fig. 10.21.
The amount of precipitation increases with the carbon
content of the material. During service under corrosive
conditions, this band gets preferentially attacked and
WELDABILITY OF METALS 465
suffers intercrystalline corrosion. The phenomenon is
sometimes termed weld decay.
It is extremely important to prevent or get rid of carbide
precipitation in austenitic stainless steel weldments if
they are meant to be used in corrosive media. This is
achieved by any of the following three methods: (1)
solution heat treatment, (2) use of extra-low carbon grade,
and (3) use of a grade stabilised with columbium plus
tantalum or with titanium.
1) Solution heat treatment consists of heating the entire
weldment to the temperature range of 1,025-1120°C, to
put the carbides back into solution and cooling it rapidly
by water quenching. This method is seldom used because
of the following unfavourable factors:
a) At the high temperature used, the steel oxidises
rapidly and forms an adherent surface scale, unless it is
protected from air.
b) The weldment may sag or be severely distorted at
the high temperature used or during rapid cooling from
it.
c) Water quenching of a large workpiece from the high
temperature can be hazardous.
d) The workpiece is often too large for the furnace and
cooling facilities available in the shop.
2) Extra-low carbon (ELC) stainless steels: By restricting
the carbon content to 0.03% maximum, the steels are
rendered sufficiently immune to carbide precipitation in
the sensitising temperature range of 425-870°C. The
steels can then be safely welded and even stress-relieved
466 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
if necessary, without loss of corrosion resistance.
Examples are AISI304L and 316L types. However, if these
steels remain in the sensitising temperature range for an
extended period in service, carbides can precipitate in
significant quantities to cause intergranular corrosion.
These steels are usually employed for service below 425° C.
The filler metals used for welding should also be ELC types.
3) Stabilised steels: These steels contain sufficient
amount of columbium plus tantalum (Cb+Ta) or titanium
(Ti) in relation to carbon. These elements have greater
affinity for carbon than chromium and hence carbides of
these elements precipitate out in the sensitizing
temperature range, leaving chromium intact. These steels
are termed stabilised steels, and they exhibit higher
strength at elevated temperature as compared to ELC
steels. They are therefore preferred for service in a
corrosive environment in the sensitising temperature
range of 125-870°C. The filler metals used for welding
should be stabilised types.
It must be borne in mind that Ti cannot be transferred
across the arc in manual metal-arc and submerged-arc
processes, because it gets oxidised in the arc. Hence in
these, processes, filler metals stablised with Cb+Ta are
used to deposit weld-metal stabilised with Cb plus Ta. It
is only in TIG and MIG processes employing inert gas
shielding, that Ti-stabilised weld can be deposited from
Ti bearing filler metal to match Ti-stabilised base metal.
Even in stabilised steels, sensitisation (i.e.
precipitation of chromium carbide) occurs under certain
conditions in narrow knife-like zones immediately
adjacent to the weld fusion line, not during welding but
during subsequent reheating to or service at about 650°C
These zones exhibit less than normal corrosion resistance
and suffer service corrosion in some media.
4) Hot cracking: Austenitic stainless steel weld-metal
is susceptible to minute intergranular cracking called
microfissuring, which is not visible to the naked eye. It is
also called hot cracking, because cracking occurs at high
temperature as the weld-metal cools from the solidus
down to about 980°C. If the level of stress imposed on the
contracting weld-metal is high, the fissures enlarge into
visible cracks. The susceptibility to hot cracking is
d e t e r m i n e d by: (a) the a s - d e p o s i t e d w e l d - m e t a l
m i c r o s t r u c t u r e ; (b) the w e l d - m e t a l composition,
especially the content of certain residual or trace elements
such as b o r o n , p h o s p h o r u s , s u l p h u r , selenium,
columbium and tantalum; (c) the amount of stress
imposed on the weld during cooling; and (d) the presence
of notches.
The first of these factors, namely the weld-metal
m i c r o s t r u c t u r e d e t e r m i n e s to a large extent the
susceptibility to hot cracking. Weld-metal, which has a
completely austenitic microstructure is highly prone to
this defect, while the weld-metal with a duplex structure
of delta ferrite in austenite is fairly resistant to it.
As regards weld-metal composition, susceptibility to
microfissuring can be reduced by a small increase in
carbon or nitrogen. Trace elements which encourage
micro-fissuring, in order of their potency, are: boron,
phosphorus, sulphur, selenium, silicon, columbium and
tantalum.
Since the fully austenitic weld-metal is most suscep-
tible to microfissuring during its cooling from the soli-
dus down to approximately 980°C, the amount of stress
imposed on the weld-metal must be minimised in this
temperature range. Peening is not effective, because of
the difficulty of applying it at the high temperature range.
Schaeff ler Diagram
It has been found that microfissuring does not occur
when the austenitic weld-metal has about 3 to 5% ferrite
in its microstructure. The practice generally followed is,
therefore, to select the filler metal composition in such a
way that the deposited weld-metal has a duplex structure
of austenite-ferrite. To determine the amount of ferrite
that will be formed in the austenitic weld-metal of a given
composition, use is made of the Schaeffler diagram shown
in Fig. 10.22. In this diagram, the nickel equivalent is
plotted on the ordinate or vertical axis, and the chromium
equivalent on the abscissa or horizontal axis. The nickel
equivalent is calculated by using the formula given in
the figure, which uses the weight percentages of the
common austenite stabilising elements nickel, carbon and
manganese. The chromium equivalent is similarly
calculated using the formula given, which is derived from
the weight percentages of common ferrite stabilisers
chromium, molybdenum, silicon and columbium. The
series of dark lines in the diagram demarcate the zones
of weld-metal micros true tures. The figure also indicates
the positions of various standard weld-metals in the
diagram. For example, E 310 weld-metal is indicated as
being fully austenitic, while E308 weld-metal is shown
to be having a duplex structure with 5-7% ferrite. The
actual microstructures of these two deposits as seen under
magnification are shown in Figs. 10.23 and 10.24.
Delong Diagram
A major drawback of the Schaeffler diagram is that it
ignores the significant influence that nitrogen has on the
phase balance of austenitic stainless steels, since this
element is a strong austenitiser. Many heats of austenitic
stainless steels have been found to contain appreciable
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 467

fo30
421-
40|- APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF
38[ AUSTENITE REGION FOR WROUGHT
361- MATERIALS-

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT (% Cr + % Mo + 15 x % Si + 0.5 x % Cb)

Fig. 10.22: The Schaeffler diagram for estimating the microstructure of stainless steel weld-metal

■ / * -

■/■ ■■ ■'■■

Fig. 10.23: Microstructure of E 310 fully

austenitic weld-metal

amounts of nitrogen. Also samples of weld-metal have Fjg 1 0 2 4 : Microstructure of E 308 weld-metal with pools
often registered either high or low nitrogen, because of 0f delta-ferrite
excessive arc length or improper welding technique. The
468 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

revised constitution diagram is k n o w n as Delong
diagram and is shown in Fig. 10.25. While Schaeffler
used the metallographic method for determining the ferrite
percentage in weld-metal, Delong has used a magnetic
measuring instrument in his work. Accepting that this is
a secondary measurement system, Delong has adopted
an arbitrary standard called ferrite number (FN), to
indicate the ferrite content. The ferrite number and the
ferrite percentage are identical at low levels of ferrite, but
they differ widely when the ferrite levels are high.
To understand the resistance of the duplex weld-metal
structure to microfissuring, one must trace the weld
solidification process. D e p e n d i n g on the relative
proportions of ferrite- forming and austenite-forming
elements present, the weld-metal solidifies initially as
grains of delta-ferrite or as grains of austenite. As
solidification proceeds, initial ferrite grains undergo
solid-state transformation to austenite grains, mainly in
the grain centres. If sufficient ferrite forming elements are
present, residual pools of delta-ferrite remain in the
microstructure. The remaining weld-metal and the grains
that have solidified initially as austenite, remain fully
austenitic down to room temperature.
When the final transformation provides a duplex
structure, it greatly increases the number of phase bound-
aries. As a result, the low-melting point constituents
which promote microfissuring get distributed over a
larger area and thereby the likelihood of fissures in the
weld-metal is minimised.
Different weld-metals require different levels of ferrite
to eliminate microfissuring. For E 16-8-2, E 308, E 308L,
E 316 and E 316L, at least 3 FN is required. For E 309, it is
4 FN; for E 318 it is 5 FN and for E 347 it is 6 FN. A high
ferrite level is required in E 347 weld-metal to counteract
the cracking tendency promoted by a low-melting eutectic
phase formed by columbium.
It is difficult to control Assuring in E 310 Cb weld-
metal because of the presence of columbium, and the fact
that it is not possible to obtain ferrite in the weld-metal of
this composition. The best one can do is to restrict the
contents of Si, S and P. Like E 310 Cb, E 310, E 310 (Mo)
and E 330 weld-metals also invariably deposit a fully
austenitic weld-metal.
The presence of ferrite lowers the corrosion resistance
of austenitic steel weld-metal to a marginal extent, which
can be ignored in most applications. There are, however,
important exceptions. For example, 18 Cr-12 Ni-Mo
weld-metals such as types E 316, E 317, and E 318 suffer
localised corrosion attack on the ferrite in certain media
in the as-deposited condition. The corrosion can be

21

5 20

X
in 19 h
o
+
z 18 h AUSTENITE
FERRITE NUMBER
#
x
o 17
CO APPROXIMATE FERRITE
+ CONTENT BY MAGNETIC
16 ANALYSIS

15 SCHAEFFLER
A + M LINE

£ ,4

< 13
> AUSTENITE
+ MARTENSJtt j
2 12 h
/
y n |~ /
10 K \y \, \S 1/1/ / A Sx ,
16 17 18 19 20
CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT (% Cr + % Mo + 1.5 x % Si + 0.5 x % Cb)

Fig. 10.25: The Delong constitution diagram for auttonltic stainless steel weld-metal

prevented by either annealing the joint or using ferrite-
free weld-metal. In the fabrication of urea plant, E 316
type weld-metal with ferrite content of 2% maximum is
specified for the components which come into contact
with the extremely corrosive carbamate solution.
It must be brone in mind that while the fully austenitic
weld-metal is non-magnetic, the presence of ferrite makes
it weakly or strongly magnetic, depending on the level of
ferrite. If an application requires that the weld-metal be
perfectly non-magnetic, filler metal giving wholly
austenitic weld deposit must be used.
Many experts hold the view that microfissuring in
fully austenitic welds can be ignored, because the great
bulk of fissures seem to be small, below 1.5 mm in
maximum dimension. In a very notch tough material
such as austenitic stainless steel, it would require very
unusual service conditions for such small defects to
adversely affect the service life of the structure. Here one
can pertinently quote Dr. Delong from his 1974 Adams
Lecture delivered to the American Welding Society. "From
practical viewpoint, millions of pounds of multipass fully
austenitic weld-metal of types 310,316,316 L, and more
special types such as 320 and 330 have been used in
production weldments over the past 40 years with
virtually no failures attributable to fissures, yet virtually
all of these weldments do contain fissures". The latest
thinking appears to be that in the overall interest of the
chemical plant having extremely corrosive service
condition, one must prefer fully austenitic welds with
some microfissuring to perfect defect-free welds having
about 5% ferrite.
When weldments having duplex weld-metal
microstructure are exposed to service temperatures in
the range of 480-900°C, various intermetallic phases are
formed in varying amounts depending on the chemical
composition, the ferrite content and the time at
temperature. With increasing ferrite content, the
transformation is accelerated and the temperature at
which it occurs is lowered. The transformation occurring
in non-molybdenum bearing stainless steels is termed
sigma-phase, and those occurring in Mo-bearing steels
are referred to as sigma- and chi-phase transformations.
Nucleation of these phases occurs at the austenite-ferrite
boundaries and growth is primarily towards the centre
of the ferrite. The presence of these intermetallics is viewed
seriously, because they lower ductility and impact
resistance of the weldment. Ductility lost by sigma-phase
formation can be restored to a large extent by heating the
steel at 1,038°C for a short time. For converting sigma
completely to austenite, heating to a temperature as high
as 1,230°C is required. Heating to such a high temperature
WELDABILITY OF METALS 469
poses the danger of grain growth and consequent
changes in mechanical properties.
Underbead cracking: There is another form of cracking
associated with stainless steel weldments. It is termed
underbead cracking, because it occurs in the heat-affected
zone at the edge of the weld bead, when the base metal
thickness is more than 19 mm. Type 347 stainless steel
which is stabilised with Cb plus Ta is particularly prone
to this type of cracking, while other common stainless
steels with the exception of type 316L are less susceptible.
Pressure vessels made out of 347 steel have revealed
failures in welded joints after having been subjected to
elevated temperature service for a long time.
Apparently these joints were sound when tested
initially. The failures are interpreted thus: the heavy
shrinkage stresses in the welded joints cause strain-
induced precipitation of columbium carbide, which gives
rise to underbead cracking. This cracking ultimately leads
to the major failure in service. Underbead cracking can
be avoided or at least minimised by keeping the weld
restraint to a minimum.
WRC-1992 Diagram
The Cr-equivalent and Ni-equivalent constitutional
diagram proposed by W. T. Delong was modified by
Welding Research Council (WRC) & Commission II of
the International Institute of Welding (IIW) to increase
the scope and accuracy in prediction of ferrite number
(FN) in stainless steel weld metal and dissimilar metal
joints. After extensive studies on measured and actual
weld metal ferrite, WRC-1988 diagram was proposed.
The predictions of this constitutional diagram are
independent of silicon and manganese contents as the
effect of these elements were found to be statistically
insignificant. Later to incorporate the effect of copper in
the Ni-equivalent (especially in case of duplex stainless
steel weld metals), WRC-1988 diagram was re-defined
by WRC & Commission II of IIW as WRC-1992 diagram
(Fig. 10.25a.).
This constitution diagram offers more accurate FN
prediction in stainless steel welds and dissimilar metal
joints. Also like Schaeffler diagram, the axes of the
WRC-1992 diagram can be extended to predict the
dilution effects in dissimilar joints and cladding
applications.
Measurement of Ferrite
While the various Cr-equivalent & Ni-equivalent
diagrams help one to estimate ferrite, fabricators and users
of chemical plant must have a reliable method to measure
the ferrite in actual production welds. International
470 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
t$ 20 22 24 ?* 28 W comparison with other welding processes. A multi-layer
C f M « Cf * M»*0.7MI>
Fig. 10.25a. WRC-1992 Diagram
Institute of Welding has been doing considerable work
on this issue.
Metallographic measurements are helpful but they
are difficult to run accurately, owing primarily to the
very small size of the ferrite particles. This fineness, plus
the inherently different corrosion responses of ferrites of
varying analyses to different etching media, make an
optimum etch difficult to establish and an accurate
quantitative result difficult to obtain. The International
Institute of Welding has, however, issued Doc. IIW^i82-
75 entitled "Recommended method for the metallographic
determination of delta-ferrite in Cr-Ni austenitic weld-
metal by means of normal optical microscopy and visual
comparison with an atlas". Experts are of the opinion
that this metallographic method can be usefully adopted
by a laboratory for its internal checks, but it has limitations
when used as a basis for comparison and cross-checking.
At the present time, experimental methods are not
available that give an absolute measurement of the
amount of ferrite in a weld-metal, either destructively or
non-destructively; hence the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
international use of the concept of a ferrite number (FN)
referred to earlier. The standardised procedure for
determining the ferrite content of a weld-metal is laid
d o w n in IIW document 11-904-79 "Recommended
standard method for the determination of the ferrite
number in austenitic weld-metal deposited by Cr-Ni steel
electrodes" and AWS Standard A4.2-74 "Standard
procedures for calibrating magnetic instruments to
measure the delta-ferrite content of austenitic stainless
steel weld-metal".
One of the presently accepted methods uses an
instrument called the Magne Gage. It works on the
principle of the actual magnetic pull exerted by the ferrite
in the deposit. The instrument needs calibration with
standard blocks, which are supplied in a box by the
American Welding Society or the Welding Institute of
Abington, England. They are prepared on behalf of
Comm. II "Arc Welding" of the IIW. The box contains
eight samples in the approximate range of 3 to 27 FN.
The special samples have been manufactured by
VEW-Bohler in Austria from Cr-Ni austenitic stainless
steel weld-metals deposited using the submerged-arc strip
cladding process. This method is employed as it has been
shown to give a relatively uniform ferrite distribution
over the length and breadth of the weld bead, by
deposit was used to remove any possible influence from
the base metal on which the weld-metal was deposited.
Welding procedure: Ferrite content as claimed by the
electrode producer in his batch report can be reproduced
by the fabricator on production welds, only when correct
welding procedure is adopted. The most important point
is to control heat input by using smaller size electrodes
and stringer beads, thus allowing the weld-metal to cool
down rapidly after deposition. Interpass temperature also
must be kept on the low side. An inexperienced fabricator
whose previous experience is restricted to mild steel,
makes the mistake of allowing his welders to use very
high currents and long arc. The high currents coupled
with slow speeds of arc travel overheat the weld deposit.
The result is much higher levels of ferrite and consequent
loss of corrosion resistance.
A long arc and inadequate shielding causes ingress
of nitrogen into the weld-metal. Since this element is a
strong austenitiser, the resultant weld contains lesser
amount of ferrite than what is to be expected.
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
A typical corrosion phenomenon occurs when weld
metals having residual tensile stresses are exposed to
certain environment. This is known as Stress Corrosion
Cracking (SCC). The presence of either of the stress or the
environment does not cause SCC.
The major determinants of occurrence of SCC are, a)
the metal and the alloy employed and its microstructural
condition, b) the exposed environment of the weld metal
and c) the level and distribution of tensile stresses. Among
the other factors; temperature, pressure, hydrogen ion
concentration (pH), cyclic pressure, fluctuating humidity,
circulation and viscosity of contacting fluids and degree
of aeration are also important.
Stainless steel fabrications are p r o n e to stress
corrosion cracking during their service life, when they
are functioning in a corrosive environment. Fabricators
of chemical plant ought to be alive to this problem and

able to foresee it, because when failure does occur on this
account, it is too late to effect satisfactory repairs.
Stress corrosion, as its name suggests, results from
the combined action of a tensile stress and corrosive
environment. Stresses that cause cracking arise from
residual cold work, welding, or thermal treatment, or they
may be externally applied during service. Generally
speaking, the chances of SCC occurring will increase as:
(a) the stress level rises, (b) the attacking compounds in
the electrolyte become more concentrated, (c) the
temperature increases, and (d) as exposure time increases.
Almost all metals and alloys are susceptible to SCC
in specific environments. Alloys show a far greater
sensitivity than pure metals. In the case of straight chrome
stainless steels having more than 12% Cr, SCC is likely to
occur in the environment of steam, halides and hydrogen
sulphides. Austenitic stainless steels are likely to develop
SCC in the presence of chlorides and hydroxides.
Fig. 10.26: Typical kinds of stress corrosion cracking:
(A) Intergranular; (B) Intragranular
SCC is a brittle-type fracture in a material exposed to
a corrosive environment and it should not be confused
with other types of localised attack such as pitting,
galvanic attack, intergranular corrosion or cavitation.
Even though SCC is a brittle kind of failure, the
cracking hardly ever propagates rapidly enough to cause
a catastrophic failure, even in the case of vessels which
operate under pressure. However, the corrosion can
penetrate a metal section in a matter of hours, if the section
is under stress and the metal is markedly sensitive to the
environment. The resulting leakage of the chemical may
mean shutting down of the plant.
Metallographic e x a m i n a t i o n s h o w s that SCC
p r o p a g a t e s either t h r o u g h the grain b o u n d a r i e s
(intergranular) or across the grains (intragranular or
transgranular). It is very rare to find both kinds of
propagation existing concurrently. However, in both the
cases, the main cracks have n u m e r o u s secondary
WELDABILITY OF METALS 471
branches stemming from them. Figure 10.26 shows the
two kinds of SCC, intergranular and intragranular, as
viewed metallographically.
Although the mechanism of SCC has not been
established beyond dispute, two proposals have been
put forth for its occurrence in steels. One is that a readily
corrodible active path is present in the material, which
causes the cracking. The other is that hydrogen produced
by cathodic corrosion processes produces hydrogen
embrittlement and cracking. The latter proposal appears
more general and explains most of the cases of SCC.
SCC has three recognized regions of crack-
propagation rate -
a) Region-I: Initiation of cracking at a stress threshold
followed immediately by increasing crack growth rate as
stress intensity rises at the frontal tips of the cracks;
b) Region-II: Steady state crack growth as stress at the
crack tips tends to stabilize at intermediate intensities
and growth rate tends to plateau; and
c) Region-Ill: Rapid crack p r o p a g a t i o n as the
unattacked load-carrying section becomes much smaller
and the stress at the crack tips sharply increases to attain
the final stage of SCC.
In austenitic stainless steels, SCC can occur in the
unwelded parent material due to residual stresses from
cold working or service stresses. In the welded products
where welding may add to the stresses, SCC can occur
both in the parent plate and weld-metal. The most
significant environment causing SCC is aqueous
solutions of chlorides at elevated temperatures. In
practice, it is rare for failures to occur below 70°C The Cl-
concentration required varies with temperature, being
lower as it rises. In many cases, SCC is caused by the
concentration of originally small amounts of Cl in a
solution, for example by evaporation on a heated steel
surface.
Stainless steel weld-metals having mixed austenite/
ferrite microstructure show a considerably greater
resistance to SCC than the parent plate.
Hot caustic solutions may also produce transgranular
SCC in these materials.
Intergranular SCC can also occur in the HAZs of
unstabilised or high carbon welded stainless steels, where
iiitercrystalline corrosion or weld decay has already set
in during service. In the petrochemical equipment, SCC
of this type may occur due to the presence of polythionic
acids, w h i c h are p r o d u c e d particularly d u r i n g
shutdowns, by an interaction between water, sulphide
containing scales and air. This type of SCC is also possible
in the high temperature, pure water environment of
boiling water nuclear reactors. In both these cases, the
472 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
preventive measure consists of avoiding the sensitisation
of the stainless steel by appropriate material selection or
welding procedure control. Another effective measure is
of course control of the environment.
Generally speaking, susceptibility to SCC can be
minimised by ensuring minimum residual stresses in
the welded structure. Since stress-relief treatment is not
practicable with stainless steels, one must avoid severe
cold working and adopt forming and welding procedures
in such a way, that internal stresses are minimum and
are evenly distributed over the whole structure.
Three different approaches may be used to avoid
chloride or caustic induced SCC in stainless steels:
1) Ensure better control on environmental conditions.
Consult the pamphlet issued by the Institution of
Chemical Engineers, 1978 (UK) entitled "Guide notes on
the safe use of stainless steel in chemical process plant",
which gives useful guidance on safe procedures for the
hydrostatic testing of austenitic stainless steels, and on
precautions to be taken when lagging them externally.
Lagging materials sometimes contain chlorides or
encourage their concentration at the metal surface.
2) When severe environmental conditions are
unavoidable, use a more resistant alloy like Incoloy or
Inconel or a low Ni SSC-resistant duplex ferritic austenitic
alloy or a low interstitial fully ferritic one,
3) Use a stress-relief heat treatment. As already
mentioned earlier this is not easy. The minimum effective
temperature is 900°C, and this introduces complications
with distortion and reintroduces significant residual
stresses on cooling. Even when a perfect stress-relief has
been achieved, the service stresses themselves may he
adequate to promote SCC.
Solution annealing: Austenitic stainless steel fabrica-
tions rarely require postweld heat treatment. Critical fab-
rications are sometimes solution annealed to redissolve
the precipitated carbides in the HAZ, which may cause
intercrystalline corrosion in service; or to relieve the
stresses that may lead to stress-corrosion in service.
The recommended solution annealing temperatures
for different grades are given in Table 10.34.
Table 10.34: Recommended solution annealing
temperatures for austenitic stainless steels
Type Temperature, °C
201, 202, 301, 302, 304, 304L, 305, 308 1,010-1,120
309, 309S, 316 1,038-1,120
316L, 317L 1,038-1,110
317 1,066-1,120
321 954-1,066
347,348 982-1,066
The soaking time at temperature should be approxi-
mately three minutes for each 2.5 mm thickness. Care
must be taken to cool the fabrication rapidly and uni-
formly through 900-425°C range to avoid carbide pre-
cipitation. Thick fabrications must therefore be water
quenched or water sprayed, though air cooling is suit-
able for thin sections. Solution annealing must be under-
taken only if a furnace of adequate dimensions, efficient
handling equipment and the right cooling arrangements
are available. If the cooling is non-uniform, it can give
rise to increased residual stresses and distortion. Thin
fabrications must be adequately supported during high
temperature exposure to prevent sagging. Unless a pro-
tective atmosphere has been used, the steel surfaces de-
velop an oxide scale, which must be thoroughly removed
by grinding, sandblasting, acid pickling or machining.
Cleaning Before Welding
Because of their high Cr content, stainless steel
surfaces develop tenacious chromium oxide film which
interferes with welding. For high quality welding, the
joint surfaces as also at least 12 mm on each side of the
groove must be cleaned by either of the following techniques
prior to welding:
1) Brushing with a stainless steel wire brush which
has not been used for any other purpose
2) Sand- or grit-blasting using clean sand and grit
3) Machining and grinding using chloride-free cutting
fluid
4) Pickling in nitric acid solution of 10-20% strength,
Equally important is to ensure that the surfaces are
free from carbon and hydrocarbon contamination caused
by grease, oil, waxes, cutting fluids and primers. This is
achieved with solvent cleaning.
Cleaning After Welding
It is well known that stainless steel is rust- and
corrosion-resistant only when its surface is in a polished
condition. This resistance is supposed to be due to a
continuous thin film of chromium oxide formed on the
surface. If this continuous film is broken due to the
presence of crevices, blowholes, etc., attack by atmosphere
or by chemicals can be as rapid as on mild steel.
Naturally, stainless steel weld joints should be
finished by grinding and subsequent polishing, if they
are expected to give maximum corrosion-resistance. This
finishing operation is an expensive proposition and the
degree to which it is to be pursued should be determined
by the nature of corrosive conditions to be met in service.
In any case, weld reinforcement on stainless steel
welds must be ground out. because they act as stress-

raisers and lead to stress-corrosion when exposed to
certain corrosive atmospheres and chemicals. Especially
the surfaces directly in contact must be finished to a
degree required by service conditions.
Joints should be so designed that they are accessible
for finishing operations and maintain continuity of the
surface.
In the following paragraphs the traditional British
practice has been described, though it is likely that it has
been refined in recent years.
The first step is coarse grinding. The high coefficient
of thermal expansion combined with the low thermal
conductivity of the austenitic stainless steels necessitates
extreme care during grinding to prevent overheating with
consequent wrinkling, distortion or heat discoloration
(this latter occurs when the surface temperature rises
above 300°C). With unstabilised g r a d e s , severe
overheating also impairs the corrosion resistance. In
consequence, the grinding wheel must never be allowed
to dwell in any one spot and heavy pressures must be
avoided. Otherwise, excessive heat will be generated and
the wheel will tend to clog and become glazed.
For the initial grinding, solid wheels of the rubber or
plastic bonded type are generally preferred. The grinder
may be either a portable hand type where site grinding is
necessary or fixed lathe type when the component is
small. The wheels should be free cutting and self-
sharpening to avoid clogging, and should not be used
with any other material because of the danger of
contaminating the steel surface. The manufacturer's
recommendations with regard to wheel sizes, abrasive,
grit numbers and surface speeds must be followed.
Various shapes of stones are available to suit the shape
of the job and to permit access to difficult positions.
The grinding is usually performed dry, but when a
lubricant seems desirable, the recommendation of the
grinding wheel maker should be observed. Cooling may
also be employed where practicable by playing a water
spray on the reverse side of the weld, thus permitting
somewhat faster grinding. The grinding operation should
be performed in long sweeps with wheel diagonal to the
line of weld rather than at right angles to it, the angle
being changed with successive grit sizes. This will be
found easier than attempting to grind across a narrow
weld bead, and the change in the grinding direction at
successive stages is of considerable help in removing the
marks of earlier grinding operation. When grinding very
thin gauge material, the use of steel or wooden backing
blocks may be desirable to provide a firm basis for working.
When attempting the flush grinding of welds with
very rapid cutting wheels, great care should be taken to
WELDABILITY OF METALS 473
avoid gouging and damaging the surrounding material.
An attachment of stops on either side of the wheel
considerably simplifies the operation and sets a limit on
the amount of metal removed.
To maintain efficient cutting, the wheel should be
frequently dressed a n d carefully trued to avoid
hammering; rounding of the wheel edges also materially
assists in preventing accidental gouging of the adjacent
area.
High speed emery bands can be used for all stages of
grinding where the component is small enough to be
held against a polishing lathe. These bands run over a
hard felt pulley with a hackstand to give the required
tension. A complete range of b a n d s is available
embodying many types and sizes of grit, but it is
necessary to ensure that the grit chosen is suitable for
cutting austenitic stainless steels. Using these emery
bands, grinding is faster and cooler than when stones
are employed.
When it is intended that this rough, grinding
operation should be the final finishing operation, the
surface should be acid cleaned and washed. This
treatment will remove any metallic particles and surface
contaminants which may have been forced into the
stainless steel surface, and which if left might initiate
corrosive attack.
It might be noted at this stage that during the finishing
operation, it is sometimes considered an advantage to
protect adjacent surfaces by pasting on stout paper or
cardboard. This prevents scratching and damage during
handling and can easily be removed subsequently.
Rough grinding is followed by fine grinding which is
carried out with similar technique and precautions as
described for coarse grinding, but using wheels of finer
abrasive. The manufacturer's recommendations relating
to wheel type and size, grit number and surface speeds
must be followed. It is often an advantage, however, to
replace final grinding by the use of emery bobs consisting
of solid felt wheels, on the periphery of which is glued
emery of the required grit size,
Emery bobs are often preferred to fine stones, since
they are softer than wheels of corresponding grit and
reduce the danger of damage to the surrounding metal.
They are also cheaper in use than stones.
The preparation of bobs requires some care. Where
warm glue is used, it must be made fresh each day and
only best hide glue should be employed. It should never
be overheated, and should be used at the temperature
recommended by the glue manufacturers (usually about
60°C). The iron-free emery should be preheated to
approximately the same temperature as the glue. The bob
474 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
is rolled backwards and forwards in the emery to obtain
an even coat and is then dried in a low-temperature drying
oven.
The use of bobs may be introduced at the 60 or 80 grit
stage during finishing, but it is necessary that the
preliminary grinding should have been carefully
executed. There is a limit to the amount of metal that can
be economically removed by means of an emery bob, and
prior to its use grinding should be taken to a stage where
it only remains for the bob to fine up the surface.
The normal procedure is to remove the grinding marks
using a 60 or 80 grit bob, then continue successively with
bobs of 120 and 180 grit. The same precautions apply in
bobbing as in grinding, regarding the need to avoid
dwelling on one spot. Lubricants are generally used
during the bobbing operation which consist of tallow,
palm oil or stearic acid. The residual lubricant may be
removed from the finished surface, and the surface
brightened by using dry whiting or Sheffield lime on a
soft rag mop.
As with grinding, the use of bobs on a lathe has to
some extent been displaced by continuous emery bands.
These are fed with a lubricant and appear to give faster
cutting than bobs.
Calico m o p s may replace bobs w h e r e a softer
polishing operation is desired, and with these also, the
finish from the grinding stage should be as smooth as
possible, since mop polishing will not remove coarse
surface defects and irregularities.
The mops are made up from layers of calico or canvas
sewn together to give stiffness, and with suitable graded
abrasives glued to the periphery. The abrasives used are
similar to those employed on bobs.
The first or rough polishing operation, usually carried
out without a lubricant, should be continued until a clean,
uniform and defect-free surface is obtained. Progressively
finer grit is then used, in most cases with a lubricant
consisting of tallow, palm oil or stearic acid, until the
required degree of surface finish is achieved. The same
general precautions as outlined for grinding and bobbing
should be observed, particularly with regard to keeping
the mop on the move to avoid local overheating.
The polishing wheels should be worked with an
oscillatory motion to break up the polishing lines, and
the wheel direction should be frequently changed to
prevent the abrasive cutting grooves.
Polishing is usually taken further than bobbing, and
a finishing grit size of 200 to 300 is not uncommon.
The final step is buffing. The response of the various
grades of 1 8 / 8 austenitic steels to buffing varies
considerably. The unstabilised 18/8 steel may be buffed
to a mirror finish, but those containing titanium, and to a
lesser extent niobium, cannot be successfully buffed.
Buffing is essentially two distinct operations; cut
buffing, which prepares the surface to the required
smoothness for the next operation of colour buffing, by
which the mirror finish or high lustre is obtained on the
work.
In contrast to polishing, the abrasive for buffing is not
glued to the wheel or mop, but is fed on to it from a compo
bar, or as a paste which consists of a fine powdered
abrasive in a suitable binder.
Buffs of finely woven (82 to 94 count) calico, or calico
interleaved with paper, are commonly employed. These
are generally unsewn, the necessary stiffness being
obtained from the high rotational speeds. The cutting
action decreases with increasing surface speed, but the
lustre improves and so cut buffing is usually carried out
at lower speeds (1,650 to 1,950 surface metres/minute)
than colour buffing (2,250 to 4,200 surface metres/
minute). Lubricants such as tallow, stearic acid or wax
are employed. Abrasives must be of highest quality and
purity, and entirely free from iron or sulphur, if best results
are to be obtained.
PH Stainless Steels
Precipitation-hardening (PH) stainless steels make up
an important group of stainless steels, which combine
high strength with good corrosion and oxidation
resistance. In these steels, hardening is achieved by
martensite formation, by precipitation-hardening or by a
combination of the two.
PH steels contain key elements like Cu, Cb, Ti and Al
which go into solution during solution annealing or
austenite conditioning. During the subsequent aging
treatment, they produce submicroscopic precipitates
which render the matrix stronger and harder.
There are three distinct types of PH stainless steels
depending on the metallurgical structure they develop
when cooled from the solutioning or austenitising
temperature. They are: martensitic, semi-austenitic and
austenitic (see Table 10.35).
Martensitic PH steels: The chemical compositions of
these steels are such that they provide a strong and hard
martensitic structure on cooling from the austenitising
temperature, To explain this further, when the steel is
heated to approximately 1,040°C, its structure is mainly
austenite. On quenching, the austenite transforms to
martensite in the temperature range of 150-100°C. During
subsequent aging treatment, i.e. heating the steel to the
appropriate temperature in the range of 485-620°C for
an appropriate time, it gets further strengthened by a
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 475

Table 10.35:1Nominal compositions of typical PH stainless steels

Nominal composition, weight %
Type Designation* UNSNo. C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Al Other elements
Martensitic 17-4 PH S17400 0.04 0.30 0.60 16.0 4.2 — — 3.4 Cu, 0.25 Cb
(moderate 15-5 PH S15500 0.04 0.30 0.40 15.0 4.5 — — 3.4 Cu, 0.25 Cb
strength)
Martensitic PH 13-8 Mo S13800 0.04 0.03 0.03 12.7 8.2 2.2 1.1 —
(high strength)
Semi- 17-7 PH S17700 0.07 0.50 0.30 17.0 7.1 — 1.2 —
austenitic PH 15-7 Mo S155700 0.07 0.50 0.30 15.2 7.1 2.2 1.2 —
Austenitic A-286 K66286 0.05 1.45 0.50 14.75 25.25 1.30 0.15 0.30 V, 2.15 Ti, 0.005 B
17-10 P — 0.10 0.60 0.50 17.0 11.0 0.30 P
*Some of these designations are registered trademarks.

precipitation mechanism. Typical heat treatments for a
few well-known grades of PH steels are given in Table
10.36.
Some of these steels have moderate tensile strength
(less than 1,380 N/mm 2 ), while others considered as high
strength, have tensile strength more than 1,380 N / m m 2 .
Their corrosion resistance is as good as that of the
common austenitic stainless steels and is greatest in the
fully hardened condition. They also possess good
resistance to stress corrosion cracking when aged at or
above 550°C. They tend to become embrittled when the
service temperature for long-time exposure (thousands
of hours) exceeds 316°C. For short-time service the limiting
temperature can be raised to 480°C.
Thin sections of martensitic PH steel are usually
welded in the annealed condition. After welding, the
maximum strength and corrosion resistance are achieved
by a solution heat treatment followed by aging. Thick
sections and highly restrained joints are commonly
welded in the overaged condition. The welding heat
causes the HAZ to be austenitised and transformed to
martensite on cooling. The HAZ is relatively soft and
free from underbead cracking because of the extremely
low carbon content of the steel. In a few cases, the required

Table 10.36: Typical heat treatments for PH stainless steels

Type of steels Austenite conditioning Aging treatment
Temperature, °C Quenching media Temperature, °C Time, hour
Martensitic
17-4 PH 1,040 0,A 480 1
or
490-620 4
15-5 PH 1,040 W 480 1
or
552-620 4
Semi-austenitic
17-7 PH 955 A (l)-59 8
PH15-7 Mo 760 A (2) 510-540 1
565-590 1.5
Austenitic
A-286 980 O 717 16
17-10 P 1,120 w 705 24
476 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
welded joint properties are obtained by welding the steel
in the hardened condition (no preheat necessary) and
then subjecting the joint to a postweld aging treatment.
Semi-austenitic PH steels: These steels are also
chemically composed to give an austenitic structure if
cooled rapidly from annealing temperature of 730-955°C,
because the martensitic transformation temperature is
below room temperature. But in practice, they are air
cooled from the high temperature range, and this results
in the precipitation of carbon from solution in the form of
chromium carbides and consequent raising of the
martensitic transformation temperature. Thus the result
of air cooling from the austenitising temperature is the
transformation of the steel to martensite. The subsequent
aging treatment (a) stress-relieves and tempers the
martensite, (b) increases ductility, toughness and
corrosion resistance, and (c) further hardens the steel by
causing precipitation of an intermetallic phase.
These steels are usually welded in the annealed or
solution-treated condition. Sometimes they may be
welded in the hardened condition. In either case, the
welding heat transforms the narrow HAZ to austenite,
which remains austenitic under rapid cooling that
follows. No cracking occurs in this HAZ. However, if
optimum mechanical properties are desired in the
weldment, the steel must be welded in the hardened
condition (no preheat necessary) and the weld joint must
be given a postweld aging treatment.
Austenitic PH steels: These steels contain high levels of
nickel compared to their chromium contents, with the
result that they develop a fully austenitic structure on
quenching from the austenitising temperature. After this
solution treatment, hardening is achieved by aging at
approximately 700°C for 16 to 24 hours, during which
Table 10.37: Suggested filler metals for welding PH stainless steels
Designation UNSNo. Covered electrodes
Martensitic types
17-4 PH S 17400 AMS5827B
and (17-4 PH) or
15-5 PH S 15500 E308
Semi-austenitic types
17-7 PH S 17700 AMS5827B
(17-4 PH),
E308, or E309
PH 15-7 Mo S 15700 E 308 or
309
Austenitic type
A-286 K 66286 E 309 or
E310
elements such as Al, Ti and P form intermetallic
compounds and thereby increase the strength of the steel.
These steels have superior high temperature
properties and their good corrosion resistance can be
maintained up to approximately 815°C. These steels are
difficult to weld and some grades are considered
unweldable because of pronounced susceptibility to cold
cracking in the HAZ. The steel is usually welded in the
solution-treated condition. To prevent cracking, welding
is performed with least joint restraint and at low heat
input. It is not possible to weld these steels with matching
filler metals because of cracking trouble. Nickel-base or
common austenitic stainless steel filler metals are
preferred.
Suggested filler metals for a few typical PH steels are
given in Table 10.37.
Austenitic Manganese Steel
Austenitic manganese steel is a high-alloy steel
containing about 11-14% Mn and 1.0-1.4% C, which
has an austenitic structure at room temperature and is
therefore nonmagnetic, Its advantageous characteristics
are high strength, good ductility, extreme toughness,
rapid work-hardening property and good wear
resistance. It is also called Hadfield manganese steel.
The steel is used mainly in the form of castings but is
also available as hot-rolled billets, plates, bars and wire.
The wire is normally supplied in the annealed condition,
while the rest are supplied in the quenched condition.
Applications: Austenitic manganese steel castings are
used in crushing and grinding mills, earthmoving and
material handling equipment and on railway crossings.
Gyratory and cone crusher parts, jaw crushers and
hammer mill parts are made from this steel because of its
Bare welding Dissimilar
wire PH stainless
steels
AMS5826 E or ER309,
(17-4 PH) or E or ER309Cb
ER308
AMS5824A E or ER310,
(17-7 PH) ENiCrFe-2, or
ERNiCr-3
AMS 5812C E or ER309,
(PH 15-7 Mo) E or ER 310
ERNiCrFe-6 or EorER309,
ERNiMo-3 E or ER 310

good resistance to severe impact and abrasive wear. Being
non-magnetic, it is used for parts of electromagnets,
induction furnaces and other electrical products.
Metallurgy: Mn plays a d o m i n a n t role in the
metallurgy of this steel. Since Mn has a strong affinity for
O, S and C, it is used in the conventional C-Mn and low-
alloy steels mainly as a deoxidiser, to reduce hot cracking
and to increase strength and hardness. When Mn is in
free form, it forms a substitutional solid solution with
iron and suppresses the transformation of austenite to
hard microstructures during cooling. When Mn content
is more than 10.5%, it suppresses the transformation of
austenite so effectively that the austenite state is retained
at room temperature even with moderately fast cooling.
In production practice, the high manganese steel is
heated to a temperature in the range of 982-1,065°C,
where it is fully austenitic and the carbon is in solution,
held at that temperature for more than 30 minutes and
then water-quenched.
It is important to maintain the Mn content m the steels
within the range of 11.0-14.0%, because then the tensile
strength and ductility are maximum, though the yield
strength is hardly ever affected by the Mn content. The
tensile strength and ductility decrease rapidly as the Mn
content is lowered; at 8% Mn these properties are almost
halved. Below 8% Mn level, the steel becomes very brittle
and unusable.
The carbon content of the steel is fairly high, the
optimum level being 1.15%. Such a high level is necessary
to obtain adequate yield strength. Carbon levels higher
than 1.35% create problems during heat treatment and
foundry handling due to carbide precipitation.
Tool Steels
r~ i High-speed
Water-hardeningShock-resisting Cold-work
(W1,W2,W5,) (Sl,S2,S5,etc.)
Oil-hardening Medium-alloy HighC,
(01,02, etc.) air-hardening high Cr
(A2,A3,etc.) (D2,D3,etc.)
I 1
Cr type
(H10,H11,
etc.)
WELDABILITY OF METALS 477
Si content is normaly below 1%, but it is sometimes
increased to about 2% to raise the yield strength margin-
ally and to improve resistance to plastic flow during re-
peated impact. Above 2%, this element causes a sharp
fall in strength and ductility. S has no effect on (this steel,
but P should be kept below 0.04% if hot cracking during
fabrication and repair welding has to be avoided.
Mo or Cr is sometimes added to raise the yield
strength, and Ni is added to marginally increase ductility
and to stabilise the austenite. Ti is also used in some
cases, as it forms stable carbides and thereby lowers the
amount of carbon dissolved in the austenite.
Austenitic manganese steel is considered to be easily
weldable, but several factors related to its production
can have a deleterious effect on weldability. It has already
been mentioned that Mn should be above 11%, while
carbon content should not exceed 1.35% to ensure
adequate mechanical properties.
If, d u r i n g the final heat treatment, the correct
austenitising temperature is not reached and some of
the carbides remain undissolved, the microstructure of
the steel reveals chains and clusters of carbides together
with intermittent grain boundary carbide envelopes. If
the cooling rate from the austenitising temperature is
too low, carbide precipitation will occur and the
mechanical properties of the steel are lower than normal.
Steels with carbon around 1.3-1.4% are especially prone
to such carbide formation. In the case of heavy sections,
carbides may appear in the grain boundaries in the
central portion of the section, in spite of sufficiently rapid
quenching due to the low thermal conductivity of the
steel.
W type Mo type
(Tl,T2.etc.) (Ml,M2,etc.)
Hotrwork
1
W type Mo type
(H21,H22, (H42)
etc.)
478 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Castings should be welded only after they have been
correctly heat-treated to render them fully austenitic. In
as-cast form, they are susceptible to cracking because the
microstructure is austenite grains surrounded by carbides
with patches of pearlite, depending on the chemical
composition and cooling rate.
Castings may sometimes have a decarburised skin
which is martensitic, magnetic and relatively weaker than
the underlying metal. Such a skin results from the high
austenitising temperature, high carbon content and some
loss of manganese.
The quenched and austenitised casting should never
be tempered or stress-relieved because depending on the
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d time at t e m p e r a t u r e , carbide
precipitation and pearlite formation occur and the result
is a complete loss of ductility and reduction in strength.
Mechanical properties: Austenitic manganese steel is
used under extremely rigorous service conditions (earth-
moving, c'rushing, and mining equipment) mainly
because of its o u t s t a n d i n g t o u g h n e s s and work-
hardening property.
A typical casting gives a Charpy-V impact value of
136 J at 23°C and about 68 J at 73°C. Addition of Ni raises
the impact value at -73°C to about 110 J. An as-rolled Ni
alloyed bar has an impact strength of 136 J at -73°C.
Quench annealing increases it to about 195 J.
These high-Mn steels have a much higher coefficient
of work-hardening as compared to that of austenitic
stainless steel. The initial hardness of 185-210 HB can
rise to a maximum of 550 HB under repeated impact
loading in service. As hardness increases, tensile strength
and yield strength also increase. In fact, a range of tensile
values can be obtained in an austenitic manganese steel
by work hardening in the same manner as can be
obtained in other steels by heat treatment.
The work-hardening is produced by deformation,
whic^ results in the transformation of austenite to
martensite. The hard martensitic layer which is magnetic
is rather shallow and the tough austenitic structure below
offers a cushioning effect against repeated heavy impact.
As the hardened, brittle metal wears away under
conditions of abrasive wear and impact, a fresh surface
is exposed for further work-hardening.
Quite often, manganese steel parts are exposed to
abrasive wear alone, where impact conditions are absent.
In such cases, hardness is increased by alloying, heat
treatment, age hardening or initial work-hardening.
Welding: Austenitic manganese steel has good
weldability provided minimum heat input is used during
welding. As already pointed out, reheating can give rise
to carbide precipitation and transformation of austenite
which lead to embrittlement. Manual metal-arc welding
is therefore generally preferred for joining as well as
surfacing work. Semi-automatic or fully-automatic
welding with solid or flux-cored wires is also quite
suitable, because the smaller electrodes and higher arc
travel speeds of this process results in low heat input.
Processes like oxyacetylene and tungsten arc welding
which cause considerable heat build-up should be
avoided.
As a practical guideline, it is recommended that the
base metal in the vicinity of the weld deposit should not
be heated above 315°C for more than a minute. Also one
should be able to touch the base metal 150 mm away from
the weld at any time, without burning the skin. To achieve
this, a short arc, stringer bead technique and inter-mittent
welding are used. Skip welding can also minimise heat
build-up. Sometimes for heavy surfacing work, the
casting maybe kept partially immersed in water to increase
the weld deposition rate. Multiple-pass welds are
preferred to single-pass welds; because the succee-ding
pass can temper the austenite formed in the earlier pass.
It is very important that, before commencing welding,
the work-hardened metal, cracks and.O other defects are
completely removed by grinding or air carbon-arc
gouging. It should also be ensured that the surface to be
welded is non-magnetic.
Electrodes for surfacing work are usually designed to
have lower carbon content (0.5-0.8%) to avoid the embrit-
tling effect of carbide precipitation during cooling. Mn
content is sometimes as high as 16% to ensure completely
austenitic structure in the weld deposit. P is kept below
0.03% to prevent hot cracking. Mn-Cr types (14% M n -
14% Cr) and Cr-Ni-Mn types (20% Cr-10% Ni-5% Mn)
are preferred for improved corrosion and abrasion
resistance and for their ability to work-harden rapidly
under impact. The Cr-Ni-Mn type is the best choice for
joining austenitic manganese steel to carbon steel and
for buttering the carbon steel surface before laying a
deposit of austenitic manganese steel. If an austenitic
Mn-steel electrode having about 16% Mn and less than
0.025% P is used for these applications, the dilution with
the carbon steel should be less than 25%. For repair of
cracks in austenitic manganese steel, aust-enitic stainless
steel electrode types 308, 309, 310 or 312 must be used.
Use of austenitic Mn-steel electrodes must be avoided.
Tool and Die Steels
Tool and die steels are high-carbon alloy steels used
for the forming and cutting of metals. Tool steels are
classified by the American systems AISI and SAE, into
seven major groups of which five relevant ones are given

Table 10.38: Data for major groups of tool steels
Group Approx.
symbols compositions
Wl, W2, W5 0.60/1.40 C sometimes alloyed
with Cr and V
SI, S2. S5 0.40/0.65 C, alloyed with Si,
Cr, W and sometimes with Mo
0.1, 02 etc. 0.90/1.45 C, Mn smaller
amounts of Cr and W
A2, A3, etc. 0.70/2.35 C, 2% max. Mn
5% max. Cr, 1.0 Mo
D2, D3, etc. 2.25 max. C, 12.0 max. Cr,
sometimes alloyed with Mo,
W&Co
H10, H l l , etc. 0.35/0.40 C, 3.25 min. Cr,
small amounts of V, W & Mo
H21, H22, etc. 0.30/0.50 C, 9/18 W, 3/12 Cr
H42 0.6 C, 4.0 Cr, 6.0 W, 5.0 Mo
Tl, T2, etc. 0.75/1.50 C, 20.0 max. W,
4.0 max. Cr, sometimes 5/12.0
Co to raise red hardness
Ml, M2, etc. 0.85/1.25 C, 4.0 max. Cr, 4.5/
9.5 Mo, sometimes 5/12.0 Co
to raise red hardness
Properties
Water-quenched for max. hard-
ness. Best machinability rating.
Proof red hardness. Excellent
resistance to decarburisation.
Mostly oil-quenched, but
sometimes water-quenched for
maximum hardness. Good
toughness, red hardness, wear
resistance and machinability.
Tendency to decarburisation.
Good resistance to deformation
and to decarburisation,
good machinability, fair tough-
ness but poor red hardness.
Excellent resistance to deforma-
tion and to decarburistion, good
wear resistance, fair toughness
and red hardness.
Excellent resistance to wear and
deformation. Good abrasion resis-
tance. Dimensions are retained
during hardening. Not suitable
for cutting edges. Should not be
worked above 480°C.
Good red hardness and toughness,
extremely deep air-hardening, less
distortion during hardening.
Improved red hardness, reduced
toughness computed to Cr type,
butt better toughness compared to
high-speed tool steels.
Better toughness and greater resis-
tance to heat cracking as compared
to W type. Danger of decar-
burisation during heat
treatment.
Excellent red hardness, more so
when Co is present, good
resistance to wear and shock,
resistant to deformation, fair
machinability, medium resistance
to decarburisation. Well suited
for cutting tool applications.
WELDABILITY OF METALS 479
Typical
applications
Inexpensive tools.
Tools punches, chisels,
pneumatic tools, expansion
reamers.
Thread taps, solid
threading dies,
forming tools and
expansion reamers.
Blanking, forming, trim-
ming and thread-rolling
dies.
Blanking and piercing dies,
drawing dies, thread rolling
dies and master gauges.
Extrusion dies, die-casting
dies, forging dies,
mandrels and not shears.
High temperature appli-
cations such as mendrels.
and extrusion dies for
brass, Ni alloys & steel.
Cutting tools such as tool
bits, drills, reamers,
broaches, taps, milling
cutters, saws and wood-
working tools. Also
extrusion dies and blanking
punches and dies.
480 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
below along with their sub-groups and typical letter
symbols (indicated in brackets). Their detailed
information is given in Table 10.38.
ROLE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Presence of more than 0.60% carbon in tool steels
ensures a martensitic hardness of at least 60 Re on
quenching. When carbon is in excess of the eutectoid
composition, it exists in the form of undissolved carbides
and promotes wear resistance. Toughness is reduced
with increased carbon content; hence if good toughness
is desired, carbon is kept at a lower level. Unalloyed
carbon steels have low hardenability and hence they need
to be water-quenched (water has the most severe
quenching action) to obtain optimum hardness. The
hardenability increases with total alloy content. Alloy
tool steels have sufficient hardenability to attain
maximum hardness with less severe oil quenching or air
cooling.
The alloying elements commonly used in tool steels
are chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium.
All of them increase the eutectoid temperature of the steel
by stabilising the ferrite phase. Also with increasing total
alloy content, the carbon content of the eutectoid
composition decreases, since these alloying elements
have a greater affinity for carbon than iron has. Hence
tool steels must be heated to higher temperatures to
dissolve the carbides into austenite.
With increasing carbon content of the austenite, its
transformation to other microstructures becomes
increasingly sluggish. A condition may then be reached,
where the high-carbon austenite is retained down to
room temperature even with severe quenching. All the
alloying elements used in tool steels except cobalt
generally decrease the a u s t e n i t e - t o - m a r t e n s i t e
transformation. Cobalt does the opposite.
In the water-hardening group, small addition of
chromium improves toughness and wear resistance. In
the shock-resisting group, higher chromium levels
increase hardenability. In the high-carbon high-
chromium group, these two elements in combination give
excellent wear resistance, abrasion resistance and non-
deforming properties. Chromium in combination with
molybdenum and tungsten promotes red hardness.
In some tool steels, silicon is 1-2%. Silicon is a ferrite
s t r e n g t h e n e d b u t the h i g h Si level accelerates
decarburisation.
Mo increases hardenability. Together with chromium
and tungsten, it improves red hardness. When Mo
content is high, special care is required during heat
treatment to avoid decarburisation.
High t u n g s t e n content increases resistance to
softening at high temperatures, but it also makes the steel
more brittle at high hardness.
Cobalt confers high red hardness. With high Co
content, special care must be taken during heat treatment
to avoid decarburisation.
Vanadium added in small amounts to the water-
h a r d e n i n g g r o u p i m p r o v e s t o u g h n e s s and wear
resistance.
Red hardness: A tool steel which is exposed to high
service temperature as in hot forging, die casting and hot
shearing must not soften at elevated temperatures. In other
words, it must have good red hardness. A steel which
does not have this property wears out rapidly in service.
WELDABILITY
The weldability of a tool steel is determined by its
chemistry and condition. The tool may be in (a) annealed
condition, (b) hardened condition or (c) hardened and
tempered condition. The repair welding procedure for
each of these conditions is detailed below:
a) Annealed condition: Whenever possible, tools and
dies must be welded in the annealed condition, because
then they have maximum ductility and are less prone to
cracking. The steel is preheated to the appropriate
temperature, and welded with a matching filler metal. It
is t h e n stress-relieved, m a c h i n e d to the n e a r e s t
dimensions, hardened and tempered and ground to final
dimensions.
b) Hardened condition: Welding a tool or die in this
condition must be avoided if possible. It should be
annealed and then welded according to the procedure
given in (a).
If it must be welded in the hardened condition, the job
should be preheated and welded with matching filler
metal. Then it should be tempered and ground to fine
dimensions.
c) Hardened and tempered condition: It is safer to weld a
tool in this condition than in the hardened condition. In
this case, annealing and hardening can be dispensed
with and one can avoid the dimensional changes these
heat treatments may give rise to.
Typical welding and heat-treatment procedures for a
few types of tool steels are given in Table 10.39.
The procedures of heat treatment are as follows:
Annealing: The tool is g r a d u a l l y h e a t e d to $
temperature slightly above its transformation range, held
at that temperature long enough for the heat to seep
through the entire body and then cooled slowly at a
controlled rate to room temperature. Care must be taken
to prevent carburisation or decarburisation.
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 481

Table 10.39: Typical welding and heat-treating procedures for representative tool steels
Annealed base metal
Temperature,°C Hardened beise metal
Preheat and HRC°
Type Filler metal type Preheat Annealing Austenitising Tempering Quenching HRC and
and mediab postheata°C
3
postheat
W1,W2 Water-hardening 120-230 733-790 760-840 175-340 B,W 50-64 120-230 56-62
SI Hot-work 150-260 790-815 900-955 205-650 O 40-58 150-260 52-56
S5 Hot-work 150-260 775-802 870-930 175-425 O 50-60 150-260 52-56
S7 Hot-work 150-260 815-840 930-955 205-620d A,0 45-57 150-260 52-56
Ol Oil-hardening 150-205 760-790 790-815 175-260 O 57-62 150-205 56-62
06 Oil-hardening 150-205 765-790 790-815 175-315 O 58-63 150-205 56-62
A2 Air-hardening 150-260 840-870 930-980 175-540 d A 57-62 150-205 56-58
A4 Air-hardening 150-260 733-760 815-870 175-425 d A 54-62 150-205 60-62
D2 Air-hardening 370-480 870-900 980-1,025 205-540 d A 54-61 370-480 58-60
H11,H12,H13 Hot-work 480-650 840-870 995-1,040 540-650 d A 38-56 370-540 46-54
Ml High-speed 510-590 815-870 1,180-1,217 540-590 d A.O.S. 60-65 510-565 60-63
M2 High-speed 510-590 870-900 1,192-1,230 540-590 d A.O.S. 60-65 510-565 60-63
M10 High-speed 510-590 815-870 1,180-1,217 540-590 d A.O.S. 60-65 510-565 60-63
T1,T2,T4 High-speed 510-590 870-900 1,260-1.302 540-590 d A.O.S. 60-66 510-565 61-64
Notes: a) Preheat and postheat temperatures for welding
<
b) A—air cool, B—brine quench, O—oil quench, S—salt bath quench, W—water quench
c) Hardness after postheat
d) Double temper

Stress-relieving: This heat-treatment is intended to
reduce the locked-up stresses caused by welding. The
procedure is similar to that used for annealing but the
temperature is below the transformation range. In the
case of a hardened tool, retempering serves the purpose
of stress-relieving. In this case, the temperature used
should be below the tempering temperature of the steel.
Austenitising: This operation, which is intended to
dissolve the carbides in austenite, involves heating the
tool slowly to a temperature much above the
transformation range and holding it at that temperature
for a sufficient length of time. The treatment should be
done in a protective atmosphere or vacuum to avoid
scaling or decarburisation.
Quenching: Quenching means rapid cooling from the
austenitising temperature by immersing in water, brine,
oil, etc., or cooling in air. The quenching is most severe in
water and least severe in air. The quenching medium to
be used depends on alloy composition and section
thickness. The cooling rate must be rapid enough to obtain
full hardness but not too rapid, as this may lead to
cracking.
Air-hardening tools are sometimes hot quenched to
540-650°C range, then air-cooled or oil-quenched to
about 65°C and then tempered. Water-hardening tends
to distort and change the dimensions of a tool. Hence,
sometimes a fine water spray is used to achieve
superficial hardening.
Tempering: This treatment is intended to relieve
stresses, prevent cracking and toughen the tool and is
most effective when carried out immediately after
quenching. In fact, it is advisable to remove the tool from
the quenching medium, while the temperature is still
around 80°C and temper immediately.
It must be understood that tempering at the top end
of the recommended temperature range gives maximum
toughness and reduced hardness, while that at the
lowest end gives maximum hardness and reduced
toughness. Most favourable metallurgical structure is
obtained by resorting to two or more tempering cycles.
Welding processes: Repair of small tools is best carried
out with the manual tungsten inert-gas (TIG) process.
Also this process is ideal for the repair of high-speed
cutting tools, because of low welding heat and absence
of hydrogen in the arc. Manual metal-arc welding is well
suited for repair welding of small areas on large tools.
For repairing large areas, automatic TIG using hot or
cold wire-feed can be used with advantage.
482 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Cast Iron
Cast iron is a very common engineering material. It is
always used in the form of castings. It cannot be rolled,
drawn or forged because it has very low ductility and is
brittle.
Cast iron is an iron-carbon alloy with more than 2.5%
C, 1-3% Si and relatively higher levels of P and S. When
it is alloyed with elements such as Cr, Cu, Mo and Ni to
improve strength, hardness or corrosion resistance, it is
termed alloy cast iron.
The high carbon together with high silicon content
contribute to the unique microstructure of cast iron. In
this material, the metastable iron-iron carbide system and
the stable iron-graphite system exist side by side. A part
of carbon exists in the matrix in the same manner as in
steel and the matrix can be ferritic, pearlitic, austenitic or
martensitic. The rest of the carbon exists as free graphite,
which is distributed through the entire matrix in the form
of tiny particles, flakes or spheroids. The size, shape and
dispersal of graphite as well as the microstructure of the
matrix determine the mechanical properties of a
particular casting. The desired characteristics are
achieved by chemical control and by controlling the
solidification and cooling rates during casting. In some
cases, the castings are given suitable heat treatments to
achieve the desired microstructure in the matrix.
There are four types of cast iron: (1) grey iron, (2) white
iron, (3) malleable iron and (4) nodular iron.
1) Grey iron: Most castings in use are of this type, in
which the free carbon is in the form of graphite flakes.
These flakes make the fractured surface appear grey and
render the cast iron brittle and less ductile. The graphite
also makes the casting soft and machinable.
2) White iron: This type results when the casting is
solidified and cooled so rapidly that the carbon has no
opportunity to precipitate as graphite but remains in the
form of carbides of Fe, Cr or Mo. It is hard and extremely
brittle. Its fractured surface has a white crystalline
appearance.
3) Malleable iron: This type is produced by heat-treating
a white cast iron, which has lower levels of carbon and
silicon and is alloyed with carbide forming elements such
as Cr, Mo and V. The heat treatment consists of heating
in a furnace to about 925°C, holding for several hours
and cooling slowly. As a result of this treatment, the
carbon dissolved in the austenite precipitates in the form
of irregular nodules of graphite and the matrix develops
a ferritic structure. The result is improved strength and
ductility.
4) Nodular iron: This type is produced by adding
magnesium or cerium to a low-sulphur melt of grey cast
iron. As a result of this addition the graphite nucleates
through the entire metal matrix as regular spheroids or
nodules. Because nodular graphite is free from the sharp
notches of flake graphite, the cast iron has improved
strength, ductility and toughness. These properties are
achieved w i t h o u t resorting to the elaborate heat
treatment required to produce malleable iron castings.
Because of its pronounced ductility, nodular iron is also
called as ductile iron.
WELDABILITY
Cast iron is known to have limited weldability when
compared to carbon steels. Among the four types of cast
iron, nodular iron has the best weldability, while
malleable iron comes next in the order. Welding of grey
iron calls for special care and skill. White cast iron is
extremely difficult to weld.
Welding of cast iron is generally restricted to the repair
of castings in a foundry and the salvaging of parts that
are fractured or worn out in service. Fabrication of
components is rare and is mostly carried out with nodular
irons. N o d u l a r iron p i p i n g systems h a v e been
successfully fabricated by welding.
The generally poor weldability of cast iron is ascribed
to the following two factors:
1) Because of the high carbon content in the base metal,
the welding cycle causes the formation of carbides in the
zone immediately adjacent to the weld-metal and the
formation of high-carbon martensite in the remainder of
the heat-affected zone. Both these microstructures are
brittle and can cause cracking during welding or in
service. This is applicable to all the types of cast iron.
2) Because cast iron has poor ductility, it is not capable
of local plastic deformation, which is necessary to
accommodate the thermal stresses caused by welding.
Grey iron is prone to cracking on this account, while
malleable and nodular irons are less so because of their
better ductility.
Referring to factor (1), brittleness of the heat-affected
zone depends on how rapidly and easily the graphite
dissolves in the austenite during welding. In the case of
grey irons, the graphite flakes with their relatively large
surface area dissolve easily in the austenite. In nodular
irons, the spheroidal graphite has a low surface-to-
volume ratio and therefore less graphite is dissolved in
the austenite. The result is that less massive carbides
and lower-carbon martensite are formed in the HAZ. This
further explains the superior weldability of nodular iron.
The tendency of HAZ to cracking is lessened when
the cast iron is arc welded with low heat input, because
this technique reduces the width of the hard and brittle

zone next to the weld. To reduce the HAZ hardness, one
must resort to the combination of preheating and slow
cooling after welding. The slow cooling through the
austenitic transformation range reduces the amount of
martensite formed and thereby the hardness.
Recommended preheat temperature for arc welding
ranges between room temperature (21 °C) and 300°C; for
oxyacetylene welding the range is 450-650°C. Grey iron
requires higher level of preheat, while nodular and
malleable irons having ferritic matrix need minimum
preheat. Nodular and malleable irons having pearlitic
matrix require higher preheat than the ferritic types. The
preheat may be localised to the welding zone or the entire
casting may be preheated. The preheat temperature and
extent of preheat depends on the type of cast iron, size of
casting, welding process, type of filler metal and the
amount of weld-metal to be deposited. If local preheating
is used, steep temperature gradients within the casting
must be avoided, because unequal expansion can give
rise to cracking. Preheat must be maintained until the
welding has been completed and then the heated area
must be covered with insulation (lime, sand, mica,
asbestos, etc.) to ensure slow, gradual cooling.
In the case of critical castings, immediately after
welding is completed, the temperature of the entire casting
is raised to 600-625°C and the casting held at this
temperature for sufficient length of time (one hour per 25
mm thickness) to relieve the internal stresses. It is then
cooled at a rate not exceeding 30° per hour until the
casting has cooled to 370°C. If the heat treatment is carried
out at 900°C followed by slow cooling to 500°C, it results
in minimum hardness and maximum stress-relief.
FILLER METALS
1) For manual arc welding, the electrode is mild steel,
pure nickel, monel, ferronickel, tin bronze or aluminium
bronze.
The mild steel electrode is of the basic low-hydrogen
type. The weld-metal picks up carbon from the base metal
and hardens. Hence the welded joint is non-machinable.
The weld-metal has a tendency to crack under restraint.
To avoid such cracking, welding is done with low heat
input to minimise dilution. Also suitable preheat is used
to slow down the cooling rate of the deposited metal and
thereby reduce its hardness.
In the case of nickel and nickel-alloy electrodes de-
signed specifically for welding cast iron, the weld-metal
picks up carbon well above the solubility limit. As the
weld-metal solidifies, the excess carbon is rejected as
graphite. This reaction is accompanied by volume in-
crease, which results in reduced residual stresses in the
WELDABILITY OF METALS 483
weld-metal and the HAZ. This explains why welding
with nickel-based electrodes results in minimum failure.
The weld-metal of pure nickel electrode is softer than
that deposited by the ferronickel electrode. However, the
ferronickel deposit is stronger and more ductile, has bet-
ter tolerance for phosphorus in cast iron, and is more
resistant to hot cracking. For welding cast iron to mild
steel, stainless steels and nickel alloys, ferronickel elec-
trode is preferred. Compared to the above two, monel
weld deposit is more susceptible to cracking due to dilu-
tion by cast iron. All these weld deposits are machinable.
The advantageous feature of copper-alloy electrodes
(tin bronze and aluminium bronze) is that the weld-metal
when hot is soft and ductile because of the large amounts
of alpha-phase in the microstructure. The weld-metal
therefore yields without cracking as the weldment cools
and relieves most of the contraction strain. The weld-
metal strength increases appreciably at room temperature
without significant reduction in ductility. Aluminium
bronze deposit is twice as strong as the tin bronze deposit.
During welding with copper-alloy electrodes, dilution
must be kept minimum.
2) For oxyacetylene welding, the filler rod is either
cast iron or copper-zinc alloy. Both are used with
appropriate flux. For welding with a cast iron rod, preheat
temperature of 600-650°C is used. When Cu-Zn alloy
rod is used, the preheat temperature is 320-500°C and
welding is effected at temperatures much below the
melting point of cast iron. The process is therefore referred
to as brazewelding. The Cu-Zn alloy rod gives a colour
mismatch. Its use is not recommended when new castings
are to be repaired in the foundry.
3) For flux-cored arc welding, a ferronickel electrode
is used, which consists of a ferrous tube filled with nickel
powder and fluxing agents. The electrode may be used
with or without external C 0 2 shield.
Aluminium Alloys
Because of its lightness, resistance to the corrosive
action of air, water, oils and many chemicals, and easy
availability, aluminium is widely used in industry and
elsewhere. Its density is about one-third that of steel or
copper. Its corrosion resistance is derived from the
tenacious, refractory aluminium oxide film, which
develops rapidly on the clean surface in air. The thermal
and electrical conductivities of aluminium are four times
those of steel. Aluminium is therefore used often as a
substitute for copper in electrical equipment. It is non-
magnetic. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is twice
that of steel. Its melting point of 649°C is half that of steel.
It has low strength but excellent ductility. The good
484 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
ductility is retained even at cryogenic temperatures. The
strength of the metal can be increased by suitable alloying,
cold working, heat treating or by their combination.
Most of the above-mentioned properties have a
deleterious effect on the weldability of aluminium. The
refractory oxide film which is difficult to avoid is
insoluble in the metal and interferes with the wetting
action of molten filler metals. Suitable means have to be
used to remove or break up the oxide layer during welding
and brazing. Because of its high thermal conductivity,
higher heat inputs are required for fusion welding, and
additional preheating is required in the case of thick
sections. The low melting point and the fact that
aluminium, unlike steel, does not show a dark-red colour
as it approaches the melting point, make it difficult to
judge the approach of the molten state during welding.
This can lead to an oversize welded zone or burn-
through. Because of its high coefficient of thermal
expansion, one would expect pronounced expansion
during welding. But factually, identical aluminium and
steel components register the same total expansion,
because of the comparatively low melting point of
aluminium which balances out the expansion factor.
Aluminium and its alloys are used in wrought form
(i.e. as rolled products) or as castings. The products are
identified by standard codings or designations based on
alloy compositions. In addition, a temper designation is
used to indicate the condition of the product such as: as-
fabricated, annealed, solution heat-treated, solution heat-
treated and naturally aged, etc. The weldability of an
aluminium alloy is determined by both these factors.
Aluminium alloys are divided into two classes: non-
heat-treatable and heat-treatable.
Non-heat-treatable alloys: These alloys contain elements
such as Si, Mn and Mg which increase the strength of
aluminium by solid solution or through formation of
dispersed phases. Of these, Mg is the most effective and
hence Al-Mg alloys have relatively high strength in the
annealed condition. All non-heat-treatable alloys harden
on cold-working, becoming at the same time stronger and
less ductile. They can be restored to their original strength,
ductility and softness by annealing. The annealing
procedure depends on the alloy composition and temper.
When a work-hardened alloy is welded, the strength in
the heat-affected zone gets reduced to the level of the
annealed metal.
Pure aluminium, Al-Mn alloys and Al-Mg alloys are
easily welded by TIG and MIG processes. Al-Si alloys
can also be welded by these processes, but special
procedures have to be used and lower ductility may be
obtained.
Heat-treatable alloys: These alloys contain Cu, Mg, Zn
and Si singly or in various combinations. In the annealed
condition, their s t r e n g t h d e p e n d s on the alloy
composition in the same manner as non-heat-treatable
alloys. The solid solubility of the four elements, singly or
in combinations, increases with increasing temperature.
Therefore, when these heat-treatable alloys are solution
heat-treated, quenched and then subjected to natural or
artificial aging, their strength improves considerably.
Additional strength can be obtained by cold working
before or after aging.
Heat-treatable Al-Mg-Si alloys are easily weldable.
Many of the Al-Zn alloys have poor weldability, but there
are others with Mg additions which have been specifically
developed for welding. Al-Cu alloys require special
procedures for welding and the welded joints show lower
ductility.
When a heat-treatable alloy, which has been solution-
heated and aged naturally or artificially, is arc welded,
some loss of strength and ductility occurs in the heat-
affected zone. The HAZ shows three distinct areas: (a)
area of solution-annealed material, (b) partially annealed
area, and (c) overaged area. If such a welded joint is
solution heat-treated and aged, original strength is
restored, but not ductility. If only aged, there is no
improvement in strength and ductility becomes quite low.
For best mechanical properties, the alloy must be welded
in the annealed condition, then solution is heat-treated
and aged.
It was stated earlier that the tenacious, refractory oxide
film on the joint surface prevents good wetting between
it and the filler metal. The welding arc can remove this
oxide film as the welding proceeds, but for best results,
precleaning by mechanical or chemical means is
advisable. Suitable mechanical m e t h o d s are wire
brushing, scraping, filing and scrubbing with steel wool.
For brushing, stainless steel brushes must be used and
they must be maintained scrupulously clean. The
chemical cleaners are usually acidic or alkaline solutions
or proprietory compounds.
It is equally important to keep the joint surfaces per-
fectly free from moisture, grease, oils and paints. If
present, they are decomposed by the welding arc and
hydrogen is released which causes porosity in the welds.
Degreasing by dipping in a suitable solvent or by steam
cleaning is recommended for critical fabrications. Com-
ponents are best cleaned before assembly and fit-up.
Hydrogen is the main cause of porosity in aluminium-
alloy welds. Hydrogen has high solubility in molten Al,
but very low solubility in solid Al. If moisture, oil or
grease are present in the flux coating or on the filler wire

surface or on the joint surface, the hydrogen generated
by the welding arc is dissolved in the molten weld pool
and released during solidification. The high freezing rate,
especially in the case of MIG welding, prevents the
hydrogen from escaping out of the weld-metal and the
result is porosity. Unlike in steel, an extremely small
amount of hydrogenous material can cause considerable
porosity in Al and Al-alloy welds.
For fusion welding of aluminium and its alloys,
preheating must be avoided as far as possible, as it in-
creases the width of the HAZ and reduces mechanical
properties. Only in the case of thick sections preheat be-
comes necessary. Even then the duration of heating should
be as short as possible, and the preheating temperature
should not exceed 150°C. In the case of alloys containing 3
to 5.5% Mg, the preheat temperature must not exceed 120°C
and the interpass temperature must never rise above 150°C.
Weld-metal cracking can occur in a specific alu-
minium alloy if the choice of the filler metal is not correct,
and the result is that either the weld-metal or the HAZ
has low ductility or strength at elevated temperature. This
phenomenon is referred to as hot shortness.
To reduce the tendency for intergranular cracking in
the HAZ, it is advisable to use a filler metal, whose melting
point is equal to or below that of the base metal. In other
words, one should use a filler metal of higher alloy
content. For example, aluminium containing 0.6% Si is
very likely to crack in the welded joint, if a filler metal of
matching composition is used. The cracking can be
eliminated by using a filler metal containing 5% Si. Since
the latter has lower melting point, it remains more plastic
than the base metal and yields during cooling to relieve
the contraction stresses that might cause cracking.
In many applications, Al-5% Mg filler wire gives
welds of good strength and crack resistance. Al-Mg alloys
should never be welded with Al-Si alloy filler wires,
because of the formation of magnesium-silicide eutectic,
which decreases ductility and causes cracking. Similarly,
Mg and Cu should not be allowed to be present together
in an aluminium weld. This means that Al-Mg filler wires
should never be used to weld Al-Cu alloys and Al-Cu
filler wires should not be used to weld Al-Mg alloys. In
welding an Al-Si alloy base metal with an Al-Si filler
wire, their alloy contents must be so arranged that the
weld-metal has Si content either below 0.5% or above
2%. With Si content between these limits, the crack
sensitivity increases markedly. In the case of Al-Mg
alloys also, the Al-Mg weld-metal must not have Mg
content between 0.5 and 2% for a similar reason. In these
examples, dilution factor must also be taken into account
and properly controlled during welding.
WELDABILITY OF METALS 485
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH STRENGTH WELDABLE
AI-ALLOYS
The role of various alloying elements in producing
high strength Al-alloys has been explained in the fol-
lowing description of non-heat-treatable and heat-treat-
able alloys. Among the first category, Al-5% Mg alloy is
known to be the strongest. This alloy also possesses good
weldability, because the element magnesium helps to
improve this property. The strongest Al-alloys are heat-
treatable or age-hardenable materials. Among them Al-
Cu alloys have very high strength. In fact, the greatest
exploitation of Al alloys has been in the Al-Cu system,
where tensile strength as high as 432 N/mm 2 (28 T/sq.
in.) is being specified and the alloys widely used in the
aircraft industry. Unfortunately, these alloys have poor
weldability, since the element copper aggravates
microfissuring in the weld-metal and the HAZ.
A significant feature of Al alloys is that their
weldments are prone to stress corrosion embrittlement
in service; and hence in the development of high strength
alloys, special care must be taken against stress corrosion.
Generally speaking, increase of total alloy content
increases strength and at the same time increases
propensity to stress corrosion. Copper addition increases
stress corrosion resistance, but also accentuates hot
cracking in welding.
Among heat-treatable alloys, Al-Zn-Mg systems are
known to have the best combination of strength and
weldability. Zinc contributes to strength while
magnesium contributes to weldability. The level of Zn is
3-5% and the level of Mg is 1-3%. Higher magnesium
level makes extrusion difficult, and if both Zn and Mg
levels are kept too high, microfissuring and stress
corrosion susceptibility increase. The commonly used
alloy has 4% Zn and 2% Mg. Small Cu additions are
sometimes made to improve corrosion resistance. Such
Cu-bearing alloys need extreme caution in welding.
Mechanical properties of some of the well-known alloys
are given in Table 10.40.
In the case of most heat-treatable alloys, part of the
HAZ is degraded to such a level that optimum
mechanical properties can be obtained only by applying
a full heat treatment after welding, i.e. solution heating,
quenching and aging. With Al-Zn-Mg alloys, however,
joint properties can be improved by only natural or
artificial aging after welding, which hardens the whole
of the weld zone. This is explained by the fact that the
welding heat causes reversion instead of overaging in
the HAZ of these particular alloys. Natural aging may
take approximately 28 days. Artificial aging involves
heating schedules such as:
486 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.40: Mechanical properties of various aluminium alloys

Alloy Composition Condition 0.2% proof stress, U.T.S. Elongation on
No. % en —— o/
D\J 11 HI l, /O
N/mm2 N/mm2
1 4.5 Mg O 130 280 16
M 130 280 12
2 1.0 Mg-1.0 Si-0.8 Mn W 115 200 12
WP 240 295 7
3 4.3 Cu-0.7 Si-0.7 Mn w 245 385 11
WP 330 410 6
4 5.7 Zn-2.7 Mg-1.0 Cu WP 425 485 6
5 3.5 Zn-2.2 Mg w 200 370 17
WP 255 415 15
6 4 Zn-2 Mg WP 340 400 12
7 4.5-5 Zn-1.2 Mg w 230 385 22
WP 310 385 17
8 4.3 Zn-1.8 Mg w 245 340 16
WP 340 385 12
9 4.0-4.5 Zn-2.5-3.0 Mg WP 385 448 14
0 = annealed M = as-manufactured
W = solution-treated and naturally agedWP == solution-treated and precipitation-treated

1) 24 hours at 130°C temperature. They therefore compete with stainless steels

2) 6 hours at 160°C
3) 16 hours at 100°C+
2 hours at 150°C+
2 hours at 180°C
Al-Zn-Mg alloys are welded with TIG and MIG
processes and the filler wire commonly used is Al-5%
Mg alloy. To avoid cracking, weld-metal must have less
than 0.25% Cu and more than 2Vi% Mg. Sometimes
zirconium addition is made to the filler wire. Zr has a
marginal beneficial effect on stress corrosion resistance,
but it prevents cracking because this element inhibits
recrystallisation and is a grain refiner. Its action has been
found to be superior to the combined action of Ti and B.
Filler metals of Al-Zn-Mg alloy systems are avoided as
they increase risk of cracking and aggravate stress
corrosion.
Al-Zn-Mg alloys have been used widely in India and
the U.K. for military bridges, because of their high strength
to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance and good
weldability. On the continent and in the U.S.A., they have
been used for applications ranging from lamp-posts to
pressure vessels including tipper trucks, dumper trucks,
road tankers and railway rolling stock.
Al Alloys for Cryogenic Applications
Al and its alloys exhibit adequate ductility and
toughness as well as other relevant properties at
t e m p e r a t u r e s as low as -270°C or liquid h e l i u m
in cryogenic applications.
Al alloys such as AS ME SB 209 5083 in the annealed
condition, strengthened by the solid solution hardening
of 4.5% Mg and 0.7% Mn, possess good welding
characteristics as the microstructure is fairly insensitive
to welding heat. Toughness and ductility are high; low-
temperature transition characteristics are absent and the
toughness is retained, or even increased, at cryogenic
temperatures.
Large liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage containers,
typically of 50,000 m 3 capacity, have been manufactured
with alloy 5083 (0.6 Mn, 4.45 Mg, 0.15 Cr) or its variation
5086 (0.45 Mn, 4.0 Mg, 0.15 Cr). Welding these containers
with 5183 grade filler wire (0.5-1.0 Mn, 4.3-5.2 Mg, 0.05-
0.25 Cr) has presented no particular problems.
The demand for larger capacity air separation units
has led to a growth in the fabrication of Al alloys, espe-
cially the non-heat-treatable 3.5% Mg types. Automatic
and semi-automatic MIG are currently used extensively
for this application. However, material thicknesses in
excess of 40 mm require careful consideration when de-
signing and applying joint configurations for use with
these welding techniques.
High radiographic and mechanical testing standards
throw even greater burdens on the features already
associated with the MIG welding of aluminium, such as
the necessity for correct cleanliness, preheat temperature
and torch angle, in order to reduce or eliminate the risk of

weld pool puckering, lack of fusion, oxide inclusions
and porosity.
The main pressure column-shell seams are usually
welded with fully automatic MIG. Joint configurations
d e p e n d e n t u p o n material thickness vary from
conventional square-edge and single-vee configurations
to double-U or modified-Us, on heavier wall sections.
Multi-run and alternate-side sequencing techniques are
employed to minimise distortion and to improve the
mechanical properties via a desirable grain refining effect.
Particular attention is paid to inter-run cleanliness.
Mechanical tools are used to remove oxide and to ensure
smooth weld bead profiles for subsequent passes.
Longitudinal seams for both column and dished-end
fabrications generally require some form of restraint (e.g.
strongbacks) to help prevent any excessive distortion.
When using permanent backing strips on circumferential
closing seams, the semi-automatic MIG process is used
to complete the root passes, allowing better control and
defect-free fusion to be achieved.
Typical welding conditions for fully-automatic MIG
welding are: material specifications, ASME SB 209 5083-
0; material thickness r a n g e , 40-50 m m ; p r e h e a t
temperature range, 50-150°C; interpass temperature
range, 50-200°C; filler-wire size and specifications, 2.4
mm diameter AWS ER 5556 (closely similar to 5183
grade); spray transfer; 100% argon at 30-^141/min; 400-
480 amp welding current; 30-34 V arc voltage, 300-450
m m / m i n travel speed; 2.2 k j / m m minimum heat input;
flat welding position.
Semi-automatic MIG is used extensively to weld
nozzles and many other sub-assemblies. High standards
are possible in the vertical and horizontal-vertical
positions. As the welding currents are lower than those
for the automatic process, greater operator skill is
required, especially in monitoring and controlling the
necessary preheat and interpass temperatures. Nozzle
joints on heavy wall materials usually have a double
modified J preparation with a 50° inclusive angle,
allowing easy access for welding and interpass cleaning.
Dye-penetrant testing is used regularly as an added
precaution for checking root runs and grind backs,
especially as heavy wall thicknesses increase the rate of
cooling and subsequently, the susceptibility to cracking,
Typical welding conditions for semi-automatic MIG
welding are: material specifications, ASME SB 209 5083-
0; material thickness range, 10-50 mm; preheat
temperature range, 50-150°C; interpass temperature range,
50-150°C; filler-wire size and specification, 1.6 m m
diameter AWS ER 5556; spray transfer; shielding gas type
and flow, 100% argon at 20-221/min, current range, 180-
WELDABILITY OF METALS 487
280 amp; arc voltage range, 26-28 V; 0.9 k j / m m min
average heat input; all welding positions.
Copper and Copper Alloys
These materials are used primarily for resistance to
oxidation and corrosion by specific process fluids (such
as fresh and salt water, ammonia-free alkaline solutions
and many organic chemicals), for their thermal and
electrical properties, for their good formability and
malleability, and their ability to be used in clad form for
structural purposes. Applications include reaction
pressure vessels, evaporators, distillation columns, heat
exchangers, pumps, valves, pipework, and numerous
ancillary components used in process industries such
as chemicals and petrochemicals, gases, iron and steel,
plastics and textiles, fertilisers, food and beverage.
Copper and copper alloys can be divided into the
following major groups:
1) Pure and low-alloy bearing coppers
2) Cu-Zn alloys (brasses)
3) Cu-Sn alloys (phosphor bronzes)
4) Cu-Al alloys (aluminium bronzes)
5) Cu-Si alloys (silicon bronzes)
6) Cu-Ni alloys (cupronickels)
7) Cu-Ni-Zn alloys (nickel silvers).
Their commercial names, nominal compositions and
weldability ratings are given in Table 10.41.
1) Pure and low-alloy bearing coppers
Pure copper has minimum copper content of 99.3%
and is available as fire-refined grade, electrolytic tough-
pitch grade and phosphorus-deoxidised grade. The first
two are oxygen-bearing and contain residual oxygen in
the form of copper-cuprous oxide eutectic globules
distributed throughout wrought forms of these grades.
While it has no detrimental effect on mechanical
properties or electrical conductivity, welding causes the
copper oxide to concentrate in the grain boundaries,
resulting in significant loss of strength and ductility.
Oxygen-bearing coppers are therefore considered
unweldable. They can, however, be brazed using proper
procedures and filler metals, though with brazing some
embrittlement will occur.
Phosphorus-deoxidised copper which has 0.004 to
0.04% residual P is extremely ductile and fatigue-
resistant, and can be readily welded and brazed. P in
such low amounts does not interfere with welding.
Low-alloy bearing coppers carry small amounts of
various elements to enhance specific properties. Silver is
added to oxygen-free copper to increase high-temperature
strength, without affecting electrical conductivity and
488 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.41: Nominal compositions and weidability ratings of copper and copper alloys
Alloy name Nominal composition Weidability
0/
/o
MMA TIG MIG
OF and ETP coppers
Oxygen-free copper (OF) 99.95 Cu NW G G
Electrolytic tough pitch copper (ETP) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 0 2 NW F F
Deoxidised coppers
Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, low-P (DLP) 99.9 Cu, 0.008 P NW E E
Phosphorus-deoxidized copper, high-P (DHP) 99.9 Cu, 0.02 P NW E E
Beryllium coppers
High-conductivity beryllium copper, 0.6% 96.9 Cu, 0.6 Be, 2.5 Co F F F
High-strength beryllium copper, 1.7% 98.3 Cu, 1.7 Be, G G G
High-strength beryllium copper, 1.9% 98.1 Cu, 1.9 Be G G G
Low-zinc brasses
Gilding, 95% 95 Cu, 5 Zn NW G G
Commercial bronze, 90% 90 Cu, 10 Zn NW G G
Red brass, 85% 85 Cu, 15 Zn NW G G
Low brass, 80% 80 Cu, 20 Zn NW G G
High-zinc brasses
Cartridge brass, 70% 70 Cu, 30 Zn NW F F
Yellow brass, 65% 65 Cu, 35 Zn NW F F
Muntz metal, 60% 60 Cu, 40 Zn NW F F
The brasses
Admiralty brass 71 Cu, 28 Zn, 1 Sn (d) NW F F
Naval brass 60 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn (d) NW F F
Special brasses
Manganese bronze A 58.5 Cu, 39 Zn, 1.4 Fe, 1 Sn 0.1 Mn NW F F
Aluminium brass, arsenical 77.5 Cu, 20.5 Zn, 2 Al (0.06 As) NW F F
Nickel silvers
Nickel silver, 65-10 65 Cu, 25 Zn, 10 Ni NW F F
Nickel silver, 65-18 65Cu,17Zn,18Ni NW F F
Nickel silver, 65-15 65 Cu, 20 Zn, 15 Ni NW F F
Nickel silver, 65-12 65 Cu, 23 Zn, 12 Ni NW F F
Nickel silver, 55-18 55 Cu, 27 Zn, 18 Ni NW F F
Phosphor bronzes
Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E 98.7 Cu, 1.3 Sn, (0.2 P) F G G
Phosphor bronze, 5% A 95 Cu, 5 Sn, (0.2 P) F G G
Phosphor bronze, 8% C 92 Cu, 8 Sn, (0.2 P) F G G
Phosphor bronze, 10% D 90 Cu, 10 Sn, (0.2 P) F G G
Aluminium bronzes
Aluminium bronzes D, Sn-stabilised 89 Cu, 7 Al, 3.5 Fe (0.35 Sn) G G E
Aluminium bronzes D 91 Cu, 6-8 Al, 1.5-3.5 Fe, 1 max Mn G G E
Silicon bronzes
Low-silicon bronze B 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si F E E
High-silicon bronze A 97Cu,3Si F E E
Copper nickels
Copper nickel, 10% 88.6 Cu, 9-11 Ni, 1.4 Fe, 1.0 Mn G E E
Copper nickel, 30% 70 Cu, 30 Ni E E E

£ = excellent, G = good, F = fair, NW = not weldable

MhAA: Manual metal-arc welding, TIG: Tungsten-inert gas welding
MIG: Metal-inert gas welding

weldability. When lead is added, it gets dispersed
throughout the matrix as fine, discrete particles resulting
in enhanced machinability and reduced ductility.
Tellurium and sulphur similarly improve machinability
by forming hard stringers in the matrix. These free-
machining coppers have poor weldability, because the
inclusions induce cracking during welding.
Coppers alloyed with small amounts of beryllium,
chromium or zirconium can be precipitation-hardened
by suitable heat treatment in the same manner as heat-
treatable Al-alloys discussed earlier. Exposure to welding
heat causes the heat-affected zone to soften by annealing
or overaging. Special welding procedures are necessary
to obtain adequate joint efficiencies. For best results, these
alloys must be welded in the annealed condition and
then precipitation-hardened.
Copper is sometimes alloyed with small amounts of
cadmium. Such an alloy has good electrical conductivity
and can be strengthened by cold working. When
cadmium-copper is oxyacetylene welded, the cadmium
oxide formed can cause trouble, unless a flux containing
sodium fluoride and fused borax is used.
Beryllium-copper is available in two grades. One of
them contains approximately 0.5% Be and 2.0% Co and
has good electrical conductivity. The other one is pre-
cipitation-hardening type, which contains approxi-
mately 2.0% Be. In welding these alloys, a tenacious film
of beryllium oxide can form and interfere with wetting/
and fusion, unless the joint faces and the surrounding'
base metal surfaces are kept perfectly clean. On the other
hand, Be contributes to better weldability by lowering
the melting point, increasing the fluidity of the weld-
metal and decreasing thermal conductivity. Unless
welding and postweld heat treatment are done with care,
weld cracking can occur. The heat-treatable type should
not be welded in the precipitation-hardened condition,
because of the danger of cracking in the HAZ. If multi-
pass welding is to be done, it is preferable to weld the
alloy in the overaged condition than in the solution heat-
treated condition. Low Be-Cu can be more easily welded
with a filler metal having higher Be content. Be-Cu
repairs are better carried out with aluminium bronze
manual electrodes, or with Si bronze rods using the TIG
process.
2) Copper-zinc alloys
These alloys, popularly known as brasses, have the
largest commercial application among copper alloys. Zinc
is soluble in copper to the extent of 37% at room temperature
and 32.5% at 925°C. Low-zinc brasses have Zn content
ranging between 5 and 20%, while high-zinc brasses have
WELDABILITY OF METALS 489
Zn content between 30 and 40%. The 60-40 brass is known
as Muntz metal.
Addition of Zn to Cu increases strength, hardness and
ductility. It lowers the melting point, density, and the
electrical and thermal conductivities. The colour of the
alloy also changes with zinc content. With increasing Zn,
the alloy comes closer to gold in colour.
Most brasses are solid-solution alloys with a single-
phase called alpha. Brasses with 40% or more zinc have
two microstructural phases called alpha and beta. The
beta-phase improves the hot-working property of brass.
During welding, Zn tends to evaporate from the molten
metal and thereby reduces weldability. Brasses therefore
cannot be arc welded. In oxycetylene welding with a
reducing flame, an oxide film forms over the molten pool,
which suppresses the volatilisation of zinc, provided the
weld-metal is not overheated. Brass gas welding rods are
designed to contain about 40% Zn, so that the weld-metal
has a good proportion of the hard and strong beta-phase,
which being soft and ductile at elevated temperatures,
prevents weld cracking.
3) Copper-tin alloys
Cu-Sn alloys are commercially called phosphor
bronzes instead of plain bronzes, because they contain
about 0.03% phosphorus, which is added during casting
to deoxidise them. The tin content varies from 1 to 10%.
; They are primarily single-phase alloys, but their relatively
high strength is sometimes ascribed to the precipitation of
an inter-metallic compound at room temperature. They
are also tough, hard and fatigue-resistant. Cold work
improves these properties further.
Phosphor bronzes are readily weldable, and arc
welding processes are preferred to oxyacetylene welding.
For manual arc welding, standard phosphor-bronze
electrodes are used. and MIG welding processes using
standard phosphor-bronze filler rods are equally suitable.
The base metal must be preferably welded in the stress-
relieved or annealed condition, because in the stressed
condition phosphor bronzes are prone to hot cracking.
4) Copper-aluminium alloys
They are better known as aluminium bronzes and
contain up to 15% aluminium with small additions of
iron, manganese, nickel and tin. Alloys with less than
8% Al have single-phase microstructure called alpha,
while those with more than 9% Al are two-phase alpha-
beta alloys, which are capable of either a martensitic or a
eutectoid type of transformation. The alpha-alloys cannot
be hardened by heat treatment and hence they can be
welded without preheating. Also these alloys with less
490 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
than 8.5% Al are hot-short and may develop cracks in
the HAZ when welded under restraint.
The two-phase alloys containing 9.5 to 11.5% Al can
be quenched and tempered in the same manner as steels
to obtain the best combination of strength and ductility.
Quenching from about 498°C in water and oil produces
a martensitic-type structure, which is tempered by heating
in the 220 -342°C temperature range. If the proportion of
Al is increased beyong 11.5%, the heat-treated alloy
becomes harder and less ductile. These two-phase alloys
have generally better weldability, because they have a
wider plastic range than the alpha alloys.
Single-phase Al bronzes with less than 7% Al are
difficult to weld, because they are hot-short and develop
cracks in the HAZ. 7% Al alloys are sometimes used for
welded fabrications such as heat exchangers, vessels and
pipings. They must be welded using correct procedures
to avoid cracking.
At elevated temperatures, aluminium bronzes develop
a film of aluminium oxide on the surface, which makes
them resistant to oxidation and scaling. The same
aluminium oxide interferes with welding unless it is
scrupulously removed earlier.
5) Copper-silicon alloys
These alloys, called silicon bronzes, find extensive
use in industry because of their high strength, good
corrosion resistance and easy weldability. Their silicon
content varies between 1.5 to 4% and they are further
alloyed with small quantities of iron, manganese, tin or
zinc. The first two increase tensile strength and hardness,
while the latter two improve the fluidity of molten bronze,
which is a desirable feature in casting and welding.
Silicon is soluble in copper to the extent of 3.6% at
room temperature and 5.3% at 815°C. It is used both as a
deoxidiser and a major alloying element. In addition to
improving strength, ductility, and malleability, silicon
increases hardness and work-hardening response. As
silicon content increases to about 1%, there is a gradual
drop in ductility; then it increases to a maximum value at
4% silicon.
Though these alloys have good weldability, they tend
to be hot-short at elevated temperatures. To eliminate the
risk of cracking in welding, they should be cooled rapidly
through the hot-short temperature range. They should
preferably be welded in the stress-relieved or annealed
condition, and sudden temperature rise during welding
should be avoided.
Silicon bronzes develop a silicon oxide film when
heated above 200°C. This film interferes with brazing
unless a suitable flux is used. In fusion welding, the oxide
film formed on the molten pool protects the weld-metal
from further oxidation. Yet, for best results its formation
must be avoided by using clean, oxide-free joint surfaces
and appropriate shielding.
6) Copper-nickel alloys
Copper and nickel are completely solid soluble in all
proportions (see Fig. 9.4), but in these alloys, nickel ranges
between 5 and 30%. The alloys with 10% nickel (90/10
type) and with 30% nickel (70/30 type) are most
commonly used in welded fabrications. They have
medium tensile strengths, which increase with nickel
content. They are ductile and moderately tough, but they
have low thermal and electrical conductivities. Cu-Ni
alloys are easily weldable if many residual elements
which cause embrittlement and promote hot cracking
are restricted. S and P should be held below 0.02% and
Pb s h o u l d be absent. Sufficient deoxidiser or
desulphuriser (such as Mn) must be present in the filler
metal to prevent weld-metal cracking.
7) Copper-nickel-zinc alloys
These are primarily copper-zinc alloys or brasses to
which nickel is added to increase strength, improve
corrosion resistance and to give the final alloy a silvery
appearance. Hence they are popularly called nickel
silvers. Two types are generally available: (1) single-
phase alpha-alloy with 65% Cu and (2) two-phase alpha-
beta alloy with 55-60% Cu. Their weldability is similar
to that of the brasses described earlier.
Preheating: Copper and some of its alloys possess high
thermal conductivity, with the result that during welding
heat is rapidly conducted away from the joint to the
surrounding base metal. Such heat loss from the joint
depends on the thickness or mass of the base metal and
its temperature. When the heat loss is too rapid, it slows
down the welding speed and may even cause lack of
fusion and porosity. Heat loss can be minimised by
preheating the base metal.
The optimum preheat temperature depends on the
type of alloy, metal thickness or mass and the heat input
rate of the welding process. TIG or MIG welding with
helium instead of argon as a shielding gas requires less
preheat due to the high arc voltages developed in the
process. MIG welding with argon requires less preheat
than TIG welding with argon, because it generates more
heat in the arc. These effects are shown graphically in
Fig. 10.27 for different plate thicknesses of pure copper.
Copper alloys with lower thermal conductivities
require lower preheat temperatures than those indicated
in the figure. Silicon bronzes and copper-nickel alloys
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 491

Table 10.42. Heating should be gradual and the weldment

should be held at the temperature for at least one hour.
Weldments of hardenable copper alloys are sometimes
annealed to homogenise the variable structures formed
in the weld-metal and the HAZ, so that the resulting
uniform metallurgical structure will respond satisfacto-
rily to the subsequent heat-treatment. Annealing tempera-
tures for various alloys are indicated in Table 10.43. It is
observed that these temperatures are considerably higher
than those used for stress-relieving. If annealing is to be
carried out, a separate stress-relief treatment is not nec-
essary, as stresses are relieved rapidly at annealing tern-

Table 10.42: Stress-relieving temperatures for

copper alloys
PLATE THICKNESS. rwt» Alloy Temp. °C
Red brass 290
Fig. 10.27: Effects of process, shielding gas, and metal
Admiralty brass 290
thickness on preheat requirements for welding copper
Naval brass 260
Aluminium bronze 345
have such low thermal conductivities that they need no Silicon bronze 345
preheating. Copper-nickel alloys 540
For welding heavy sections of phosphor bronze with
ECuSn-C electrodes, a preheat and interpass temperature Table 10.43: Annealing temperatures for Cu-alloys
of about 200°C is required to counteract the tendency of
the molten weld-metal to flow sluggishly because of its Alloy Temp, range °C
wide melting range. For TIG welding of phosphor bronze, Phosphor deoxidised copper 370-650
preheat in the range of 175-200°C is adequate. These Beryllium copper (2.0% Be) 775-800
temperatures should never be exceeded as the welds are Beryllium copper (2.5% Co-0.5% Be) 900-940
likely to develop hot cracks. Red brass 425-730
Yellow brass 425-700
Low zinc brasses need preheating in the temperature Muntz metal 425-590
range of 100-300°C for TIG and MIG welding. High zinc Admiralty brass 425-590
brasses require lower preheat with the TIG process and Naval brass 425-590
no preheat with the MIG process. Phosphor bronze 480-675
Aluminium bronzes with less than 10% Al require Aluminium bronze (7% Al) 610-900
preheat only in thick sections, but the preheat temperature Aluminium bronze (10% Al) 590-650
should not exceed 150°C. After welding, the job should Silicon bronze 480-700
be air cooled to room temperature. For Al-bronzes with Aluminium brass 425-590
Copper-nickel, 10% 590-815
10-13% Al, a preheat and interpass temperature of 260°C
Copper-nickel, 30% 650-815
is recommended for thick sections. After welding the job Nickel silver 590-760
should be cooled rapidly.
Postweld heat treatment: The need to heat-treat a welded peratures. Annealing should not be overdone as it can
fabrication depends on the base metal composition and cause grain growth, which results in reduced tensile
service application. Precipitation-hardening type alloys strength and other unfavourable effects.
are heat-treated after welding to remove the variations of
hardness in the weld area, which occur as a result of Nickel and Nickel Alloys
aging or overaging caused by the w e l d i n g heat. Nickel, like copper, has a face-centred cubic crystal
Weldments which are prone to stress corrosion cracking structure at all temperatures up to its melting point. Since
in certain environments must be stress-relieved. Stress- it has good corrosion resistance, nickel is used in food
relieving temperatures for some of the copper alloys which processing plants, caustic handling equipment, chemical
are particularly susceptible to this defect are given in containers and other similar applications.
492 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Nickel is alloyed with other metals to improve
mechanical properties and to make it resistant to
corrosion and oxidation at room and high temperatures.
In all nickel alloys, strengthening takes place by solid
solution and the elements which contribute most strongly
are Al, Cr, Mo and W. Other elements which contribute
to strength less markedly are Co, Cu,Fe, Ti and V.
Improved strength at elevated temperatures is achieved
by Mo and W additions.
There are other nickel alloys in which further
strengthening occurs by precipitation-hardening. These
alloys are s o l u t i o n - t r e a t e d by h e a t i n g to a h i g h
temperature, and then quenched. Upon reheating to an
appropriate temperature for a specific time (i.e. aging),
precipitation occurs and the alloy becomes stronger and
harder. The most important phase in the precipitate for
strengthening effect is what is termed gamma-prime,
based on the compound Ni, Al. Aluminium is thus the
major contributor to hardening, while Ti and Cb have a
moderating influence.
Solid-solution Alloys
These include five major groups as follows:
1) Nickel-copper alloys containing about 30 to 45%
Cu. They are well-known under the trade name monels.
Examples are Monel 400, Monel 404 and Monel R-^05.
2) Nickel-chromium alloys containing 16 to 20% Cr.
They may be sometimes alloyed with Fe to the extent of
25%. The most familiar examples are those known by the
trade names Nichrome V, Nichrome, Inconel 600, Inconel
601 and Inconel 625.
3) Nickel-iron-chromium alloys having 20-45% Ni,
13-22% Cr and balance Fe. Typical examples are Incoloy
800 and Incoloy 825, both recognised by their trade
names,
4) Nickel-molybdenum alloys with 16-28% Mo and
lesser percentages of Cr and Fe. Typical examples are
Hastelloy B, Hastelloy N and Hastelloy W.
5) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys. Typical
example is Hastelloy C.
Precipitation-hardenable Alloys
They include three major groups:
1) Nickel-copper alloys. Typical example is Monel K-500.
2) Nickel-chromium alloys. Typical example is
Nimonic 80A.
3) Nickel-iron-chromium alloys containing 40-45%
Ni, 13-15% Cr, 30-40% Fe plus small amounts of Al and
Ti. Typical examples are Inconel 706 and Alloy 901.
Nominal compositions of the above-mentioned alloys
are given in Table 10.44.
Table 10.44: Nominal compositions of nickel alloys
Alloy Composition
Nickel 200 99.5 Ni, 0.06 C, 0.25 Mn, 0.15 Fe
Monel 400 66.0 Ni, 31.5 Cu, 0.90 Mn, 1.35 Fe
Monel 404 55.0 Ni, 44.0 Cu
Monel R-405 66.0 Ni, 31.5 Cu, 1.35 Fe
Nichrome V 76.0 Ni, 20.0 Cr, 1.0 Fe, 2.0 Mn
Nichrome 57.0 Ni, 16.0 Cr, 25.0 Fe, 1.0 Mn
Inconel 600 0.04 C, 76.0 Ni, 16 Cr, 7 Fe
Inconel 601 0.05 C, 60.5 Ni, 23 Cr, 14 Fe, 1.35 Al
Inconel 625 0.05 C, 61.0 Ni, 22 Cr, 9 Mo, 3 Fe, 0.2 Al, 0.2
Ti, 4 Cb
Incoloy 800 0.04 C, 32 Ni, 20 Cr, 46 Fe
Incoloy 825 0.03 C, 42 Ni, 21.5 Cr, 30 Fe, 3 Mo
Hastelloy B 0.05 C, 18 Mo, 5 Fe, 0.4 V, bal. Ni
Hastelloy N 0.04 C, 7 Cr, 16.5 Mo, 5 Fe, 0.5 Co, bal. Ni
Hastelloy W 0.12 C, 5 Cr, 24.5 Mo, 5.5 Fe, 2.5 Co. bal. Ni
Hastelloy C 0.08 C, 15 Cr, 16 Mo, 6 Fe, 5 W, bal. Ni
Monel K-500 65 Ni, 29.5 Cu, 0.6 Mn, 1.0 Fe, 0.6 Ti, 2.73 Al
Nimonic 80 A 76 Ni, 19.5 Cr, 1.6 Al, 2.4 Ti
Inconel 706 0.03 C, 41.5 Ni, 16 Cr, 40 Fe, ,0.2 Al, 1.75 Ti,
2.9 Cb
Alloy 901 0.03 C, 42.5 Ni, 12.5 Cr, 36 Fe, 6 Co, 0.2 Al,
2.8 Ti
An important point to be borne in mind during the
welding of Ni and its alloys is that they are extremely
susceptible to embrittlement by S, P and low-melting-
point metals like lead. These elements are likely to be
present in oil, grease, paint, marking inks and crayons,
cutting fluids, shop dirt, etc. Joint surfaces and the
adjoining base metal must therefore be thoroughly
cleaned by vapour degreasing or swabbing with a solvent
such as acetone. Foreign matter embedded in the base
metal must be removed by grinding, abrasive blasting,
and swabbing with 10% HC1 solution, followed by a
thorough water wash. Oxides must be removed from the
joint surfaces by wire brushing.
Sulphur and phosphorus form low-melting eutectics
with nickel, which segregate at the grain boundaries
during weld-metal solidification and cause hot-cracks.
Sulphur embrittlement can be prevented by addition of
Mn and Mg, which preferentially combine with sulphur
and prevent the formation of nickel sulphide. B and Zr
which are sometimes added to the alloy to improve hot
malleability also cause hot cracking in the fusion zone
as well as the HAZ.
Carbon, which is used in small amounts as an
interstitial strengthening element, has its own role in the
weldability of nickel. During welding, the carbon in the
HAZ goes into solution. During service at temperatures
in the region of 300°C the carbon precipitates as graphite
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 493

at the grain boundaries and reduces ductility in the HAZ.
Hence carbon is kept at a very low level in nickel, while
in the case of nickel alloys, carbide-forming elements such
as Cr, Cb and Ti are used.
Some Ni-Cr and Ni-Gr-Fe alloys are prone to carbide
precipitation or sensitisation in the weld HAZ, which
leads to intercrystalline corrosion in certain service
environments, in the same manner as in the case of
austenitic stainless steels. The same remedy is used here,
namely, either the alloy is stabilised with Ti or Cb or an
extra-low-carbon grade of the particular alloy is used.
Silicon also causes hot cracking, especially in high
nickel-chromium alloys. High Ni-Cr castings with high
Si levels must be welded with filler metals containing Cb
to prevent the occurrence of hot-cracks in the weld-metal.
Nickel and its alloys are weldable by common arc-
welding processes. Preheat is not required while
interpass temperatures during multi-pass welding is not
allowed to exceed 100°C. High heat input during welding
is not desirable, especially in the case ofprecipitation-
hardenable alloys. High heat input may give rise to
carbide precipitation, undesirable phases or compounds
or other metallurgical phenomena. These, in turn, may
lead to cracking or loss of corrosion or both.
Hence, while all alloys are readily weldable by TIG
and plasma-arc (PAW) processes, many of them and
especially the precipitation-hardenable types should not
be welded by the manual metal-arc (MMAW), MIG and
submerged-arc (SAW) processes. This is indicated in
Table 10.45. Precipitation-hardenable alloys should

Table 10.45: Arc welding process applicable to some nickel alloys

Alloy* MMAW TIG / PAW MIG SAW
Commercially pure nickel

Nickel 200 X X X X
Nickel 201 X X X X
Solid-solution nickel alloys
Monel 400 X X X X
Monel 404 X X X X
Monel R-405 X X X
Hastelloy X X X X
Nichrome V X X
Nichrome X X X
Hastelloy G X X X
RA333 X
Inconel 600 X X X X
Inconel 601 X X X X
Inconel 625 X X X X
Carpenter 20Cb3 X X X
Incoloy 800 X X X
Incoloy 825 X X X
Hastelloy B X X X
Hastelloy C X X X
Hastelloy N X
Precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys
Monel K-500 X X
Waspaloy X
Rene 41 X
Nimonic 80A X
Nimonic 90 X
M252 X
Udimet 500 X X
Inconel 718 X X
Inconel X-750 X
Inconel 706 X
Alloy 901 X
^Several of these are registered trade names.
494 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
preferably be welded in the solution-treated condition.
When welded in this condition, a part of the HAZ becomes
aged and develops welding stresses. This area may
develop cracks during subsequent heat-treatment, the
phenomenon being referred to as strain-age cracking.
Such cracking is aggravated by Al, while it is controlled
or totally eliminated by substituting Cb for a large portion
of the Al. Ob retards the aging reaction, because of the
sluggish formation of the Cb precipitate compared to the
rapidly forming Al precipitate, and thereby maintains
sufficient ductility in the HAZ to cope with the high
welding stresses without cracking.
It is advisable, therefore, that these alloys are given a
solution-treatment after welding to eliminate residual
stresses, and then hardened by an aging heat treatment.
Some of the Ni-Cr and Ni-Fe-Cr precipitation-
hardenable alloys contain relatively large amounts of Al
and Ti and are therefore highly prone to strain-age
cracking. They are therefore considered unweldable.
If a precipitation-hardenable alloy is welded in the
hardened condition, resolutioningand overaging occur
in the H A Z w i t h c o n s e q u e n t loss of mechanical
properties. To restore them, a postweld heat treatment
becomes necessary.
For welding these alloys, TIG process with stringer
bead technique is njost suitable. In multi-pass welding,
if any oxide film is formed on the weld surface, it must be
removed by grinding or sand blasting. If these films are
not removed, they become thick enough to interfere with
weld fusion and to produce laminar-type oxide stringers
along the weld axis, which give rise to stress corrosion
cracks in service.
Suitable filler metals for some important alloys are
indicated below:
Alloy Filler metal AWS class
Nickel 200 .. ERNi-1
Monel 400 .. ERNiCu-7
Monel 404
Inconel 600 .. ERNiCr-3
Hastelloy G .. ERNiCrMo-1
Hastelloy C-4 .. ERNiCrMo-7
Hastelloy B-2 .. ERNiMo-7
Hastelloy W .. ERNiMo-6
Monel K-500 .. ERNiCu-8
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Pure Ti is a silver-white metal with a relatively low
tensile strength but excellent ductility. With suitable
alloying, the strength properties can be increased but
there is simultaneous decrease in ductility. Ti and some
of its alloys possess good strength, ductility and
toughness down to -240°C. Ti has low density and some
of its alloys can compete with Al alloys and steels for
aerospace applications. It has low thermal expansion
and thermal conductivity, which contribute to the good
weldability of this metal.
Ti, like Al, forms a stable, tenacious oxide layer on the
surface even at room temperature. The affinity for oxygen
a n d the surface oxide thickness increase w i t h
temperature. At temperatures above 650°C, its oxidation
resistance is reduced to such an extent that the metal
must be shielded from air to avoid contamination and
resultant embrittlement by oxygen and nitrogen.
Hydrogen also embrittles the metal.
At r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , Ti h a s a close-packed
hexagonal crystal structure called alpha (a) phase. This
phase is retained up to 880°C; above this temperature an
allotropic change to the body-centred cubic structure
called beta ((3) phase occurs.
Alloying elements added to Ti are either alpha-phase
stabilisers or beta-phase stabilisers, depending on the
phase in which they have the highest solid solubility.
Aluminium, having greatest solid solubility in alpha-
phase, is a powerful alpha-phase stabiliser and its
addition raises the phase transformation temperature.
Common examples of beta-phase stabilisers are Cf, Mo
a n d V. They decrease the p h a s e transformation
temperature. With large additions of beta stabilisers, the
beta-phase can remain stable down to room temperature
and below.
Alloying e l e m e n t s also influence the rate of
transformation from one phase to the other.
Ti alloys can be alpha alloys, beta alloys or alpha-
beta alloys, depending on their composition and thermal
history. The alpha-to-beta phase ratio is significant in
many ways, considering that the presence of beta-phase
(1) enhances grain refinement and hence strength, (2)
improves hot working property, (3) makes the alloy
respond to heat treatment, (4) improves toughness except
at very low temperatures, and (5) decreases weldability
and creep strength in the case of some alloys.
It is extremely difficult to avoid the contamination of
Ti during welding by the elements C, H, N and O. If the
heated metal is not protected from the atmosphere, it picks
up O because of the preferential affinity it has for this
element. H and O are picked up if moisture is present in
the shielding gas. H and C contamination occurs if
residual oils, cleaning agents and dirt are present on the
joint surfaces.
C, H, N and O form interstitial solid solutions with Ti.
G, N and O are alpha-stabilisers, while H is beta-stabiliser.
The mechanical properties of a commercial grade of pure
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 495

Ti depends on the interstitial contents of these elements, capacity to resist weld cracking under restraints imposed
especially oxygen. Among the four, N is the most effective in a welded fabrication, and (c) ability of the welded joint
strengthener of Ti, next comes O. In alpha-beta Ti alloys, to attain the strength and toughness of the parent metal.
the strengthening effect on a particular alloy is Ti and its alloys are usually joined by the TIG process.
d e t e r m i n e d largely by the relative a m o u n t and For 2.5 mm thick and thinner plates, square butt joints
distribution of the alpha-phase. are made and welded without filler metal. For thicker
Hydrogen is almost insoluble in alpha Ti at room plates, a V-groove joint is used and filled with additional
temperature, but dissolves to some extent at temperatures filler metal.
above 300°C With slow cooling, the dissolved hydrogen Plasma-arc welding is a faster process than TIG and
precipitates throughout the alpha grains and at the grain can be used on thicker sections. A 12.5mm thick Ti-alloy
boundaries resulting in loss of toughness. On the other plate can be welded in one pass with this process, using
hand, if the Ti is quenched, hydrogen precipitates as fine a square butt joint and keyhole technique.
particles and has little effect on toughness. Subsequent For thicknesses more than 3.2 mm, MIG process is
aging, however, causes agglomeration of the hydrides preferred. This process becomes increasingly economical
and decreases toughness. as the thickness increases beyond 12.5 mm.
Since hydrogen has high solubility in beta Ti, alpha- Before commencing welding, joint surfaces of Ti and
beta alloys can dissolve a substantial amount of hydrogen Ti-alloy components must be cleaned with suitable
without the formation of hydrides. However, if the amount solvents and dried. Ordinary tap water must not be used
is too high, embrittlement can occur at low strain rates. for rinsing, because chlorides and other cleaning residues
TI alloys can be divided into five major groups as: on Ti can cause stress corrosion cracking when the
1) Commercially pure Ti component gets heated during welding. Light oxide
2) Alpha alloys coating in the vicinity of the joint must be removed by
3) Near-alpha alloys pickling, water rinsing and drying. Scale formed at high
4) Alpha-beta alloys temperatures must be removed mechanically by grit
5) Beta alloys blasting or similar method followed by pickling, to ensure
Important alloys of each group and their weldability complete removal of scale and contaminated metal on
ratings are given in Table 10.46. The ratings are with the surfaces.
respect to TIG, MIG and plasma-arc processes which are The joint edges may need further special operations
mostly used for these alloys. The criteria for weldability such as draw filing or wire brushing prior to final
rating are: (a) capacity to produce defect-free welds, (b) cleaning, to prevent possible weld porosity. Sheared joint
edges require special care in this respect.
Table 10.46: Weldability ratings of titanium alloys
Cleanliness of Ti and Ti-alloy filler metals is even more
Alloy Rating* important than in the case of Al and Al-alloys. Every
Commercially pure grades A care m u s t be taken to remove the last traces of
Alpha alloys contaminants such as inclusions, dirt, oil and drawing
Ti-0.2Pd A compounds from the filler metal surface. This is more
Ti-5Al-1.5An B critical with MIG wires, with their relatively large surface-
Ti-5Al-2.5SnELI A area-to-volume ratios.
Near-alpha-alloys We shall now discuss the weldability of three typical
T1-8AI-IM0-V A alloys:
Ti-6Al-2 Cb-1 Ta-0.8 Mo A (1) Commercially pure Ti, (2) Ti-0.2 Pd alpha alloy,
Ti-6Al-4 Zr-2 Mo-2 Sn B
and (3)Ti-6 A1-4V alpha-beta alloy
Alpha-beta alloys
Ti-6A1-4V B 1) Commercially pure Ti: This material, available in
Ti-6A1-4VELI A several grades ranging in purity from 98.5 to 99.5 Ti, has
Ti-7AMMo C excellent weldability. It is very important to maintain the
Ti-7Al-6V-2Sn C iron content in the weld metal below 0.05% by using
T1-8M0 D filler wire with very low iron content, and by avoiding
Beta alloys iron contamination d u r i n g joint preparation and
Ti-13V-ll Cr-3 Al B welding. Use of steel wire brushes must be avoided.
*A—excellent, B—fair to good, C—limited to special applications, U—For best mechanical properties, the metal is welded in
welding not recommended. the annealed condition. Annealing consists of heating to
496 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

650-760°C for between 30 minutes to two hours, depend-
ing on thickness and cooling in air. Complicated compo-
nents may require stress-relieving by heating to 480-
590°C and cooling in air. If a component is annealed after
welding, it need not be separately stress-relieved, because
annealing automatically relieves residual stresses.
2) Ti-0.2 Pd alloy: Its weldability characteristics are
similar to those of pure Ti. It is normally welded in the
annealed condition, because welding has little effect on
the mechanical properties of the annealed material. In
this alloy also, special p r e c a u t i o n s against iron
contamination must be taken. Complex welded structures
may need stress-relief treatment as in the case of pure Ti.
3) Ti-6 AI-4V alloy: This alloy can be strengthened by
solution heat t r e a t m e n t followed by aging. For
solutioning, the alloy is heated to 900-970°C and then
quenched. It is then aged at between 480 and 510°C for
about 12 hours.
The annealing temperature range for this alloy is 705-
790°C, while the stress-relieving temperature range is
540-595°C. This alloy has the best weldability among
12.5 and 19 mm. Usually the largest nozzle size which
will give good accessibility and visibility is used. It is
preferable to use nozzles which provide laminar flow of
the shielding gas, because even slight turbulence in the
gas flow induces air to mix with the gas.
Secondary shielding is provided by a trailing shield,
a typical design of which is shown in Fig. 10.28. It
consists of a metal chamber clamped to the torch nozzle.
The inert gas flows through a porous metal diffuser
screen and impinges itself over the hot weld area. Its
length varies according to the heat input and rate of arc
travel. The shield is made to cover also the width of the
HAZ on either side of the weld bead.
Secondary shielding can be incorporated into the
welding fixture as shown in Fig. 10.29. The hold-down
bars of the fixture are provided with inert gas passages.
Shielding gas flowing from the torch and the hold-down
bars into the channel formed by the bars drives out the
air and protects the area behind the weld pool.
WELDING DIRECTION

alpha-beta alloys. It is usually welded in the annealed

condition or the solution-treated and partially aged
INERT GAS INLET
condition. The aging is completed through a postweld
4
stress-relief treatment.
METAL CHAMBER
Filler metals can be of two grades as shown below, in
which maximum limits are set on carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen. Unalloyed filler metal may also
m• \ \ \ yj
be usedfor improved ductility of the weld joint. 51
POROUS METAL
ERTi-6 A1-4V ERTi-6 A1-4V-1
DIFFUSION SCREEN
Carbon 0.05 max. 0.04 max.
TORCH NOZZLE
Oxygen 0.15 max. 0.10 max.
Hydrogen 0.008 max. 0.005 max. Fig. 10.28: Torch trailing shield for gas-shielded arc
Nitrogen 0.020 max. 0.0012 max. welding of titanium and other reactive metals

PROTECTION DURING WELDING SHIELDING GAS FLOW

Gas-shielded processes are mostly used for welding THROUGH TORCH NOZZLE
HIELDING GAS DIFFUSER
TI alloys. These processes are normally designed to shield
only the molten weld pool and adjacent base metal from
I HOLD-DOWN BARS
SHIELDING GAS PORT
the atmosphere. In the case of Ti and its alloys, such
shielding is totally inadequate, because of the sensitivity
of these alloys to embrittlement by oxygen and nitrogen
when heated above 260°C. During welding, inert gas
shielding must be provided for (1) the molten weld pool
and adjacent base metal (primary shielding); (2) the |<— BASE
solidified weld-metal and HAZ which are still hot after
the arc has proceeded (secondary shielding), and (3) the
T ~T~ t
F SHIELDING GAS PORT F
heated back side of the weld joint (backing).
Primary gas shielding is provided by the TIG torch Fig. 10.29: Secondary inert gas shielding incorporated
nozzle or the MIG gun nozzle, whose size ranges between in the welding fixture

Backing gas shielding is achieved through temporary
backing bars or rings provided with gas passages. Typical
backing bars for butt and fillet welds are shown in Fig.
10.30. The bar can also be incorporated into the welding
fixture shown in Fig. 10.29. The backing bar serves to
abstract heat from and accelerate the cooling of the weld,
which reduces gas consumption. The bar is made of
copper or stainless steel and may be water-cooled.
Welding of critical fabrications such as those used in
aerospace applications is most successfully carried out
in a specially designed vacuum-purged welding chamber.
The chamber is thoroughly evacuated and then backfilled
with argon or helium. The chamber is equipped with
glove ports to enable the welder to handle the torch, filler
metal and the job without admitting air into the chamber.
Viewing ports are also provided, so that the welder can
see his operation. Welding may be carried out without
supplying shielding gas through the torch, but in the
case of heavy and long welds additional gas supply
through the torch helps to improve shielding.
Welding in such a chamber has certain disadvantages.
Visibility, movement and accessibility are restricted. If
the job is large, the chamber has to be unloaded after
each job is completed and repurged for Welding the next
job. Such a procedure is time consuming and causes
wastage of expensive inert gas.
Transparent flow-purged plastic chambers, rigid or
collapsible, are to be preferred for one-off jobs or when
the jobs are large or intricate. A rigid chamber is flow-
BACKING-GAS INLET
Fig. 10.30: Weld backing bars to provide inert gas shielding: (A) For groove welds; (B) For corner or fillet welds
WELDABILITY OF METALS 497
purged with inert gas, in volume equal to about seven
times the volume of the chamber. A collapsible chamber
is first collapsed and then flow-purged with the inert
gas. A collapsible chamber needs less gas than a rigid
one.
In using these metal or plastic chambers, it is
necessary to monitor the inert atmosphere continuously
or from time to time. For continuous monitoring, a heated
tungsten filament may be placed in the chamber.
Discoloration of the filament indicates that the purity of
the inert gas has been affected. In a flow-purged chamber,
the atmosphere can be tested either by suitable gas
analysing equipment or by welding a piece of scrap
titanium, and pulling the torch gradually away from the
weld pool. The weld-metal colour gives an indication of
contamination. The pure weld is silver-bright but with
increasing contamination, the colours obtained are: light-
straw, dark-straw, light-blue, dark-blue, grey-blue, grey
and white loose powder. Light-straw is generally
acceptable, but for critical applications bright-silver
colour must be insisted upon.
Joining of Dissimilar Metals
Dissimilar metals mean either (1) those that are
chemically different (example: steel, copper, aluminium)
or (2) those that are metallurgically different (example:
mild steel, stainless steel).
Dissimilar metal joining by brazing or by solid-state
welding processes (such as friction welding, diffusion
BACKING-GAS INLET
498 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
bonding, explosive welding) is feasible in most combi-
nations. When fusion welding processes are used, suc-
cess depends on several factors.
If the melting points of the two members being welded
differ by more than 100°C, solidification and shrinkage
of the metal with the higher melting point will induce
stresses in the other metal, which is only partially
solidified and therefore weak, and cause it to rupture. In
some cases, the problem is solved by buttering the joint
surface of the higher melting base metal with a filler metal,
whose melting point lies between those of the two base
metals. The final weld is made between the buttered face
and the other base metal. The filler metal should be one
which is suitable for the lower-melting base metal. If a
high-melting filler metal is used, there will be excessive
dilution from the low melting base metal. Mild steel and
aluminium are examples of two metals having widely
different melting points.
When two metals of significantly different thermal
conductivities are being welded, the heat input can be
right for one and either too less or too much for the
other. This is because of the differing rates of heat
conduction from the molten pool to the two base metals.
Proper heat balance is achieved in this case by directing
the arc at the higher thermal-conductivity base metal or
by selectively preheating it. Compared to mild steel,
copper and aluminium have very high thermal
conductivity, while austenitic steel and monel have much
less.
If the two metals being welded have different
coefficients of thermal expansion, the resultant joint has
high internal stresses. This factor becomes more serious
when the joint is exposed to cyclic temperatures in service.
A common example is the joining of 7SA Cr-1 Mo steel to
type 304 or 316 austenitic stainless steel in thermal power
plant. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the former
is about 25% less than that of the latter. In this case, it is
advisable to choose a filler metal whose thermal
expansion coefficient is intermediate between the two.
The filler metal must also have sufficient ductility to
tolerate the high stresses. An Inconel filler metal satisfies
these conditions.
An important factor is dilution of the filler metal by
the two different base metals. In fusion welding, the filler
metal and some portions of the base metal melt together
and form the weld pool. Hence the filler metal must be
capable of alloying readily with the base metals and
produce a weld-metal that is ductile and crack-free. If
complex phases or intermetallic compounds are formed
in the resultant weld-metal, the joint will have poor
mechanical properties and will be unsuitable for service.
Metallurgically, the weld-metal in dissimilar joints
will be either a single-phase or a mixture of two or more
phases. A phase can be an intermetallic compound
(example: Cu-Al compound), an interstitial compound
(example: iron carbide or titanium carbide), or a solid
solution (example: copper and nickel). An intermetallic
compound is to be avoided. The role of an interstitial
compound is variable. Solid solutions are desirable
because they help to produce a good weld. Copper and
nickel are readily weldable to each other because they
form a series of solid solutions when melted together.
The soundness and mechanical properties of a dissimilar
weld joint are determined by the number, type, relative
proportion and metallurgical arrangement of the phases
present in the weld-metal.
Weldability of a dissimilar metal combination can
often be predicted by examining the phase diagram of
the metals concerned. If intermetallic compounds are
formed, one must use solid-state welding processes
instead of the conventional fusion welding processes.
The following chart indicates the degrees of weldability
of various metal combinations.
For dissimilar metal joints, preheat and postweld heat
treatment procedures have to be selected with care. When
only one of the two metals needs to be preheated, one
must make sure that the preheat can be applied
independently to the proper side of the joint. The postweld
heat treatment can be problematic when the heat applied
to one metal is harmful to the other. A typical example is
the welding of an age-hardenable Ni-Cr alloy to
unstabilised austenitic stainless steel. When aging
treatment is given to the Ni-Cr alloy, it will make the
latter sensitive to intergranular corrosion. The problem
can be overcome by using a stabilised stainless steel.
Alternatively, the joint face of the age-hardenable Ni-Cr
alloy component can be buttered with a non-age-
hardenable Ni-Cr alloy and it can be age-hardened
independently. The buttered surface can then be welded
to the stainless steel component.
The problem of metallurgical incompatibility can
sometimes be solved by the use of a filler metal shim or
welding each of the metals to a compatible transition
piece. For example, 321SS filler shims are used in between
Hastelloy X and SAE 8620 steel; Hastelloy B shims can
be used for welding of 304 SS to monel as well as for A -
286 SS to SAE 4140 steel.
Calculation of weld-metal composition: For successful
welding, one must be able to calculate and control the
weld-metal composition resulting from dilution from the
two different base metals. The average composition can
be calculated from (1) the compositions of the filler metal
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 499

and the base metals, and (2) the ratio of the volumes of base metals is 25%. The compositions of the three alloys
base metals melted to the total volume of the weld-metal. are given below:
These volumes are equivalent to the fused areas on the
cross-section of a weld, which can be measured. These Element Cr-Mo steel Type 317 S.S. Filler metal
are shown as A and Bin Fig. 10.31. The method of Cr 19 20
calculating the dilution by two base metals—A and B, Ni 13 72
and the total dilution when filler metal FM is used is as Mo 0.5 4
follows: Fe 93.5 58.5

Dilution by metal A, % = f x 100 Alloying elements in the weld-metal arc calculated

A + B + (FM1+Fm) thus:
Cr% = 0.10(5)+0.15(19)+0.75(20) = 18.35
Dilution by metal B,% = B Ni% = 0.15(13)+0.75(72) = 55.95
— x 100
A + B + (FM1+Fm) Mo% = 0.10(0.5)+0.15(4) = 0.65
The percentage of dilution depends on the joint
Total dilution, % A+B configuration, welding process and welding procedure.
— x 100 A single deeply penetrating heavy pass and the root pass
A + B + (FM1+Fm)
in a heavy joint have the highest dilution, while passes
in the central portion of a multi-pass, multi-layer weld
For calculating the average percentage of an alloying will suffer least dilution. The dilution ranges of common
element in the diluted weld-metal, the following equation arc welding processes are as follows:
is used: Manual metal-arc 25-40%
E = (DA)(EA) + (D A )(E A ) + (l-D A B )(E m ) Submerged-arc 25-50%
L
WM
Average % of element E in the weld-metal TIG 20-40%
E = % of element E in base metal A MIG (spray transfer) 25-40%
*A =

EB = % of element E in base metal B MIG (dip transfer) 15-30%

E = % of element E in the filler metal
Effects of dilution with various elements on different
D A = % dilution by base metal A, expressed as filler metals have been pointed out below:
decimal*
% dilution by base metal B, expressed as decimal*
1) Mild steel and low-alloy steel filler metals
D. % total dilution by base metals A and B,
a) Fe—any extent of dilution is acceptable.
expressed as decimal* (* 10% = 0.10,15% = 0.15,
b) Ni, Cr, C, Si and Mn—refer to Schaeffler diagram to
20% = 0.20)
avoid the formation of martensite.
To explain this calculation, let us take an example in These filler metals should not be used on stainless
which 5 Cr-V£ Mo steel is welded to type 317 stainless steels, nickel and nickel alloys and cast heat-resisting
steel with AWS class ERNi Cr3 filler metal. Let us assume alloys.
10% dilution by base metal A and 15% dilution by base c) Cu—small amount is acceptable. With increasing
metal B, which means that the total dilution by the two amount, the weld-metal develops hot cracks. This means

vFM2 JB

Fig. 10.31: Parameters for calculating weld-metal dilution in a dissimilar metal joint
500 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Al 2
Gold 1 5
Beryllium 5 2 5
Cobalt 3 5 2 5
Copper 2 2 1 5 2
Iron 3 5 2 5 2 2
Magnesium 5 2 5 5 5 5 3
Molybdenum 3 5 2 5 5 3 2 3
Columbium 4 5 4 5 5 2 5 4 1
Nickel 2 5 1 5 1 1 2 5 5 5
Platinum 1 5 ' 1 5 1 1 1 5 2 5 1
Rhenium 3 4 4 5 1 3 5 4 5 5 3 2
Tm 2 2 5 3 5 2 5 5 3 5 5 5 3
Tantalum 5 5 4 5 5 3 5 4 1 1 5 5 5 5
Titanium 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 1 1 5 5 5 5 1
Tungsten 3 5 4 5 5 3 5 3 1 1 5 1 5 3 1 2
Zirconium 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 1 5 5 5 5 2 1 5
Ag Al Au Be Co Cu Fe Mg Mo Cb Ni Pt Pb Sn Ta Ti V
2. Very desirable (Solid solubility in all combinations) 2. Probably acceptable (complex structure may exist)
3. Use with caution (insufficient data for proper evaluation) 4. Use with extreme caution (no data available)
5. Undesirable combinations (intermetallic compounds are formed)

that these filler metals must not be used on copper and
copper alloys.
2) Austenitic stainless steel filler metals
a) Fe, Ni, Cr, Si, Mn and C—refer to Schaeffler diagram,
to get final weld-metal structure of austenite with 4-10%
ferrite. If the structure is fully austenitic, the deposit is
sensitive to hot cracks. If the structure is martensitic, the
deposit is hard and brittle. These filler metals must not
be used for nickel and nickel alloys and heat-resisting
high-Ni castings.
b) Cu—dilution with copper must be avoided. This
means that these filler metals must not be used on copper
and copper alloys.
3) Straight chromium steel filler metals
a) Ni, Cr, Fe, C, Si and Mn—refer to Schaeffler dia-
gram. They are used for welding straight chrome steels
of matching composition. With higher Cr content, the
filler metal is prone to grain growth and porosity; hence
austenitic stainless steel or nickel-alloy filler metals are
sometimes preferred for welding high-Cr steels. These
filler metals should not be used for welding dissimilar
metals.
b) Cu—same remarks as for austenitic stainless steel
filler metals apply here.
4) Pure nickel Filler metal
a) Ni and Cu—any extent of dilution with these two
elements is acceptable.
b) Cr—dilution up to 33% is acceptable.
c) Fe—dilution up to 30% is acceptable.
d) C, Si and Mn—any amount of dilution which
normally occurs inpractice is acceptable.
5) Monel (Ni-Cu) filler metal
a) Ni and Cu-any extent of dilution is acceptable.
b) Cr—dilution higher than 5% must be avoided.
c) Fe—tolerable dilution varies with the process and
type of filler metal. For example, MMA welding with
Monel 190 electrode can accept dilution with iron up to
30%, while TIG and MIG welding with monel filler metal
can tolerate dilution only up to 15%. If these limits are
exceeded, hot-cracking occurs. With Monel 187 electrode,
only 5-10% dilution can be tolerated.
d) C, Si and Mn-Carbon content of the weld-metal
must not exceed 0.4%, while silicon content must not be
above 1.5%. Dilution by manganese is beneficial.
6) Fe-Ni-Cr type filler metals
a) Incoloy 65 filler metal—Incoloy 135 electrode
i) Ni-any extent of dilution is acceptable.
ii) Cr-Cr content of the weld-metal must not exceed
35%.
iii) Fe—dilution with iron should not exceed 10-15%.
This means that Incoloy filler metals can be used for
welding to highly alloyed stainless steels, but not to plain
carbon steels.
iv) C, Si and Mn-Si content of the weld-metal should
not exceed 1%. Other elements are under control in
common practice.
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 501

b) Inconel 82 and 92 filler metals—Inconel 182 or

Table 10.47: Base metals for piping
Incoweld-A electrode
i) Ni—any extent of dilution is accepted. Type of steel Abbreviation
ii) Cr—Cr content of the weld-metal must not exceed Carbon C-Steel
35%. Carbon-1/2% Moly C-Mo
iii) Fe—For manual welding electrodes, iron dilution W/o Chrome - M% Moly Vi Cr - Vi Mo
up to 50% can be tolerated. For TIG/MIG filler metals, 1% Chrome - Vi% Moly 1 Cr - Vi Mo
the dilution level must not exceed 25-30%. VA% Chrome - Vi% Moly VA Cr - Vi Mo
iv) C, Si and Mn-Si content of the weld-metal should 2% Chrome - lA% Moly 2 C r - 1 / 2 Mo
2V4% Chrome - 1% Moly 2VA Cr - 1 Mo
not exceed 1%. Other elements are under control in
5% Chrome - Vi% Moly 5 Cr - Vi Mo
common practice. 7% Chrome - %% Moly 7 Cr - Vi Mo
9% Chrome - 1% Moly 9 Cr - 1 Mo
Welding of Dissimilar Steels 18% Cr - 8% Ni (Type 304)
In thermal power stations, oil refineries, etc., various 18% Cr - 10% Ni-2.5% Mo (Type 316) 18-8 Stainless
combinations of carbon steel, low-alloy steels and 18% Cr - 10% Ni-Cb (Type 347)
stainless steels have to be welded, mainly in the form of 18% Cr - 12% Ni-Ti (Type 321)
pipes. In Table 10.47 these steels are listed along with
their abbreviations used for convenience. 25 chromium-12 nickel (type 309)
There are seven classes of filler metals or electrodes (alternate)
which can be used for joining these steels or their various For non-cyclic service below 430°C:
combinations. These are: 25 chromium-12 nickel (type 309)
A. Carbon steel (such as E7016 or E7018) 25 chromium-20 nickel (type 310)
B. Carbon-!* Mo (such as E7016-AI or E7018-AI) 29 chromium- 9 nickel, (type 312) or
C. VA Cr-44 Mo (such as E8016-B2 or E8018-B2) 75 nickel-16 chromium-7 iron.
D. 2VA Cr-1 Mo (such as E9016-B3 or E9018-B3) In Table 10.48 we have indicated which of the above
E. 5 Cr-44 Mo (such as E502-15) filler metal classes has to be used for various base metal
F. 9 Cr-1 Mo combinations.
G. For cyclic service and wherever post-heating is to Among the filler metals of class G, type 309 (25Cr-
be used: 12Ni) is most suitable for joining austenitic stainless steel
75 nickel-16 chromium-7 iron (Inconel type) to carbon or low-alloy steel, because it has high-enough
For non-cyclic service above 430°C: alloy contents to prevent martensite formation in the
75 nickel-16 chromium-7 iron (preferred) weld-metal after total dilution by the two base metals,
25 chromium-20 nickel (type 310) and to retain some amount of ferrite in the final austenitic
(alternate) weld-metal to prevent hot cracking. The undiluted 25-

Table 10.48: Filler metals for various base metal combinations

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1 Cr-fc Mo A B C C C C C CD CD CD G
VA Cr-4* Mo A,B B C C C C C CD CD CD G
2 C r - ^ Mo B,C B,C C C C D D D D D G
2VA Cr-1 Mo B,C B,C C C C D D D D D G
5 Cr-fc Mo CD C,D CD CD CD D D E E E G
7 Cr-% Mo C,D CD CD CD CD D D E F F G
9 Cr-1 Mo C,D CD CD CD CD D D E F F G
18-8 Stainless G G G G G G G G G G
502 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

12 weld-metal has about 6-10% ferrite, much more than carbon will diffuse from the base metal into the weld-
what is present in the 18-8 weld-metal. metal during postweld heat treatment or service at
One can estimate the microstructure of a weld-metal temperatures above 427°C. This phenomenon is known
joining stainless steel to a carbon or low-alloy steel by as carbon migration. Carbon migration occurs to a larger
referring to the Schaeffler diagram shown in Fig. 10.32. extent with austenitic stainless steel weld-metal than
This figure also shows the positions of weld-metals with ferritic steel weld-metal, because of the greater
deposited by various Ador Welding stainless steel solubility of carbon in the former. It should be taken care
electrodes including lnox-D2 (Type 309). If lnox-D2 is of because it affects long-time stress-rupture strength. It
used for joining mild steel and the dilution is 20%, the can also cause fatigue failure in the decarburised band
composition of the diluted weld-metal can be deduced adjacent to the weld during cyclic temperature service.
by joining the lnox-D2 point with the M.S. point on the Chromium stainless steel (type 4xx) to steel
diagram, and then marking the point X such that it divides 1) For welding straight chrome steel to carbon steel,
the line in the ratio of 20:80. This point X represents the mild steel filler metal must be preferred.
weld-metal composition. It is 19/9 and contains 2) For welding straight chrome steel to a low-alloy
approximately 8% ferrite, thus indicating a tough and steel, filler metal of the same composition as the low-
ductile weld-metal. alloy steel must be preferred.
While joining austenitic stainless steel to carbon steel, 3) For welding together two steels of different Cr
it is advisable to butter the carbon steel with 309 type contents, one may use filler metal having Cr content equal
filler metal. Then it is a question of joining stainless steel to that of either steel.
to stainless steel, and any conventional stainless steel 4) For (3) above, austenitic stainless steel filler metal
filler metal can be used. Also the problems associated can be used, provided one of the steels is not a pressure
with joint restraint and dilution by carbon steel are vessel.
eliminated. Preheat may be necessary when a chrome steel is being
Carbon steel or low-alloy steel filler metal should never welded to any other steel. It is not possible to give general
be deposited on stainless steel, as the resulting weld- rules on preheat procedure. An experienced welding
metal is hard and brittle. metallurgist must be consulted on this point. Correctly
Different grades of stainless steel are often welded welded joints between a chrome steel and an alloy steel
together to meet various service requirements. can stand service conditions at temperatures up to 220°C
Recommended filler metals for welding these (800°F).
combinations are given in Table 10.49. For optimum properties in the HAZ, the joint edges of
Carbon migration: When an alloy-steel filler metal high both the steels must be first buttered with E 309 type
in chromium is used to weld a carbon or low-alloy steel, electrode using suitable preheat. The buttered stainless

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 32 34 36 38 40
C H R O M - EQUIVALENT-%Cr + % M o + 1.5%Si + 0.5 x %Nb

Fig. 10.32: Schaeffler diagram with positions of weld-metals of Ador Welding stainless steel electrodes
 Table 10.49: Filler metals suitable for welding joints between dissimilar austenitic stainless steels

Suitable filler metals (listed in no preferred order; prefix ER omitted)

Base metal B (type of steel being welded to base metal listed in the first column)
Base 347,347H

Metal A(a) 304L 308L 309 309S 310 310S 316,316H 316L 317 321,321H 348,348H
304,304H,305 308L 308L308L,309 308,309 308,309,310 308,309,310 308,316 308,316 308,316,317 308 308

304L 308L 308,309 308,309 308,309,310 308,309,310 308,316 308L, 316L 308,316,317 308L, 347 308L, 347
308 308,309 308,309 308,309,310 308,309,310 308,316 308,316 308,316,317 308 308,347
309 309 309,310 309,310 309,316 309,316 309,316 309,347 309,347
309S 309,310 309S, 310S 309,316 309S, 316L 309,316 309,347 309,347
310 310,316 310,316 310,317 308,310 308,310
310S 316 316 317 308,310 308,310
316,316H 316 316,317 308,316 308,316,347
316L 317 316L 316L, 347
317 308,317 308,317,347
321, 321H 308L, 347

(a) The H suffix indicates a grade used for tubing for high-temperature service.
504 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
steel surfaces can then be joined with E 308 type electrode
without preheat.
Nickel alloys to steel: It is easy to weld this combination
using nickel base filler alloys, which have good ductility
and can tolerate appreciable dilution by iron. Weld-metal
deposited with pure nickel or nickel-chromium manual
electrodes can tolerate iron dilution up to approximately
40%, while the same weld-metal deposited by TIG, MIG
or submerged-arc process can tolerate this dilution up to
25%.
Dilution by Cr must also be controlled. Pure nickel
weld-metal can tolerate Cr dilution up to 30%, while the
total Cr content in Ni-Cr weld-metal should not be
allowed to exceed 30%.
Care must also be taken that the relatively high levels
of sulphur and phosphorus present in the steel are not
transferred to the nickel-base weld-metal by dilution. One
must bear in mind that sulphur and phosphorus cause
hot cracking in nickel and nickel alloys.
Copper alloys to steel: Copper and steel can be welded
together by any of the common arc welding processes
using silicon bronze (CuSi-A) or aluminium bronze
(CuAl-AX) filler metal. Dilution with the steel must be
kept minimum.
A better method to join copper to mild or stainless
steel is to butter the copper component with nickel filler
metal and then make a joint between nickel and steel by
using any of the filler metals mentioned in the previous
paragraphs.
When Cu-Ni alloy (monel) is to be welded to carbon
steel or stainless steel using a Cu-Ni alloy filler metal,
dilution of the weld-metal by Fe or Cr should be kept to
the lowest minimum. In fact, the total of the two elements
should not exceed 5%. A better method is to first butter
the steel surface with nickel filler metal and then complete
the joint with Ni-Cu or Cu-Ni filler metal, the choice
being dictated by service requirements. Alternately, the
Cu-Ni alloy face is first buttered with nickel filler metal
and then the weld joint is made with the same filler metal.
It is easy to weld aluminium bronze to mild steel or
stainless steel using aluminium bronze filler metal.
Copper alloys to nickel alloys: Welding of these
combinations presents no problem, because Cu and Ni
are mutually soluble in each other. Pure nickel, Ni-Cu or
Cu-Ni filler metals must be used. If a Ni alloy contains
Cr or Fe or both, pure nickel filler metal must be used. It is
advisable to first butter the Cu or Cu-Ni joint face with
nickel filler metal to restrict dilution by Cu.
Aluminium alloys to steel: These are incompatible
metals. A fusion weld joining Al to steel is brittle due to
the formation of brittle intermetallic phases. Joints of
limited strength between Al and mild steel or stainless
steel can still be obtained by aluminising the steel surface
by dipping the steel component into a molten aluminium
bath held at 366 to 374°C (1275 to 1300°F) and then
brazing or TIG welding with an Al-alloy filler metal.
Strong joints can be obtained between Al and steel
with solid-state processes such as friction welding or
explosion welding. A transition piece can be fabricated
with either of these processes, and the ends of this piece
can be welded to aluminium and steel components using
the common fusion welding processes.
Aluminium alloys to copper: These are also incompatible
metals due to the formation of brittle intermetallic
compounds. Joints of limited strength can be obtained by
initially applying a layer of silver or silver alloy to the
copper surface, and then welding with an Al or Al-Si
filler metal without penetrating through the silver coating
on the copper.
Cladding by Weld Surfacing
Clad plate consists of carbon steel or low-alloy steel
plate to which a corrosion-resistant or abrasive-resistant
metal is completely bonded, surface to surface. The latter,
called cladding, is generally straight Cr steel, austenitic
stainless steel, copper or copper alloy, nickel or nickel
alloy or titanium. Cladding thickness is generally 10 to
20% of the total clad plate thickness.
There are several methods of preparing clad plate,
including weld surfacing, and these are mentioned in
chapter no. 4. For weld surfacing, the most commonly
used process is submerged-arc welding using strip or
multiple wires to provide the-clad deposit. Submerged-
arc cladding has been described in detail in chpter no. 4.
Other welding processes which are also used are:
manual metal-arc; GTAW with manual or automatic wire-
feed; GMAW in semi-automatic or fully-automatic form,
in some cases with auxiliary wire-feed; and plasma-arc
welding with powders or energised wires.
The best welding process is one which is capable of
giving minimum base metal dilution, high deposition
rate, and the required clad thickness in minimum number
of layers. From this point of view, submerged-arc strip
cladding with the cold strip addition is the best. The
dilution of the standard SA strip cladding process is 30-
40%, but this is brought down to 10-15% with cold strip
addition.
With the GMAW process operating in the spray-
transfer mode, the dilution levels are around 30-50%.
With auxiliary cold-wire feeding, the dilution is reduced
to 20%, while the deposition rate is increased by 80-
100%.

Plasma-arc hot double-wire welding is also well
suited. In this case the two wires energized by a constant
potential AC power source converge at a point under the
plasma-arc torch. Dilution is as low as 10%, while the
deposition rate is twice that of GMAW with auxiliary
wire.
Metallurgy: Cladding by weld surfacing involves
joining of dissimilar metals, a n d hence all the
metallurgical principles explained earlier in the section
on dissimilar metal joining are applicable to cladding.
As for example, the points to be observed in cladding
with corrosion-resistant stainless steel are mentioned in
chapter no. 4.
In stainless steel cladding, the most important
consideration is to have sufficient delta ferrite in the S.S.
deposit (duplex structure) after allowing for dilution by
the base metal so as to eliminate fissuring. Schaeffler
diagram provides the necessary guidance and also
information on the structure of the dissimilar weld, if the
percent dilution is known. In the diagram, the point
representing the base metal composition is joined to the
point representing the weld-metal by a straight line as
explained in Fig. 10.32. This line is referred to as dilution
direction line.
In Fig. 10.33, where the Schaeffler diagram is again
reproduced, a series of such lines are shown which join
the point B representing the composition of an A 105-Gr.
II forging (0.35% C, 0.90% Mn, 0.35% Si) to several points
4-6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
CHROMIUM EQUIVALENT =*%Cr + %Mo+ 1.5 x %Si+ 0.5 x % Cb
Fig. 10.33: Schaeffler diagram showing dilution direction lines for A105 Gr. II steel and various stainless steel electrodes
WELDABILITY OF METALS 505
denoting the weld chemistry of standard S.S. electrodes.
A105 Gr. II is widely used for nozzle and flange forgings.
The figure shows that with 309 weld-metal, dilution
must be kept below 10% to have delta ferrite in the deposit.
When the dilution coefficient is 10-40%, the deposit is
fully austenitic. Dilution in the range 40-67% gives a
semi-martensitic structure, while dilution above 67%
results in a fully martensitic structure. With 309 Mo weld-
metal, dilution below 15% ensures delta ferrite in the
deposit. With 308 weld-metal, dilution must be below
13% to ensure delta ferrite in the deposit.
Comparing 309/309 Mo with 308, partial martensite
is encountered in the former only when there is excessive
dilution, i.e. 40 to 50%. With 308, the deposit becomes
partially martensitic when dilution exceeds 20%. This
explains why martensitic cracking is often encountered
in 308 cladding.
With 310 deposit, it is never possible to obtain fissure-
resistant duplex structure as the figure shows. It can
however tolerate 59% dilution before martensite develops
in the deposit structure.
The high Cr content of undiluted type 312 weld-metal
results in a delta-ferrite content of approximately 38%.
Whilst the type 310 weld-metal may result in an unsound
first layer due to a complete lack of ferrite, the type 312
weld-metal is objectionable in this case, because of the
excessive ferrite content. High ferrite levels may lead to
impairment of the high temperature ductility, to a
506 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

reduction of the overall corrosion resistance, and to the
formation of the embrittling sigma-phase.
Behaviour at elevated temperatures: The various
detrimental phenomena which can occur, when stainless
steel clad material is exposed to elevated temperature
during fabrication stress-relief treatment, or in service
are described below.
1) The thermal coefficient of expansion of stainless
steel is much higher than that of the base metal. Also the
yield strength of the stainless steel is higher at the elevated
temperature. At stress-relieving temperatures, the
difference in the yield strength of the stainless steel and
the ferritic base metal will cause strain gradient across
the fusion zone of the cladding, which may initiate cracks
or propagate existing austenitic or martensitic fissures.
2) Long exposure at elevated temperatures results in
carbon diffusion across the fusion line. Consequently,
the carbon content of the stainless steel cladding in-
creases, while decarburisation occurs in the ferritic base
metal in the vicinity of the fusion line. Increased carbon
content lowers the ductility and toughness of the stain-
less steel weld-metal, and makes it susceptible to
intercrystalline corrosion. Severe carbon diffusion can
occur during stress-relieving, especially during the pro-
longed stress-relieving cycles required for heavy carbon-
steel or alloy-steel clad vessels. For improving corrosion
resistance in such cases, strong carbide formers such as
niobium may be added to the stainless steel weld-metal.
3) Some compositions of stainless steel cladding may
get embrittled when exposed to the temperature range of
500-925°C due to the formation of a brittle intermetallic
phase called sigma. Large amounts of sigma-phase
reduce resistance and ductility. Sigma is more likely to
occur in duplex stainless steel weld-metal, i.e. when weld-
metal contains ferrite. Sigma formation can also
sometimes occur in fully austenitic weld-metals in the
localised areas enriched in chromium. Besides Cr, other
ferrite forming elements like Nb and Mo encourage the
formation of sigma. Sigma formation can be avoided by
keeping the contents of the ferrite forming elements to the
minimum or by increasing the Ni content.
renders it hard and brittle. On the other hand, the stainless
steel, nickel and nickel-alloy, and copper and copper-
alloy electrodes used for welding the clad side can tolerate
dilution by steel to certain extents, and the results of such
dilution can be predicted and controlled.
Bearing the above in mind, the recommended edge
preparations for butt welding clad steels are shown in
Fig. 10.34. It is to be noted that in all the cases, a sufficient
portion of the root face is made up of backing steel, and
in some the cladding has been bevelled or stripped back.
The backing steel is usually welded first; and the joint
design takes care that the first pass, when correctly
deposited, will not penetrate into the cladding. The final
w e l d is m a d e on the clad side after giving d u e
consideration to dilution effects, ferrite content in the case
of stainless steel welds and other factors as in the case of
cladding by weld surfacing.
In the joints in which the cladding is stripped back,
the entire thickness of the base plate can be welded by
normal procedure using matching steel electrode. Finally,
the clad weld is restored by the surfacing technique
employed in the original cladding operation.
Sometimes in the case of thin clad steel plates, a high-
alloy filler wire or electrode compatible with the base
metal as well as the clad material is used to fill the entire
groove. In this case, the joint design as shown at (a) in
\lO*i

Welding Clad Steel Plate

In welding clad plate, problems associated with
dissimilar metal welding are encountered and must be
taken care of. As a first step, the joint geometry and
welding procedure must be such that the weld deposit
on the ferritic steel base metal does not get diluted by the Fig. 10.34: Plate edge preparation for butt welding of
clad metal. In other words, this deposit should not be clad steels: (A) Single-Vee or Vee-joint with a carbon
allowed to melt in the clad metal. Even the slightest steel lip;
admixture of the ferritic steel deposit with the clad metal (B) Stripped backjoint; (C) Double-bevel joint
 WELDABILITY OF METALS 507

Fig. 10.35 is used. The V-groove is filled with a root pass
and several filling passes as shown at (b). The joint is
turned over and the back of the root pass is brushed with
a wire brush as at (c) and the finishing bead is laid as
shown at (d). This procedure involves simple edge
preparation and eliminates back gouging, but requires
increased amount of expensive high-alloy filler metal.
Manual electrodes and bare filler wires suitable for
welding the clad side of non-ferrous clad steel, 300 series
stainless clad steel and 400 series stainless clad steel are
listed in Tables 10.50,10.51 and 10.52 respectively.
Welding of Applied Liners
Quite often, instead of using clad plate, liners in the
form of sheets or strips are attached by welding to pressure
vessels and tanks to meet corrosive conditions in
chemical, petrochemical, oil refining and similar
industries. The liners consist of as wide a range of metals
and alloys as clad materials, mainly stainless steels and
non-ferrous metals. The lining thickness is usually in
the range of 2-3 mm.
Spacing between the welds which attach the liner to
the backing plate varies according to design. In few cases,
to minimise time and expense of welding, the widest liner
sheets available are used and welding is done at the
edges. No intermittent welds are made to strengthen the
attachment. In some other cases, almost 100% attachment
is ensured by making continuous overlapping welds
with a suitable (multiple spot or seam) electric resistance
welding process. But mostly, a compromise is effected by
using strips, 1 to 2m long and 50 to 150 mm wide, and
welding their edges by manual metal-arc, MIG/C0 2 or

(b)

FINISHING BEAD
4

(c)
Fig. 10.35: Technique of welding clad plate with high-alloy filler metal

Table 10.50: Electrodes and rods for the clad side of non-ferrous clad steel
For covering steel with
first pass of layer For completing the weld
Claddding Covered Bare rod or Covered Bare rod or
type electrode* electrode** electrode* electrode**
Nickel and ENi-1 ERNi-3 ENi-1 ERNi-3
low-carbon nickel
Nickel-copper ENiCu-1, -2, -4 ERNiCu-7 ENiCu-1, -2 -4 ERNiCu-7
Nickel-chromium-iron ENiCr-1 ERNiCrFe-5, -6 ENiCrFe-2, - 3 ERNiCrFe-5, -6
ERNiCrFe-2
Copper-nickel
70-30 ECuNi ERNiCu-7 ECuNi RCuNi***
90-10 ECuNi ERNiCu-7 ECuNi RCuNi***
Copper ENiCu-1, -2, -4 ECu, ERNiCu-7 NA ECu, RCu***
ERNi-3 NA ECu, RCu***
ENi-1 ECuAl-A2 NA ECu, RCu***
ECuAl-A2
* See AWS specification A5.ll or A5.6 ** See AWS specification A5.14, A5.6 or AS.7 *** Gas tungsten-arc welding process
508 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 10.51: Electrodes and rods for the clad side of 300 series stainless clad steel
For covering steel with
first pass of layer For completing the weld
Claddding type Covered Bare rod or Covered Bare rod or
electrode* electrode** electrode* electrode**
304 E309 ER309 E308 ER308
304L E309L2 ER309L1'2 E308L ER308L
E309Cb
321 E309Cb ER309Cb2 E347 ER347
347 E309Cb ER309Cb2 E347 ER347
309 E3091 ER3091 E309 ER309
310 E3101 ER3101 E310 ER310
316 E309Mo ER309Mo2 E316 ER316
316L E309MOL1'2 ER309MoL12 E316L ER316L
E317L1 ER317L
317 E309Mo ER309Mo12 E317 ER317
E3171 ER3171
317L E309MOL1'2 ER39MoL12 E317L2 ER317L2
E317L12 ER317L12
20 Cb E3201 ER3201 E320 ER320
* Refer to AWS specification A5.4
** Refer to AWS specification A5.9
Notes:
1. Two layers of weld deposit should he used. On light gauges, it may he necessary to grind off part of the first layer to make room for the second
layer.
2. Not a standard classification.

submerged-arc process. Narrow strips do not need between the edges. Spot welds may be made by the electric
intermediate strengthening welds. But if the liner panels resistance, TIG or MIG process. Plug welds are made by
are larger, intermittent spot or plug welds are used manual metal-arc or MIG process.

Fig. 10.36: Three methods of attaching liner edges

 WELDABILITY OF METALS 509

Table 10.52: Electrodes and rods for the clad side of 400 series stainless clad steel
For covering steel with
First pass of layer For completing the weld
Claddding Covered Bare rod or Covered Bare rod or
type electrode* electrode** electrode* electrode**
405 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 1 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 1
ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 15 ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 15
E3091 ER3091 E3091 ER3091
E3101 ER3101 E3101 ER3101
E4302 ER4302 E430 23 ER430 23
E410 23
410 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 1 ENoCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 13
ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 15 ENiCrFe-3 1 ENiCrFe-6 1 3 5
E3091 ER3091 E3091 ER3091-3
E3101 ER3101 E3101 ER3101'3
E4302 ER4302 E410 23 ER41023
E4302'3
410S ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 1 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 13
ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 15 ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 135
E3091 ER3091 E3091 ER309 13
E3101 ER3101 E3101 ER3101'3
E4302 ER4302 ER4302'3 ER41023
429 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFe-5 1 ENiCrFe-2 1 3 ERNiCrFe-5 1
ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe-6 15 ENiCrFe-3 1 3 ERNiCrFe-6 15
E3091 ER3091 E3091 ER3091
E3101 ER3101 E3101 ER3101
E4302 ER4302 E4302'3 ER4302-3
430 ENiCrFe-2 1 ERNiCrFeS 1 ENiCrFe-2 1 3 ERNiCrFe-5 13
ENiCrFe-3 1 ERNiCrFe6 15 ENiCrFe-3 1 3 ERNiCrFe-6 135
E3091 ER3091 E309 13 ER309 13
E3101 ER3101 E310 13 ER3101'3
E4301 ER43014 E4301'3'4 ER4301-3-4
* Refer to AWS specification A5.4 or A5.1 1.
** Refer to AWS specification A5.9 or A5.14.
Notes:
1. Welding on plate colder than 10°C is not advisable.
2. Preheat of 100°C minimum is advisable, particularly on plate over 12.7 mm in thickness.
3. Stress relief at 600-730°C (compatible with backing steel) is desirable.
4. Type 430 electrodes and rods may not deposit 16% minimum Cr.
5. Age-hardenable/consult supplier.
510 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

For optimum results, the liner must be pressed against

the shell by some mechanical means to ensure full contact.
Wherever possible and especially for small diameters,
the liner plate must be rolled to the proper curvature and
then applied. The backing metal surface must be free from
oxid-ation and scale, and this is best ensured by sand
blasting.
In attaching liners to backing plates, problems of
dissimilar metal welding arise and need to be taken care
of on the lines explained in the earlier pages. Dilution of
the weld-metal by the backing plate metal can result in
its reduced corrosion-resistance and ductility. Cracking
in the weld or in the heat-affected zone may also occur.
The ill-effect of dilution can sometimes be overcome by
using electrodes of higher alloy content. If high service
temperatures and the difference in thermal expansion of
the liner and the backing plate are expected to cause
cracking, wider spacing between attachment welds may
be specified. If wide fluctuations in service temperatures
and pressures are to be encountered, the attachment
spacing must be kept as close as 75-100 mm. Otherwise,
the consequent repeated buckling in service may give
rise to fatigue cracks in the liner, attachment weld or heat-
affected zone.
Welding procedure: Three alternative procedures of
liner welding are shown in Fig. 10.36. At (a), the liners
overlap. The internal lap weld suffers some amount of
dilution but it is not exposed to the corrosive medium.
The outer exposed weld is made between the two liner
plates and does not present any problem of dissimilar
welding. At (b), two small fillet welds are first made to
firmly attach the edges to the backing plate. The third
weld rests largely over the previous welds and hence
T O P WELD
ROOT PASS
Fig. 10.37: Plug weld in the liner
has negligible dilution effect. In (c), a separate liner strip
is welded over the joint. In this case, the two exposed
welds are between similar liner metals and can be
soundly deposited. It is very important in the case of all
these fillet welds that they have adequate root fusion
and at the same time minimum depth effusion into the
backing plate. In (b) and (c), the gap g should be wide
enough to accommodate two full-size fillet welds as
indicated.
In example (b), if the liner is 18/8 stainless steel and
the backing plate is mild steel, the first two welds in (b)
should be deposited with E 309 or E 309 Mo electrode
and the third with E 308 type electrode, which gives an
18/8 deposit.
For m a k i n g a p l u g weld, a circular hole of
approximately 10 mm diameter is bored in the liner as
shown in Fig. 10.37. A circular root pass with good root
fusion is first deposited with an electrode, which is
suitable for the combination. The top nugget weld is then
d e p o s i t e d w i t h an electrode m a t c h i n g the liner
composition.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Weldability of Steels by Stout & Doty, published 1978, by Welding Research Council, New York.
Welding Metallurgy, Vols. I & 2 by Linnert, published by American Welding Society.
Welding Handbook, Vol. 4, 7th Ed., published 1982, by American Welding Society.
Welding Steels without Hydrogen Cracking, published 1973, by the Welding Institute.
Weldabilily of Structural and Pressure Vessel Steels, 1970 Conference Proceedings of the Welding Institute.
Welding of Creep Resisting Steels, 1970, Conference Proceedings of the Welding Institute.
The Metallurgy and Welding of QT 35 and HY 80 Steels, 1974, Report of the Welding Institute.
Welding ofHY 100 and HY 1.10 Steels. 1973, Literature Review ol the Welding Institute.
Welding High-strength Steels. 1968, Symposium Proceedings of AISI and the American Society for Metals. Published by
Materials and Process Engineering Bookshelf.
Welding Metallurgy of Stainless and Heat-resisting Steels by Castro & de Cadenet, published 1975, by Cambridge University
Press.
Weldable Al-Zn-Mg Alloys. 1969, Conference Proceedings of the Welding Institute.
Welding and Fabrication of Non-ferrous Metals. 1972, Conference Proceedings of the Welding Institute.
 CHAPTER 11
Hardfacing
by
Welding
THE TERMS SURFACING, weld surfacing a n d
hardfacing have been explained in the section on
hardfacing electrodes in Chapter 3. The types of wear
to which metallic components may be subjected in ser-
vice are:
1) Frictional wear or metal-to-metal wear.
2) Abrasive wear
a) scratching abrasion
b) grinding abrasion
c) gouging abrasion
3) Wear due to repeated impact
4) Corrosive wear
5) High temperature wear.
To meet such types of wear simply or in various
combinations, correct choice of hardfacing deposit is
necessary.
Hardfacing by w e l d i n g has the following
advantages:
1) A highly wear-resistant or corrosion-resistant de-
posit can be placed exactly at the areas where
wear occurs in service
2) A wide range of alloys can be deposited with ease
3) Expensive alloys can be used sparingly and eco-
nomically
4) Since most hardfacing alloys are brittle, the load
is carried by the tough base metal
5) Alloys can be easily applied in situ and under site
conditions.
Here it is important to bear in mind that hardness is
not a true criterion of wear resistance, especially
abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance is derived
mainly from carbides of Ti, W, Cr, Mo, Fe, etc., present
in the matrix. For example, we could have three alloys
having identical hardness of RC55, but differing as
follows:
A—High ratio of carbides-to-matrix giving
maximum abrasion resistance
B—Lower ratio of carbides-to-matrix giving lesser
abrasion resistance
C—Hard martensitic matrix with no carbides giving
least abrasion resistance
Alloy C, having hard and brittle martensitic matrix,
is highly susceptible to cracking under impact loading.
Alloys A and B have austenitic matrix. Alloy A also has
limited resistance to impact loading and may tolerate
only light impact, while Alloy B has better resistance to
impact loading. As ratio of carbides-to-matrix decreases,
impact resistance increases.
Obviously, it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d the
metallurgy of hardfacing deposits.
Metallurgy of Hardfacing Deposits
In the chapter on Metallurgy, it was stated that upon
heating, pure iron having body-centred cubic structure
termed ferrite, transforms to face-centred cubic structure
termed austenite. On cooling, the iron reverts from
austenite to ferrite. Addition of carbon to iron in this
transformation and the resultant structures are the basis
of hardfacing deposits.
Carbon has a higher solubility in austenite than in
ferrite, a n d the carbon atoms being small locate
themselves between the iron atoms, i.e. interstitially.
When iron containing carbon is cooled rapidly enough,
the carbon atoms interfere with the orderly movement
of the iron atoms from the face-centred cubic position
512 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

to the body-centred cubic position, and the resulting deposits. This points to the fact that tungsten carbide
structure i$ a strained one that is neither face-centred granules present in composite electrodes can hardly be
cubic nor b>ody-centred cubic, but is rather a tetragonal expected to be effective. Instead of binding these
structure called martensite. Because the structure is granules together, the molten steel actually dissolves
strained by the atoms attempting to reach their proper them.
positions, there is considerable internal energy present, The carbides in a hardfacing deposit can be in the
which resists deformation. This causes the martensite form of network carbide or dispersed carbide. These
to be very hard and possess high strength. two variations are illustrated in Fig. 11.1.
Atoms of alloying elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn Thus martensite, austenite, network carbide and
and Si w h e n a d d e d to iron, replace iron a t o m s dispersed carbide form the basis of hardfacing deposits.
substitutionally and hence their effect is not so potent Each of them has distinct properties as described below,
as carbon. However, due to some difference in atom and they are judiciously combined in the hardfacing
sizes, these alloys contribute to moderate straining of electrode to obtain maximum resistance against specific
the lattice when the structure undergoes transformation. types of wear in service.
So each of the alloying elements does contribute to the
hardening of steel to a specific degree. But the effects of MARTENSITE
all are additive. Martensite, the most common and widely used phase
The martensitic transformation takes place at a in hard surfacing deposits, is resistant to all types of
comparatively low t e m p e r a t u r e called the Ms mildly abrasive conditions. It is also resistant to certain
t e m p e r a t u r e for martensitic start. Most alloying severely abrasive environments. The martensites have
elements lower the Ms and their effect is additive. With high strength and hardness, the hardness increasing
sufficient amount of alloying elements present in the with carbon content. Martensitic deposits possess
steel, the Ms can drop below room temperature. In this moderate ductility and average resistance to impact and
case, the steel retains its high temperature austenitic do not check crack readily. Martensites show to good
phase and remains austenitic at room temperature. advantage in applications of scratching abrasion, where
Examples are: 18/8 stainless steel and 12% Mn steel. the abrasive condition can be termed moderate. The
Austenite is a relatively soft, non-magnetic, ductile
form of steel that possesses fairly high tensile strength.
The one factor that enables austenite to be used
successfully in surfacing applications is its unique ability
to work-harden. When austenite is cold-worked or
deformed, it increases in hardness and tensile strength
while its ductility decreases. The more it is worked, the
harder it becomes. The mechanism of hardening has
been described as a transformation of the austenite into
martensite by mechanical means rather than by thermal
treatments. The cold-worked microstructure is indeed
similar in many respects to martensite, and the steel
becomes slightly magnetic.
When carbon in excess of its solubility in iron is
added, the carbon atoms unite with metallic atoms to
form carbides. Some elements which have higher
affinity for carbon than others, will combine with carbon
preferentially to form carbides. Ta, Ti, Nb, Zr, V, W, Cr
a n d Fe are carbide-forming elements listed in
descending order of their carbide-forming tendencies.
The action of tungsten (W) needs to be explained.
Though this element has good affinity for carbon and
should readily form tungsten carbide in steel, the
solubility of tungsten carbide in iron is so high that pure Fig.11.1: Modes of carbide distribution in hardfacing
deposits: (A) Network carbide; (B) Dispersed carbide
tungsten carbides are rarely formed in ferrous weld

higher carbon martensites are also capable of giving
excellent service in grinding abrasion.
AUSTENITE
Austenite is soft and ductile; work-hardens rapidly
under impact, and has high utility in conditions of
gouging abrasion. This tough, ductile core supporting
a highly work-hardened surface layer is very resistant
to further furrowing or gouging. Austenite is also an
important phase in high-carbon deposits containing
carbides and serves to impart some ductility to this type
of deposit. Austenites are excellent for build-up prior
to overlaying.
NETWORK CARBIDES
Network carbides are formed by precipitation from
a high-carbon melt and form a continuous network in
the solidified metal. This type of carbide is an extremely
hard, brittle phase that has a very low resistance to
impact. In these deposits, the carbide phase surrounds
the matrix phase, which is usually austenite. Network
carbides serve to increase the wear resistance of hard
surfacing deposits in low stress scratching abrasion; they
are also effective in high stress grinding abrasion,
provided the carbide has a higher hardness than the
abrasive. The increase in wear resistance is proportional
to the amount of carbide present. However, as the
amount of carbide increases, the properties of the
deposit approach those of the carbide (i.e. high hardness
and low ductility). In some instances, network carbides
make the deposit quite brittle and crack-sensitive, even
though only a small total amount is present.
DISPERSED CARBIDES
Dispersed carbides are surrounded by bonding
metal. Relatively high percentages of dispersed carbide
can be contained in a weld deposit before the strength
and ductility of the deposit approach those of the
carbide, and most dispersed carbide weld deposits
reflect the properties of the bonding metal. It is the
properties of the bonding metal that control the use of
dispersed carbide. When properly employed, dispersed
carbides improve all types of wear.
IRON-BASE ALLOYS
These alloys usually have a carbon range of 2.5-5%
and have characteristics of cast iron. Hence they are
termed irons.
These alloys can have martensitic, austenitic or
austenito-rriartensitic matrix d e p e n d i n g on alloy
content. Martensitic irons have a low alloy content, the
HARDFACING BY WELDING 513
alloying elements being Cr, Ni, Mo and W (for example,
3.0 C-4.5 Ni-1.5 Cr). The matrix is usually a complex
carbide containing islands of martensite with some
retained austenite. These irons have a high compressive
strength, good abrasion resistance but limited impact
resistance.
Irons with around 15% Cr and some amounts of Mo
or Ni have an austenitic matrix. The deposits have better
crack resistance than the martensitic types and excellent
resistance to low-stress abrasion, i.e. where impact is low
or absent (example: ploughshare). But they are unsuitable
for high-stress abrasion.
Irons with 24-33% Cr form hard Cr7C3-type carbides
in an austenite-martensite matrix. Austenitic matrix is
promoted through addition of 4-8% Mn or 2-5% Ni.
An example of such alloy is class EFeCr-Al whose
properties and applications are described in Chapter 3,
under "Surfacing Electrodes". Mo, V or W may be added
to increase hot hardness and abrasion resistance.
Proportion of martensite can be increased through
suitable alloy addition and faster cooling rate. With a
high level of martensite in the structure, the deposit
exhibits excellent resistance to high-stress grinding
abrasion (example: ball mill), low-stress abrasion as well
as metal-to-metal wear. But then the deposit is more
susceptible to cracking.
The effect of carbon in the wide range from 0.1 to
4.5% on the development of three types of microstruc-
tures (martensite, austenite and carbides) in a 6% Cr,
3% Mn, 0.4% Si steel is shown in the photomicrographs
in Fig. 11.2. The last of them illustrates the effect of in-
troducing TiC in the steel.
Types of Wear
The various types of wear mentioned earlier are
described in detail in the following paragraphs, and the
appropriate consumables to be selected for each type of
wear have been indicated. Earlier in chapter 3, the
various standard types of hardfacing alloys and their
properties have been described. These two sections must
be read together.
1) Frictional wear: The metal-to-metal frictional wear
is determined b y t h e comparative hardness of the
mating surfaces, their frictional coefficients and galling
tendencies, surface films, lubricity and plasticity. There
are no weld deposits specially designed for frictional
wear, and means other than hardfacing are available for
minimising frictional wear.
2) Abrasive wear: In this case the wear is caused by a
hard and sharp-edged non-metallic material such as
sand and cement. Scratching abrasion, also known as
514 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1000 x PICRAL-HCI ETCH

MARTENSITE
WITH A LITTLE
RETAINED AUSTENITE
0.4 C
Re 55

1 MARTENSITE
0.1 C MARTENSITE
Re 40 WITH A LITTLE
RETAINED AUSTENITE
0.5 C
Re 57

MARTENSITE PARTLY TRANSFORMED

0.2 c AUSTENITE
Re 48 0.75C
Re 43

3 MARTENSITE
0.3 C
Re 56 UNSTABLE AUSTENTIE
0.9 C
Re 21
 HARDFACING BY WELDING 515

8
12
AUSTENITE
AUSTENITE WITH
1.0 C
NETWORK CARBIDE
Re 23
2.5 C
Re 43

AUSTENITE WITH 13
DISCONTINUOUS ! AUSTENITE AND
NETWORK CARBIDE W <*&< * - . - CARBIDE
1.15C 3.5 C
Re 21 Re 50

10 14
AUSTENITE WITH NEEDLE CARBIDES IN
DISCONTINUOUS AUSTENITE-CARBIDE
NETWORK CARBIDE MATRIX
1.25 C 4.5 C
Re 27 Re 66

11
AUSTENITE WITH 15
NETWORK CARBIDE DISPERSED TITANIUM
1.75 C CARBIDE IN AUSTENITIC
Re 35 MATRIX UN-ETCHED

Fig.11.2: Microstructural changes in hardfacing deposit with increasing carbon content

516 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
low-stress abrasion, is less severe than grinding and
gouging abrasion. The wear is more due to the velocity
than the abrasiveness of the material. Examples of high
velocity are an air blast or the turbulent flow of an
abrasive-carrying liquid. Sand slingers and dredge
pumps are examples of equipment involving scratching
abrasion. Typical examples are fans, b l o w e r s ,
ploughshares, coke chutes, cement chutes, brake drums.
To combat low-stress abrasion, alloys with a hard matrix
a n d / or high ratio of carbides to matrix must be used.
Grinding abrasion is indicated by the fragmentation
of small, hard, abrasive grains, usually between metal
surfaces. The broken abrasive grains are sharp and can
cause deep furrowing. The concentrated stress on the
metal surface caused by the sharp corners of the broken
abrasive can cause local fracture and removal of the
microconsrituents of the metal. For this reason, grinding
abrasion is sometimes known as high-stress abrasion.
Deterioration of the metal surface occurs through
furrowing, local plastic flow, and microcracking. Ball
milling and machinery parts that rub together in a gritty
environment are examples of grinding abrasion. Typical
examples are augers, concrete mixer blades, scraper
blades, screw conveyors, cement die rings, muller tyres.
For resisting high stress without impact, alloys with a
hard matrix and medium-to-high ratio of carbides to
matrix must be preferred.
Gouging abrasion implies high stress on a gross scale
and is usually associated with impact. Sometimes the
forces are applied at relatively low velocity, as in the ease
of a power shovel digging in rock; in other cases, they
may be applied at high velocity, as in the base of
hammers or breaker bars in an impact-type pulveriser.
The mechanism of metal removal is similar to that
produced by machining with a cutting tool or high-speed
abrasive wheel. Prominent gouges are cut in or torn from
the wearing surface in gouging abrasion. Power shovels
digging in rock and rock-crusher operations are prime
examples of gouging abrasion. Typical examples are jaw
crushers, impactors, roll crushers, gyratory crushers. To
withstand high stress with impact, alloys with medium-
to-hard matrix a n d / o r medium-to-high ratio of carbides
to matrix must be used.
3) Impact wear: Impact means repeated hammering
effect in service. When impact causes only elastic
deformation of the surface, it is termed as light. When it
causes both elastic and plastic deformation, it is termed as
medium. Impact is termed to be heavy when it results in
the deformation or fracture of even the strongest material.
To resist heavy impact, the alloy must be tough as
well as work-hardening. Austenitic manganese steel
(Chapter 10 )and austenitic stainless steels possess these
properties and are therefore ideally suited for heavy
impact. Usually, varying combinations of abrasion and
impact have to be met in service. If impact is light, and
abrasion heavy, one should prefer a martensitic high-
Cr iron or a hard deposit having a high ratio of carbides-
to-matrix (alloy A). If impact as well as abrasion are
heavy, austenitic manganese base metal surfaced with
a martensitic iron would be the best choice.
4) Corrosive wear: To resist wear caused by corrosive
media, the surface can be built up with a corrosion-
resistant deposit of appropriate chemistry. In general,
high-Cr austenitic deposits are used to resist corrosion
and oxidation.
5) High temperature wear: Wear at elevated
temperature is aggravated by oxidation and scaling as
well as by reduction of hardness. All hardfacing alloys
tend to lose hardness, more or less, with increasing
temperature. In applications where high temperatures
combined with abrasion have to be met, one can choose
from Ti-carbide containing deposits, cobalt-base alloys
or high-Cr irons. Typical alloy compositions suitable for
high temperature wear are given in Table 11.1 and the
effects of high temperature on their hardness are shown
in Table 11.2.
Deposit Hardness Variables and Control
We have stated earlier that hardness is not always a
true measure of the wear resistance property of a weld
deposit. Even then in many applications, hardness of
the weld deposit forms the basis of selection of a
hardfacing consumable. For example, the most common
selling items in a hardfacing range of electrodes are
designed on the basis of hardness of their weld deposits
as follows:
Type Hardness (BHN)
A 250-280
B 350-380
C 280-320
D 600-625
It is easy to understand that hardness is not a fixed
property of the weld deposit. It depends on how fast
the weld deposit cools down from the molten condition.
The faster the cooling rate, the harder is the weld
deposit. If the base metal is a thin plate, the weld will
cool relatively slowly and will be relatively less hard. If
the base metal is a big mass, the weld from the same
electrode will cool fast and will be harder. Also taking
the same size of base metal and using the same electrode
 HARDFACING BY WELDING 517

Table 11.1: Typical deposit compositions for high temperature service: Deposit composition %
Type Mn Si Cr Ti Mo W Co V Ni
A 6.0 2.7 1.0 13.0 5.2 — — —
B 4.6 1.0 1.1 27.0 — 3.5 — —
C 3.0 1.3 0.81 8.3 1.5 — — —
D 2.0 — — , 29.0 — — 12.0 51
E 1.6 1.8 0.9 5.8 4.2 0.5 — — 0.4
F 0.7 — — 27.0 — — 4.5 62
G 1.75 1.0 1.5 30.0 — 1.5 — —
H 0.8 0.5 0.65 4.0 — 8.0 1.2 — 1.0
I 1.9 1.5 0.60 7.4 4.6 1.4 — —
J 4.5 0.75 0.80 28.0 — — — —
K 4.2 1.7 0.10 5.0 6.8 — — —
L 3.1 1.7 1.7 15.0 — — — —
Note: A to H are from manual electrodes; I to L are from flux-cored wires

Table 11.2: Hardness variation of hardfacing alloys with increasing temperature

Type Rockwell' C at temperature,°C
21 260 425 540 650 760
A 59 51 51 49 55 51
B 60 57 57 41 52 53
C 48 36 32 30 52 41
D 55 48 45 43 40 35
E 63 57 51 50 48 28
F 42 32 27 21 18 17
G 39 40 40 43 42 38
H 61 55 53 50 32 —
I 60 55 50 39 48 28
J 54 54 54 52 48 40
K 40 41 41 46 38 37
L 51 38 37 38 42 37

type, larger size electrode which uses very high current
will give a slightly less hard weld deposit as compared
to an electrode of smaller size, which uses lower current.
This is because in the case of larger size electrode, the
base metal gets heated up more and therefore the weld
deposit cools down more slowly.
Another factor which affects hardness of the weld
deposit is dilution by the base metal. The first weld pass
or layer with a hardfacing electrode gets diluted to the
extent of 25 to 40% by the base metal. In other words,
the weld deposit consists of 25 to 40% of base metal and
75 to 60% of weld-metal from the electrode. If the
welding current is higher a n d the arc is m o r e
penetrating, then there will be more dilution. Dilution
in the second layer is to the extent of 10 to 25% and in
the third layer, between 3 and 10%.
Even when using the same size and type of electrode,
weld-metal chemistry and the deposit hardness will be
affected by arc length, welding speed, welding current
and by the method of weaving. A longer arc length
means a higher arc voltage and therefore more heat in
the arc. This leads to increased dilution with the base
metal. In addition, the longer arc may tend to decrease
the transfer efficiency of the alloying elements from the
coating to the weld deposit across the arc. The weld
deposit will therefore have less amounts of alloying
elements and this will result in lower hardness.
Increased welding speed means decreased rate of heat
input (joules per cm). This leads to faster cooling and
higher hardness. Increased welding current means
increased rate of heat input and deeper penetration of
the arc. The first factor leads to less hardness and the
second factor leads to increased dilution.
Broad weaving means decreased welding speed and
therefore less hard deposit. Stringer beads mean
increased welding speed and a harder deposit. In the
stringer bead technique, it is possible to direct the arc
on the weld puddle instead of directing it on the base
518 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
metal ahead of the weld puddle. By doing this, dilution
of the weld deposit by the base metal is reduced to a
minimum.
Since hardness is a variable property, the quality of
hardfacing electrode is controlled through its weld
chemistry. As long as the weld chemistry is exactly as
specified in the leaflet, it can be presumed that it will
give the same hardness. Any change in the hardness
value obtained in a test or on the job can then be ascribed
to other factors such as cooling rate, base metal dilution,
etc.
The American Welding Society has recognised this
fact and has therefore classified all hardfacing
electrodes on the basis of weld deposit chemistry in
their "Specification for surfacing rods and electrodes",
AWS A5.13 (see Chapter 3).
The electrode types A, B, C and D mentioned above
are designed in such a way that they give a martensitic
deposit and the required hardness in the as-welded
condition at the normal cooling rates in air. These
properties are achieved by having suitable amounts of
carbon, molybdenum and chromium in the weld-metal.
The chemistry of these types is furnished below:
Type C% Cr% Mo% V7%
A 0.15 0.40 1.10 —
B 0.20 2.9 — —
D 0.50 7.0 0.50 0.50
The increasing amount of carbon ensures a harder
martensite, while the increasing amounts of chromium
and molybdenum ensure attainment of full hardness
even at lower cooling rates from the molten condition.
Also chromium, molybdenum and vanadium help the
deposit to retain its hardness at higher temperatures in
service.
Applications of the types A, B and D are listed below.
It must be noted that the weld deposit of A is easily
machinable, that of B is machinable with a special
cutting tool, and that of type D is not machinable and
must be finished by grinding.
Type A: Gears, pinion teeth, railway and tram rails,
machine parts where moderate hardness and toughness
are required, combined with easy machinability.
Type B: Shear blades, rail ends and crossings, brake
shoes, large cogwheels and other steel castings,
ploughshares, wobbler end, cams, idlers, rollers and
track links of tractors.
Type D: Metal cutting and forming tools, punches,
dies, drilling bits, shears and croppers, oil expellers,
crusher hammers, mine rails, caterpillar treads, crane
wheels, conveyor bucket, etc.
A correct understanding of the influence of base
metal dilution and cooling rate on the hardfacing
deposit enables one to obtain a deposit of the right type
to suit an application. This is illustrated in the following
paragraphs by taking the example of types A, B and D.
If one wants a surface with 600 Brinell hardness, the
obvious method is (a) to take a mild steel piece and
surface it with type D. One can also achieve the same
objective by (b) selecting a base metal of Class IV steel
(having 0.40% carbon) and then surfacing it with type
B. The deposit will attain the required hardness due to
carbon pick-up from the base metal.
In the method (a), the first layer will have lower
hardness due to dilution by the mild steel base metal.
Only in the third layer, will it be possible to get 600
Brinell hardness, because the weld deposit is almost
undiluted. In the method (b) the hardness phenomenon
will be reversed. The first layer will have maximum
hardness because of maximum carbon pick-up from the
base metal. The hardness will decrease with each
subsequent layer, until in the fourth pass the hardness
will be just 350 Brinell, because it consists of undiluted
metal.
One could also obtain a surface of 600 Brinell
hardness (c) by using rail steel (having 0.55% carbon)
and depositing a single layer with type A. In this case
also, hardness will decrease with each subsequent layer
of type A.
Though surfaces obtained by methods (a), (b) and
(c) may have identical high hardness, it is possible that
surfaces (b) and (c) will not give as satisfactory service
as (a). In metal-to-metal wear where considerable heat
is likely to develop, deposits (b) and (c) will soften very
easily and wear out fast, because high hardness here is
merely due to high carbon. In the case of deposit (a),
the hardness is fairly well retained at high temperatures
due to the high amount of chromium and reasonable
amounts of molybdenum. In the same way, (a) is likely
to withstand abrasive wear better than (b) and (c)
because of the higher chromium content.
In spite these arguments, there are many average
wear applications where methods (b) and (c) can be
adopted with advantage and economy.
One may be surfacing a component of small size with
a large diameter electrode. He will then get reduced
hardness, because the entire base metal gets heated up.
He should therefore change over to a small diameter
electrode. Alternatively, he must keep the base metal
partially immersed in water to keep it cool.

It can also happen that when the first layer is being
deposited, the base metal is cold a n d therefore
maximum hardness is obtained. As the welding is
continued the base metal gets progressively heated up
and the weld-metal deposit has lower hardness. In such
a case, care must be taken to keep the base metal cool
all the time. Wherever possible, the weld deposit can
be laid on different areas of the base metal which are
reasonably cool.
One may attempt to deposit type D on a base metal
having high carbon (say 0.40% carbon). In this case, the
weld deposit will pick up carbon and its hardness will
increase to such a degree that it will crack. Such cracking
can be avoided by two methods:
1) First deposit one or two layers with E7016 class
electrode and then deposit further layers of type D. An
intermediate layer laid between the base metal and the
final layer is called a buffer layer.
2) Preheat the base metal so that cooling rate of type
D deposit is lowered and thereby the hardness is
lowered to a value where the weld-metal will not crack.
If one is depositing metal on a huge mass of mild
steel, the deposit is likely to be much harder than what
is indicated in the leaflet, because of extremely fast
cooling rate. The deposit from type D is likely to crack
because of extreme hardness. In this case, the problem
will not be solved by a buffer layer, but only by using
preheating or by changing over to an electrode which
gives a less hardenable deposit.
Base metal having high carbon or h a r d e n a b l e
elements like Cr or Mo is likely to develop underbead
cracks, due to hydrogen from the arc. This tendency will
increase with the mass of the base metal. These cracks
can cause permanent damage to the component and also
lead to early breakdown of the hardfaced layer in
service. In such cases, one must use low-hydrogen type
hardfacing electrodes.
Many of the hardfacing d e p o s i t s r e s p o n d to
mechanical and thermal treatments. This means that
their wear-resistant properties can be improved by
suitable heat treatment procedure or by peening. The
procedure for heat treatment has to be adopted in
accordance with the chemistry of the deposit and taking
into consideration the type of service conditions it has
to face. In fact, many engineering components such as
automobile valves, hot working dies and hot shear
blades can be most efficiently produced by correct choice
of the blank (i.e. base metal), hardfacing deposit
chemistry and final heat treatment.
HARDFACING BY WELDING 519
A good example of how weld deposition is controlled
in practice is seen in the hardfacing of rail ends made
from 0.55% carbon steel.
The worn rail ends are ground sufficiently deep to
provide a uniform depth of 10 mm. Initial preheat of
100°C is provided with an oxyacetylene torch. A buffer
layer is deposited with 5 mm diameter E 7016 type low-
hydrogen electrodes. By the time this layer is complete,
the rail is sufficiently heated up, so that no additional
preheating is necessary. Final two or three layers are
deposited with 5 mm diameter type B electrode of the
low-hydrogen type. Welding is continued without
interruption to maintain enough heat in the base metal,
since much of it is being continually absorbed by the
mass of the rail. The welding area is protected when
necessary, from wind and rain as these may cause the
weld deposit to chill and crack.
The surfaced rail m u s t h a v e 320-350 Brinell
hardness. This is achieved by suitable initial trials. If
the deposit is harder, it means that preheat should be
increased and heat input during welding must also be
increased, so that the weld deposit cools down more
slowly and is softer. If the deposit is softer, preheat and
heat input must be decreased.
Control of Distortion
A hardfaced component is subject to distortion. The
cause of distortion is explained in Fig. 11.3. The blank
(i.e. original component) is 30 cm long and cold, while
the weld-metal is deposited in the molten state across
the whole length. If the weld deposit was free and not
bonded to the base metal, it would shrink by 6.5 mm on
cooling to room temperature. But since it is bonded to
the blank, it pulls the blank inside and distorts it.
MOLTEN
w//////////m/m///m
w//////////.i^ • "///mm ^^SSJW^
NO BOND BONDED
Fig.11.3: Distortion caused by contraction of the deposit
As a result of distortion, flat jobs become curved,
cylindrical jobs contract across the diameter and rings
may become dished, or concave.
Distortion can be controlled by taking proper
precautions. When a blank is a long section like shear
520 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
blade, it can be straightened when hot. Since further
distortion takes place on cooling from a red heat to room
temperature/the blank may be made slightly convex to
the extent of 2.5 mm per metre to ensure flatness when
cold. It should not be straightened in the cold state as
this may cause the weld-metal to crack.
The thicker the weld deposit and greater the length
of the deposit, more severe is the distortion. One must
therefore use minimum amount of weld deposit. A thin
blank distorts more than a thick blank. Distortion can
be minimised by using special welding sequences as
explained in Chapter 3. For example, in hardfacing a
long blade, the back step method should be preferred.
A short length at the centre should be first deposited
and similar lengths on alternate sides of the centre
should then be deposited. The direction of arc travel
for each run should always be towards the centre. Each
run should be of the maximum cross-section possible
or permissible, so that minimum number of passes are
used.
Distortion can be controlled by having symmetrical
welds wherever possible. For example in a shear blade,
weld can be laid alternately on the fouredges of the blank
shown in Fig. 11.4 (a). In building up a shaft, only a
short run of deposit should be made along one side
parallel to the axis and the shaft should then be turned
over and a similar run made on the opposite side to
equalize the stress. If a long run were made on one side
only, this would cause a permanent distortion, which
would not be removed by the next deposit on the
opposite side (see Fig. 11.4 (b)).
Blanks of long lengths should be well supported at
close intervals to prevent sagging when the whole job
becomes too hot. This precaution is more necessary
Fig.11.4: Examples of symmetrical welds to control di
where high preheat is used. Distortion can often be
counteracted by presetting the blank, so that the
contraction of the deposit on cooling pulls it straight.
Thin b l a d e s are h e a t e d a n d bent convex before
hardfacing, or alternatively each end of the blade is
clamped down to the top of the bench whilst a spacer is
placed under the centre to raise it and make the top
convex during depositing.
Blades thicker than 25 mm may be clamped or tack-
welded back-to-back, so that very little straightening is
usually required (after) hardfacing. Rings, dies, steam
valve seats, etc., may be treated in the same way,
although if the preheating temperature is high enough
to cause scaling of the u n d e r n e a t h blank whilst
hardfacing the top one, a dummy should be substituted.
Distortion may sometimes be reduced by annealing
or stress-relieving the blank before hardfacing. During
this operation the blank should not be exposed to cold
air and the cooling must be slow.
When distortion is prevented by the large mass of
the blank or by clamping or tacking, the weld deposit is
subject to severe strain during cooling, with the result
that it develops cracks. In such cases preheating of the
blank helps to reduce the tendency to distortion as well
as to weld-metal cracking. Preheating is discussed later.
A hardfaced job has internal stresses due to unequal
heating during hardfacing; the deposit is in a state of
stress, because it has not able to contract completely and
the b l a n k u n d e r n e a t h is u n d e r compression.
Components meant for critical service are therefore
stress-relieved before use. Examples are aero valves and
steam valves. Components which have to be machined
or ground to close tolerances also need to be stress-
relieved. Leaving aside these specialised items, the
on: (A) Shear blade for hot steel; (B) Weld sequence for
a shaft

normal hardfaced jobs do not need any stress-relieving
treatment. It must be remembered that if any cracks have
already formed in the deposit or base metal, they cannot
be removed by any postheat treatment. Also distortion
which has already occurred is not rectified by stress-
relief.
In stress-relieving a job, one must take care that the
hardness of the deposit is not affected by it. Most of the
hardfacing deposits including those of types A, B, C and
D mentioned earlier will lose their hardness slightly. In
specialised applications, the hardfaced deposit is
subjected to special p o s t h e a t t r e a t m e n t such as
quenching, tempering or annealing to get the desired
properties. In such cases, the chemistry of the weld
deposit is carefully chosen.
Preheating
Preheating of the base metal (referred to as blank) to
be hardfaced is necessary for the following reasons:
• To minimise distortion of the blank
• To prevent cracking of the deposit
• To prevent cracking of the blank.
Preheating of small parts is easy. They can be heated
with an oxyacetylene torch. Sometimes the part may be
heated on charcoal) fire. Large parts can be heated
locally or entirely. Local preheating can be done with
an oxyacetylene flame or by electrical method. In
electrical method, two ways are possible: by induction
or by electrical resistance. Induction heating requires
special equipment. Electrical resistance method, which
is described at length in Chapter 19, consists of wrapping
well-insulated special-alloy coils around the part and
passing high current through them. The resistance
offered by the coils make them red hot. Glass wool and
asbestos powder covers the coils, insulates the job and
prevents the exposure of the operator to the heat. The
current is raised gradually as this ensures gradual
heating of the job.
Preheating should not be too severe and rapid,
whatever the method of heating, because then the outer
surface heats up too much while the inside mass is
relatively cool. This can cause internal stresses and even
cracking of the base metal. Extra care is therefore
necessary in preheating base metals like dies which have
low ductility.
Large jobs can be heated entirely in a chamber
furnace to a temperature higher than the preheat
temperature, taken out and kept on the shop floor. To
protect them from cold winds, they can be immediately
covered with insulation like glass wool and asbestos
powder, and heated up again by oxyacetylene torches
from all sides if necessary.
HARDFACING BY WELDING 521
Preheat temperature should not be excessively high
as the steel part may become too plastic and get
compressed by the pull of the weld deposit. Too much
preheat also causes scaling which interferes with
welding. In the case of small steel parts which are hot
only for a short time, the preheat tempierarure may go
up to 600°C Large jobs such as dies, steam valves, etc.,
should be preheated only to a black heat (450°C
maximum), since owing to their large size they take a
long time to heat up and develop a thick scale on the
surface.
Cooling of the job after preheating and hardfacing
should be slow and uniform. If left in air, thin sections
cool faster than thick sections and this results in unequal
temperature at different locations. The usual method is
to cover it with dry insulating powder so that slow
cooling is ensured. Insulating materials commonly used
are slaked lime, ashes, sand, mica dust and asbestos
powder.
A useful preheating chart is given in Table 11.3,
which is reproduced by the courtesy of Welding
Engineer, and Tempil Corp. of U.S.A.
Placement of Weld Deposit
To make a successful hardfacing job, it is important
to know where and how much of the deposit must be
applied. It is not always true that thicker deposit applied
over a large area will give maximum service. Correct
application of the deposit ensures efficiency as well as
economy. For example, in Fig. 11.5, the excavator tooth
welded at B has twice the amount of weld deposit
compared to A. Yet tooth B will fail quickly in service,
because the brittle nose will first fracture as shown in
the figure. The soft base metal will then be exposed and
(A) x
SOFTER STEEL WEARS AWAY
LEAVING DEPOSIT SHARP
(B) SOFTER STEEL WEARS AWAY
DEPOSIT MAY FLAKE OFF
Fig. 11.5: Placement of hard deposit on excavator tooth:
(A) Correct; (B) Incorrect.
 Table 11.3: Metal preheating data
Approximate composition, percent z
Metal group Metal designation i?f ^commended
lvt oo
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu preheat, °C m
z>
Plain carbon steel Below 0.20 upto 100
3J
O
Plain carbon Plain carbon steel 0.20-0.30 — — — — — — — 100-150
steels Plain carbon steel 0.30-0.45 — — — — — — — 150-260 $
r~
Plain carbon steel 0.45-0.80 — — — — — — — 260-430 O
Z
Carbon moly Carbon moly steel 0.10-0.20 — — — — 0.50 — — 150-260 H
steels Carbon moly steel 0.20-0.30 — — — — 0.50 — — 200-230 m
o
Carbon moly steel 0.30-0.35 — — — — 0.50 — — 260^30 X
oz
Silicon structural steel 0.35 0.80 0.25 — — — — — 150-260 5
Medium manganese steel 0.20-0.25 1.0-1.75 — — — — — — 150-260 <
Manganese SAE T 1330 steel 0.30 1.75 — — — — — — 200-320
steels SAE T 1340 steel 0.40 1.75 — — — — — — 260-425
SAE T 1350 steel 0.50 1.75 — — — — — — 320-480
12% Manganese steel 1.25 12.0 — — — — — — Usually not
required
Manganese moly steel 0.20 1.85 0.20 — — 0.35 — — 150-260
Jalten steel 0.35 Max. 1.50 0.30 — — — 0.40 — 200-320
Manten steel 0.30 Max. 1.35 0.30 — — — 0.20 — 200-320
Armco high tensile steel 0.12 Max. — — — 0.50 Min. 0.05 Min. 0.35 Min. — up to 100
Double strength = 1 steel 0.12 Max. 0.75 — — 0.50-1.25 0.10 Min. 0.50-1.50 — 150-320
High tensile Double strength = 1A steel 0.30 Max. 0.75 — — 0.50-1.25 0.10 Min. 0.50-1.50 — 200-370
steels Mayari R steel 0.12 Max. 0.75 0.35 0.2-1.0 0.25-0.75 — 0.60 — up to 150
(see also steels Otiscoloy steel 0.12 Max. 1.25 0.10 Max. 0.10 Max. — — 0.50 Max — 100-200
below) Nax high tensile steel 0.15-0.25 — 0.75 0.60 0.17 0.15 Max. 0.25 Max. Zr 0.12 up to 150
Cromansll steel 0.14 Max. 1.25 0.75 0.50 — — — — 150-200
A.W. Dyn-EL steel 0.11-0.14 — — — — — 0.40 — up to 150
Corten steel 0.12 Max. — 0.25-1.0 0.5-1.5 0.55 Max. — 0.40 — 100-200
Chrome copper nickel steel 0.12 Max. 0.75 — 0.75 0.75 — 0.55 — 100-200
Chrome manganese steel 0.40 0.90 — 0.40 — — — — 200-320
Yoloy steel 0.05-0.35 0.3-1.0 — — 1.75 — 1.0 — 100-320
Hi-steel 0.12 Max. 0.6 0.3 Max. — 0.55 — 0.9-1.25 — 100-260
SAE 2015 steel 0.10-0.20 — — — 0.50 — — — up to 150
SAE 2115 steel 0.10-0.20 — — — 1.50 — — — 100-150
21/2% Nickel steel 0.10-0.20 — — — 2.50 — — — 100-200
SAE 2315 steel 0.15 — — — 3.50 — — — 100-260
SAE 2320 steel 0.20 — — — 3.50 — — — 100-260
Nickel steels SAE 2315 steel 0.15 — — — 3.50 — — — 100-260
SAE 2320 steel 0.20 — — — 3.50 — — — 100-260
SAE 2330 steel 0.30 — — — 3.50 — — — 150-320
 SAE 2340 steel 0.40 3.50 200-370
SAE 3115 steel 0.15 0.60 1.25 100-200
SAE 3125 steel 0.25 0.60 1.25 150-260
SAE 3130 steel 0.30 0.60 1.25 100-370
SAE 3140 steel 0.40 0.60 1.25 260-425
SAE 3150 steel 0.50 0.60 1.25 320-480
Medium nickel SAE 3215 steel 0.15 1.00 1.75 150-260
chromium SAE 3230 steel 0.30 1.00 1.75 260-370
steels SAE 3240 steel 0.40 1.00 1.75 370-540
SAE 3250 steel 0.50 1.00 1.75 480-590
SAE 3315 steel 0.15 1.50 3.50 260-370
SAE 3325 steel 0.25 1.50 3.50 480-590
SAE 3435 steel 0.35 0.75 3.00 480-590
SAE 3450 steel 0.50 0.75 3.00 480-590
SAE 4140 steel 0.40 0.95 0.20 320-425
Moly bearing SAE 4340 steel 0.40 0.65 1,75 0.35 370-480
chromium and SAE 4515 steel 0.15 1.80 0.25 200-320
chromium nickel SAE 4630 steel 0.30 1.80 0.25 260-370
steels SAE 4640 steel 0.40 1.80 0.25 320-425
SAE 4820 steel 0.20 3.50 0.25 320-425
2%Cr-l/2%Mosteel up to 0.15 2.0 — 0.5 200-320
Low chrome 2% Cr-1/2% Mo steel 0.15-0.25 2.0 — 0.5 260-425
moly steels 2%Cr-l/2%Mosteel up to 0.15 2.0 — 1.0 260-370
2% Cr-1% Mo steel 0.15-0.25 2.0 — 1.0 320-425
5% Cr-1/2% Mo steel up to 0.15 5.0 — 0.5 260-425
Medium chrome 5% Cr-1/2% Mo steel 0.15-0.25 5.0 — 0.5 320-480
moly steel 8% Cr-1% Mo steel 0.15 Max. 8.0 — 1.0 320-480
Plain high 12-14% Cr, Type 410 0.10 13.0 — 150-370
chromium steels 16-18% Cr, Type 430 0.10 17.0 '— 150-370
23-30% Cr, Type 446 0.10 26.0 — 150-370
18% Cr, 8% Ni. Type 304 0.07 18.0 8.0
25-12 Type 309 0.07 25.0 12.0 Usually >
33
High chrome 25-20 Type 310 0.07 25.0 20.0 do not a
8.0 Cb.lOXC require
nickel 18-8 Cb. Type 347 0.10 18.0
5o
stainless steels 18-8 Mo. Type 316 0.07 18.0 8.0 2.5 reheat but
18-8 Mo. Type 317 0.07 18.0 8.0 3.5 it may be
desirable to
3
remove chill m
r-
Cast iron 370-480 O
Irons Z
o
en
ro
CO
524 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

wear out very fast. The hard deposit will also flake away
soon afterwards. In tooth A, the softer base metal wears
away gradually, while the sharp edge of the hard deposit
stands proud all the time.
In Fig. 11.6, dipper tooth A has been built up with a
thick deposit while tooth B is built up with a thin deposit.
The latter will give more satisfactory service, because
the thin deposit wears out to a sharper edge as shown.
extent. To give an example, the screw of a cement
conveyor pump was hardfaced on the periphery to a
thickness of 6 m m at the delivery end, decreasing to 3
mm at the inlet end. After giving long service, the screw
became unserviceable but the periphery had remained
intact. The maximum wear had taken place on the front
face of the last flight at the delivery end. Maximum
efficiency was obtained in the long run by hardfacing
the face of two flights as the delivery end, and also on
the surface of the shaft as shown in Fig. 11.8
When the service life of a component is limited by
the fracture or breaking off at a position away from the

3.05 MM TO 1.5 MM
6.35 MM ON 2 FLIGHTS ON REMAINDER
4.83 MM ON SHAFT

4.83 MM ON FACE OF 2 FLIGHTS 3.05 MM ON REAR OF TWO FLIGHTS

Fig. 11.8: Control of hardfacing deposit on a cement

conveyor screw

Fig. 11.6: Hardfaced dipper tooth: (A) Incorrect; (B) hardfaced area, it is wasteful to have a hardfacing
Correct deposit which is too thick. An example of this is a
hardfaced automobile valve. A minimum of deposit on
In Fig. 11.7, two methods of hardfacing the hammer the seating is sufficient to outlast the life given by the
of a pulverising mill are shown. Though hammer A stem working in its guide. A somewhat similar case is
contains much more weld deposit than hammer C, its that of coal-cutter picks u s e d in automatic coal
brittle corner breaks away in service as shown at B and undercutter machines. A minimum of deposit as shown
consequently the hammer wears out rapidly. Hammer in Fig. 11.9 at A is sufficient to ensure efficient cutting
C shows the correct design of the deposit, which is both of coal until the cutter gets bent beyond use or gets lost
economical and long-lasting. in the mine. Too much deposit as shown at B is wasteful.

in in in
0 0 © Fig. 11.9: Hardfaced coal cutter picks: (A) Economical
and efficient; (B) Wasteful

Fig. 11.7: Hardfaced hammers: (A) and (B) Incorrect;
(C) Correct
The area w h i c h is to be hardfaced on a n e w
component can be judged by examining the extent of
wear on it in service. The pattern of wear will then
indicate which areas need to be built up and to what
In some cases the application of a small area of
hardfacing alloy will prolong the life of a hardened-steel
surface. For instance, the narrow band of deposit applied
to top and bottom of the drill bush shown in Fig. 11.10,
which is subsequently carburised a n d h a r d e n e d ,
preserves the size of the steel bore and increases its life
from three to six times.

1.524 MM
Fig. 1 1.10: Control of hardfacing deposit on a bush for
drilling jig
Examples of Thermal Treatment during Hardfacing
The following examples demonstrate the role of
correct heat treatment in ensuring maximum service
from the hardfaced components:
• Auto engine valves
The valves c o m m o n l y used in h e a v y - d u t y
commercial petrol and diesel engines are made from
steel containing 0.5% C, 3.5% Si and 8.5% Cr. In the
unhardened condition this steel has a hardness of 255-
295 DPH. The finished valve is delivered in a heat-
treated condition. The heat treatment consists of
quenching in oil or air from 1,000 to 1,050°C and then
tempering in the range 650-850°C.
Hardfacing of these valves becomes necessary to
confer extra erosion and corrosion resistance to resist
the products of combustion from high-octane. Arc
welding is not recommended, because this process gives
a thick deposit and there is too much dilution from the
base metal. Oxyacetylene or TIG welding is preferred
and surfacing is carried out with a filler rod made of
Cr-Co-W-Mo alloy.
The component is first heated to 400-500°C range.
The filler rod is fused over the surface by brazewelding
technique. The neck of the valve should not attain a
temperature of more than 850°C during welding, as
otherwise the strength of the part is affected. After
deposition is completed, the entire valve is brought to
an even heat (dull-red, i.e. 600°C) with an auxiliary
burner. It is then cooled slowly under dry insulating
powder.
HARDFACING BY WELDING 525
The valve is again heated in a furnace to the
tempering temperature, i.e. 650-850°C and cooled in air.
This treatment relieves the contraction stresses and
ensures long life of the valve.
In some cases, the valves are surfaced in the annealed
condition, using an alloy rod which gives a hardness
slightly below 450 DPH. The entire surfaced valve is
then subjected to hardening and tempering treatment.
• Building cutting edge on mild steel shank
A cutting tool can be made from a mild steel shank
by depositing with a tool steel electrode on the edge as
shown in Fig.11.11. TIG welding using a tool steel filler
rod is also equally suitable.
Fig. 11.11: Building a cutting tip on mild steel shank: (A)
Initial groove for locating the deposit; (B), (C) and (D):
Three alternative ways of finishing by grinding
The following procedure is recommended to obtain
a most efficient cutting edge:
a) Preheat the bar to 600-700°C
b) Deposit in the groove with the electrode
c) Cool in air (finally in air blast)
d) Grind out the excess metal
e) Oil quench from 1,280°C
f) Temper at 560°C for one hour
g) Grind to finish.
• Rebuilding high-speed steel cutter
The high-speed steel cutter is first softened by
annealing at 850°C and cooling slowly in the furnace or
under insulating powder. It is then preheated to 600°C
with an auxiliary burner and this heat is maintained
while the deposit is laid on the tip with a tool steel
electrode. The electrode should be of small size, say 2.5
mm diameter. Immediately after welding is completed,
the cutter is cooled slowly in the furnace or under
insulating powder. Even with this slow cooling, the
deposit remains hard. Secondary hardening at 580-
600°C is carried out if required. The correct cutting
angles are ground in position.
526 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The cutter is preheated to 500°C. A buffer layer is
laid on the cutting edge with a stainless steel electrode.
Two layers are then deposited with the tool steel
electrode. After each run, the deposit is peened.
Immediately after welding is completed, the cutter is
transferred to a furnace or kept under insulating powder
and allowed to cool slowly. The cutting angles are
formed by grinding.
OXYACETYLENE METHOD
The cutter is first a n n e a l e d t h o r o u g h l y by
maintaining it at 850°C and cooling slowly in the furnace
or under insulating powder. It is then preheated to 600°C
with an auxiliary burner and this preheat is maintained
throughout. A high-speed steel filler rod is fused on to
the edge, layer by layer. After welding is completed,
the cutter is cooled slowly under insulating powder. The
deposit is soft at this stage. The entire cutter is finally
given a hardening and secondary hardening treatment
as follows:
Harden at 1,320-1,370°C, quench in water.
Secondary harden at 580-600°C, cool in air.
Anneal at 840-870°C, cool slowly in furnace.
• Hot shear blades
A hardfaced hot shear blade was illustrated in Fig. 11.4.
A martensitic-type electrode is recommended for this
application. For best service, the deposit should have a
hardness range of 44-48 Re (440-500 DPH). In order to
ensure this, the blade is preheated to 150-200°C. The
deposit is laid in the correctly prepared groove using
correct sequence. After welding is completed, the whole
job is allowed to cool under an insulating cover. The
deposit now has a hardness of 51-55 Re (550-630 DPH).
The blade is finally stress-relieved by tempering at 580-
620°C. This treatment brings the hardnesses of the deposit
down to 44 to 48Rc) and also makes it more tough.
• Austenitic manganese steel jaw crushers
Weldability of austenitic manganese steel was
discussed in Chapter 10. Its typical composition is 1.0%
C, 12-14% Mn. The austenitic condition is obtained by
quenching the casting from 1,000°C. The casting thereby
becomes soft and possesses a hardness of 180-220 DPH.
In service, the continuous impact on the jaw causes the
surface to work-harden to 500-550 DPH range.
In rebuilding a jaw crusher, worn-out teeth have to
be built up to full size by multi-pass welding. The most
important thing here is to prevent overheating of the
base metal. When the base metal is heated above 300°C,
it gets embrittled. A matching electrode, which deposits
12%-Mn steel, must be used. The electrode should be
of small diameter and welding current should be low.
A wandering sequence must be followed. The jaw can
be kept partially immersed in water, so that heat is
rapidly conducted away.
Sometimes the jaw is subjected to abrasive wear
instead of impact in service. This happens when the jaw
is in continuous contact with gravel or sandy material.
In such a case, the jaw has no chance of work-hardening.
The soft surface therefore wears out fast. In such a case,
a buffer layer is first deposited with the stainless steel
electrode. Over it two layers are laid with a martensitic
hardfacing electrode, giving a hardness range of 50-60
Re. In doing this it is not necessary that the heat input is
controlled. Welding can be done at normal speed using
large diameter electrodes.
Hardfacing Processes
The various hardfacing processes in use are listed in Table
11.4, along with the types and forms of filler alloys available
for each.
Oxyacetylene welding is used for small parts and
for precise buildup. Arc welding processes are most
commonly used, because they yield high deposition
rates a n d simplify extensive b u i l d u p on heavy
components. Some of them can be used in semi-
automatic or fully-automatic form for hardfacing
standard components on a production scale. Metal
spraying with oxyacetylene flame or plasma-arc, a
process closely allied to welding, is also widely popular
in the maintenance field.
• Oxyacetylene welding
The process requires inexpensive equipment and is
capable of giving smooth, precise and high quality
deposits with minimum base metal dilution. These
advantages are seen, for example, when applying a Co-
based filler metal on the edge of a steel component, in
which case dilution of the cobalt alloy by iron is
detrimental. With this process, W-carbide composite
rods can be melted with minimum dissolution of the
wear-resistant carbide particles and with controlled
particle distribution. In the case of hardenable base
metals and brittle deposits, cracking can be minimised
through preheating and slow cooling by means of the
flame. For high quality welding, for example, for
depositing a low-melting high-Cr iron or Cr-Co-W alloy
on a medium-carbon steel which has a higher melting
point, the welder must be skilled enough to know correct
adjustment and manipulation of the flame, and the
 HARDFACING BY WELDING 527

Table 11.4: Hardfacing processes and suitable filler alloys

Welding / Spraying Type of filler alloy
process Ferrous Ni-based Co-based W-carbide
Oxyacetylene Bare rod Bare rod Bare rod Composite*
Powder Powder Powder Powder
MMA Coated electrode Coated electrode Coated electrode Coated electrode*
GTA Bare rod Bare rod Bare rod Composite*
Bare wire Basic wire Bare wire Granule
GMA X Flux-cored wire Flux-cored wire X
Flux-cored arc Flux-cored X X X
(gas-shielded or wire
self-shielded)
SA Bare solid wire X X X
Flux-cored wire
SA with auxiliary Bare wire with X Bare wire with X
powder metal powder metal powder
Plasma-arc Powder with or Powder with or Powder with or Powder
(transferred arc) without W-carbide without W-carbide without W-carbide
granules granules granules
Hame spray Bare rod Bare rod Bare rod Composite*
(metal spraying) Powder Powder Powder Powder
Plasma spraying Powder Powder Powder Powder
(metal spraying)
*Note: Mild steel tube filled with tungsten carbide granules is termed a 'composite'.

mode of flame travel and of wire-feed. Oxyacetylene
welding is unsuitable for heavy parts and for austenitic
manganese steel, because it causes widespread heating.
• Oxyacetylene surfacing with powder
This is a modified oxyacetylene process, in which a
specially designed torch as shown in Fig. 11.12 is used.
From a dispenser attached to the torch, finely divided
powder is fed into the flame. The powder melts to give
a controlled deposit and forms a strong bond to the base
material by surface alloying and diffusion.
Fig. 11.12: Oxyacetylene powder surfacing torch
This process is suitable for use with a large variety
of powder alloys. A finger-operated control lever is
depressed to feed powder into the gas stream. The
process is easy to use and no special skills are required
other than following user instructions. The operator
gains proficiency in controlling the deposit within a very
short time.
This is a low heat input process and hence the base
metals are not melted. Successful repairs can be made
on all types of base metal including tool steels, hardened
steels and cast irons.
The process is well suited for the reclamation of worn
or mis-machined parts. In addition, it can also be widely
used for providing wear, corrosion- and heat-resistant
coatings on critical areas of vital machinery components
for their improved performance, longer part-life and
recycling.
Some of the important applications are worn cams,
cam shafts, worn out or damaged threads, key way
repairs, glass moulds, valve seats, brazing of copper tube
joints in heat exchangers and mis-machined parts.
For surfacing operation, the powder module is
inserted into the torch and the flame lighted in the usual
way. The flame is made neutral, but with a slight excess
of acetylene to avoid oxidation. The part to be surfaced
is first preheated with the flame to a temperature of
approximately 320°C as indicated by a blue colour on
the metal. During preheating, the torch tip is held 5 to 8
cm away from the surface. After this preheat, and while
at this temperature, a coating of approximately 0.1 to
0.2 mm is sprayed over the entire surface to be coated.
528 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

(The powder will adhere to the workpiece and will have
a sandy, dull appearance at this point.)
Next, starting at one edge of the pre-sprayed deposit,
heating is continued till a temperature of 1,000°C as
indicated by a bright-red colour is reached and the
powder becomes molten. Such heating and bonding is
continued to cover the entire pre-sprayed area.
After this original bond coat has been applied, the
powder can now be deposited to the desired thickness,
using the spray and fuse technique. This means spraying
a small amount of powder, then fusing by heating until
it becomes completely molten on the workpiece, and is
fully b o n d e d , then, s p r a y i n g m o r e p o w d e r and
repeating the process.
Alloy powders used in this process fall into three
general groups:
1) Ni-Cr-B-Si alloys (Nickel-base)
2) Co-Cr-B-Si alloys (Cobalt-base)
3) Cu-Al alloys (bronzes)
1 and 2 are self-fluxing alloys. Boron and silicon are
crucial elements that act as fluxing agents and also
depress the melting point. They permit fusing at
temperatures compatible with steels, certain cast irons,
and some nickel-base alloys. The Ni-base and Co-base
alloys are sometimes mechanically blended with
tungsten carbide or chromium carbide or chromium
boride (up to 50-60%) to further improve abrasion and
wear-resistance. Such products are referred to as
composite powders.
The hardness of fused deposits ranges from about
20 to 60 Re, depending upon alloy composition. This is
independent of the metal-spraying procedure used,
since dilution with the base metal is negligible.
Typical powder compositions are given in Table 11.5,
and their properties and applications are given as
follows:
APPLICATIONS
MP-1: Easily flowing, heat- and oxidation-resistant
alloy on the basis of nickel. Resistant against metal-to-
metal wear as well as mineral wear.
Surfacing of steels and cast iron, subjected to heavy
wear and corrosion. Valves and valve seats, conveyor
belts, conveyor screws, pump shafts.
MP-2: Highly fluid copper alloy with good metal-
to-metal wear resistance. Surfacing of steel and cast iron,
copper and copper alloys. Shafts, rails, sliding surfaces,
bearing boxes.
MP-3: Easily flowing, heat- and oxidation-resistant
alloy with high tungsten carbide content. Extremely
wear resistant. Surfacing of alloyed and mild steels,
subject to heavy abrasion, oxidation and corrosion.
Conveyor screws and belts, mixing blades, shovels.
MP-4: Heat-, oxidation- and corrosion-resistant
nickel alloy with excellent flowing characteristics. The
deposit is resistant to impact and abrasion.
Surfacing of steels and cast iron. Edges and angles
of molds in the glass industry, sealing surfaces of
pumps, pressing tools, slide seats.
MP-5: Easily flowing, heat- and corrosion-resistant
nickel alloy. Surfacing of steels, stainless steels and cast
iron. Repair of glass molds, molds of the rubber indus-

Table 11.5: Typical hardfacing alloy powders

Desig- Base Nominal chemistry % Hardness
nation C Si Cr Fe B Ni W2C Co W Re 55-66
MP-1 Ni-base
0.75 4.3 15 4 3.1 bal.
MP-2 Cu-base Sn 11 Cu-bal. HB 90-100
MB-3 Ni-base 2.4 8.25 2.2 1.7 bal. 45 Re 65 70
with W2C
MP-4 Ni-base 0.25 3.7 7.5 1.5 1.7 bal. Re 35 40
MP-5 Ni-base 0.03 2.4 0.5 1.4 bal. Re 20 22
MP-5F Ni-base 0.03 2.4 0.5 1.4 bal. Re 20 22
(extra fine)
MP-6 Cu-Ni Cu-50, Si 1.7, B 0.9, Ni, bal. Re 34-37
MP-7 Co-base 0.06 1.6 21 2.4 2 bal. 4.5 Re 47-50
MP-11 Ni-base 0.06 3.5 1.5 1.5 bal. Re 30
MP-12 Ni-base 0.65 3.8 14 3.75 2.8 bal. Re 55
MP-13 Ni-base 1 2.7 1 0.6 bal. 70 Re 65 70
With W2C
 HARDFACING BY WELDING 529

try, filling of cavities in cast iron, surfacing of the edges

of slide rails, etc. MP 5 is also suitable for joining.
MP-5F: Heat- and corrosion-resistant nickel alloy
with very good flowing characteristics. Because of the
extra-fine grain size of the powder, specially suited for
the surfacing of edges. Surfacing of steels, stainless steels
and cast iron. Repairs of glass molds, mold of the plastic
and rubber industry, filling of cavities in cast iron,
surfacing of edges. MP 5F is also suitable for joint
welding of cast iron.
MP-6: Alloy similar to monel with high resistance Fig. 11.13: Alternative design of powder spraying torch in
against sea-water corrosion. The deposit is tough and which the powder and oxyacetylene are mixed in the flame:
free from porosity. Surfacing of steels and cast iron. 350°C maximum temperature for cold process; 1000°C
Bearing boxes, marine pumps and equipment. minimum temperature for hot process
MP-7: Alloy on the basis of cobalt. High wear-,
oxidation- and corrosion-resistant. Surfacing of mild and thereby minimising the possibilities of distortion and
alloy steels. Hot pressing and drawing tools, gas turbine thermal shock.
construction, chemical industry. This process is used mainly for cylindrical metal
parts (except pure copper) subjected to frictional wear.
M P - 1 1 : Ni-alloy w i t h very good flowing
The c o m p o n e n t s m a y operate in either rotary,
characteristics, heat- and corrosion-resistant. Very good
reciprocatory or sliding conditions. Some typical
wetting on cast iron. Surfacing of alloyed and mild
applications are shafts, bearing journals, ball bearing
steels, stainless steels and cast iron. Repair of glass
faces and pistons.
molds, molds of the rubber industry, filling of cavities
Typical powders used in this modified process are
in cast iron, surfacing of the edges of slide rails.
indicated in Table 11.6.
MP-12: Heat- and oxidation-resistant alloy on the
FM-1 is sprayed on initially to provide an adhesive
basis of nickel and chromium with good flowing
base. It is a must to ensure perfect bonding of any of the
characteristics. Very good wetting on copper.
subsequent surfacing powders to be used. Characterised
Surfacing of mild and alloy steels as well as of cast
by excellent performance, and a very ductile yet dense
iron and copper subject to heavy abrasion.
and corrosion-resistant deposit.
MP-13: Maximum resistance to severe abrasive
FM-2 has excellent corrosion- and friction-resistant
conditions.
properties. Excellent for metal-to-metal wear. Can be
Surfacing of mixer blades, conveyor screws, guides,
machined. Ideal for shaft seats, sliders, fan blades and
segments for the forming of concrete pipes, etc.
valve seats; suitable for various bronze alloyed parts.
On account of the high tungsten carbide content, a
FM-3 is highly resistant to corrosion and wear. Excel-
buffer layer of MP-4 should be deposited before starting
lent bonding characteristics. Fully machinable with 90°
the overlay with MP-13.
carbide cutting tools. Recommended for overlaying of
In an alternative design of the torch shown in
ball- and pin-bearing seats, shafts, slider bearings and bars.
Fig.11.13, the powder from the hopper mounted on the
top of the gun is made to drop by gravity directly into FM-4 p r o v i d e s an extremely corrosion- and
the flame. In this case, a special alloy powder is first abrasion-resistant coating. Bonds very well, but can be
sprayed on the workpiece to provide an adhesive basis finished only by filing or turning on a lathe with a 90°
for subsequent spray deposition. This step enables the carbide cutting tool. Applications are overlays on
preheating temperature to be kept as low as 250°C, pistons, shaft casings or similar parts subject to severe
which is much lower than with other usual processes; wear, impact or high temperatures.

Table 11.6: Typical powders i with torch shown in Fig. 11.13

Designation Base Ni Si Al Fe Cu Cr Mo B
FM-1 Ni-base 95 — 5
FM-2 Cu-base — — 9.5 1 bal. — — —
FM-3 Fe-base 15 — — bal. — 20 4 —
FM^ Ni-base bal. 2.5 0.5 10.5 2
530 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
MMA hard facing: MMA w e l d i n g is the most
commonly used process for hardfacing, because of its
low cost, great versatility, and the availability of a wide
range of sizes and types of hardfacing electrodes.
Welding can be done on any size and shape of job,
in any position and at any location. The welder can
control heat input rate, dilution by base metal and can
easily cover irregular areas. He can use stringer bead
technique to minimise heat input or weave technique
to maximise heat input. He can direct the arc on the
molten puddle and control the size of the puddle to
minimise dilution by the base metal. He can use a
wandering sequence to prevent over-heating of the base
metal (as, for example, in the welding of austenitic
manganese steel).
The range of hardfacing electrodes covers low-alloy
and high-alloy steels including austenitic manganese
and stainless steels, Ni-, Co- and Cu-base alloys. These
have been discussed in Chapter 3. For heavy build-up
(for example, on large forging dies) electrodes of 10 mm
and 12.5 mm diameter may be used at very high currents
(400-600 amps) to increase heat input and minimise the
risk of cracking.
GTA hardfacing: GTA (i.e. TIG) and oxyacetylene
surfacing have many common features. For example,
in the TIG process a filler material in the form of
wrought, cast or tubular rod can be fed externally into
the arc to control the deposit. Because of its intense arc,
TIG surfacing requires very little preheating and is faster
than the oxyacetylene process. Also, the intense arc
results in less heat buildup in the base metal, less
distortion and avoids adverse metallurgical effects of
the oxyacetylene flame on some base metals.
An interesting application is the hardfacing of drill
pipe joints, in which tungsten carbide granules are fed
into the arc area. The arc melts the base metal and the
carbide granules get embedded in the fused metal
matrix. The process can be semi-automatic. Similarly
cobalt-base alloys (for example, stellite) in rod form can
be fed continuously into the arc, while the arc travels at
a controlled speed. Dilution with this process is more
than that obtained with the oxyacetylene process, but
less t h a n that w i t h the M I G / C 0 2 process. The
hardfacing materials which can be conveniently used
with the TIG process are: high-alloy steels, Cr stainless
steels, Ni and Ni-base alloys, Cu and Cu-base alloys and
Co and Co-base alloys. Fully-automatic TIG installations
have been designed, in which the arc can be oscillated
by mechanical or magnetic means and continuous filler
wire, heated by electrical resistance, is fed into the weld
pool to increase deposition rate and, at the same time to
reduce dilution.
Flux-cored hardfacing: This process is gaining in
popularity in advanced countries for semi automatic
hardfacing applications, because flux-cored wires can be
tailored or custom-built to suit the job by introducing
suitable alloys in the core, and also for some alloy
compositions the flux-cored wires are the only ones
available, because the compositions cannot be readily
formed into wires.
For most applications, auxiliary gas shielding is not
necessary, either because the wire is designed to be self-
shielding or the deposit can tolerate some amount of
porosity without losing its wear-resistant property. The
deposit is covered with a thin friable slag, which may
have to be removed before the next pass is deposited
on it.
The equipment is similar to that used for M I G / C 0 2
process, except for the wire-feed rolls. If gas-shielding
is not required, the torch assembly becomes light and
simple and the equipment less expensive. When gas-
shielding is used, it is usually C 0 2 or C0 2 -argon mixture.
With pure C0 2 , the metal transfer is globular-while with
C0 2 -argon mixture, spray transfer mode is obtained.
Compared to M I G / C 0 2 process using solid wire, flux-
cored w e l d i n g gives higher deposition rate a n d
increased dilution with the base metal. Deposit thickness
can be controlled by suitable adjustment of parameters
and techniques as shown below:
For thick deposit For thin deposit
Straight polarity Reverse polarity
CO, shield Argon shield
Spray transfer Short-circuit transfer
High current Low current
Stringer bead Weave technique
Long electrode extension Short electrode
extension
Small diameter electrode Large diameter electrode
Low voltage High voltage
Low travel speed High travel speed
Fully-automatic flux-cored hardfacing installations
are used for production build-up of tractor rollers and
idlers, tractor shoes, blast furnace bells, dredger cones,
etc.
GMA or MIG hardfacing: This process is often used
for cladding and buildup, but rarely for hardfacing.
Alloying elements required to produce the desired
 HARDFACING BY WELDING 531

deposit chemistry are contained in the continuous
electrode, which may be solid or tubular. The commonly
used wires are high-alloy steels, stainless steels, Co-
based alloys, Ni-based alloys, Cu-based alloys and Ti
and its alloys. The process is specially suited for Al-
bronze overlays. Shielding gases can be argon, helium
or C 0 2 , which may be u s e d singly, in v a r i o u s
proportions, or with small amounts of oxygen.
Recently MIG hardfacing with Ni-based and Co-
based alloys using an inert gas shield has become
possible, because of the availability of 1.6 and 1.2 mm
continuous tubular wires of these alloys. These wires
have a tube of pure nickel or cobalt, and the alloying
elements are contained in the core. In jobs where there
is insufficient access to allow the use of TIG torch and
separate filler rod, the MIG torch is able to deposit the
Ni-based or Co-based alloy (equivalent to Deloro 45 and
Stellite 6) directly on the area to be hardfaced. A typical
example is the main seat of a 12 mm nominal bore
diameter globe valve.
Submerged-arc hardfacing: In this m e t h o d , a
continuous electrode, either solid or tubular, is used in
combination with a granular flux which fully covers the
arc zone. The wire-flux combination is suitably
formulated to yield the desired deposit chemistry. The
process can be semi-automatic or fully-automatic, but
for most applications the latter version is used. The fully-
automatic process uses heavier electrodes and higher
currents to give much higher deposition rates than the
semi-automatic process. Due to considerable dilution
with the base plate and the loss or gain of different
elements from the molten flux, the optimum properties
of the surfacing filler-metal are attained only after two
or more layers are deposited.
In a modified process, specially formulated alloy
powder is fed onto the job surface and then it is covered
with the granular flux. The travelling arc melts the metal
powder, flux, electrode and the base metal together, to
yield the hardfacing deposit. All these are prematched
with the welding parameters. The alloy powder is
correctly m e t e r e d to obtain the desired deposit
chemistry. The electrode may be weaved to minimise
dilution with the base metal. The process enables one
to use less expensive electrode wire and to obtain high
deposition rates.
In SA hardfacing, DC with electrode negative gives
the highest deposition rate and the thickest deposit,
while DC with electrode positive gives the lowest
deposition rate and the thinnest deposit. AC gives
intermediate deposition rate and deposit thickness. The
influence of other variables on the deposit thickness is
similar to that in the case of flux-cored arc welding
referred to earlier.
Plasma-arc hardfacing: The process (see Fig. 1.45,
Chapter 1) is used with transferred arc, i.e. the arc is
struck b e t w e e n the t u n g s t e n electrode and the
workpiece. The filler metal is fed in powder form. The
powder as well as the base-metal surface melt together
to form the hardfacing deposit, whose metallurgical
structure is similar to that of the TIG deposit. The
powder can be iron-based, cobalt-based or nickel-based
alloy, to which tungsten carbide particles may be added.
With this process, a wide range of materials, including
refractories, can be deposited in very thin as well as very
thick layers. The deposits have very smooth finish and
require minimum grinding or machining. The process
can be used in fully mechanised form, to hardface parts
on a production basis.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 14, Vol. 2, 7 th Ed., Published by American Welding Society.
Hardfacing by Welding by M. Riddihough, 1949, Published by Ilife & Sons, U.K.
Seminar Handbook on Surface Coatings for Savings in Engineering, 1974, published by the Welding Institute.
Weld Surfacing and Hardfacing, 1980, Published by the Welding Institute.
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Welding Defects:
Their Causes and
Prevention
IN WELDING, the main objective is to obtain sound, Incomplete Penetration
defect-free welded joints, but this is not always easy to This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the
attain. It has to be admitted that perfect welds are almost weld-metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails to
impossible to obtain on a production scale. Normal fuse completely with the root faces of the joint. As a
welds always contain minute slag inclusions or porosity result, a void remains at the root zone, which may
as revealed in non-destructive testing. Such small contain slag inclusions. In a fillet weld, poor penetration
imperfections, which cause some variation in the normal at the root zone can give rise to cracking.
average p r o p e r t i e s of the w e l d - m e t a l are called Incomplete penetration is caused by incorrect size
discontinuities. When a discontinuity is large enough of electrode in relation to the form of the joint, low
to affect the function of the joint, it is termed a defect. welding current or inaccurate joint preparation and fit-
Defects are caused by s u b s t a n d a r d w e l d i n g up. It occurs more often in vertical and overhead
consumables, faulty welding procedures, inefficient positions. A typical defect of this type in a butt joint is
w o r k m a n s h i p , lack of cleanliness, unfavourable shown in Fig. 12.1.
properties of the base metal, and extraneous agencies
such as low ambient t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h u m i d
atmosphere. Even when all these factors are taken care
of, defects can and do occur and they may be allowed
or removed and repaired as dictated by the nature of
the fabrication and its intended service.
Having realised that consistent production of
radiographically perfect welded joints is an expensive
exercise and gouging out and repairing internal welding
defects increases fabrication costs considerably, standard
codes do permit limited levels of defects based on
fracture mechanics approach, taking into consideration
the service conditions of the fabrication.
In spite of this, every fabricator must strive to prevent
the occurrence of weld defects in the first instance, and
to rectify them if they have occurred.
The following paragraphs describe typical defects
which can occur in arc welds, explain why they occur Fig. 12.1: Incomplete penetration in a single-Vee butt
and point out the ways in which they can be avoided or weld
corrected.
534 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
In a butt weld where access is possible only form
one side, adequate root penetration is ensured by using
a temporary or permanent backing and depositing the
first pass with a sufficiently high current. When a butt
joint is to be welded from both sides, care must be taken
to chip out or flame gouge the back of the first run before
depositing the backing run from the second side of the
joint. The groove formed after chipping or gouging must
reach the sound metal and be wide enough to permit
proper manipulation of the electrode and ensure full
penetration of the weld-metal while the backing run is
being deposited.
In a fillet weld, adequate root penetration is
ensured by using the correct size of electrode (4 or 5
m m diameter) a n d sufficiently high current, a n d
directing the arc towards the root during deposition of
the root pass. The use of a small electrode (3.15 or 2.5
m m diameter) at relatively low current does not
necessarily mean improved penetration. In fact, the
largest size of electrode consistent w i t h ease of
manipulation and joint thickness should be preferred.
As far as possible, fillet welds should be made in the
flat position using manipulators or other positioning
devices.
Rectification of this defect is a very costly
proposition, because it requires removal of the entire
thickness of the weld and rewelding. Care must be taken
that after removing the defective metal, a sufficiently
wide groove remains, in which the electrode can be
correctly manipulated.
Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where
boundaries of unfused metal exist between the weld-
metal and base metal or between adjacent layers of
weld-metal. The term should not be confused with lack
of penetration.
This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt,
oxide, slag and other non-metallic substances, which
prevent the underlying metal from reaching the melting
temperature. It is also caused by improper deslagging
of a weld pass, before an adjacent or overlapping pass
is deposited. When individual passes are badly placed
or their surfaces are r o u g h , t h o r o u g h deslagging
becomes difficult. In such cases, the weld should be
chipped or gouged before the next pass is deposited. In
many shops, welders or their helpers are provided with
pneumatic chippers for thorough deslagging.
To prevent the occurrence of this defect, the following
steps should be taken:
Fig. 12.2: Undercut in the vertical leg of a horizontal-
vertical fillet weld
1) Keep joint surfaces clean
2) Use adequate welding current
3) Deslag each weld pass thoroughly
4) Place weld passes correctly next to each other.
Lack of fusion is rectified in the same way as lack of
penetration.
Undercut
This defect appears as a continuous or discontinuous
groove at the toes of a weld pass and is located on the
base metal or in the fusion face of a multipass weld. It
occurs prominently on the edge of a fillet weld deposited
in the horizontal position as shown in Fig. 12.2.
It is usually caused by excessive welding current. It
may also result from too high a speed of arc travel,
wrong electrode angle or excessive side manipulation.
In special cases, it is caused by damp or improperly
formulated electrodes.
In the case of statically loaded structures, the
presence of small and intermittent undercutting can be
d i s r e g a r d e d . H o w e v e r , w h e n the s t r u c t u r e s are
dynamically loaded in service, undercutting will reduce
the fatigue endurance of the welded joint and hence it
should not be permitted.
The defect is rectified by filling up the undercut
groove with a weld pass. If undercut is deep and
contains slag, it should be chipped away before
rewelding. If the rectification is being carried out on
thick joints and on high-tensile steels, the welding
procedure including preheating should correspond to
the recommended procedure for the particular steel.

> 1
i
.. .», *
tf:.
1 "''
u=
LL WELD OVERLAP
Fig. 12.3: Overlap in a horizontal-vertical fillet weld
Overlap
This defect also occurs at the toes of a weld and
consists of weld-metal which has overflowed on to the
base metal surface without actually fusing to the latter.
It can be isolated, intermittent or continuous. It occurs
more often in fillet welds and results in an apparent
increase in the weld size.
It is caused by an incorrect manipulation of the
electrode, whereby the weld-metal flows away from the
fusion zone. Use of too large an electrode in relation to
the welding position and excessive current coupled with
too low a welding speed also promote its occurrence.
When a single-pass fillet larger than 75 mm in leg length
is made in the horizontal position, the molten metal
tends to sag and causes overlapping at the toe of the
horizontal member as shown in Fig. 12.3. As in the case
of undercut, slight and intermittent overlapping may
be ignored in statically loaded structures, but it should
not be permitted in dynamically loaded structures as
overlaps act as stress-raisers.
Overlap is rectified by grinding, chipping or gouging
out the excess unfused weld-metal. Care should be taken
to leave a smooth surface.
Slag Inclusion
Non-metallic particles of comparatively large size
e n t r a p p e d in the weld-metal are termed as slag
inclusion. The term should not be confused with non-
metallic inclusions which result from the metal-slag
reactions in the molten weld pool and are finely
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 535
Fig. 12.4: Slag inclusions in a single-Vee butt weld
dispersed throughout the weld. Slag inclusions are
detected by the normal non-destructive testing methods,
while non-metallic inclusions are observed in the weld
microstructure at high magnification.
Slag inclusion usually occurs in multi-pass welds due
to imperfect cleaning of the slag between the deposition
of successive passes as shown in Fig, 12.4. It may also
be caused by heavy mill scale, loose rust, dirt, grit and
other substances present on the surface of the base metal
or bare electrode. Slag trapped in undercuts or between
uneven preceding runs may give rise to elongated lines
of included slag w h e n a subsequent weld pass is
deposited. The melting characteristics of the welding
consumable and particularly the viscosity of the
resulting slag has an important bearing on inclusions.
The molten slag should float freely to the surface of the
weld pool and be easily removable on solidification.
To prevent slag inclusion, take the following steps:
1) Use proper welding consumables
2) Keep joint surfaces (especially gas cut surfaces)
and bare filler wires perfectly clean
3) Avoid undercuts and gaps between deposited
passes
4) Clean the slag thoroughly between weld passes.
The strength of a welded joint may be considerably
reduced if large irregular inclusions, or elongated lines
of inclusions at the weld junction are present. These
sometimes give rise to radiating hair-line cracks. The
presence of small, isolated, globular inclusions may not
however, seriously affect the static strength of a joint
and these may normally be disregarded. To rectify this
defect, the portions of weld-metal which contain slag
536 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
inclusions must be removed and then filled with sound
weld-metal.
Porosity
The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused
by the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed
as porosity. The pores are in the form of small spherical
cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout
the weld deposit. Sometimes the entrapped gas gives
rise to a single large cavity, which is termed as a
blowhole. In some rarer cases, elongated or tubular gas
cavities are presented. These are referred to as piping
or wormholes.
It must be understood that gases are evolved by the
chemical reactions in the welding arc. These gases may
have high solubility in the molten weld-metal, but as
the metal solidifies and cools, their solubility decreases
rapidly and they are evolved from the metal. Sometimes
if the weld-metal solidification and cooling is too rapid,
the gas gets entrapped in the form of porosity.
Porosity is caused by:
a) Chemically imperfect welding consumables, for
example, deficient in deoxidisers
b) Faulty composition of the base metal or electrode
wire, for example, high sulphur content
c) Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint
surface
d) Excessive moisture in the electrode coating or
submerged-arc flux
e) Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gas-
shielded process
f) Low welding current or too long an arc
g) Quick freezing of the weld deposit.
Puddling of the weld-metal and use of preheat or
higher current allow sufficient time for the dissolved
gases to escape from the weld-metal. If electrodes or
fluxes are moist, they should be redried in heated ovens
according to the recommendations of the consumable
producer.
Presence of small, finely dispersed porosity is
normally not expected to affect the static and even
d y n a m i c p r o p e r t i e s of a w e l d e d joint. However,
excessive porosity, blowholes or piping must be guarded
against, as they seriously impair these properties. Their
presence is detected by the conventional NDT methods.
The defective portions must be removed and rewelded.
Starting Porosity
Some basic low-hydrogen type electrodes have a
tendency to deposit weld-metal, which contains internal
porosity at the start of the weld bead. The defect is
ascribed to the failure of the deoxidisers to function
adequately at the start, when the weld-metal is cold. It
must be remembered that the electrode core wire is
m a d e from r i m m e d steel, which is deficient in
deoxidisers, especially silicon. The normal rutile type
coatings are relatively thin and contain some amount
of cellulose which burns quickly to form a geseous
shield. In the heavy-coated LH type, deoxidisers like
Fe-Si and Fe-Ti are used, but they become effective after
the weld-metal has hotted up. LH electrodes of the E
100, E 110 and E 120 series frequently contain restricted
amounts of Fe-Si, because of the need to obtain adequate
n o t c h - t o u g h n e s s in the w e l d - m e t a l at sub-zero
temperatures. The amount is not sufficient to properly
deoxidise the first increment of core wire melted upon
arc striking.
To avoid starting porosity:
a) Strike the arc on a scrap plate, and then while the
tip is hot, restart the arc on the joint being welded.
b) Strike the arc on the joint, but about 20 mm ahead
of the actual starting point. Then move the arc back-
ward toward the real starting point, at the same time
depositing a thin, narrow bead. Then reverse the di-
rection and start depositing the normal weld bead with a
momentarily lower travel speed to remelt the initial
thin weld bead. Then proceed to weld in the normal
manner.
Crack
Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the
tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition (hot
crack), or by fracturing of the metal when cold (cold
crack). It represents a failure under stress of a metal
when it is behaving in a brittle manner, i.e. it is inclined
to fracture without deformation.
Cracking can occur in the weld-metal, at the fusion
line or in the base metal. Cracks may be classified
according to location and direction of line and they may
range in size from large cracks which can be seen by the
naked eye (called macrocracks), to extremely small
fissures which are detected with the aid of a microscope
(called microcracks). Typical cracks occurring in a
welded joint are shown in Fig. 12.5.
Hot cracks: These cracks occur at temperatures above
540°C, and when observed under the microscope, are
seen to have travelled across the boundaries between
the grains (intergranular). If the crack has extended to
the surface, the fractured surface is found to be coated
with blue scale or possibly black scale.
Hot cracking occurs in a solidifying metal at the end
of the solidification range, when the last portion is still

Fig. 12.5: Classification of cracking according to location
in a weldment: (1) Weld-metal crater cracking; (2) Weld-
metal transverse cracking; (3) Base metal heat-affected
zone transverse cracking; (4) Weld-metal longitudinal
cracking; (5) Toe cracking; (6) Underbead cracking; (7)
Fusion line cracking; (8) Weld-metal root cracking.
rsromnncGE
f STRESS
STAGfc 1 STAGE 2 f b) Higher heat input during welding
Fig. 12.6: Formation of hot crack in a heavy fillet weld.
Stage 1 — Initial freezing pattern; Stage 2—Narrow spaces
partly filled with shrinking liquid (shaded)
liquid and the mass of the metal is unable to deform
without cracking. At this stage, when vibrational or
contraction stresses are imposed on the metal, a fissure
forms. Figure 12.6 shows how a hot crack initiates in a
heavy fillet weld when it is subjected to high localised
contraction or shrinkage stresses indicated by the
arrows.
While hot cracking propensity increases with
increasing joint restraint, it is really the presence of
certain undesirable low-freezing compounds formed by
stray elements which promotes the phenomenon.
A typical example is FeS (iron sulphide). In a
solidifying steel rich in sulphur, the last trace of the
liquid containing FeS will not solidify until about 980°C.
Such hot shortness caused by sulphur can be avoided
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 537
by having enough Mn in the steel, because sulphur has
higher affinity for this element than for Fe. Oxygen and
selenium also behave like sulphur and in their cases also,
Mn can be used as a corrective. The hot cracking
tendency caused by P, S and Si increases with carbon
and alloy content of the steel, and hence high tensile
steels must have lower percentages of these elements
than in the case of mild steel. This applies as much to
the weld-metal as the base metal. Fully austenitic
stainless steel weld-metal is also prone to hot-cracking
as explained under the weldability of stainless steels,
which is the reason why controlled amount of ferrite is
introduced into it.
Hot cracks can also occur in the HAZ of the base
metal when it contains complex carbides or intermetallic
compounds of lower melting points. Such cracks have
been reported in the welding of Cr-Mo steel tubing
having the following composition: 0.35% C, 1.0% Cr and
0.20% Mo.
Cold cracks: These cracks usually occur in the HAZ
of the base metal, when this zone becomes hard and
brittle due to its rapid cooling after the weld-metal has
been deposited, and sufficient hydrogen has been
absorbed by the weld-metal from the arc atmosphere.
Joint restraint also contributes to its occurrence. Cold
cracking is also referred to as hydrogen-induced
cracking and has been dealt with in detail during the
discussion of weldability of steels.
Cold cracking is prevented by using:
a) A steel of lower carbon equivalent
c) Preheating
d) Low-hydrogen welding consumables
It is to be noted that cracks, whether hot or cold, are
promoted by joint restraint. Joint restraint increases with
joint thickness and since large weld beads can withstand
shrinkage stresses better than smaller ones, heavy plates
and sections should be welded with fewer passes of
larger cross-section than with a large number of passes
of smaller cross-section. Bad joint fit-up often prevents
the deposition of a sufficiently large and regular root
pass for fear of burn-through. The result is lack of
penetration, lack of fusion or slag inclusion, from which
small hairline cracks may be initiated. The weld itself
can develop longitudinal cracks under joint restraint.
Cracks encountered in the first weld pass or layer must
be at once cut out and properly re welded. It is wrong to
suppose that the cracked weld will be remelted and
repaired by the subsequent pass. On the contrary, the
crack propagates into the second layer immediately, or
in due course of time.
538 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Hydrogen-induced cold cracks are often located
underneath the weld bead (termed underbead cracks)
and hence are likely to escape detection. To prevent cold
cracking, especially in the case of a new high-tensile
steel, suitable welding procedures must be developed
after carrying out initial trials on test plates and
subjecting them to the standard weldability tests.
Crater crack: This crack tends to occur in the crater
formed at the end of a weld bead, because the crater
cools at a faster rate than the rest of the bead, and because
the crater solidifies from all sides towards the centre.
Hence it is a form of shrinkage cracking. Crater cracking
is encouraged by elements like C, S and Cb, which are
prone to segregation. To reduce the possibility of its
occurrence, the crater must be filled up properly with
the weld-metal and the electrode withdrawn gradually.
For total elimination of crater faults, a crater filling
device may be used, which enables the welding current
to be decreased in a controlled manner by the welder,
as he fills the crater and cuts off the arc. In radiographic
quality welding, welders usually chip out the crater and
start the next weld bead at that point.
The strength of a welded joint will, u n d e r any
conditions of loading, be very seriously reduced by the
presence of cracks in a weld and under no circumstances
should the fault be permitted.
Weld-metal or parent metal containing crack can only
be rectified by removing the defective portions and by
rewelding. Precautions should be taken to ensure that
the cracked portions are removed completely. The metal
removed should preferably extend well beyond the
visible extremities of the cracks and the surrounding
surfaces should be properly cleaned before rewelding.
It should be noted that a modified welding procedure
may be necessary to prevent a recurrence of the fault.
Faulty Weld Size and Profile
A weld, which is otherwise correctly deposited and
formed, is termed faulty when it is different in shape
a n d / o r size from that specified.
A butt weld is considered faulty if it has lack of
reinforcement, excessive reinforcement or irregular
profile. When the face of a weld lies below the parent
plate surface, the w e l d is said to h a v e lack of
reinforcement. On the other hand, when the weld-metal
is deposited in excess of the reinforcement required or
specified, the weld is considered as having excessive
reinforcement.
All these faults arise from the use of an incorrect
welding procedure and will not occur if the following
factors are correctly specified and followed: (a) joint
preparation and fit-up; (b) electrode size and welding
current; (c) number and locations of runs; and (d)
welding speed or length of run per electrode.
In the case of a fillet weld, faulty weld size refers to
undersize weld or weld of variable size as measured by
the m i n i m u m leg length. Faulty profile refers to
excessive concavity or convexity, unequal leg lengths
and irregular weld face.
Excessive concavity or convexity may be caused by
an incorrectly formulated electrode, or by use of
incorrect welding current. These defects are shown in
Figs. 12.7 and 12.8. Low current gives rise to convexity,
while high current induces concavity. Fillet welds of
unequal leg length result from faulty manipulation of
the electrode and holding it at a wrong angle with
respect to the joint. When a fillet weld of leg length more
than 7.5 m m is attempted in a single pass in the
horizontal position, the hot metal tends to sag at the
base, thus resulting in a longer horizontal leg and a
shorter vertical leg. When a joint has excessive root gap
due to bad fit-up, the effective leg length gets reduced
and an undersize fillet weld is produced.
Excessive concavity and unequal leg lengths reduce
the throat thickness of fillet welds and hence will also
reduce the ultimate strength of the welded joint.
Excessively convex fillet welds may be of equivalent
static s t r e n g t h to s t a n d a r d w e l d s . The w e l d i n g
conditions which tend to produce fillets of this shape,
however, also tend to give rise to such faults as lack of
penetration and lack of fusion, which if present, will
Fig. 12.7: Excessive concavity, lack of root penetration
and slag inclusion in a horizontal-vertical fillet weld due
to excessive weaving
 WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 539

Frequent interruptions of the arc, when welding, may

also tend to cause spatter and should be avoided as far
as possible. Arc blow also causes heavy spatter.
Spatter has no measurable effect on the strength of a
welded joint. The fault may be rectified by chipping and
wire-brushing the spatter deposit from the surface of
the plate. Cost of spatter removal can be lowered by
applying anti-spatter compound on the surrounding
surfaces.

Melting Off of Plate Edge

This defect may occur when a fillet weld is deposited
in a lap or strap joint in such a way that the exposed
corner of the parent plate is melted away along the
length of the weld. This results in a reduction of the
plate thickness at the edge. It is caused by incorrect
manipulation of the electrode, by using an electrode
Fig. 12.8: Excessive convexity and lack of root penetration which is too large in relation to the parent plate
in a horizontal-vertical fillet weld due to too low a current thickness, or by insufficient lap.
Where a fillet weld is applied to the square edge of a
lap joint, the designer should specify that the weld size
affect the strength of the weld considerably. Excessive be at least 1.5 mm less than the edge thickness, in order
convexity may also be associated with overlapping at to prevent melting the exposed corner.
the toes of a weld, and due to the resulting notch effect When this defect occurs, the actual throat of the fillet
and stress concentration, the fatigue strength of a joint weld gets reduced while apparently the throat of the
will be seriously reduced where these faults are present. weld is regarded as equal in size to the plate thickness.
Both, lack of reinforcement a n d excessive Consequently, the static and fatigue strength of the
reinforcement will reduce fatigue strength. Lack of welded lap or strap joint will also get reduced.
reinforcement in butt welds may also prevent the joint The defect can be rectified by depositing additional
from developing the full strength of the parent plate weld-metal to restore the throat thickness to the correct
under static loading. size.
Excessive concavity and unequal leg lengths in fillet
welds can be rectified by adding further weld-metal. Tungsten Inclusions
To correct excessive convexity it is necessary to chip In m a n u a l TIG w e l d i n g , the occasional and
away the excess weld-metal. accidental touching of the tungsten electrode to the work
Excessive reinforcement in butt welds may be or to the molten weld-metal results in the transfer of
rectified by removing the excess metal. Lack of reinfo- tungsten particles into the weld deposit. These tungsten
rcement can be corrected by adding further weld-metal. inclusions constitute a defect, and for critical work a
limit on the size and numbers of these inclusions is
Spatter specified. The inclusions are visible to the naked eye
During the deposition of a weld, small globules of only in rare cases. Generally, they are beneath the weld
metal from the electrode may be scattered over the surface and can be detected d u r i n g radiographic
surface of the weld and adjacent parent metal, and in inspection as the inclusions appear whiter and clearer
most cases these globules adhere strongly to the surface on the film in contrast to slag inclusions or porosity,,
on which they rest. They are termed as spatter. The main which appear darker than the average darkening of the
objection to excessive spatter is the waste of expensive film in the weld-metal areas.
weld-metal and the cost of removal. This defect can be minimised by using thoriated
Spatter is usually caused by excessive welding tungsten or zirconiated tungsten electrodes in preference
current, a l t h o u g h in some cases the w e l d i n g to pure tungsten electrodes. The use of superimposed
characteristics of the electrode, or dampness of the high-frequency current for arc starting can eliminate
electrode covering may give rise to this condition. tungsten inclusions at the start of a weld.
540 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Lamellar Tearing the welding. Examples of joint configurations which are

This defect usually occurs in plate material in susceptible to lamellar tearing are shown in Fig. 12.9.
welding certain types of joints in a large rigid structure, Susceptibility depends on the presence of non-metallic
where the restraint is high and stresses build up during inclusions distributed parallel to the plate surface. Such

NOZZLE OR
PENETRATOR
FABRICATED
FROM ROLLED
PLATE

CIRCUMFERENTIAL
STIFFENER

CYLINDRICAL
RIGID END

(C)

CRITICAL JOINTS

ggrraas—'

Fig. 12.9: Fabricated details and joint types prone to lamellar tearing: (A) Nozzle or penetrator through a rigid plate;
(B) Stiffener or rigid end in a cylindrical fabrication; (C) Rigid box section; (D) T-joint with fillet weld; (E) T-joint with
compound butt and fillet welds: (F) Corner joint with butt weld

inclusions can be detected by ultrasonic testing of the
parent plate. Lamellar tears can occur in the HAZ and
away from this zone in the parent plate and they
generally run parallel to the plate surface.
To prevent lamellar tearing:
1) Replace the susceptible steel with purer steel or
with forgings or castings
2) Modify the joint configuration suitably. For ex-
ample, in Fig.12.9 (D) is less susceptible than (E). In (F),
the horizontal plate may be chamfered so that the stress
is not perpendicular to the plate
3) Butter the susceptible area of the base metal with
soft weld-metal to absorb the contraction strains.
To measure the susceptibility to lamellar tearing of
a steel plate, a short transverse tensile test specimen is
extracted from it as shown in Fig. 12.10 and is subjected
to a tensile test. The reduction in area at the fractured
point is measured. This parameter can then be correlated
with the incidence of lamellar tearing in different types
of fabrication.
Arc Blow
In arc welding with DC, welders are sometimes
troubled by arc blow, a phenomenon in which the arc
tends to deflect from its intended path owing to the
magnetic field created by the current flowing through
electrode, arc stream and base metal. It then becomes
difficult for the welder to handle the molten pool and
slag, and the result is excessive spatter and a weld bead
containing porosity and lack of fusion. To effectively
counteract arc blow, it is essential that one should first
understand the reason for its occurrence and the various
methods adopted for minimising its effects.
In very general terms, arc blow is created by
magnetic disturbances. When DC passes through a
KM
I
PLATE > 25 MM THICK PLATE < 25 MM THICK
FRICTION WELDED BXTENSIONS
Fig 12.10: Extraction of short-transverse cylindrical
tensile test specimen from plate
WELDING DEFECTS! THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 541
conductor (see Fig. 12.11), a magnetic field or flux is set
up around it, with lines of force that can be represented
by concentric circles, in planes at right angle to the
direction of the current. The intensity of these circular
lines of force diminishes as their distance from the
electrical conductor increases and varies according to
the shape and path of the lead. The magnetic fields
around the leads carrying the current also develop like
or unlike polarity depending on the direction of the
current. In the case of like polarity, the fields will repel
each other, tending to push the magnetic lines of force
away from each other, and in the case of unlike polarity,
the fields will attract each other, tending to merge both
into one.
In actual practice, the arc stream is deviated from its
proper course by the interaction of these magnetic fields,
causing the arc to blow off in the direction of the
magnetic forces. With AC, this phenomenon is hardly
noticeable because of the rapid change of direction in
the flow of the current and the consequent change in
the direction of the magnetic field.
The welder or the welding supervisor should
familiarise himself with the nature of this trouble, so
that when he encounters it he will not blame the
electrode, equipment or power supply. He can do this
by making a weld deposit on the end of a bar, set up so
as to project approximately 60 cm from the edge of the
welding table, then attempting to make the deposit after
having taken a few turns of the cable around the bar.
Another way is to attempt to deposit weld-metal inside
a deep corner in a steel box. When the condition is
recognised, it can generally be corrected by proper
disposition of the ground and the cable, to prevent or
neutralise the unfavourable magnetic field.
To be able to do this, one must understand how the
lines of force or flux behave under different conditions.
For example, if the medium changes from steel plate to
<s
4M DIRECTION
OF FLUX
; DIRECTION OF CURRENT
Rg 12.11: Magnetic field set-up by a current passing
through a conductor
542 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
air, the circular lines get d i s t o r t e d a n d tend to
concentrate in the steel which offers less resistance. The
consequent squeezing of the magnetic flux lines at the
plate edges, when the welding arc reaches these areas
is shown in Fig. 12.12. The arc then tends to veer away
from the side of the flux concentration, resulting in a
forward blow at the start of the weld and a back blow at
the end of the weld as indicated in the figure. This
veering of the arc is observed by the welder as arc blow.
At the middle of the seam in the figure, the flux field is
symmetrical and hence there is neither back arc blow
nor forward arc blow.
A similar squeezing phenomenon is also caused by
the earthing current within the workpiece, i.e. the
electrical current passing through the workpiece to the
earth-clamp. This is shown in Fig. 12.13. It is observed
that the magnetic lines of force set up by the earthing
current are at right angles to those formed around the
electrode, thus resulting in a concentration or squeezing
of the flux at X, which causes the arc to blow away from
the earthing point as indicated. This is called ground
effect.
Ground effect may add to or diminish the arc blow,
depending on the relative positions of the arc and the
earthing. This fact enables one to control arc blow by
suitably positioning the earth clamp and thereby
ELECTRODE
TRAVEL-
BACK BLOW
FORWARD BLOW-
Fig. 12.12: Forward arc blow at the start and back are
blow at the end of the weld run
RECTION
ARC BLOW
^ h*
Fig. 12.13: Arc blow caused by ground effect. The magnetic
flux set up by the ground current combines with the flux
around the electrode causing a high flux concentration at
(X) that blows the arc away from the ground connection
controlling the ground effect. In Fig. 12.14 (A), the earth
connection is given at the start of the seam, so that the
lines of force of the earthing current are behind the arc.
At the start of the weld, the ground effect would make
the arc veer forward and this would add to the forward
arc movement caused as shown in Fig. 12.12. At the other
end of the seam, the forward veering of the arc due to
ground effect would be cancelled by the back blow
caused by concentration of the flux from the arc at the
end of the workpiece. Thus the total arc blow would be
considerably diminished. This is shown in Fig. 12.14 (B).
In Fig. 12.15 (A), the earth clamp is fixed at the finish
of the seam and hence the ground effect makes the arc
veer backwards. Hence there would be an increase in
the intensity of the back blow caused by the arc flux at
the finish of the weld as shown at (B). This means that
to reduce excessive forward blow at the start of the weld,
the earth clamp should be at the finishing point of the
seam, while to reduce excessive back blow at the end of
the weld, the earth clamp should be at the starting point
of the seam.
In general, the bad effects of arc blow can be reduced
to a great extent by taking the following precautions:
a) Weld towards a heavy tack or towards a weld
already made.
b) Use back stepping sequence on long welds.
c) Place ground connection as far away from the
joint as possible.
d) On small pieces, place ground connection at start
and weld towards a heavy tack if possible.
(A) (B)
Fig. 12.14: Effects of relative positions of the arc and
the earthing (grounding) on arc blow (welding away
from ground connection)
(A) (B)
Fig- 12.15: Effects of relative positions of the arc and
the earthing (grounding) on arc blow (welding towards
ground connection)
 WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 543

e) Hold short arc, so that the electrode coating
touches the plate, directing the tip of the electrode in
the direction opposite to that of the arc blow, so that the
arc force will counteract it.
A few typical instances of arc blow and the remedial
measures taken to overcome it are described below.
If a narrow piece of steel is grounded from one side
only, the magnetic blow is directed as shown in Fig.
12.16.
This arrangement has to be regarded as two leads
with currents flowing in opposite directions. The
magnetic forces are indicated by the concentric circles
and their directions around the electrode and workpiece
have been shown by arrows. In the left corner A, like
polarities are meeting, as can be checked with compass
needles, and they interfere with each other. As a result
of this, the arc is pushed away at the point of contact in
the direction of the arrow. By varying the angle of the
electrode with respect to the workpiece, this can either
be corrected or be made worse.
In Fig. 12.17 (A), the electrode is held in such a way
that angle between the electrode and the workpiece is
small (or acute) in the direction of the current flow. This
position intensifies the interaction of the magnetic forces

Fig. 12.16: Arc blow in steel grounded at one end

Fig. 12.17: Effect of electrode angle on arc blow

544 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
against each other in the left corner, and in consequence
pushes the arc stream towards the right with still greater
force. If the electrode is held as shown in Fig. 12.17 (B),
i.e. having an oblique angle to the flow of current, the
interference of the magnetic forces with each other
decreases. This reduces the blowing effect, and any
residual blowing effect is taken care of by the resistance
of the arc itself to the side thrust, and the arc points
straight towards the metal being welded.
The effects of magnetic blow are particularly strong at
the edges of weldments, the direction of arc blow being
always from the edge towards the centre. Here the magn-
etic blow shown in Figs. 12.16 and 12.17 (A), whose normal
direction is away from the ground lead, is over-come by
considerably stronger magnetic forces which flow from
the edge towards the centre. This edge effect on the arc
becomes more pronounced if the V-groove angle is smaller
and also if a large-sized electrode is used. It is evident
that in both cases the arc becomes longer and
correspondingly its resistance to side thrust decreases.
Similarly, the arc disturbance is stronger in a deep
Vee than in a shallow Vee. A similar effect is encountered
with fillet welds, the magnitude depending on the size
and the shape of the part to be welded. With non-
magnetic metals like copper or austenitic steels, the
direction of the magnetic blow is from the centre
Fig. 12.18: Effect of magnetic blow on the arc in a long butt joint
Fig. 12.19: Variation of electrode angle to overcome arc blow
towards the edge. It becomes very pronounced at the
vicinity of the edge.
The effect of the magnetic blow on the arc, when a
long seam is being butt welded, is illustrated in Fig.
12.18. At (a) and (b), the force pushing the arc towards
the edge of the plates is completely overcome by a much
stronger force pushing from the edge towards the centre.
This has been indicated by arrows a and b. This
particular edge effect lessens when the arc approaches
the middle point (c).
If this inward force is not exceptionally strong, it can
be overcome by holding the electrode closer to the plate
and changing its angle suitably as shown in Fig. 12.19.
As the force of the arc blow varies with the job in hand,
the welder must decide in a moment's notice in which
angle the electrode must be held, so that the weld made
under this condition is sound. In some instances, when
the welding is commenced at the edge, the electrode
must be held quite flat to overcome the inward blow as
shown at (a) in Fig. 12.19. As the arc travels away from
the edge, the electrode is gradually lifted at the holder
end, until normal conditions are arrived at, as shown at
(b) and (c). By choosing the proper angle, the welder is
able to correct arc blow to a great extent. In this case,
the speed of welding must be faster than the normal to
prevent any piling up of weld-metal and slag, as with

strong arc blow these are pushed in front of the molten
pool.
To ensure satisfactory penetration on both sides of a
V-groove, the tip of the electrode should be pressed into
the Vee. A slight weaving motion of the electrode at the
holder end only, as shown in Fig. 12.20, gives additional
assistance to achieve the requisite penetration.
Where the arc blow is strong enough to push the arc
stream sideways through the covering of the electrode,
so that the top portion of the covering is not melted in
time, as shown in Fig. 12.21, welding becomes extremely
difficult. If this happens, both the weld-metal and slag
are thrown about in splashes and proper fusion becomes
impossible. With heavy covered electrodes, the top part
of the covering does not melt in time, whereas the core
wire melts away in the arc, which is forced out
underneath. As a result the arc becomes longer and the
situation is aggravated.
One way of overcoming this is to press the tip of the
electrode into the Vee or root of the fillet and at the same
time giving a quick turning motion from the holder end
as illustrated in Fig. 12.22. By doing so the unmelted
covering is broken off in time, so that the arc cannot
Fig. 12.20: Electrode weaving to control arc blow
Fig. 12.21: Non-uniform melting of electrode covering
due to arc blow ,
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 545
Fig. 12.22: Turning motion from the holder to overcome
non-uniform melting of coating
become unduly long. It also ensures fusion on both sides
of the Vee. To ensure sound welding in a case like this,
the arc must be kept as short as possible and the speed
of travel should be such that quick freezing of metal
and slag takes place. Piling up of metal and slag must
be prevented, because under such conditions it is
immediately blown in front of the electrode.
Arc blow in small weldments: When arc blow is
encountered on smaller parts, which are welded on a
grounded welding table, the arrangements as shown in
Fig. 12.23 (A) and (B) are very helpful. At (A) an
insulating material like wood, thick cardboard or
asbestos has been put under one end and the welding
has been commenced from the same end. A still better
method, but one which is not always necessary, is the
procedure shown at (B). Here the weldment is lifted off
the table and the piece of steel near the centre serves as
the ground lead. Both these measures are on the same
principle of shifting the ground lead, in order to alter
the flow of current in the workpiece.
Arc blow in heavy weldments: If heavy jobs are welded
on grounded bed plates and the arc blow cannot be
corrected satisfactorily by the aforesaid methods, the
ground lead must be attached in such a way on the job
itself, that the blowing effect of the two parallel leads
with current Fiowing in opposite directions can be made
use of. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.24 (A), (B) and (C).
At (A) with the ground lead farther off and the arc
burning at the edge of the plate, the arc blow takes place
from the edge towards the centre. By bringing the
ground lead nearer to the electrode, the repelling forces
546 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

WOOD

(B) * STEEL
Fig. 12.23: Control of arc blow in small weldments

Fig. 12.24: Control of arc blow by shifting ground connection

begin to counteract the blow from the edge. When the
tight distance between the ground lead and the
electrode is reached, i.e. the magnetic forces act upon
each other with equal strength, the arc will burn straight
as shown at (B). This can be continued further. If the
ground lead is brought still closer to the electrode, the
arc is blown towards the edge of the plate as shown at
(Q.
In places such as inside corners, webs and stiffeners
in bed plates or frames, and generally during deposition

of corner welds in steel construction, wherever arc blow
is likely to interfere with welding and freedom of
movement is limited, a simple arrangement of two
parallel lead, as described above, is needed to produce
the corrective effects. This is achieved as follows:
On a suitable length of cable fasten a piece of square
or flat steel bar with a facility to hole it as shown in Fig.
12.25 (A) and (B). The other end of the cable is held by
the ground clamp, or fastened to the grounds connection
of the generator. If an arc blow is encountered only
occasionally, the ground clamp itself serves this purpose.
If there is not enough room to press the clamp at the
proper place, the piece of square or flat bar held by the
clamp will serve for the short time it is needed. An
example of this clamp is shown at (C).
The form of this ground lead is immaterial as long
as it can be brought to the right place, and for a short
distance from the point of contact, be held parallel to
the electrode. By increasing or decreasing the distance
between the ground lead and the electrode in line with
the arc blow, the welder has it in his hand to direct the
arc stream to wherever he wants it, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 12.25: Modified grounding to control arc blow in narrow corners
<A)
Fig. 12.26: Positions of ground lead to control arc blow in narrow corners
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 547
12.24 (B) and (C). For this arrangement of movable
ground lead, the welder must use a helmet so that both
his hands are at his disposal. The application has been
illustrated in Fig. 12.26 (A) and (B). At (B), where the
freedom of movement is very restricted, it is advisable
to insulate the ground lead so as to prevent it from
touching anywhere except at the point of contact. The
usefulness of this type of ground lead is apparent, if for
some reason or other, all the methods indicated
previously do not give the desired result.
In spacious locations, for instance on plates and
places where there is enough room to move the ground
lead along, if necessary, this device can be made more
convenient to the welder as illustrated in Fig. 12.27. It
indicates the principle, the dimensions being only
approximations. The centre portion should be of heavy
round or square material, so that there is sufficient
weight to hold the point of contact down, and the two
insulated legs spaced wide enough to prevent turning
over by twisted cables. The welder can push it along
the line of welding, as long as there is the need to do so
and then leave it.
(B)
* (B)
548 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
H N
cM 50-60 MM T 1-
_J._ . 'V
INSULATING MATERIAL
Fig. 12.27: Modified grounding device to control arc
blow in spacious locations
Distortion and Its Control
Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It creates
difficulties in maintaining correct shape, dimensions and
tolerances of a finished fabrication. A fabricator must
know by experience how much distortion to expect and
in what direction, and how to reduce it to a minimum.
Distortion is caused by the unequal heating and
cooling of a metallic body during welding. It is also
caused by the contraction of the weld-metal during
solidification and cooling to room temperature and the
contraction of the surrounding parent metal as it cools
from high welding temperature. When these portions
contract, they try to pull the parts together and the result
is distortion.
A metallic body does not distort if it is heated as a
whole uniformly a n d is then cooled as a w h o l e
uniformly and has freedom to expand and contract
freely in all directions. In welding, however, only the
weld joint and its surrounding area are heated up. This
area has no freedom to expand and contract. Uneven
contraction of the weld-metal and parent metal occurs.
This gives rise to stresses in the weld, in the two
component parts making up the joint and in the entire
fabrication. If the fabrication is held firmly in a jig that
gives no freedom of movement, the stresses will remain
in the body as locked-up stresses. But if there is some
scope for movement, the stresses will find relief in
distortion. Consequently, the shape and dimensions of
the welded fabrication will have changed when it
returns to room temperature.
Thus in welding, the fabricator has to choose
between distortion and locked-up stresses, as these are
opposite effects of welding. He holds the joining parts
under great restraint, so that they are unable to move
and thereby he increases stresses in the parent metal
and weld-metal. If the stresses are too high, cracking of
the weld-metal may occur at a point of highest stress
concentration. In such cases, the fabricator must use
extra ductile electrodes, that is, those which give high
elongation value in all-weld tensile test. The danger of
cracking due to heavy restraint in the joint increases with
joint thickness. On the other hand, light structures
distort more readily and have less locked-up stresses.
Distortion can often be controlled by adopting a
suitable sequence of welding. Welding sequence has
been dealt with in detail in Chapter 3. A correct welding
sequence which reduces distortion to a minimum does
not remove or lower the locked-up stresses. It merely
distributes them evenly across the whole structure and
thereby reduces the risk of cracking.
Distortion is generally divided into four types as
illustrated in Fig. 12.28. Longitudinal shrinkage is the
contraction along the length of weld bead. It is
maximum along the weld bead and decreases at points
away from the bead. Generally its effect is secondary in
nature, insofar as dimensional accuracy of the finished
part is concerned. Only in the case of seam welding of
cylindrical vessels it may lead to a reduction in diameter
at the weld. Transverse shrinkage is the shrinkage
perpendicular to the weld and it may lead to the
development of high residual stress and also cracking
in case of highly restrained joints. Angular distortion is
the bending transverse to the weld, due to non-uniform
heating and cooling along the thickness of the plate. This
is the main source of mismatch and dimensional
inaccuracy in large welded structures. Bowing is the
bending in the direction of the weld, and it is the cause
of bending in many built-up sections, where the position
of weld is away from the centre of gravity of the section.
LONGITUDINAL SHRINKAGE
TRANSVERSE SHRINKAGE WELD BEAD BOWING
J^m*. ^ r s v —ORIGINAL POSITION
*^5r»- . — — ► . . . r j j —AFTER WELDING
ANGULAR DISTORTION
Fig. 12.28: Types of distortion in welding of free plates
 WELDING DEFECTS! THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 549

How distortion develops can be well understood by
the example of angular distortion. Figure 12.29 repre-
sents the changes taking place in the shape of a plate
when it cools after being subjected to deposition of the
weld bead. For the sake of simplicity, it can be assumed
that the plate width is small and the weld bead is de-
posited in the centre of the plate from end to end. Since
BEFORE WELDING
TT
DURING BEAD DEPOSITION
ON COMPLETE COOLING
(*) CORRESPONDING STRAIN
(A) VARIOUS STAGES OF DISTORTION DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 12.29: Development of angular distortion
only a narrow zone on both the sides of weld bead gets
heated to considerably high temperatures, the thermal
stresses associated with plastic flow and deformation
remain confined mainly in this small region shown by
broken lines. The average temperature distribution in
this region will follow the pattern shown by Ta curve,
where T is the temperature and a is the coefficient of
thermal expansion. Considering it to be the case of one-
dimensional stress and strain, the total strain (ej will
be the sum of elastic strain (eE), plastic strain (ep) and
thermal strain (Ta). Since it can be assumed to a reason-
able degree of accuracy that a plane section remains
plane, the distribution of total strain (eT) will be linear.
The actual position of the line representing the total
strain (eT) will be governed by the equilibrium of forces
generated due to elastic strain. As the plate cools down,
the temperature distribution in the plate as also the dis-
tribution of total strain (eT) will change. Some strain will
exist even after complete cooling and its distribution is
also shown in Fig. 12.29. It is obvious that the top edge
of the plate has considerable amount of shrinkage while
the bottom edge has been stretched slightly. This dif-
ference gives rise to bending (angular distortion).
Figure 12.30 depicts the strain distribution for low,
medium and high heat inputs. It is obvious from this
that angular distortion increases with increase in heat
input per unit length of plate; it attains a maximum
value and then decreases again with further increase in
heat input.

c} 8
-> 0 S-4 08-4

[1
n....
i/

r
LOW &
HEAT 1 J r

JC) S-+ p £-■ OS—■

C^_-3 MEDIUM j
HEAT H V

r ii
L
0 S—■ o s —■ OS—■

HIGH 1
HEAT |

\
D l IRING BEAD m JR1NG COOUNG ON COMPLETE
DE POSITION COOLING
Fig. 12.30: Effect of heat input on angular distortion
550 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Transverse shrinkage is not uniform along the length
of the plate. It is lesser at that end of the plate, where
the bead is started.
The amount of transverse shrinkage in a butt joint
depends on the volume of weld-metal in the joint. It is,
therefore, an advantage to have as little weld-metal as
possible. To ensure this, the V-angle and root gap must
be as small as possible. Welders often find that the V-
angle is 100°-120° instead of 70° and the root gap is as
much as 6 mm instead of 1.6 mm. Such bad joint fit-up
means not only more welding but more distortion by
shrinkage.
Angular distortion in a butt joint depends on the type
of groove joint as shown in Fig. 12.31. Here it is shown
that the angle of distortion for a 90°-V butt weld is 7°
while it is only 4M>° for a 60°-V butt joint. There is almost
no distortion in a square butt, double V butt and a
double-U butt, as long as welding is carried out from
both sides. A 2XA° distortion is obtained when deep
penetration welding is done from one side in a square
butt joint. In the case of the single-U) butt joint, the angle
of distortion is 3l/i°.
Single-V preparation is always used for economical
reasons in plates up to 12.7 mm thickness, and in these
cases distortion is not appreciable if plates are clamped
securely. For thicknesses above 12.7 mm, it is useful to
have double-V and double-U preparation not only
because less weld-metal is required, but because it is
possible to balance welding by making alternative
passes on each side. This point has already been made
clear in Chapter 3.
In fillet w e l d s , there is no q u e s t i o n of joint
preparation. The only factor that will control distortion
is the weld size, which should be as small as required.
Also a large single-pass weld made at high speed will
cause less distortion than a number of thin passes made
at a low speed.
In lap joints, it is preferable to have double fillet
welded joints than single fillet welded ones, as the latter
TYPE OF
PREPARATION
DISTORTION 4 1/2°
C^3^3
TENDENCY
Fig. 12.31: Influence of joint preparation on distortion
are more liable to distortion. Lap joints are subject to
longitudinal shrinkage, which in the case of long seams
may cause buckling. Transverse shrinkage and angular
distortion are negligible.
In welded fabrications, allowances should be made
for weld shrinkage. This means that the fabrications
should be built oversize by an amount sufficient to cover
the shrinkage and any w e l d i n g fixtures must be
designed accordingly. The following shrinkage values
may be taken as a guidance:
Transverse shrinkage
Fillet welds : 1.6 mm per weld
Butt welds : 0.8 mm per weld for 60°-V joints.
Longitudinal shrinkage
Fillet welds : 1.6 m m per 3 m of weld
Butt welds : 3.2 mm per 3 m of weld
Steps for the prevention of distortion must start from
the design office. The designer m u s t design the
fabrication in such a way that a minimum number of
joints is used. To do this:
1) Use folded components and rolled sections in-
stead of built-up sections. For example, use rolled sec-
tions in preference to welded girders.
2) Use longest and widest plates possible.
3) Corrugating of plating can be considered to avoid
welded stiffeners.
4) Locate weld joints in such a way that they are
easily accessible to the welder from both sides.
Shop people must observe the following points for
controlling distortion:
1) Use minimum weld-metal. Avoid overwelding.
2) Use correct fit-up. Avoid wide bevels and wide
root gaps.
3) Use correct sequence (see Chapter 3).
4) Control the shape and size of components being
welded. When these are inaccurate, the fabricator has
to force the parts to come together for welding. Such
forced parts contain stresses which may add up to the
stresses caused by welding and lead to more distortion.
c
1
■ ■ cia
0° 2 1/2° 3 1/2°

5) Divide complicated work into sub-assemblies in
such a way that each of these can be welded without
restraint. Completion of the fabrication from these sub-
assemblies may then have to be done under restraint.
6) Try to preset the parts correctly before welding
wherever this is possible. In a tee-joint, for example, the
vertical member may be kept slightly tilled to one side,
so that after welding this member comes back into cor-
rect alignment. In a butt weld also, the plates can be
vzmmwzzzzm
rtssf/fw**!***^
Fig. 12.32: Presetting of tee and butt joints. Dotted lines
show the position they will return to after welding
preset at an angle away from the sides of welding. Pre-
setting is shown in Fig. 12.32.
7) In making long butt welds in thin sheets, the two
edges have a tendency to close the gap and even over-
lap at the free end of the seam, as welding proceeds
from the other end. In such cases, a tapered gap is kept at
the start, the gap increasing from the welding end to the
other. The amount of taper is determined by experience.
8) Where two identical jobs are being carried out, it
is possible to tack weld or clamp them together back-
to-back. Welding is then carried out alternatively on each
job. To make this technique completely successful, the
two assemblies must be stress-relieved before they are
separated. When stress-relieving is not desirable, it is
better to insert packers between the two jobs before
clamping them together. This is shown in Fig. 12.33 (B).
Shop personnel must remember the following rules:
1) Thinner plates distort more easily than thicker
plates.
2) Distortion is minimised by depositing minimum
number of runs using the heaviest electrode possible.
3) An electrode giving faster deposition rate and
longer length of run will produce less distortion than an
electrode giving slower deposition and shorter weld run.
For this reason, an iron powder electrode giving 110%
deposition efficiency would be preferable to an ordinary
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 551
, i i i i ~u.
(A) j j J j J
i i i i
PACKERS
Fig. 12.33: Back-to-back assembly with or without the
use of packers
electrode giving 90% deposition efficiency for, say, weld-
ing 3.2 mm thick sheets to minimise distortion.
4) Distortion is minimised when the same number
and sizes of runs are deposited on both sides of a double-
V butt or a double-fillet T joint.
5) A vertical weld usually causes less distortion than
an equivalent horizontal weld, which is deposited with
the same size of electrode, because the vertical run can
be of larger size and the vertical weld can be completed
with fewer passes.
6) Submerged-arc welding causes less distortion
than manual metal-arc welding, because much heavier
runs can be deposited at higher welding speeds.
7) Simultaneous welding by two or more welders
is a good technique, provided they progress at the
same rate. For example, a vertical double-vee butt
weld can be weld-ed from both sides simultaneously
by two welders.
8) Where a joint or fracture runs to a free edge, it
should always be welded towards that free edge. If
welded towards restraint or sound metal, the shrink-
age of the weld may cause a buckle, ripple, or a crack,
which is difficult to remove.
Alignment: For control of distortion, it is imperative
that the plate edges are pulled into alignment and held
securely during welding. Various methods are available
for doing this. Most joints can be placed into desired
alignment by welding a small clip to the edge of one
plate and driving a steel wedge in between this clip and
the second plate, until the edges are lined up. The clips
are welded on one side only, so they may be easily
removed later with a hammer. The arrangement is
illustrated in Fig. 12.34. Short bars serving as strong
backs may be placed at right angles to the joint to
maintain alignment, as in Fig. 12.35. Where less
transverse restraint is desired, yet restraint against
angular movement must be maintained, the strongbacks
may be placed at 45° to the joint as shown.
552 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Weld clip along one edge only so it may be removed easily with a hammer. Drive a steel
wedge below clip until edges of plate are in alignment
This thickness is same as

Bottom plate assembly Whole assembly with wedge

Fig. 12.34: Methods of applying small clips along one side of light plate to bring edges into alignment for welding

H
A wtdgc driven in betNM««n
a yoke will putt sirongback
nd p}»»e together before tacking vT
\ |
K
Transverse strongbacks will If less transverse restraint
offer restraint against is desired, yet restraint
angular distortion against angular distortion
must be maintained, these
strongbacks may be placed at 45°

Fig. 12.35: Use of strongbacks to hold thin plates temporarily in alignment while welding

Correction: It is usually possible to rectify the material. It should then be allowed to cool, free from
distortion by one of the following methods, provided draughts.
that the product has not shrunk so much that it will be
too small to meet the dimensional requirements.
Parts of a fabrication, which have buckled or
otherwise changed their shape may be corrected by
mechanical means or hammering. Sometimes an entire
fabrication which has bowed can be straightened on a
press, provided that it is not too large; in this case, it is
necessary to insert packers between the fabrication and
the platens as shown in Fig. 12.36.
Flat fabrications that have become distorted may
sometimes be corrected by clamping them to a heavy
base plate or some other strong structure with a flat
surface, and stress-relieving the fabrication whilst it is
clamped. It is, of course, important to make sure that
the base plate is strong enough to hold the fabrication AFTER PRESSING
flat. For stress-relieving, the fabrication should be heated
slowly to 650°C, and maintained at that temperature Fig. 12.36: Use of press to correct bowing
for a period of one hour per 25 mm of thickness of the

<C) l_ - — -__J
(D) L — _J
Fig. 12.37: Effect of local heating (the movement shown
is greatly exaggerated)
The use of the concentrated heat from a blowpipe is
very useful for correcting distortion. When a metal
component (A) in Fig. 12.37 is heated locally, the heated
portion will tend to expand, and this expansion will be
opposed by the surrounding colder metal (B). Since the
heated part is relatively weak, the forces opposing its
expansion will squeeze it out of shape, as shown at (C).
On cooling, this part will shrink, and the shrinkage will
cause the component to deform (D). It is relatively easy
to treat parts of a fabrication in this way, so that the
distortion caused by the welding will be balanced by
the shrinkage of the-heated parts. Although this
technique often causes overall shrinkage, it is acceptable
provided that the fabrication is built larger than finally
required.
BUCKLING OF PANEL BEFORE
SPOT HEATING
Fig. 12.38: Spot-heating to correct buckling
WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION 553
There are various ways in which such local heating
can be applied to rectify distortion, but it is only by
experience that the best method can be selected for any
particular job. In all cases, the greatest danger is in
overshrinkaging the area being heated, as this may cause
distortion worse than that which it is desired to remove.
Overshrinking may be caused by heating too large an
area, or by heating it to too high a temperature.
Experience is the best guide in the matter of area; in
regard to temperature, it is generally advisable to restrict
the temperature of the area to approximately 700°C, i.e.
a dull-red.
Where a relatively thin plate has buckled owing to
welding a stronger framework to it, the buckling can
usually be removed by heating the plate in local spots
on the convex side. In such cases the distortion due to
the welding is usually fairly regular, so that the spots
can be arranged symmetrically, starting at the centre
of the buckle and working evenly towards each side of
the frame, as shown in Fig. 12.38. This technique is used
effectively in the fabrication of railway coach bodies.
Heating in straight lines is often used as a means of
correcting the angular distortion caused by the fillet
welds as shown in Fig. 12.39. The heating generally
follows the line of the welded joint, but is applied to the
members of the joint on the side opposite to that which
has been welded. The heating may be accompanied by
water-jet cooling on the reverse side. In this way the
shrinkage d u e to welding is counteracted by the
shrinkage caused by the flame-heating.
In all applications of flame-straightening other than
the spot-heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heated
zone as shown in Fig. 12.40 should be produced. The
heating should proceed from the base to the apex of the
wedge, penetrating evenly through the plate thickness
and maintaining an even temperature (i.e. even colour).
The shape and size of the heated zone should be marked
for the operator's guidance. Heavy-duty blowpipes
s h o u l d be used for heating. In the event of an
interruption of heating, or of the heat being lost, the
operator must allow the metal to cool and then proceed
as if commencing the heating. The straightening effect
of heating for two-thirds of the width of the plate (see
£Z#
Fig. 12.39: Correction of distortion produced by fillet weld
554 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

3.5 m length of plate. Where a maximum amount of

contraction is required, as in straightening the convexed

-Ii3EEE^
edges of plates, uniform heat penetration into the metal
from both sides should be arranged as shown in the
figure.
ZM3
one• HEATITOM PENETRATE
:
EVENLY Peening: Peening means mechanical working of the
metal using impact blows with a hammer or any other
mechanical means. The shrinkage of the weld deposit
can be counteracted by peening, which tends to stretch
iJI* the metal. Upsetting or expansion of the metal by
peening is most effective at higher temperatures, where
Fig. 12.40: Use of wedge-shaped heated zone for yield strength of the metal is rather low; yet, on the other
local heating hand, most of the distortion problem occurs at the lower
temperatures after the yield strength has been restored
Fig 12.40), the width of the heated zone being 50 mm to its higher value. A disadvantage of peening is that, it
for every 300 mm of its length, is 4.8-6.3 mm for every work-hardens the surface of the metal.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Metallurgy, Chapter 13, Vol. 2, by Linnert, published by American Welding Society.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 8, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Lamellar Tearing in Welded Steel Fabrication, 2972, published by The Welding Institute.
Control of Distortion in Welded Fabrications, 1976, published by The Welding Institute.
ISO 6S20-1982-& IS 10793-1983 "Classification of Imperfections in Metallic Fusion Welds, with Explanations"
Testing and
Inspection
of Welds
WELDED STRUCTURES are subjected to a variety of
standard tests to determine their suitability for the an-
ticipated service conditions. These tests are designed to
check chemical, mechanical and metallurgical proper-
ties and to locate defects such as incomplete fusion, slag
inclusions, porosity, cracks, etc. These tests are also used
for the qualification of welding procedures and weld-
ers, and some of them are suitable for checking the qual-
ity of welding consumables and base metals. There are
also several non-standard tests to determine specific
properties of the base metal and the weld-metal. Ex-
amples are weldability tests, hot cracking tests, etc.
Some tests are destructive in nature, because they
involve sectioning or fracturing of the weldment to
examine p r o p e r t i e s and to check on s o u n d n e s s .
Destructive tests are performed on sample weldments
made with procedures similar to those being used in
actual fabrication. They m a y be chemical tests,
m e t a l l o g r a p h i c tests, mechanical tests, or any
combination thereof.
There are other tests which are non-destructive in
nature and are performed directly on the welded
structure. Non-destructive testing includes visual
inspection and magnetic particle, liquid penetrant,
radiographic, ultrasonic, eddy current, proof test and
leak test techniques.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Chemical Test
It is often necessary to check the chemical
composition of the base metal, weld-metal, welding rod
or welding electrode. For this purpose, chippings or
drillings are taken out of the material and subjected to
chemical analysis in a laboratory. For determining the
chemistry of the undiluted weld-metal derived from a
welding consumable, a multi-layer weld pad whose
dimensions are approximately 75 mm 1 x 10 mm b x 18
mm b is built on a plate and drillings or chippings are
taken out from the top portion of the pad. An alternative
procedure prescribed by AWS is detailed in Chapter 3.
Corrosion Test
Weldments which are expected to function in a
corrosive liquid, solid or gas maybe subjected to suitable
laboratory type corrosion tests, which give partial but
satisfactory information on how the weldment will
behave in actual service conditions. Corrosion tests are
specified in only a few codes and specifications, because
most alloys and welding consumables are selected for
specific applications by previous experience.
In the welding field, corrosion tests are carried out
on welded joints of stainless steels and nickel alloys to
evaluate their resistance to corrosive environments in
service. There are various forms of corrosion tests and
they all consist of making a welded specimen in a
relatively thin material and immersing it in a reagent at
definite temperature and for definite length of time as
stipulated by relevant codes or specifications. Most
relevant a m o n g them are those designed to test
resistance to pitting corrosion or intergranular corrosion.
In welding technology, intergranular corrosion is
alternately termed as sensitisation, carbide precipitation
a n d weld decay. The metallurgical reason for
intergranular corrosion in stainless steels has been
explained in Chapter 10 under Carbide Precipitation,
while discussing the weldability of stainless steels.
A suitable test for pitting corrosion is described in
ASTM G48, "Standard test methods for pitting and
556 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
crevice corrosion resistance of stainless steels and related
alloys by the use of ferric chloride solution".
The various ASTM Evaluation tests for detecting
intergranular corrosion are summarised below:
1) A 262 Practice A: This is an oxalic acid etch test.
The test consists of electrolytically etching a polished
sample in 10 weight per cent (wt%) oxalic acid solution
at room temperature at lamp/cm 2 for 1.5 min. In this
test, c h r o m i u m carbide or n i t r i d e is dissolved
preferentially and the microstructure gives an idea of
c h r o m i u m d e p l e t i o n w h i c h is responsible for
intergranular attack. If there is no chromium carbide
present, steps are produced at the grain boundaries due
to differences in the rate of etching of variously oriented
grains. This test is useful for screening alloys for other
tests.
2) A 262 Practice B: This is a ferric sulphate test to be
applied on austenitic stainless steels. In this test, a
sample of surface area 5-20 cm2 is exposed for a period
of 120 hours to boiling 600 ml solution of 50 wt % H 2 S0 4
+ 2.5 wt % Fe2 (S0 4 ) 3 in an Erlenmayer flask fitted with
an Allihn condenser. The samples are weighed before
and after exposure and the corrosion rate calculated
from the weight loss. It detects susceptibility associated
with sigma-phase in chromium-nickel molybdenum
stainless steels (316, 316L, 317, 317L), which is known
to lead to rapid intergranular attack only in certain nitric
acid environments. It does not detect susceptibility to
end-grain attack, which is also found only in certain
nitric acid environments. The ferric sulphate-sulphuric
acid test does reveal susceptibility associated with a
sigma-like-phase constituent in stabilised stainless
steels, AISI 321 and 347.
3) A 262 Practice C: This is a nitric acid test, which is
also known as Huey Test. In this test, weighed samples
of 20-30 cm2 area are exposed to 600 ml of boiling 65
wt% H N O , in a one litre flask fitted with reflux
condenser for five 48-hour periods. After each 48-hour
period the solution in the flask in changed and the
sample is weighed. The corrosion rate for each period
and the average for the five periods is determined. The
test detects susceptibility to rapid intergranular attack
associated with chromium carbide precipitate and with
sigma-like-phase precipitate. The latter may be formed
in molybdenum-bearing and in stabilised grades of
austenitic stainless steels, and may or may not be visible
in the microstructure. This test also reveals susceptibility
to end-grain attack in all grades of stainless steels.
4) A 262 Practice D: This is a nitric-hydrofluoric acid
test. In this test, samples are tested in 10% H N 0 3 - 3 %
HF solution at 70°C for two 2-hour periods (fresh
solution is used for each period). The test is applicable
only to molybdenum-bearing grades of austenitic
stainless steels (AISI 316, 316L, 317, 317L) and detects
only susceptibility to intergranular attack associated
with chromium carbide precipitates. It does not detect
susceptibility to intergranular attack associated with
sigma-phase or end-grain corrosion, which, so far, are
known to lead to rapid intergranular attack only in
certain nitric acid environments.
5) A 262 Practice E: This is a copper sulphate-
s u l p h u r i c acid test. In this test, the specimen is
embedded in metallic copper chips and then immersed
in boiling 6 wt% anhydrous copper sulphate and 16 wt%
sulphuric acid for 24 hours. After the test, the specimen
is bent through 180° over a mandrel of diameter equal
to the thickness of the specimen. The bent specimen is
examined under low (5 to 20 x ) magnification,
6) A 708: This test is similar to A 262 Practice E, except
that the solution of copper sulphate-sulphuric acid is
used without the addition of copper and the test
duration is 72 hours.
7) G 28: While all the above tests are meant for
austenitic stainless steel alloys, this test is meant for
nickel alloys such as Hastelloy, Inconel, Incoloy and
Carpenter 20 Cb-3. The test procedure is exactly similar
to A 262 Practice B.
Metallographic Test
These tests are rarely called for in specifications but
they are commonly used for quality control and during
inspection to determine weld soundness, to examine the
extent and distribution of non-metallic inclusions in the
weld, to check the number and arrangement of runs, to
determine the metallurgical structure in the fusion zone
and the heat-affected zone and to check the depth of
weld penetration.
Samples are obtained from a test weld by sectioning
or from a production weld by trepanning. Trepanning
means mechanical removal of the weld joint portion in
one piece with a special tool, which leaves a recess in
the joint which can be easily filled up by welding. From
these samples, macrospecimens or microspecimens are
prepared by suitable etching procedures as follows:
Macrospecimens (mild steel welds): If one wants to
avoid grinding and polishing of the cross-sectional
surface, one can directly place the specimen in boiling
50% solution of hydrochloric acid in water for
approximately 30 min. Alternately, one may first grind
and smoothen the surface with emery wheel or emery
paper and then vigorously rub the surface with a piece
of cotton fully wetted with a solution of one part of solid

ammonium persulphate in nine parts of water by
weight. This rubbing action must be repeated until a
clearly defined macrostructure appears on the weld.
After etching, the specimens are washed thoroughly
in clear water and wiped dry. They are then immersed
in ethyl alcohol, removed and air dried. If a specimen is
to be preserved, a coat of thin, clear lacquer may be
applied, so that the surface does not rust in storage.
Microspecimens: These specimens have to be prepared
with a highly polished mirror-like surface and etched
with proper chemicals and techniques depending on the
type of alloy and the microstructures one is looking for.
The procedure of sample preparation and examination
is complicated and requires suitable equipment and a
trained metallographer. Interpretation of the
photomicrographs also demands a sound knowledge
of physical metallurgy.
Tensile Test
This test is used to determine the yield point or yield
strength, tensile strength or ultimate tensile stress and
percentage elongation of a metal. A tensile specimen of
standard dimensions machined from the metal is
inserted in a tensile testing machine (see Fig. 13.2). The
machine consists essentially of two parts: the straining
or pulling device and an arrangement to measure and
register the load on a dial. A gradually increasing tensile
load is applied on the specimen and the resultant
extension (or strain) of the specimen is observed. The
relation between applied stress (i.e. load divided by
cross-section) and extension or elongation is indicated
by a stress-strain curve, such as the one shown in Fig.
13.1, which is typical of a ductile mild steel. Up to point
P on the curve, the stress is proportional to the strain as
indicated by a straight line. It is termed the limit of
Soft mild steel
/ <Cold
worked
Slightly
worked
| Elastic L o c a , pecking
Uniform El. J,\.i
JAJ Elongation (O
0.1 set
Fig. 13.1: Stress-elongation curves
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 557
proportionality. Beyond P, the curve deviates from the
straight line. Point E on the curve is the elastic limit.
This means that up to this point the specimen returns
to its original dimensions when the load is removed and
thus exhibits elasticity. As the load is increased beyond
the elastic limit, there comes a point at which there is a
sudden extension, indicated by the drop of the beam
and continued extension with a lower load. If the load
is removed, the specimen does not recover its original
dimensions and it is said to have undergone plastic
deformation or plastic flow.
In the curve above, the upper yield point is denoted
by Yu the highest stress before sudden extension occurs,
and its value is affected by surface finish, shape of test
piece and rate of loading. The lower yield point, which
is normally measured in commercial testing, is denoted
by YL, the lowest stress producing the large elongation.
Such large elongation of the metal occurs in very few
materials, such as wrought iron and mild steel. As the
load is increased, the specimen continues to extend (i.e.
plastic deformation) until a constriction occurs in the
gauge length and the beam drops. This corresponds to
the maximum load (point M on the curve) on the
specimen. The load now acts on a diminishing area and
produces a stress sufficient to break the specimen. This
maximum stress M is the tensile strength of the metal.
The actual breaking stress which is lower than the stress
at M is never used in practice.
Though yield strength is the primary criterion of
load-carrying ability of a metal, much engineering
design is based on tensile strength, because in
conventional engineering materials the ratio of yield to
tensile strength is fairly constant. Many of the newer
materials, especially alloy steels, have much higher
ratios and therefore in these cases the design is based
on yield strength or proof stress. Proof stress refers to a
point on the stress-strain curve, which represents 0.1%
extension (B in Fig. 13.1).
In the tensile specimen, gauge length and parallel
length are standard dimensions. These are shown in Fig.
13.2. Gauge length which is usually 50 mm is marked
by two points on the specimen before testing, and the
final gauge length after fracture is measured. If the
original gauge length of 50 mm (l}) has increased to 60
mm (12) at the end of the test, the percentage elongation
is calculated as follows:
100 60-50 100 = 20%
50"
Percentage elongation is a measure of ductility of a
metal and indicates the safety factor when it is stressed
558 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
wei
Fulcrum ^ ^ *ht
Fig. 13.2: Tensile testing machine and specimen
in service. Ductility may be defined as the property
which enables metals to be drawn into wire using a
tensile force. Percentage reduction of area is another
measure of ductility which can be measured in a tensile
test. It is obtained by carefully fitting together the ends
of the fractured tensile specimen and measuring the
dimensions of the smallest cross- section. The difference
between this area and the original cross-sectional area,
divided by the original cross-sectional area and
multiplied by 100 gives the percentage reduction of area.
It is important to remember that when an elongation
figure is mentioned, gauge length of the specimen
should be stated. Sometimes the factor between gauge
length and diameter at the parallel length is stated (for
example, 1 = 5d). This is because the total elongation of
a test piece is made up of two separate parts:
a) Uniform extension, which occurs up to the maxi-
mum load (M) and is proportional to the gauge length.
b) Local extension, due to the necking. This is inde-
pendent of the gauge length, but varies with the cross-
sectional area of the specimen. As the gauge length is
increased, the effect of the necking on the value of the
total elongation decreases, as shown in Fig. 13.3.
Impact test: This test measures the resistance of a
metal to fracture in the presence of a sharp notch (hence
also called notched-bar impact test). Minimum impact
values are specified in many codes and specifications
for ferritic steels, because some of them fail by brittle
fracture in service, even though they exhibit normal
properties as determined from the standard tensile test.
Such failure is especially severe when the material is
used in a notched condition. Notched conditions include
restraint due to deformation in directions perpendicular
to the major stress, multi-axial stress, and stress
0 2 k 6 S 10 12 1<*
Gauge length, cm
Fig. 13.3: Effect of gauge length on percentage
elongation
concentrations. The energy values determined in an
impact test are used for quality control of a material,
for comparison of different materials, for determining
the variation of impact strength with temperature and
for arriving at the transition temperature. They are not
useful for engineering design calculations.
Transition temperature is the temperature at which
the behaviour of the material in impact testing changes
from ductile to brittle. Fibrous appearance of the
fractured surface indicates ductile behaviour, while
crystalline appearance indicates brittle behaviour. There
are many definitions of transition temperature, some of
which are:
a) The lowest temperature at which the specimen
exhibits a fibrous structure.
b) The temperature where the specimen fracture
shows a 50% crystalline and a 50% fibrous appearance.
c) The temperature corresponding to the energy
value that equals 50% of the difference between values
obtained at 100% fibrous and zero fibrous.
d) The temperature corresponding to a specific en-
ergy value.
There are several impact tests among which the
Charpy-V Notch, Charpy-Keyhole Notch and the Izod
tests are well known. Charpy-V test has replaced the
Izod test in recent years, because it is easier to test
specimens over a range of temperature with this test.
An impact testing machine and Izod and Charpy-V
impact specimens are shown in Fig. 13.4. To carry out
the test, the specimen is gripped in a vice of an impact
testing machine, with the root of the notch level with
the top of the vice. A weighted pendulum, swinging on
ball bearings, is raised to a standard height and allowed
to strike the specimen on the same side as the notch.
The striking energy is partially absorbed in fracturing
the specimen, and this amount is indicated by a pointer.
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 559

2 mm
Dimensions in millimetres
Six Charpy testpieces^taken Notches perpendicular
at mid depth of" surface of plate

ij*square 10 mm square
FjKil mm ^ a
rn round Wfa

Tensile
testpiece
Izod and Charpy-V
Line of cutior
Charpy V tensile testpiece
Fig. 13.4: Izod and Charpy-V machine and specimens

The impact test values are energy values and are

presently expressed in Joules (J), though formerly they
were expressed in ft-lbf and kgf m.
All-Weld-Metal Tests
All-weld-metal tensile and impact tests are meant
to determine yield point, tensile, elongation, impact and
other values of the weld-metal deposited by a welding
consumable. All-weld-metal means weld deposit which
is undiluted by the base metal. In these tests, the test
specimens are so prepared that the sections which are
subjected to the test consist of pure, undiluted weld-
metal.
The procedures for preparing the specimens and
testing them are described in many well-recognised
standards. Some of them dealing with manual electrodes
are summarised in the following paragraphs.
1) ISO 2560-1973 (E)
For all-weld tensile and impact tests, an assembly is
prepared, as shown in Fig. 13.5 in the form of a butt
joint between two 20 mm thick plates with a single V-
groove with a backing plate 10 mm thick and a root gap
of 16 mm. The backing plate is tack welded to the
assembly. By preparing the assembly in this way, the
influence of the parent metal (i.e. base metal) is
eliminated.
Electrodes of specified size are used. Each pass is
carried out at normal welding speed and with a welding
current specified by the manufacturer. If the electrode
can be used with both AC and DC, AC is chosen.
Fig. 13.5: Test assembly as per ISO 2560
each end of the plate. The reinforcement of the total weld
is not allowed to exceed 3 mm. After each run, the
assembly is left in still air until it has cooled to a
temperature not exceeding 250°C, the temperature being
taken on the weld surface midway along the run. The
tensile test piece is machined to the dimensions shown
in Fig. 13.6, care being taken that the longitudinal axis
coincides with the centre of the weld, and the mid-
thickness of the plates. The gauge length of the test piece
is 50 mm. The ends of the test piece may be of any shape
suitable for fixing in the testing machine. The tensile
test piece is heat-treated in an electrically heated furnace
at 250°C for a period of not less than six hours and not
more than 16 hours. The purpose of the heat treatment
is to remove any hydrogen from the weld-metal. The
tensile strength and the elongation are determined at
room temperature.
Dimensions in millimetres
Gauge length: 50
R 5 miru
ex
Q—r\ □ T L — 1 — fe
00
.—4

Parallel length: 60
Welding is done in the flat position, each layer being
made up of one or several passes, with each pass not ! 70 min.
more than 16 mm wide. Each electrode is consumed
completely (up to a stub end of no more than 50 mm).
The direction of deposition of each layer alternates from Fig. 13.6: Tensile test piece as per ISO 2560
560 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

The impact test piece is of the Charpy-V notch type.
Six test pieces have to be taken from the test assembly
Their longitudinal axes have to be transverse to the weld
and the upper surface 5 mm from the upper surface of
the plate. The notch must be positioned in the centre of
the weld and must cut in the face of the test piece,
perpendicular to the surface of the plate. All dimensions
have to be in accordance with the instructions given in
Fig. 13.7 and must be carefully checked. The testing
temperature for electrodes receiving symbol 1 defined
in the codification system has to be about 20°C (room
temperature). For symbols 2, 3 and 4, the temperatures
h a v e to be 0, - 2 0 a n d -30°C respectively. The
temperature must be controlled to within ± 1°C. An
energy level of 27 J is required at the temperature
prescribed for the respective symbol. This value is
evaluated in the following way:
First Series Of Test Pieces
The average X6 of the results of the tests on the first
series of six test pieces is assessed as follows:
if X6 < 16 J, the requirements are not fulfilled
if X6 > 35 J, the requirements are fulfilled
if 16 <X6 < 35 J, a second test assembly has to be
welded.
From this test assembly only impact test pieces are ma-
chined. A second series of 12 test pieces is thus obtained.
Second series of test pieces
The average X of the results for the 12 test pieces of
the second series, together with the results for the six
test pieces of the first series, is assessed as follows:
if X18 > 27 J, the requirements are fulfilled
if X18 < 27 J, the requirements are not fulfilled
If a test piece in a series, whose average value does
not fulfil the above requirements shows weld defects
which could have affected the results of the test, then
that test piece may be discarded and replaced without
necessarily rejecting the series as a whole.

Dimensions in millimetres
t/\

i il r'T"^
U-J ^-U=r.
£3 I Position in test assembly

sT\ r
imensions of
testpiece
27,5 J 27,5
-* *+*• •-
55

D imensions
oo

k
Zl of V-notch

025 N L - V
ny
Fig.13.7: Impact test piece as per ISO 2560

2) BS 639:1976
The procedure for making all-weld tensile and
impact tests specified in this standard is identical to that
of ISO 2560, except for the following additional
conditions:
a) The parent plate for the test assembly must be
carbon s t e e l h a v i n g a m a x i m u m t e n s i l e
strength of 500 N/mm 2 .
b) The temperature of the assembly must be 10-30°C
before depositing the first run of weld-metal.
c) Each run of weld-metal must not be less than 2
mm and not more than 4 mm thick.
d) The assembly should not be quenched between
the deposition of individual runs.
e) The portion including the weld-metal may be cut
off from the assembly by oxyacetylene or any
other thermal method, provided care is taken to
ensure that the lines of cut for the tensile speci-
men are at least 20 mm from the toes of the weld
as shown in Fig. 13.8.
f) During tension test, the stress up to the yield point
must be applied at a rate not exceeding 12 N /
mm 2 per second.
g) Method of arriving at the average impact value:
i) For the first digit of impact value (refer Table 3.9
of Chapter 3), six impact specimens must be pre-
pared and tested at the appropriate temperature.
The average of the six values must be at least 35
J. If the average of the six impact values is greater
than 16 J but less than 35 J, 12 additional speci-
mens, taken from a new test piece must be pre-
pared and tested, and the results added to those
previously obtained to form a new average that
must be at least 27 J. When the average of the
original six impact values does not exceed 16 J, it
means the electrode has failed the test.
Line of cut for
thermal c u t t i n g _
3 mm approx. 20 mm m i n .
excess weld metal i \ ^-f
Approx. 16 mm
View in direction of arrow X
Fig. 13.8: Test assembly and lines of cut as per BS 639
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 561
ii) For the second digit of impact value, six test speci-
mens must be prepared, three using 4 mm elec-
trode and three using the largest size. When these
are tested at the appropriate temperature, the
average of the three impact values from each set
of specimens must be at least that stated in Table
3.10 "second digit for elongation and impact
strength".
If the average of the three impact values from either
or both sets of specimens fails to comply with the
requirements of the table by an amount not exceeding
15% of the required value, three additional specimens
for each set concerned, taken from a new test piece, shall
be prepared and tested and the results added to those
previously obtained to form a new average that shall
comply with the requirements. When the average of the
original three impact values from either or both sets of
specimens is more than 15% below the required value,
it means the electrode has failed the test.
3) DIN 1913-1976
The procedure is exactly as laid down in ISO 2560.
Regarding the deposition of weld passes (or runs) and
layers, the standard states that:
a) The electrode must be melted down till the stub
is not longer than 50 mm
b) The weaving width for a pass should not exceed
5 x diameter of the core wire
c) The length of run deposited with an electrode will
depend on its type
d) A layer may consist of one pass covering the en-
tire width or of a number of passes laid side by
side
e) Before starting a new weld layer, the assembly
must be allowed to cool in air to a temperature
below 250°C.
Line of cut
for thermal c u t t i n g
562 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
4) IS: 814 -1991
The procedure is based on ISO 2560. Attention should
be drawn to the following special points:
a) The parent plates for the test assembly must be
mild steel conforming to IS: 2062-1969.
b) While the specified width of the test plate is 100
mm minimum in ISO 2560 and in BS 639, it varies
in IS 814 according to the size of the electrode as
follows:
Core diameter Plate width
mm mm
4 90 ± 10
5 and 6.3 120 ± 10
8 150 ± 10
10 and 12.5 180 ± 10
c) Temperature of the plate assembly must be 25-
29°C before commencing welding.
d) In order to counteract shrinkage deformation, the
test plates should be pre-set as shown in Fig. 13.9.
While tack welding the assembly in such a way
as to obtain a level joint after welding, no pre-
setting of the backing strip is required, and be-
fore commencing welding, care should be taken
to see that the opening on the upper side of the
V-joint is not less than 28 mm.
28 mm min.
r -i
d = Test plate thicfoess
5 = Backinq plate thickness
Fig. 13.9: Presetting of test plates for tack welding
e) The direction of deposition from one end to the
other must change with each layer.
f) Each weld run must not be less than 1.5 mm and
not more than 3 m m thick.
g) The length of run per electrode (minus the stub)
must not be less than 0.4 (1-50), where 1 is the
total electrode length in mm.
h) No run should start or end in the operative part
of the test piece.
i) Between the completion of one run and start of
the next run, the text assembly must be allowed
to cool in air to a temperature below 250°C.
5)AWSA5.1-91
The procedure and conditions for making all-weld
tensile and impact tests prescribed in this standard are
markedly different from those of the previous standards.
Hence they will be described in full detail.
The test assembly is prepared as shown in Fig. 13.10
from steel plates conforming to one of the following
ASTM specifications or their equivalent:
a) Specification A285, Pressure Vessel Plates, Car-
bon Steel Low and Intermediate Tensile Strength,
Grade C
b) Specification A283, Low and Intermediate Ten-
sile Strength, Carbon Steel Plates of Structural
Quality, Grade D
c) Specification A36, Structural Steel.
Electrodes m u s t be tested in the as-received
condition, except for the low-hydrogen electrodes which
must be dried at 260-370°C for two hours immediately
prior to testing.
The assembly must be welded in the flat position
using appropriate size of electrode and the type of
current depending on the classification of the electrode.
The assembly must be pre-set or restrained during
welding to prevent warpage in excess of 5°. A test
assembly that has w a r p e d more than 5° must be
d i s c a r d e d . Welded test assemblies m u s t not be
straightened. The test assembly must be tack welded
a n d p r e h e a t e d to 110 ± 14°C. Welding m u s t be
continued with an interpass temperature of not less
than 110°C, nor more than 180°C as measured by
t e m p e r a t u r e i n d i c a t i n g crayons or surface
thermometers at the point specified in Fig. 13.10. The
pass sequence must be as called for in Fig. 13.10. Each
pass must include at least one start and stop within the
area of weld that must meet radiographic soundness
requirements. The direction of welding to complete a
pass must not vary: however, the direction of welding
for different passes may be alternated. If it is necessary
to interrupt the welding procedure, the assembly must
be allowed to cool in still air to room temperature. When
ready to r e s u m e w e l d i n g , the assembly m u s t be
preheated to a temperature of 110 ±14°C. The procedure
used for completing the weld must be continued as
described before. No thermal treatment is permitted
on the test assembly s u b s e q u e n t to the w e l d i n g
operation.
One all-weld tension test specimen as shown by Fig.
13.11 must be machined from the same test assembly.
As Fig. 13.11 shows, two sizes of tensile specimens are
prescribed: the larger one for electrode sizes 4 to 8 mm
(using plate thickness of 19 mm or more) and the smaller
one for electrode sizes 2.4 and 3.2 m m (using plate
thickness of 12.7 mm). For all electrode classifications,
except the low-hydrogen classi fica- tions (E7015, E7016,
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 563

E7018, E7048 and E7028), the machined tensile specimen
must be aged at 95 to 105°C for 48 ± 2 hours. The
specimen must then be cooled to room temperature and
subjected to tension until rupture. The tensile specimen
from the low-hydrogen classifications must not be aged
prior to testing.
Five Charpy-V notch impact test specimens, as
shown in Fig. 13.10 must be machined from the same
test assembly. No thermal treatment is permitted on the
test specimens. The impact properties of the five
specimens from the test assembly must be obtained at
the test temperature specified for the classification being
tested. When computing the average value of the impact
properties from the set of five specimens, the lowest
value and highest value obtained must be disregarded.
Two of the three remaining values must be greater than
the specified 27 J energy level; one of the three may be
lower but not less than 20 J. The computed average value
of the 3 values must be equal to or greater than the 27
J energy level.

l+~ 1 mm - V 2 lenqth-

Poini ol
temperature
measurement

Impact *- A l l - w e l d - m e t e l
specimens tension s p e c i m e n

■i | * - 1 mm

(a) Test plate showing location of test specimens

.T/2
SI Equivalents
in. mm
1/16 1.6
WeW Q WeW Q 1/2 13
1 0
Section AA Section AA 5 125
(b) Orientation and (c) Location of
location of impact 10 250
all-weld-metal
specimen tenion specimen

(T) (R) (B) Split weave

Electrode Plate thickness Root Backing Full weave
size (min) opening thickness for Press Number
mm mm mm mm layer no. Layer no. per layer of layers

2.4 12.7 6.4

3.2 12.7 6.4 1 3 to top 2 5 to 7
4.0 19 6.4 1 2 to top 2 7 to 9
4.8 19 6.4 land 2 3 to top 2 6 to 8
5.6 19 13 12.7 land 2 3 to top 2 6 to 8
6.4 25 12.7 1,2 and 3 4 to top 2 5 to 7
8.0 32 12.7 1, 2 and 3 4 to top 2 5 to 7
Fig. 13.10: Preparation of test assembly as per AWS A5.1
564 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
B
K~
G = Gauge length
Test plate Dimensions in mm
thickness (mm) D G
12.7 6.4 + 0.13 25.4 + 0.13
19.1 12.7 + 0.25 50.8 + 0.13
Fig. 13.11 All-weld tensile specimen as pet AWS A5.1
Cod Test
COD stands for crack opening displacement. Some
authorities prefer to call it CTOD test which means crack
tip opening displacement test. This test is normally not
specified in codes and specifications, but becomes a
r e q u i r e m e n t for a p p r o v i n g steels a n d w e l d i n g
consumables meant for critical structures such as
offshore platforms to be erected in rough and cold seas.
Though Charpy test is being used as a guide and a
quality control test for toughness, its limitations from
the design point of view are being felt with the
increasing use of new alloys for which previous
experience is lacking. The concept of linear fracture
mechanics is now being applied to design problems to
give fracture-safe structure containing a defect of known
size.
This concept involves a study of stresses and strains
at the tips of sharp cracks with respect to the applied
loading. Under elastic conditions, this stress field can
be described in terms of a single parameter known as
the stress intensity factor K. The critical value of K which
will cause the crack to grow under a static load is called
K , which represents the fracture toughness of the
material. As the material thickness increases, Kc
approaches a minimum value Klc under plane strain
conditions, i.e. conditions of high triaxiality and high
restraint. Klc stands for the critical plane strain stress
intensity factor, and is a material property in the same
-•G'
LL
*- D "M
Approximate
C B F, min area (mm)
31.8 9.5 4.6 32
57.1 19.1 9.5 129
sense as yield pointer proof stress. Knowing Kk of an
alloy, the designer is able to specify acceptance limits
for sizes and shape of defect, so that fracture will not
occur at the design stress. This elastic analysis method
is well suited for high strength alloys but not for
conventional lower strength alloys, in which fracture is
often associated with local plasticity. In their case, the
occurrence of this yielding brings with it the separation
of the crack surface, even at the crack tip, before crack
begins to p r o p a g a t e . This critical crack o p e n i n g
displacement (COD = a) is regarded as a parameter for
measuring fracture toughness of ductile materials.
COD testing, which is detailed in BS 5762:1979 is very
expensive and fairly complex. In U.K., for example,
consumable producers and fabricators find it more
economical to get their testing done by the Fracture
Mechanics Laboratory of the Welding Institute at
Abington or any other similar testing centre.
Hence the commonly asked question: is it possible
to establish a correlation between Charpy-V and COD
values? The answer is no.
The distinctions which must be made between COD
and Charpy data result from the entirely different
natures of the two tests. The Charpy test measures both,
the energy required to initiate fracture in a specimen
and the energy required to propagate the crack through
the specimen, although it is not possible to separate the
two. The COD test, on the other hand, is a measure only

of the strain which can be accommodated in a specimen
before fracture initiates. Fracture p r o p a g a t i o n
parameters are not included in this test. There are also
other important differences in the specimen type, which
should also be emphasised. These are as follows:
a) The Charpy specimen is a standard size (i.e. 10 x
10 x 55 mm) irrespective of the original plate thickness,
and contains a blunt notch 2 mm deep, whereas the COD
specimen is ideally made using the full thickness of the
plate and contains an extremely sharp fatigue crack as
the notch.
b) The notch tip in a COD specimen is much more
highly restrained than in a Charpy specimen. At a given
temperature, this can give rise to different failure
initiation modes in the two tests.
c) A through thickness notch COD in, for instance,
weld-metal will sample a w i d e variety of
microstructures of varying toughness, e.g. the root
region may be expected to have lower toughness than
other regions, whereas the Charpy test may not sample
the region of worst toughness. Thus, in any comparison
of test data, care should be exercised to ensure that the
microstructures at the point of fracture initiation in the
two tests are the same.
d) The Charpy test is an impact test, whereas the
rate of loading in COD testing is very low. This again
can lead to different mechanisms of failure initiation.
To explain the COD test briefly, a test piece as shown
in Fig. 13.12 in which a sharp crack has been developed
from a machined notch by fatigue, is subjected to
loading at a known temperature in three point bending.
Test results are produced by an autographic recording
of the applied force against the clip gauge displacement
measured at the test piece surface, across knife edges
located on opposite sides of the notch. The measured
clip gauge displacement at the fracture, or the onset of
crack extension (critical clip gauge displacement), is
related to the crack tip opening displacement at this
point, using a previously determined calibration.
For offshore construction in the North Sea, minimum
COD requirement of 0.44 m m at -10°C has been
specified for the weld-metal in certain critical areas of
the structures, as indicated in Table 7.2 in Chapter 7.
Weld-metal fracture mechanism: Toughness tests on
weld-metals have shown that there are two principal
fracture mechanisms, namely, fracture by cleavage (see
Fig.13.13A) and fracture by microvoid coalescence (or
dimpled fracture) (see Fig. 13.13B). The shape of the
transition curve of toughness versus temperature for a
given weld deposit is determined by its resistance to
these two mechanisms. Weld-metal deposited on critical
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 565
structures must have a high resistance to cleavage in
the first instance, since fracture initiation by this
mechanism in most situations will lead to catastrophic
failure of the structure.
COD test which assesses resistance to initiation of
fracture is considered to be well suited for investigating
and distinguishing between resistance to the two above
mentioned fracture mechanisms, since the toughness
values can be readily linked to the micro~ing and to
the mechanism of initiation by fracto-graphy. Such an
investigation is difficult with the Charpy-V test, since
it is impossible here to separate clearly the contributions
of the two fracture mechanisms except at extreme ends
of the transition curve, where 100% crystallinity or 100%
fibrosity is developed.
Microstructure vis-a-vis toughness: Important
microstructural constituents of C-Mn and low-alloy
steel w e l d - m e t a l s placed in order of decreasing
transformation temperature are:
1) Proeutectoid ferrite nucleated in prior grain
boundaries and usually existing as thin bands outlining
a columnar grain structure
2) Isolated regions of ferrite-carbide aggregates such
as pearlite
3) Ferrite plates nucleating in a side-by-side manner
resembling upper bainite
4) Narrow interlocking ferrite plates known as
acicular ferrite
5) Small areas of retained austenite (seen with
electron microscope), which in certain weld-metals is
found partly or wholly transformed to martensite.
Research studies aimed at establishing relationship
between weld-metal toughness and its microstructure
have indicated that a high resistance to cleavage and a
low transition temperature will result if the proportion
of interlocking acicular ferrite structure is kept high and
that of proeutectoid ferrite and upper bainite is kept
low.
Fracture by microvoid coalescence is considered to
be of less practical importance in determining risks of
unstable fracture than fracture by cleavage, at least in
C-Mn weld deposits. However, a thorough knowledge
of factors which improve resistance to microvoid
coalescence is expected to help meet C h a r p y - V
requirements more easily.
Charpy-V test results depend mainly on the non-
metallic inclusion population. Low volume fractions
and a high mean free spacing of the inclusions are
needed for good toughness. Low inclusion volume
fractions result principally from control of oxygen and
566 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Bt0 8%
W±04% L
Section through
notch
» 1
_ _

|//|02%W|A[

lllO/»%W|A

1 j / 6 0 ° nominal

Width = W
Thickness = B = 0.5 W
Half loading span L = 2W
Notch width N = 0.065 W max. (if W is over 25 mm) or
= 1.5 m m max. (if W is less than or equal to 25 mm)
Effective notch length M = 0.25 W to 0.45 W
Effective crack lenght a = 0.45 W to 0.55 W
Note 1. Sawn notches may also be used.
Note 2. Where one (ormore) of the specimen surfaces is the original product surface, machining of that surface
is not required
All dimension in mm.

Fig. 13.12: Proportional dimensions of COD te^ piece as per BS 5762-1979

sulphur levels in the deposit. Oxygen levels can vary Submerged-arc 0.02-0.15%
markedly b e t w e e n w e l d s d e p o s i t e d by v a r i o u s MIG 0.01-0.02%
processes. Typical vacuum fusion analyses have given C0 2 -shielded 0.04-0.06%
the following oxygen ranges: Sulphur contributes directly to the inclusion volume-
Manual metal-arc 0.03-0.07% fraction by forming sulphide inclusions. For highest
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 567

(A) (B)
Fig. 13.13: Fracture mechanisms in weld-metal: (A) Cleavage; (B) Microvoid coalescence

toughness, tight control on sulphur in wires, fluxes and
the base plate is necessary.
To sum up, high COD values of weld deposits can
be achieved by choosing the welding consumable and
welding heat input in such a way that they will result
in a most favourable weld deposit microstructure. For
getting high Charpy-V values, one must choose a
welding process and consumables, which give the
lowest sulphur and non-metallic inclusion contents in
the weld deposit.
then filled up by welding with 4 mm size electrodes in
the weld position applicable to the test piece. After
completion of welding, test pieces are cut by sawing or
machining to form one transverse tensile, one face bend
and one root bend, and three impact test specimens as
indicated in Fig. 13.14. Gas cutting is permissible
provided a minimum of 3 mm is machined off. In all
the test pieces, the upper and lower surfaces of the weld
-55-
Discard

c
Transverse Tests
Transverse tensile, impact and bend tests are often "T-Charpy
specified as quality control tests or as acceptance tests r-J test f
for electrodes. Unlike all-weld-metal tests, these tests ) pieces
are made on butt welds in which the weld-metal has
been diluted by the base metal and it has not been heat-
Transverse
tensile
Test
specimen
i
50
treated for the removal of hydrogen. Thus these tests
are meant to confirm the compatibility of electrodes with
respect to standard base metals and they are more
representative of the practical conditions of welded
fabrication than the all-weld tests.
Face bend test

Root bend test

Specimen

Specimen
i
30
According to IS 814, the test pieces are made as Discard

L +♦
shown in Fig. 13.14 by welding together two plates 15
to 20 mm thick and not less than 100 mm wide. The
edges are bevelled to give an included angle of 70°, root U 100 min «*W-

3&
face of 3 mm and maximum gap of 3 mm. The welding 30°
position can be flat, horizontal-vertical, vertical or to 20
overhead as required for the qualification of the f o to y
All dimensions in millimetres.
electrode. After the V-groove is filled up by multi-pass
welding, a groove is cut at the root on the backside to a Fig. 13.14: Method of preparing transverse tensile,
depth of 3 mm as shown in Fig. 13.15. This groove is impact and bend test specimens
568 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Premature failure at corners of the test specimen is not

considered a cause for rejection.

Nick-Break Test
This test is applied to a welded butt joint in plate or
pipe to check weld soundness. The typical specimen
All dimensions in millimetres.
dimensions for plate and pipe are shown respectively
Fig. 13.15: Grooving in preparation for deposition of in Figs. 13.18 and 13.19. It is not necessary to remove
sealing run the weld reinforcement. The specimen is supported as
shown in Fig. 13.20 and ruptured by giving one or more
must be filed, ground or machined level with the sudden heavy blows with a hammer at the point of the
respective original surfaces of the plates. Dimensions nick or the notch as indicated. The rate of applying the
of the transverse tensile specimen are shown in Fig. force is not critical, because it has no effect on the
13.16. The bend test specimen is made 30 mm wide. Its appearance of the fractured surface.
sharp corners are rounded off. The transverse impact
specimen is machined out as shown in Fig. 13.17.
These edges may be flame cut
IS:814 specifies that the transverse tensile specimen 6 mm approx
tested in tension should give tensile strength in the range
of 410-510 or 510-610 N / m m 2 , d e p e n d i n g on the
classification of the electrode. The transverse impact test
results are assessed in the same manner as those for all-
weld impact tests. The transverse bend test specimens
are bent through an angle of 180° over a mandrel having
a diameter equal to three times the thickness of the
specimen. One test specimen is tested with the face of
the weld in tension and one with the root of the weld in Fig. 13.18: Method of preparing nick-break specimen
tension. According to IS:814, the electrode complies with from plate
the test if on completion of the 180° bend no crack or
defect at the outer surface of the test specimen is greater
than 3.0 mm measured across the test specimen or 1.5 These edges may be flame cut
mm measured along the length of the test specimen. 6 mm approx

r W i d t h to
*0R I »uit grip
T
1
OF?—
-t.Jj-
I A * P a r a l l e l Lenqth = Width
of w e l d ► 6 m m e a c h s i d e
All dimensions in millimetres.

Fig. 13.16: Dimensions of transverse tensile test

Fig. 13.19: Method of preparing nick-break specimen
specimen
from pipe

Test piece taken

from middle of Notch perpendicular
Load
plate thickness to surface of plates

15 to 20
T
All dimensions in millimetres
Fig. 13.17: Method of preparation of Charpy test
mnm
specimen Fig. 13.20: Method of rupturing nick-break specimen

The surface of the fracture is examined for the
presence of internal defects, such as lack of fusion, slag
inclusions and porosity This test can be conveniently
carried out in shops and at sites for quick assessment of
weld quality, since no elaborate equipment is necessary
and the interpretation is relatively simple.
Free-Bend Test
This test measures the ductility of the weld-metal in
a butt joint in a plate or pipe in terms of elongation
percentage. Thickness of the specimen is the same as
that of the plate or the pipe, width is 1.5 times the
thickness and the length is anywhere between 150 mm
for 6 mm t and 450 mm for 50 mm t. The length is not
mandatory. The weld is dressed to the plate level by
filing, grinding or machining, bearing in mind that the
tool marks should be lengthwise to the specimen. It is
important that the line between the weld-metal and the
base metal is distinctly visible, and if necessary the
surface of the specimen should be etched with a suitable
reagent.
Two gauge lines are lightly marked on the specimen.
The distance between the gauge lines (gauge length)
should be 3 mm less than the width of the weld. It should
be measured to the nearest 0.25 mm. Gauge lines must
appear on the wider face of the weld if it has unequal
faces.
The specimen is first subjected to an initial bend in a
device such as shown in Fig. 13.21. The face having
gauge lines must face downwards. The weld should lie
exactly at midspan of both the supports and the loading
block. Alternatively, a bend of 30-45° away from the
ii m i o V Transerverse Fillet Shear test
iA) W - Weld width fj
G-Gauge length //
t-Thickness / /
Fig. 13.21: Method of executing free-bend test: (A) Test
specimen; (B) Specimen given initial bend; (C) Final
free bend
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 569
gauge lines may be given by holding the specimen in
the jaws of a vice with one-third length of the specimen
projecting from the jaws and giving hammer blows. A
similar bend is given to the other end of the specimen.
Both ends should be bent through the same angle, and
they should be symmetrical with respect to the weld.
Final free bend is achieved by applying compressive
forces to the two ends to gradually decrease the distance
between them. If a crack or depression exceeding a
specified size a p p e a r s on the convex face of the
specimen, the load is withdrawn and the specimen
removed. If no cracks or other defects appear, the
specimen is bent completely to 180° and then taken out.
In either case, the final gauge length is measured to
the nearest 0.25 mm. The difference between the final
and original gauge length divided by the original gauge
length and multiplied by 100 gives the elongation
percentage which is taken as a measure of weld-metal
ductility
FILLET WELD TESTS
Fillet Weld-Break Test
This test is similar to the nick-break test and is meant
to test the weld soundness. The test specimen, as shown
in Fig. 13.22 (a) and (b), consists of two plates making a
tee joint and a fillet weld laid on the outer side of the
joint. The base metal, weld-metal and the welding
parameters must be strictly as prescribed in the welding
procedure being qualified. Tack welds at the ends of
the joints should be avoided as they make it difficult to
rupture the specimen. The manner of positioning the
specimen and direction of force are also shown at (c) in
Fig. 13.22. The force may be applied by means of a
testing machine, a press or h a m m e r blows. The
fractured surfaces are examined for internal defects
such as porosity, incomplete root penetration and slag
inclusions.
This test is used to determine the shear strength
of a transverse fillet weld. The specimen dimensions
are shown in Fig. 13.23. The width of the specimen is
m e a s u r e d in m m . A tensile load is applied to the
specimen in a testing machine until it ruptures. The
maximum applied load in N is recorded. The shear
strength of the welds per linear mm is obtained by
dividing the maximum load by twice the width of the
specimen. The shear strength of the welds (in N/mm 2 ) is
obtained by dividing the shear strength (in N per linear
mm) by the average throat size of the welds (in mm).
570 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

t = F + 3 mm
Minimum length
of weld= L-25 mm

Fig. 13.22: Fillet-weld break specimen and method of rupturing

f
112.7 mm-*
^0 mm
""IIP * ! *

19 mmf~[
Jl f \ 9.5 mm +0
9.5 t 1.5 mm—H P* ♦ .1.5 mm
Leq dimensions
for ell welds
Fig. 13.23: Transverse fillet-weld shearing specimen

Longitudinal Fillet Shear Test Fillet Weld Tee-Bend Test

This test measures the shear strength of a
longitudinal fillet weld. The dimensions of the
specimen after welding are shown in Fig. 13.24 and
those after machining are shown in Fig. 13.25. The
length of each w e l d is measured in mm. The
specimen is ruptured in a tensile testing machine and
the maximum load is recorded. The shear strength
of the welds in N per linear mm and in terms of N /
mm 2 is calculated in the same manner as with the
transverse test.
This is not a standard test but is sometimes used to
roughly compare the ductility of double-fillet tee joints.
Details of welding the tee joint, sectioning the specimen
and bending it in a guided jig until the angle of bending
(angle A + angle B) is 120° or until the specimen fractures
are shown in Fig. 13.26. The test also determines the
effect of welding on the HAZ and thus predicts the
service performance of a tee joint.
The following four types of results are obtained in
the order of decreasing ductility of the welded joint:
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 571

71
±1
8" min.- -8" min.- J
t—k l/2"-H 4 Standard **5°
2 \fr" fillet welds, size F

Dimensions F-^i

Size of weld F,in. [1/8 \m[3/8 [1/2I

1 Thickness t, in.,min.i3/8 tl/2 |3/i"_Tj
| ThicknessT, in.,min. 3/8 3/4 1 ~M
1 Width W, in, 3 '3 |
1
7]m
Fig. 13.24: Longitudinal fillet-weld shearing specimen after welding

1 1/2"«-, . r-*l 1/2"

£1 ►5M
C 1
Note: for other dimensions see fig. 13.24
Fig. 13.25: Longitudinal fillet-weld shearing specimen after machining

Type 0 — The specimen bends to 120° without
fracture or tear of any kind.
Type 1 — A crack which starts in the bond zone at
the toe of the fillet and follows the fusion zone under
the weld, but does not turn into the plate metal.
Type 2 — A slowly progressing crack which starts at
the toe of the fillet and extends eitker directly into the
plate metal or follows the fusion zonefora short distance
and then turns into the plate metal, but does not
continue entirely across the plate metal.
572 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Roller
support
[after welding TEST PLATE FOR
Fig. 13.26: Fillet weld guided tee-bend test
Type 3 — A sudden or sharp crack which generally
starts at the toe of the fillet and extends into and entirely
across the plate metal.
Hardness Tests
The term, hardness of a metal, cannot be precisely
defined and has many meanings. In general, hardness
usually implies a resistance to deformation, and in the
case of metals, it is a measure of their resistance to plastic
or permanent deformation. The harder a metal is, the
more it resists scratching, wear, penetration, machining
and mechanical cutting. Tensile strength also increases
with hardness. Hardness of the base metal and weld-
metal of a w e l d e d joint is affected by chemical
composition, the metallurgical effects of welding, cold
working of the metal, heat treatment and several other
factors. Limitations have to be placed on the hardness
of the heat-affected zone and weld-metal, because if they
are too hard, they will not have sufficient ductility for
the service conditions and their corrosion resistance may
also be impaired.
There are nearly 30 m e t h o d s of h a r d n e s s
measurement, but the most widely used are:
1) Brinell hardness
2) Vickers hardness
3) Rockwell hardness.
1) Brinell
For Brinell hardness testing, a hydraulic machine is
used to impress a special hardened steel ball of 10 mm
on to the specimen, applying a load of 3,000 kg for at
least 15 sec, for which a hand-operated p u m p or wheel
Discard
) Bend Specimens
^ Hardness Specimen
&8end Specimens
|»- Discard
Direction
of Rollinq
TEE BEND TEST
is provided. For softer metals like brasses and bronzes,
a load of 500 kg is applied for a similar or longer time.
The diameter of the impression formed on the metal
surface is measured with a special Brinell microscope
graduated in millimetres. The average of two diameters
at right angles to each other is determined and the Brinell
hardness number (BHN) obtained by referring to a chart
indicating diameters of impression versus hardness
number.
To ensure true values, the surface being tested should
be kept flat and fairly smooth. The specimen should be
firmly supported in such a way that the load is applied
normal to the surface. Impressions should be separated
from each other by at least two diameters to avoid
getting wrong results due to the cold work caused by
the previous impression.
2) Vickers
In this test, the impression is made with a pyramid-
type diamond indenter, using a load of 50 kg for hard
metals, 30 kg for normal metals and 10 kg for soft, thin
or surface hardened metals. The time of load application
is usually standardised at 10 sec. The impression appears
as a d a r k s q u a r e on a light b a c k g r o u n d . The
measurements are taken across the diagonals of the
square, and the hardness value corresponding to the
readings is obtained from a chart or calculated by a
simple formula.
The Vickers testing machine is a precision instrument
which must be operated with care. The application of
the load and its withdrawal after a pre-set interval are
controlled automatically. An audible click tells the

operator that the test is completed. After the indenter is
withdrawn, the measuring microscope is swung into a
position over the impression. Three knife edges are
provided: one is fixed, another can be moved with a
micrometer screw connected to the counting
mechanism, and the third serves to give rapid readings
to specified limits. The fixed knife edge is set in line
with the left-hand corner of the impression, the movable
knife edge adjusted to coincide with the right-hand
corner of the impression, and the reading obtained
directly from the indicator. Then reference is made to
the chart to arrive at Vickers hardness number.
In Vickers testing, the hardness number obtained is
fairly constant, irrespective of the load applied. While
in Brinell testing, values above 600 Brinell are not
reliable, because of the flattening of the steel ball under
the heavy loads which have to be applied on very hard
materials, Vickers test can be used accurately up to the
highest hardness limit, because the diamond indenter
shows no distortion. Also the Vickers impressions are
much smaller than those obtained in Brinell or Rockwell
tests, and hence the surfaces to be tested must be
prepared with much greater care.
3) Rockwell
The Rockwell h a r d n e s s tester is a precision
instrument which uses a hardened steel ball of 1.6 or
3.2 mm diameter for softer metals and a cone-shaped
diamond penetrator for hard metals. The test is started
by applying a minor load of 10 kg, which helps to locate
the penetrator in the surface being tested. The dial is
turned to the point marked Set, and then the major load
of 100 or 150 kg is applied. After the pointer comes to
rest, the major load is withdrawn, leaving the minor
load still on. The Rockwell hardness number, which is
based on the difference b e t w e e n the d e p t h s of
penetration at major and minor loads, is read directly
on the dial.
There are several Rockwell h a r d n e s s scales
depending on the penetrators and major loads applied.
Among them the B and C scales (RB and Rc) are the most
common ones. The B scale uses 1.6 mm steel ball and
major load of 100 kg while the C scale uses the diamond
penetrator at the major load of 150 kg. There are
differently coloured dial figures for the different scales.
Several precautions have to be taken to ensure
accurate results, and some of them are common to the
other testing m e t h o d s . They are detailed in the
Instruction Manual issued with the machine and must
be carefully observed. The ball penetrator and the cone
penetrator may get blunted in constant use. They
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 573
should be periodically examined and replaced when
necessary.
Summary: These three testing methods supplement
each other. The Brinell test which gives a large
impression is well suited for examining a large area, such
as the face of a weld or the base metal. The Rockwell
and Vickers tests give small indentations and can be
used to survey the" hardness of narrow zones such as
the cross-section of a weld, individual weld beads or
the heat-affected zone. For conversion of hardness value
from one system to another, Table 13.1 can be used, but
the conversions are approximate. The values given in
the table are average values obtained from a large
n u m b e r of tests. In actua 1 ^ests, one meets with
considerable scatter.
Hot Cracking Tests
For determining the hot cracking propensity of
metals, the most sensitive tests are:
1) Varestraint test
2) FISCOtest
3) Lehigh restraint test
4) Tekken Y-groove test.
1) Varestraint test
This test was developed by Savage and Lundin at
Rennselaer Polytechnic Institute, U.S.A. in 1965. It
comprises a rectangular bar, of which one end is
m o u n t e d in a vice and the other is attached to a
hydraulic plunger. The plunger bends it to a controlled
radius at an appropriate moment, while a longitudinal
bead is being deposited on the side exposed to tensile
deformation. The amount of deformation required to
cause cracking serves as the index of cracking sensitivity.
Both weld-metal and base metal hot cracking can be
investigated in this test.
Figure 13.27 shows the test being used to study the
hot-cracking susceptibility of stainless steel plate, in
which a TIG welding torch is used to melt the plate
surface.
2) FISCO test
In this test devised by Mr. Schnadt of Oerlikon,
Zurich, one or more small beads are laid one after
another on top of the gap formed by two plates, which
are placed butt-to-butt and clamped very rigidly all over
by means of a special device. The abutting edges of the
plates on which the beads are to be deposited may be
prepared as required. After welding,<he plates are
removed either immediately or after letting them cool
during a couple of days or even a few weeks. The beads
are then broken by striking one plate with a hammer,
574 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 13.1: Hardness conversioni table and tensile strength of steels

Vickers Rockwell Brinell Sclero- Tensile strength
scope
C B Steel Tungsten MN/m2 tpnf/in2
scale scale ball carbide
ball
i^ooo 69 — — — 99 — —
950 68 — — — 97 — —
900 67 — — — 95 — —
850 66 — — 750 91 — —
800 64 — — 722 88 — —
750 62 — — 691 85 — —
700 60 — — 656 81 2320 150
650 58 — — 611 78 2160 140
600 55 — — 564 74 1990 129
580 54 — — 545 72 1930 125
560 53 — — 525 71 1850 120
540 52 — 496 507 69 1790 116
520 51 — 480 488 67 1730 112
500 49 — 465 471 66 1650 107
480 48 — 448 452 64 1590 103
460 46 — 433 433 62 1510 98
440 45 — 415 415 59 1450 94
420 43 — 397 397 57 1370 89
400 41 — 379 379 55 1310 85
380 39 — 360 360 52 1240 80
360 37 — 341 341 50 1170 76
340 34 — 322 322 47 1110 72
320 32 — 303 303 45 1030 67
300 30 — 284 284 42 970 63
280 27 — 265 265 40 910 59
260 24 — 247 247 37 830 54
240 20 98 228 228 34 770 50
220 — 95 209 209 32 690 45
200 — 92 190 190 29 630 41
180 — 87 171 171 26 590 38
160 — 82 152 152 24 530 34
140 — 75 133 133 21 460 30
120 — 67 114 114 — 390 25
100 — 56 95 95 — — —

whilst the other plate is solidly clamped in a vice.
Fractures are then examined by eye or by microscope
and cacked areas are entered on special form. The results
are expressed as explained further on.
Test severity depends on plate thickness, shape of
the chamfer, and in case of similar shapes, on the gap.
The rigid clamping of plates is achieved by means
of the FISCO apparatus shown in Fig. 13.28(A). It allows
the mode of fastening sketched out in Fig. 13.28(B) to
be realised.
The apparatus involves a solid case C in the shape
of an almost wholly closed U, of particular high-strength
steel. Within it there is a massive plate F, on whose upper
surface there is a series of closely lined, very sharp and
solid cogs which lie parallel to the opening of the
apparatus. Although the plate is backed, it is freely
movable in the apparatus.
In its middle is a small furrow into which a copper
or steel distance gauge is put. As a result, the gap-width
a (a = 1-6 mm) can be regulated and kept up accurately.
The plates are positioned in such a way on the cogged
plate that the edges to be welded just reach the distance
gauge placed beforehand into the furrow.
The apparatus involves 10 perpendicular clamping
screws V1 and four horizontal clamping screws V2. The
Vj screws are designed to push the plates strongly

Bending load
Dimensions are In millimetre*
Fig. 13.27: Diagrammatic sketch of the varestraint test
against the cogged plate, whereas the V2 screws cause
the plates to be pressed against the copper distance
gauge. A special key serves to clamp the screws strongly
and speedily by hand. By these simple means, an extra-
rigid clamping of the plates is achieved.
The test data may vary as follows:
plate thickness 1-40 mm
gap-width 0-6 mm
chamfer shape : any
The plate length (chamfer direction) is of 200 mm,
the initial width is 120 mm maximum. The width gets
reduced due to the fact that the same plate may be used
several times as long as its width exceeds 70 mm.
The gap-width a depends on the diameter d of the
electrode; as a rule, the maximum size of the gap equals
the diameter (a = d).
In case the test is carried out with thin plates, not
reaching 6 mm width, a 8-10 mm thick plate, designed
to take u p the pressure of the screws, is placed in
Between the V1 screws and the plates to be welded.
Deformation of plates during welding is thereby
avoided. In such a case, the V2 screws are not utilised.
Square edges and Y-shaped ones are widely used,
although any other shape may be used as well. In order
to obtain agreat number of starts and ends of runs
(which zones are commonly known to be most sensitive
to hot cracking) four small beads, each about 40 mm
long and 5 mm distant from the preceding one are
deposited (used chamfer length 200 mm).
Square edges are mostly used, because they require
little preparation and are wholly defined by their gap-
width a in mm. The beads are simply deposited on top
and along the axis of the chamfer thus formed. Before
utilisation, the electrodes are always dried for two hours
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 575
at 120°C. Both manual and semi-automatic welding may
be used. During the operation, amperage is checked
continuously. It ordinarily corresponds to the normal
amperage used in downhand welding. DC electrodes
may be connected to either the positive or the negative
pole.
A l t h o u g h w e l d i n g is generally executed in
downhand position, the FISCO apparatus is equally well
suited for vertical welding. Following welding, the
plates are ordinarily left to cool in the apparatus and in
still air. Cooling can, however, be speeded up by the
action of compressed air or by sprinkling cold water.
Clamping may be maintained for some hours or days
in order to determine the effects of time on the crack
sensitivity of beads. Normally, the test lasts about ten
minutes, excluding cooling time which may vary
considerably.
Representation Of Results
After taking the workpiece out of the apparatus, and
breaking it in a vice, the fractured areas of the beads are
examined by eye or by microscope, so as to detect the
cracked areas.
These areas are subsequently entered, with a red
pencil in natural size, on a specially designed sheet in
order to fix their dimensions and exact positions.
Taking into account the general test conditions the
crack sensitivity of an electrode is expressed by the
following equation:
100 x total crack length
f=- — in%
a
total length of the four bead
The index a represents the gap-width in mm. Thus
for instance, the symbols f0, iv f2, f3 and f4, are used for a
= 0 , 1 , 2, 3, and 4 mm respectively. Generally the test is
carried out with various gap-widths. If fa(%) as a
function of a (mm) is entered on a graph, the crack
sensitivity curve of an electrode is obtained for a given
steel quality and for the test conditions chosen. There is
evidence that this curve always passes by the initial
point of the graph (f0=0) and rises more or less steeply
with the gap width a.
The greater the value of a, the stronger the severity
of the test. As a result, test severity may be varied and
planned in advance, which is most important.
If fa < 20%, only ends or beginnings of runs are
cracked as a rule (crater). Values exceeding 20% cause
cracks to appear all over the bead. If cracks are to be
retained for further record, one has only to cut the edges
576 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
m^k
Fig. 13.28: Clamping mechanism for FISCO test. (A) Finished clamp; (B) Diagrammatic sketch
away with the mechanical saw. Two small matched
strips are thus obtained which may be joined by tack
welding.
3) Lehigh restraint test
Doan and others at Lehigh University developed a
butt-weld cracking test for comparing quantitatively the
degree of restraint at which cracking occurs in welds
during cooling. The specimen was designed as shown
in Fig. 13.29, with slots cut in the sides and ends. By
changing the length of the slots the degree of plate
restraint is varied from one specimen to another. This
restraint was expressed numerically by the width of the
(B)
specimen between the bottom of the slots, measured in
inches or twice the dimension X in Fig. 13.29. The
threshold degree of restraint for cracking was expressed
as that width (measured to the nearest half inch) which
was just sufficient to cause cracking. The groove
geometry was held constant except for necessary
variations in its length. For 1 inch and 1.5 inch plates,
the groove length was 5 inches, but for 0.5 inch and 0.75
inch plates, the length was reduced to 3 inches, in order
to provide sufficient restraint to cause cracking in thin
steel plate.
Macro examination of weld cross-sections provides
the most sensitive method of crack detection. However,
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 577

the detection may be aided by measurement of the

transverse contraction at the mid-length of the weld.
>.. \2n-- ■ 1 With the latter procedure it is necessary only to-section
and examine specimens exhibiting slightly, more
transverse contraction than that known to be associated
T 1/2" hole
with cracking. In general, only weld-metal cracks were
X observed with this test. However, in steels particularly
t s <fc =tf d susceptible to base metal cracking, such cracks were

PLU-x"-■ti observed upon cross-sectioning. These cracks were not

CO
3 1/2" for plat
^-ry
5 1/2" for plate ^ 1 "
present when low-hydrogen electrodes were used.
The Lehigh restraint test was found to be particularly
useful for quantitatively rating the crack susceptibility
of weld-metal as affected by the electrode Not only did
different electrode types produce welds with very
K-M ?no w,' Groove for welding
definite differences in their cracking tendency, but
distinct differences in cracking tendency were also
displayed between welds made with various brands of
J 11/4" radius
f the same electrode class. The effects of steel composition,
\ Plate ' '
centre line ^.^ heat input, and preheat on cracking tendency also were
1/4^"1P1/I6,,9ap demonstrated.
4) Tekken Y-groove test
Omit in plate<3/4"'thick This test, developed by Japanese research workers,
is a variation of the Lehigh test employing a Y-groove
Fig. 13.29: Lehigh restraint specimen with a 2mm root opening as shown in Fig. 13.30. The
specimen can be easily prepared by simple torch

Note: 2 ^-" lengths of

the groove on two ends
are filled up with weld
runs before depositing
test welds in the middle zone.

Section A-A' Section A-A 1 Section B-B'

Before welding 1 iTest weld in groove\ I Restraint weld ^

oa
Groove/
.angle/

0.D79" (2 mm)
Root opening

Fig. 13.30: Tekken Y-groove restraint weld cracking specimen

578 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

bevelling or machining, and smaller plate sizes can be

employed.
The researchers have reported that while Lehigh test
is better suited for testing the cracking tendency of
electrodes, the Tekken test is more sensitive in detecting
base metal cracking susceptibility, and could therefore
be looked upon as a weldability test. In both the Tekken
and the Lehigh specimens, virtually all cracking is found
to initiate from the root of the weld.

Transition-Temperature Tests
The fracture-mechanics concept helps to prevent the
initiation of fracture under elastic loading conditions,
but is not adequate to take care of the accidental
situation, in which a structure may be subjected to severe
plastic strain in service. Plastic flow can also occur
locally in the vicinity of stress raisers. To prevent
catastrophic failure of a structure which can result from
appreciable plastic flow, the transition temperature
concept is applied. According to it, failure will not occur
if any of the following three basic conditions is met by
the structure:
1) Sharp notches are absent
2) The brittle-ductile transition temperature of the
materials of the structure is below the service tem-
perature -30-20 -10 010 20 30 »0 50 60 70
3) Residual stress or stress caused by a load applied Testing temperature °C
to the structure is not of sufficient magnitude.
Fig. 13.31: Transition characteristics of Charpy-V
Since conditions (1) and (3) cannot always be met, specimens
special attention has to be given to the brittle-ductile
transition temperature of the base metal, heat-affected
zone and the weld-metal. The most popular types of It must be noted that Charpy results are affected by
tests used for transition-temperature determination are: the orientation of the specimen with respect to the weld
1) Charpy V-notch impact test or the rolling direction of the base plate. Figure 13.32
2) Notched-bend test shows the various orientations of Charpy specimens in
3) Drop-weight test. rolled plate or weld-metal. For weld-metal tests, No. 3
orientation is the most commonly used.

1) Charpy test 2) Notched-bend test

Charpy test method using V-notch specimens has Various notched-bend specimens have been used,
been described earlier. A series of tests are made over a but the most popular ones are the longitudinal weld
range of temperatures (60 to -40°C for common bead notched specimens developed by Lehigh and
structural steels) and values are obtained for absorbed Kinzel, which are shown in Fig. 13.33. It is to be noted
energy (J), % lateral contraction or shear % in the that Lehigh has used two relatively blunt notches, while
fracture. Higher shear % indicates ductile fracture and Kinzel has used a single sharp notch. The weld bead
low shear % represents brittle fracture. By plotting these serves to create a heat-affected zone through which the
values against test temperatures, curves are obtained notch passes. Kinzel tested his specimens using three
as shown in Fig. 13.31. point loading and constant span for the entire thickness
Transition temperature is the temperature at which range. Lehigh used support spans which varied with
there is a sudden large drop in the test value. plate thickness.
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 579

Fig. 13.32: Various orientations of Charpy specimens in rolled plate or weldment

T, plate thickness, 1/2" to 3/0"

D, notch depth, 0.080" Rolling direction
R, notch radius, 1 mm. -» ^

y ,-rn ,-rt^gfrr I II1 H i I O f f i 1 / / ]

^V—-►□"-—4<-—-*"-—4- --*"—^
Milled notch:
0.05" deep
OJOI" vertex radius
45* vertex angle
Plate thickness
L

L-/—-^7_±j/'' Bead weld

(B) Grind plate before
laying bead
Fig. 13.33: Notched-bend tests for determination of transition temperature: (A) Lehigh test specimen; (B) Kinzel test
specimen
580 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1r-i -r-

[ 63 «5 mm

k m
fM^ \
oc * W

fa-31.7 mm->|
JL
<.
Fig. 13.34: Weld bead details for drop-weight test

1.5 mm max.

'2.0 + 0.00-0.25 mm
Fig. 13.35: Weld notch details for drop-weight test

Bend tests are made at various temperatures. At
higher temperatures no cracking may be observed. As
the test temperature falls, partial cracking is observed.
When the ductility transition temperature is reached,
the specimen fractures completely.
In these longitudinal bend tests, it is useful to deter-
mine the point at which the fracture initiates, because
one can then pinpoint the weldment zones which are
most susceptible to initiation of cracks in service.
3) Drop-weight test
This test is designed to measure fracture initiation
characteristics of structural materials heavier than 18 mm.
The specimen dimensions vary according to plate
thickness. For 25.4 mm t, length and width are 355 and
90 mm; for 19 mm t, the corresponding dimensions are
127 and 51 mm. A weld bead, 63.5 mm long and 12.5
mm wide, is deposited on the tension surface of the
specimen using a special hardfacing electrode. The
location of weld bead is shown in Fig. 13.34. It is fixed by
punch marks at A, Band C. Actually two beads are laid,
one from A to C and the other from B to C as indicated in
the figure, so that the end craters meet at pointC.
The weld bead which is a brittle material is called
the crack-starter weld. A notch is made at the centre of
the bead length, and is placed at right angles to the weld
bead and parallel to the specimen. The notch dimensions
are shown in Fig. 13.35. It is important that the notch is
present only in the weld deposit and the cutting tool
(abrasive disc, hacksaw, etc.) does not touch the plate
surface.
The specimen is mounted on an anvil provided with
a stop block. The impact load is applied by dropping a
weight. A machine design suggested by ASTM permits
use of various weights and various drop heights
according to the strength level of the metal. Figure 13.36
shows the position of the specimen on the anvil and the
loading conditions. Specimens are tested over a range
of temperatures.
The test is considered to be conclusive when the
weight of the load and the height are just enough to
initiate a small cleavage crack in the crack-starter weld,
after very slight bending of the test specimen. The test
then evaluates the ability of the weld to withstand yield-
point loading in the presence of the small crack. The
weld either accepts initiation of fracture readily under

Bend-stop
Fracture must be developed
with 2° bend after sharp
notch is formed
Fig. 13.36: Loading condition of drop-weight test
specimen
these test conditions and the specimen is broken, or
initiation of fracture is resisted and the specimen bends
the small additional amount permitted by the anvil stop
without complete fracture. The highest temperature at
which the propagating crack reaches the edge of the
specimen is a critical temperature, and is called nil
ductility t e m p e r a t u r e (NDT). It represents the
temperature below which the steel loses all ability to
deform plastically.
Cold Cracking Tests
These are also referred to as hydrogen-induced
cracking tests and weldability tests. The most commonly
used tests are:
1) Cruciform test
2) Controlled thermal severity (CTS) test
3) Lehigh restraint test
4) Implant test.
The first three are self-restraint bearing tests, which
are aimed at characterising the welded joint rather than
the base material itself. They are more suitable for
arriving at appropriate welding procedure than to assess
quantitatively the susceptibility of the base metal to cold
cracking, owing to the considerable influence of the type
of electrode, way of preheating, specific heat input, etc.,
on the test results.
Implant test, on the other hand, is a strain-controlled
test which provides a quantitative evaluation of the
influence of restraint on cold cracking sensitivity of
weldments.
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 581
Weld sequence
1
Underbead
crack 2,
E
E
s
r-TH
-300 mm-
Fig. 13.37: Cruciform test specimen
1) Cruciform test
The cruciform specimen is a double-tee fillet welded
assembly as s h o w n in Fig. 13.37, which offers
progressively higher degrees of restraint on the four fillet
welds m a d e in the unit. The test was developed
principally for evaluating the susceptibility of a steel to
u n d e r b e a d cracking in the heat-affected zone of
hardenable base metals, like the quenched and tempered
alloy steels. Much testing of armour plate has been
conducted with the cruciform test, and the experience
has indicated that all conditions in the welding and
testing procedure must be closely controlled to obtain
reproducible results concerning the cracking
susceptibility of the base metal used.
The cruciform specimen is welded with the assembly
at a specified temperature prior to the deposition of each
fillet bead. The beads are deposited in the sequence
shown, using carefully regulated welding conditions to
insure that the increasing degree of restraint on each
successive fillet bead will be the only variable. After
completion of the fourth weld, the specimen is held at
room temperature for 48 hours and then stress-relief
heat-treated at 620°C for two hours (heating and cooling
from 620°C at the rate of 55°C per hour). The specimen
is inspected for external signs of cracking and then is
sliced into cross-sections for metallographic
examination to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r cracking has
occurred in the weld-metal or the base metal heat-
affected zones.
582 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
2) Controlled Thermal Severity Test (Cts ) Test
The CTS assembly consists of two plates of steel
under test, bolted and anchor welded together by two
lap welds on opposite sides as shown in Fig. 13.38. R
and S are test welds which are laid on the remaining
two sides as shown. These test welds are cross-sectioned.
The weld and the HAZ are subjected to a hardness
survey. They are also subjected to magnetic crack
detection. In special cases, the cross-section is etched
and examined for microcracks in the HAZ at 200
magnification.
The test welds are given a thermal severity number
(TSN) which varies between 2 and 24 and increases with
plate thickness. The second test weld 5 has higher TSN
than the first test weld R.
Using different plate thicknesses, one can determine
for a given welding procedure for which TSN of the
weld cracking is present and for which TSN cracking is
absent. Depending on this, one can arrive at the
weldability index letter. One can finally establish the
minimum preheat temperature necessary for given plate
thicknesses and heat input rate to guarantee freedom
from HAZ cracking.
3) Lehigh restraint test
This test has been described earlier under Hot
Cracking Tests.
4) Implant test
This test, developed by Mr. H. Granjon of Institutde
Soudure, Paris, has attracted considerable world-wide
interest.
Fig. 13.38: CTS test assembly
An attractive feature of the implant test is that it
needs only a small quantity of the steel to be tested, just
enough to machine out a specimen of 8 mm diameter
and with a maximum length of say 150 mm. To simulate
the cooling rates of thick plates, one inserts the specimen
into a backing plate of any ordinary available steel,
whose thickness can be varied as desired. Thus one can
dispense with large plates of various thicknesses
necessary to make cold-cracking studies of a steel by
classical methods.
The 8 mm diameter x 150 mm cylindrical specimen
is called implant. It is made from the steel under
investigation, and is notched at some distance from one
of its ends. It is inserted into a hole drilled in the backing
plate so that the notched end is flush with the plate
surface as shown in Fig. 13.39.
In order to execute the test, a weld bead is deposited
on the plate in one pass under carefully controlled
conditions, in line with the axis of the implant, using
the welding process and the consumable to be tested.
The welding conditions are noted and the
penetration must be such that the notch is located in
the heat-affected zone. After welding and before
complete cooling, the implant is put under a tensile static
load as shown in Fig. 13.40 and the stress thus applied
is measured in relation to the cross-section at the notch.
r^Circular
notch
-Backing plate
Implant —
specimen
Fig. 13.39: Implant test assembly
Test weld
Fie 13.40: Tensile loading of implant specimen
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 583

After a specified load holding time, in the event of no

fracture having occurred, the assembly backing plate/ T1 - - ,

implant is released and any cracks which may be present

at the level of the notch in the heat-affected zone are 1 100 33.3 333 33.3 100
then investigated.
When the test is used as a complementary
information test, it must be carried out using the oo If /-k /k /K A\
tj /
1
*y \
necessary number of levels of the following variables: CM

• Hydrogen content of the deposited metal (or weld-

metal) Axes of the weld seams
• Cooling time
• Stress applied. □
The information concerning susceptibility to cold U
All dimensions in mm
: — -300 A
cracking is provided by all the results obtained by tl
combination of these different levels. Fig. 13.42: - imensions of backing plate and location of
The implant geometry is shown in Fig. 13.41. four implants
Diameter of the specimen is 6 to 8 mm, preferably 8
mm. A V-notch is made perpendicular to the section, Hydrogen content related to the weight of the deposited
having an angle of 40-45°, 0.5 mm depth and 0.1 mm weld-metal in ml/100 g must be known. This is
root radius. The distance between notch and top end of determined by the method described on page in
implant is set in relation to the depth of fusion Chapter 3. IIW has categorised welding consumables
corresponding to the experimental welding condition. under four classes (very-low, low, medium and high)
The specimen must be sliding fit in relation to the hole as shown in Table 13.2.
in the backing plate (clearance 0.05-0.15 mm).
The implant specimen is machined from the plate Following measurements have tc be made for
lengthwise in relation to rolling. Minimum thickness of defining the welding procedure:
plate from which the sample can be taken is 10 mm. 1) Measurement of welding arc energy by recording
Three implants have to be tested for a given condition the current, arc voltage and speed of arc travel. Arc
(i.e. stress, cooling time and hydrogen). energy measured in kilojoules per mm is given by the
Thickness of the backing plate is 10 to 30 mm formula:
depending on the cooling time to be achieved. Its typical
dimensions are 300 x 200 mm. Four implants can be E = V x A x 60
accommodated in one plate as shown in Fig. 13.42. S x 100
The welding consumable to be tested can be a where
manual electrode, flux-wire combination for V = arc voltage
submerged-arc welding or gas-shielded electrode. A = welding current
S = arc travel speed (mm/min)
2) Measurement of cooling time by thermocouple in

\s
the HAZ, during the test or by frequent calibrations.
*► Radius of notch Minimum bead length is 100 to 150 mm. It is laid
= 0.10 mm
Ms 40°
parallel to the plate width. The initial plate temperature
is approximately 20°C. No preheat is used.
■7 t-
-% V Load is applied when the temperature is between
150 and 100°C. If progressive loading is done, the
duration must be less than one minute. Loading must
be completed before the temperature reaches 100°C The
load holding time is 16 hours minimum.
If fracture occurs, time to fracture must be measured.
The position of fracture must be checked. The specimen
All dimensions in mm
must be inspected for cracks by metallographic
Fig. 13.41: Implant geometry inspection on longitudinal section. Several examinations
584 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 13.2: Recommended testing variables

Cooling time in seconds 800-500°C

Hydrogen ml/100 g of weld-metal
T2 T3
T<8 8<T<12 T>12
l
A Ys Ys % Ys Ys V2Ys Ys

H1 very low <5

H, low 5 < H < 10
H, medium 10 < H < 15
H4 High H > 15

6 10 20

Recommended cooling times

maybe necessary on successive polishing planes starting
from outside.
To obtain information about the susceptibility to cold
cracking d u r i n g w e l d i n g of a given steel, it is
recommended that the levels of the testing variables
(cooling time, hydrogen content of the deposited metal
and stress) be chosen from among those which are
indicated in Table 13.2. For the cooling times, the values
6, 10 and 20 sec (between 800 and 500°C) are given,
because they can be predetermined during a preliminary
setting. The levels of hydrogen content which cannot
be set in advance, must be checked at the time of the
test, in the actual state of the consumables. The stress
levels to be applied are two in number. One of them
corresponding to the yield stress of the metal under
investigation, accounts for the cracking behaviour for
the highest possible restraint. The other, which is lower
(for example, half of yield stress), corresponds to an
average restraint.
It is not necessary to carry out experiments for all
the proposed levels of hydrogen. Their choice depends
on the welding processes envisaged and also on the steel
behaviour if one begins to experiment at the level H4.
The results are presented by completing the Table
13.3 entering in each space relevant to the investigation,
the c o r r e s p o n d i n g result (F or NF, cracked or
uncracked). A table will be filled in for each of the two
stress levels experimented with. Table 13.3 illustrates,
as an example, a completed table. In addition, the
welding process used and welding conditions obtaining
in testing the hydrogen levels and the cooling times
should be given in the report.
Implant test is being recognised by several experts
in the IIW as the most appropriate cold-cracking test.

Table 13.3: Examples of presentation of the results

NF NF NF
H2 NF NF NF
H3 F NF NF
H. F NF

NF NF NF
H2 F NF NF
F 2P NF
H, F *l*fr NF
^i

The research laboratories of the British Welding Institute
have done considerable experimental work on behalf
of the IIW to standardise this test method, and to
compare its reliability with that of controlled thermal
severity test. The results are published in the IIW
document ll-A-307-72.
The introduction to this document states: "The
determination of the effects of welding and plate
variables on the risk of heat-affected zone (HAZ)
cracking has generally been assessed in the past using
weld cracking tests such as the controlled thermal
severity (CTS) test. The principal disadvantage of such
welding tests is that the applied stress on the HAZ is a
"variable dependent on weld penetration and root notch
geometry, plate thickness and joint restraint. Mechanical
tests like the constant load rupture (CLR) and fracture
mechanics test although they have control over the level
of stress which is applied, suffer from the disadvantage
of employing simulated HAZ microstructures and
arbitrary hydrogen concentrations. It is believed that
the implant cracking test, which applies a known stress
to a real HAZ and can thus assess the susceptibility to
HAZ hydrogen cracking by means of a mechanical test
parameter, avoids the disadvantages of the above tests
and, at the same time, incorporates their merits."
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
In the case of critical welded structures, destructive
tests which verify the properties of external test
specimens are not adequate. To obtain increased
assurance of the high quality and serviceability of the
actual structure, it becomes necessary to subject all or a
certain percentage of its welded joints to non-destructive
testing (NDT).
The various commonly used NDT methods are
described in the following paragraphs. These methods
are complementary and it is essential that the welding
supervisor or inspector is thoroughly familiar with the
basic physical principles of each method, so that he can
judiciously select one or more of these tests, bearing in
mind the costs and the level of inspection demanded.
This understanding will also help him to use the full
potential of the techniques, to make sure that the
operators are satisfactorily performing the tests and to
obtain correct interpretation of test results.
Visual Inspection
This is the first step of NDT. In fact, visual inspection
should be used for all types of structures, critical and
non-critical, and even w h e n 100% radiography is
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 585
specified. It is an easy and inexpensive method of
practical quality control, which can prevent occurrence
of defects or detect their presence at any early stage
while the welds are being deposited.
The only tools required for this method are a
magnifying glass, a borescope, scales and gauges.
There are three stages of visual inspection: (1) before
welding, (2) during welding, and (3) after welding.
1) Before welding
Before the parts are assembled, their surfaces should
be checked for the presence of oil, grease, scale, rust and
other foreign matters. Cut edges of plates must be
carefully examined for laminations. If bevelled cuts have
been made, the angle of bevel and tlje root face must be
checked. Dimensions of the parts must be checked by
m e a s u r e m e n t . After the joints are assembled for
w e l d i n g , the root g a p , groove angle, clearance
dimensions of backing strips or rings, joint alignment
and other features which might have a bearing on the
quality of the w e l d e d joint m u s t be verified for
com0ormity to the applicable specification or procedure.
2) During welding
The details to be checked while the welding is in
progress are:
a) Welding process parameters
b) Welding consumables
c) Preheat and interpass temperature
d) Placement of weld runs (stringer or weaved
bead), their surface quality
e) Brushing, chipping, grinding or gouging
f) Welding sequence
g) Distortion control
h) Dimensions of finished welded joint
i) Postheating temperature and time.
It should be ensured that all the above are in
conformity with the relevant standard or qualified
welding procedure specification.
It is often useful to prepare a workmanship standard
in advance, in which portions of successive weld layers
are shown. Welders are then expected to deposit the
passes in an identical manner. Typical standards for butt
and fillet welds are shown in Fig. 13.43. With the
assistance of such standards, one can compare each layer
of production weld with corresponding layers of the
workmanship standard.
It must be noted that the root pass or the first layer
is particularly susceptible to porosity, slag inclusion and
hairline cracking. If the cracks are ignored, they may
extend to subsequent layers. It is very important,
586 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

the m e t h o d e s t a b l i s h e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d by all
Macro sample

L.
Polish & etch
this surface inspecting personnel and shop personnel concerned
with the repair. A distinctive colour must be used for
1" min the marking, which will not be confused with other
m a r k i n g s , a n d the m a r k i n g s h o u l d be able to
withstand rough handling involved in the repair work.
Tack macro sample It should last until the repair has been completed and
t o plate with inspected.
etched surface up

P o l i s h and etch this surface Magnetic Particle Inspection

Duplicate fillet ^ This inspection m e t h o d is applicable only to
weld on this
side also Macro sample
min
Tacfc macro
sample upriqht
mm
*J to plate with
etched surface out
Fig. 13.43: Typical workmanship standards for butt
welds (top) and fillet welds (bottom)
therefore, that this pass is thoroughly examined,
preferably with a magnifying glass, before the next pass
is d e p o s i t e d . This e x a m i n a t i o n offers a n o t h e r
opportunity to look for plate laminations, since these
tend to open up due to the welding heat. When welding
has to be done from the second side, it is necessary that
the back of the root is gouged out to remove entrapped
slag and to provide a sufficiently wide groove to deposit
the pass from the second side. This back-gouged area
also needs to be inspected.
3) After welding
After the structure has been welded, its dimensional
accuracy including possible warpage is checked with
the drawing, using conventional measuring methods.
The sizes and contours of all welds are also verified by
means of weld gauges to make sure that they conform
to the d r a w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . Joint surfaces are
examined for weld roughness, weld spatter and the
presence of unfilled craters, pock marks, undercuts,
overlaps and cracks. Heights of weld reinforcements are
also measured to make sure that they are consistent with
specified requirements.
Marking Repair Areas
An important detail of NDT is the proper marking
of the defective areas to be repaired by welding. The
marking should be distinct and in accordance with
magnetic m a t e r i a l s , a n d can detect surface
discontinuities even when they are too fine to be seen
with the naked eye, defects that lie slightly below the
surface, and even discontinuities at greater depth when
special equipment is used. The defects it can detect are
surface cracks in the weld and the HAZ; laminations
on the prepared joint edges; incomplete fusion and
u n d e r c u t ; subsurface cracks, porosity a n d slag
inclusions; and inadequate joint penetration.
The method is based on the principle that when a
magnetic field is set up in a piece of ferromagnetic
material having defects in the path of the magnetic flux,
minute magnetic poles are created at these defects. These
poles have the property of attracting magnetic particles
more strongly than the surrounding surface of the piece.
Thus if the piece to be inspected is magnetised by passing
a sufficiently high current through it and the areas to be
inspected are covered by finely divided magnetic
particles, these particles form a pattern or indication on
the surface, and magnetisation takes the rough shape of
the defect, which becomes clearly visible when the
surplus magnetic powder is removed. This occurs only
when the defect is perpendicular to the flux path. If the
defect lies parallel to the flux path, no such pat-tern will
appear and the defect will lie undetected. The best
indications are obtained when the current is flowing
parallel to the discontinuity, because the magnetic field
is always at right angles to the current flow.
Figure 13.44 shows an example of longitudinal
magnetisation produced in a part to be inspected, which
could be a shaft, drum or girder. The part has been made
the core of an electromagnet by placing it within a
solenoid. It is seen that the field runs in a direction
parallel to the axis of the coil. As indicated in the figure,
longitudinal cracks will escape detection, those at 45°
angle to the lines of force will be weakly indicated, while
transverse cracks will be indicated distinctly.
Localised circular magnetisation is obtained with the
commonly used technique called prod magnetisation.
With this technique, large parts which cannot be
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 587

magnetised as a whole are magnetised locally by pass-
ing current through small areas by means of contacts or
prods. A local circular magnetic field which is at right
angles to the direction of current flow is formed as
shown in Fig. 13.45. Hence defects which lie parallel to
the current flow will be detected as shown in Fig. 13.46.
To prevent arcing or burning during the passage of
high current, the contact prods and the metal surface
must be sufficiently clean. To prevent the arc flash, it is
advisable to use a low open-circuit voltage (below 16
V) and to provide a switch in the field circuit of the
generator or the primary circuit of the step-down
transformer. Usually, the inspection is made in two
stages: firstly, with the prods in line with the weld and
secondly, with the prods placed at right angles to the
previous line.
Overall circular magnetisation is also possible in the
case of certain components by passing high current
through them. An example is shown in Fig. 13.47. In
this case only lengthwise defects can be detected.

Transverse crack
will show f
Current passing ^
through" solenoid

Solenoid
Crack at 45'
will show
Longitudinal Part
crack will '// / *— Maqnetic lines
not show y f of force *
Magnetic field

Fig. 13.45: Localised circular magnetisation of a large

Fig. 13.44: Magnetisation of the part to be inspected by
part with prods carrying high current
making it the core of a solenoid

Current —*

Fig. 13.46: Detection of crack in large plate by passing high current parallel to the defect between prods

Contact plate Contact plate

—i—
Iron powder

Current
Fig. 13.47: Detection of lengthwise crack by circular magnetisation in a part set up in an inspection unit
588 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
This technique can be applied on cylindrical objects
by passing the magnetising current through a conductor
running through the central opening, whereby the inner
surface as well as the outer surface of the cylinder gets
magnetised. When the current is passed through the part
itself, the surface of the bore does not get magnetised,
but only the outer surface.
Overall circular magnetisation produces high field
strength and thus provides maximum sensitivity to
subsurface defects.
There are two methods of operation, viz. continuous
and residual. In the continuous method, the magnetising
current is first applied to the component and then the
dry powder spread over the surface. The flow of current
is maintained while the excess powder is being removed
and the defective areas are located. The current is
switched off only after the inspection is completed. If a
wet suspension is used for the continuous method, the
suspension is first flowed over the area and the
magnetised current is immediately applied for a fraction
of a second. Once the current has been switched off, no
further suspension should be applied as it will wash
away the lightly adhering indications.
In the residual method which is suitable for materials
of high magnetic retentivity, the indicating powder is
applied only after the magnetising current has been
applied and then switched off. The powder is held on
to the surface by the fairly strong residual field. This
method is not as accurate and sensitive as the continuous
method.
We have referred above the dry and wet methods of
applying the inspection media. In the dry method,
finely-divided ferromagnetic p o w d e r is d u s t e d
uniformly over the surface by means of a dusting bag,
atomiser or spray gun. The powder is applied at a low
velocity with just enough motive force to drive the
particles to the desired areas. Excess powder is removed
with a stream of air of controlled strength, which will
not disturb the adhering powder pattern. The dry
method has easy portability and is better suited for
rough surfaces.
The wet method uses a suspension of fine magnetic
particles in water or oil, which is flowed or sprayed over
the surface. Sometimes the part is immersed in the
suspension. The bath needs continuous agitation to
prevent the suspended particles from settling down.
Compared to the dry method, this method is much
more sensitive to fine surface defects, but less sensitive
for detecting subsurface defects. Sometimes the particles
are coated with the dye that fluoresces brightly under
ultraviolet light to further increase the sensitivity of the
method and to locate defects in corners, holes, keyways,
etc. The fluorescent magnetic particle testing should not
be confused with fluorescent penetrant inspection which
will be described later.
Type and amount of magnetising current is an
important parameter. With AC, only the surface is
magnetised and hence it is useful only for locating
surface defects. With DC, the field extends throughout
the part. Hence this type of current is more sensitive
than AC for the detection of subsurface defects.
Maximum sensitivity can be obtained with half-wave
rectified single-phase current.
Voltage has no effect on the magnetic field and it is
kept low to prevent arcing and overheating. The strength
of the magnetic field is determined by the current, and
hence the current should be high enough to reveal the
defects. If the current is too high, it produces wrong
patterns. The following figures provide the guidelines
for the amperages to be used:
Longitudinal magnetisation — 3,000 to 10,000 Amps.-
turns
Overall circular magnetisation—100 to 1,000
Amps, per
25 mm of the outside
diameter of the part
Prod magnetisation — 100 to 125 Amps, per
25 mm of prod spacing
Dry method — prod spacing of 75 to 300 mm
Wet method — prod spacing of 50 to 300 mm.
For additional information, reference should be made
to the following documents:
ASTM E-109, Method for Dry Powder Magnetic
Particle Inspection
ASTM E-138, Method for Wet Magnetic Particle
Inspection.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
This method uses certain types of liquids which have
the property of entering into fine surface discontinuities
by capillary action, and remaining there when the excess
liquid is removed. A suitable developer is then applied.
Against the background of this developer, the retained
penetrant stands out by contrast and reveals the defect.
There are two distinct m e t h o d s of p e n e t r a n t
inspection, viz. fluorescent and visible dye. The first
method involves use of a liquid that fluoresces under
black light, which is near ultraviolet light and just
beyond the range of the visible spectrum. Fluorescent
penetrants are either basically water-washable or require
the application of an emulsifier to render them water-
washable. Visible dye technique uses a penetrant which

carries a red dye that contrasts sharply with the
background of a white developer. Visible dye penetrants
also are either directly water-washable or can be made
so by the addition of an emulsifier.
The surfaces to be inspected m u s t be m a d e
completely free from slag, scale, grease, oil, paint, etc.,
and must be perfectly dry. The penetrant is applied by
brushing, spraying or dipping. A dwell time of about
15 minutes is allowed for the penetrant to enter
discontinuities. In the case of a directly water-washable
penetrant, the excess is rinsed off with a water spray. If
the penetrant is post-emulsifiable, the emulsifier is
applied over the penetrant by flowing or spraying and
the excess is rinsed off with water. In the case of some
emulsifiers, a certain dwell time becomes necessary,
which is indicated by the supplier. In the case of some
dye penetrants, organic solvents such as trichlorethylene
or acetone may be used to remove the excess penetrant.
Developers are either in the form of dry powder,
suspension in water or non-aqueous wet developer. Dry
developer is applied by dusting on the completely dry
part. Suspension-type wet developers are applied by
brushing or spraying. When a n o n - a q u e o u s wet
developer is being used, the surface must be perfectly
dry as when the dry powder is used. In the case of the
water suspension developer, the surface need not be dry,
but the drying becomes necessary after the application
of the developer.
After the developer has been applied, sufficient time
must be allowed to draw or blot out the penetrant from
the discontinuity. In the case of the fluorescent dye, the
part is finally examined under black light in a darkened
room. The defects glow brilliantly against the darker
background. In the case of the visible dye, the defects
show up as bright red markings against the white
background of the developer.
After the completion of inspection, the part or area
is cleaned with a suitable solvent.
This inspection method is suitable for locating
discontinuities which are open to the surface. It cannot
detect subsurface defects. But within its scope it is as
effective as magnetic particle inspection.
For further details, one should refer to ASTM Spec.
E 165, 'Liquid Penetrant Inspection.
Radiographic Inspection
In this method. X-ray or gamma-ray radiation of
sufficient penetrating capability is passed through the
full thickness of the material being tested. Part of the
radiation is absorbed, and the balance penetrates the
material. The a m o u n t absorbed and the a m o u n t
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 589
transmitted are determined by the thickness of the
material. Wherever defects exist in the material, there
is less material (or reduced thickness) to absorb the
radiation. This creates a differential in absorption, which
is registered on a photographic film as a shadow picture
called a radiograph.
X-ray radiation is obtained from an X-ray machine.
G a m m a - r a y radiation is obtained from chemical
isotopes. Radium, which is a natural emitter of gamma-
rays, was extensively used in the early days of industrial
radiography, but is rarely used today. Presently, artificial
isotopes are used. They are: cobalt 60, cesium 137,
iridium 192 and thalium 170, mentioned in decreasing
order of energy level. Of these, cobalt 60 and iridium
192 are more widely used in radiographic inspection of
weldments than the other two. Gamma-ray sources are
light and portable and can be used more conveniently
at site than X-ray machines.
The capacity of an X-ray machine is indicated by the
peak voltage it generates to drive electrons into the tube
target, which is expressed in peak kilovolts (kVP) or in
megavolts (MV). A kilo volt is one thousand volts; a
megavolt is a million volts. The capacity range of
industrial X-ray machines is 5 kV to 20 MV.
The capacity or energy level of an isotope is
expressed in million electron volts (MeV). Cesium 137
has only one energy level, b u t others may have
numerous energy levels. In the case of X-ray machine,
any energy level (voltage) within its rating can be
selected according to the material thickness. With a
given isotope source, a fixed energy level is obtained
and it cannot be varied.
It is also customary to express the strength of gamma-
ray sources in curies. The curie is actually a measure of
the disintegration rate of a source. It must be noted that
all isotopes are continuously disintegrating, which
means that they decrease in strength or decay with time.
This is the reason why various sources of a given isotope
have different strengths, which are compared in terms
of the number of curies. The term half-life applied to an
isotope is important. It is defined as the length of time
it takes for an isotope to decay to half its strength from
the start of the half-life period.
The significance of half-life can be explained by
taking the example of cobalt 60, which has a half-life of
5.3 years. If the original strength of a cobalt source is 80
curies, in 5.3 years it will be reduced to 40 curies. In the
following 5.3 years, the strength will come down from
40 to 20 curies. Iridium 192 has a half-life of only 75
days, which means that its strength falls off rapidly and
hence the usefulness of an iridium source lasts for a very
590 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
short period. This is also the reason why iridium has a
large number of energy levels. Cesium 137, on the other
hand, has a half-life of 33 years, which explains why
this isotope is considered to have one energy level.
The higher the energy level of the radiation source,
the shorter is the wavelength and the greater the
penetrating power. The source energy-level is therefore
selected according to the thickness of the material and
its absorption capability.
In taking radiographs, one must aim at good contrast
and sharpness of image. Good contrast m e a n s a
sufficiently dark appearance of defects against the
lighter general background. Sharpness ensures that fine
details, such as the image of a hairline crack, are readily
detected and the radiograph is properly interpreted. A
well-contrasted and sharply defined radiograph is
obtained by proper selection of the energy level of the
radiation and the type of film.
Radiographic films of various speeds are available.
The faster the film, lesser is the exposure time needed.
Fast films are coarse-grained and they may fail to record
sharp details if they are too fast.
The film is sandwiched between a pair of screens,
which are either fluorescent type or lead-foil type. The
fluorescent screens glow differentially when the X-rays
reach them, and this emitted light causes the exposure
of the film. Lead-foil screens act as intensifiers by
emitting electrons and special rays, which help to
produce the radiograph, and they also act as filters by
absorbing scattered radiation, which otherwise would
fog the film. Fluorescent screens are preferred to lead
screens when very thick materials are being examined
with heavy X-ray equipment. However, most of the
radiography today is done with lead-foil screens. Screens
need not be used for the radiography of thin sections.
In carrying out radiography, it is necessary to mark
the welds and identify the locations of the radiographs.
First, one must determine the maximum length of weld,
which can be covered by one radiograph. If a long weld
has to be completely examined, the total length is
divided into equal parts, each of which corresponds to
the maximum length of each radiograph, less about 25
m m at each e n d , to e n s u r e an overlap b e t w e e n
successive films.
To correspond with the sections so determined, a
series of numbers is usually punched on the parent plate
close to the reinforcement, generally on the side facing
the source of radiation. Lead numbers are placed on the
punched numbers and their image on the film gives the
accurate location of the area w h i c h h a s been
radiographed. The accuracy of this operation is very
important for the exact location of the position of any
repairs to be made as a result of the radiographic
examination.
Positioning of the film cassette is an important step.
The Film must be placed in contact with the weld, on
the side opposite to that facing the source of radiation,
and it must be large enough to cover the whole of the
weld zone within the beam radiation.
To locate the films in their correct positions, the face
of the specimen on which they will be placed must be
marked with the distances corresponding to these
positions, which have been determined as already
indicated. In certain cases this can be difficult, notably
when, because of the shape or size of the specimen, it
cannot be done by direct observation, but only by
measurements from some well-identified datum line,
as for example the edges of the specimen, the crossover
of two welds, or other details visible on both sides.
Care must also be taken to centre the film on the line
of the weld, and in this respect it is preferable to use a
film that is too large rather than one that is too small;
the slightly increased cost of film is always negligible
compared with the cost of repeating the radiograph
because of an error in centring; moreover it is sometimes
advisable not to limit the examination strictly to the
weld-metal itself, but to include some of the plate metal
on either side of the weld.
The films, with or without intensifying screens, are
always placed in cassettes which besides ensuring
uniform contact between film and screens, serve to
protect the film from light.
The cassette containing the film must be placed as
close as possible to the weld, so as to avoid any loss of
definition in the image. For this reason, in many cases,
flexible cassettes, which can be better adapted to
irregularities, curves and variations in shape are to be
preferred to stiff cassettes.
However, certain precautions must be taken in using
flexible cassettes (they must not be pressed too heavily
against the specimen), in order not to cause rapid
deterioration of the screens or the formation of pressure
marks on the film.
A sheet of 2 mm thick lead is always placed behind
the cassette to protect the film from scattered radiation.
Because of the secondary radiation emitted by the lead
itself, it may be advisable to place a sheet of tin about 1
mm thick between the lead sheet and the cassette; even
better are sheets of 1 mm tin and 1 m m copper.
The cassettes can be held in position by various
methods, depending on the shape of the specimen and
the material available (wooden supports, wood blocks,
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 591

etc.). Permanent magnets equipped with springs are
very useful for this purpose. It is very important that
the cassette does not shift in relation to the specimen
during the exposure, as otherwise there will be a loss of
definition which will make the radiograph unaccep-
table. Special care is necessary when using gamma-rays,
which involve long exposure times.
The gamma-ray or X-ray source m u s t also be
correctly positioned. In general, butt welds are examined
with the beam of radiation perpendicular to the surface.
It is thus necessary to arrange the equipment in such a
manner that it fulfils this condition, taking particular
care that the axis of the beam of radiation is directed at
the centre of the area to be examined. The correct set-
up may be attained by moving either the equipment or
the specimen.
Figure 13.48 shows the arrangements frequently
used in the inspection of pipes and cylindrical shells. It

'55
! —1|/r i
c

6^ 200 mm
8
u
c *
in
<X

*F
t 0< 200 mm
2

S ^ ) Screen with
lead plates
Hollow
anode
f
<75
c
z
</>
v
u
u

I
H3

Longitudinal welds Circumferential welds

Fig. 13.48: Typical positioning for radiography of pipes and cylindrical bodies
592 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

would not be difficult to transpose these ideas to cases
encountered in practice.
Radiography reveals all internal discontinuities even
when they are deep inside the material, but a radiograph
by itself does not indicate their depth location. To
determine the depth, the following simple method is
used: The defect is first located on a single exposure
film. The area is then double exposed after shifting the
source over a short distance. A lead marker, say letter S,
is stuck on the surface on the source side and another
marker, say letter F, is stuck on the film side. If in reading
the double exposure film, the letter S has shifted a
distanced, da and the defect image has shifted a shorter
distance of d2 then the depth of the discontinuity from
the film side is given by (d 1 /d 2 ) t, where t is the section
thickness, provided the cassette is in contact with the
film-side surface and the letter F will not have shifted
at all in the double exposure.
Penetrameters: In taking a radiograph, it is imperative
that a standard penetrameter (also called image quality
indicator) is placed on the part being radiographed. Of
the m a n y types of p e n e t r a m e t e r s available, the
following are the most common:
a) The German wire type: It consists of a series of seven
wires of various diameters, which is standardised by a
DIN standard. The ranges of wire diameter depend on
the thickness of weld being examined.
b) The API-ASME single-thickness type: It is specified
for pressure vessel radiography. It is in the form of a
thin strip of uniform thickness equal to 2% of the
thickness of the plate to be examined. Three holes are
drilled in the strip with diameters equal to two, three
and four times the thickness of the strip, the smallest
hole being not less than 1.6 mm in diameter.
c) The API-ASME stepped-type: It consists of graded
steps of metal, each 12.7 mm long, and having graded
thicknesses of 0.13,0.25,0.51,0.76 and 1.0 mm for testing
steel up to 50 mm thick, and graded thicknesses from
1.0 to 3.0 mm for steel in the 50-100 mm thickness range.
Each step has a hole of 4.76 mm diameter in the centre.
d) The French AFNOR type: It also consists of a series
of steps of increasing thickness, each having a drilled
hole or holes of diameter equal to the thickness of the
step.
The image quality of the radiograph is indicated
when the radiograph shows up holes or slots of some
definite size of the penetrameter used. The inspector
should know the penetrameter requirements applicable
to the particular fabrication he is inspecting.
For the examination of radiographs, a darkened
room and a special viewing equipment are used. The
latter has an illuminator that provides a cold light from
a fluorescent lamp. The extraneous area beyond the film
or part of the film is masked off during examination.
Identification of weld defects from their radiographic
images requires thorough training, long experience and
a good k n o w l e d g e of the o p e r a t i v e techniques.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to refer to standard
reference r a d i o g r a p h s such as the 'Collection of
Reference R a d i o g r a p h s of Steel' compiled by
Commission V of the International Institute of Welding
(IIW). For radiographic (as well as ultrasonic) inspection
of important fabrications and projects, the services of a
qualified welding inspector are usually utilised.
The following defects are commonly revealed in
r a d i o g r a p h y : cracks, porosity, slag inclusions,
incomplete fusion, lack of penetration due to inadequate
joint preparation, undercut of a special type that occurs
in welds m a d e with backing rings, and tungsten
inclusions.
IIW has divided the radiographs into five groups,
graded in accordance with the relative importance of
the different types of defects. The five groups, signified
by colours, are described in Table 13.4. The IIW has also
issued the Collections of Reference Radiographs divided
into the five groups.
The defects revealed in radiographs have been
standardised, classified and explained in ISO 6520-1982,
Classification of Imperfections in Metallic Fusion Welds,
with Explanations", and the Indian equivalent standard

Table 13.4: Colour coding for radiographs

Black Homogeneous weld or a weld with a few small scattered gas cavities.
Blue Very slight imperfections as regards homogeneity in the form of one or more of the following defects: gas cavities,
slag inclusions, undercut.
Green Slight imperfections as regards homogeneity in the form of one or more of the following defects: gas cavities, slag
inclusions, undercut, incomplete penetration.
Brown Marked imperfections as regards homogeneity in the form of one or more of the following defects: gas cavities, slag
inclusions, undercut, incomplete penetration, lack of fusion.
Red Gross imperfections as regards homogeneity in the form of one or more of the following defects: gas cavities, slag
inclusions, undercut, incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, cracks.

18:10793-1983. The standard also gives reference
numbers for all principal imperfections and the sub-
terms, and letter designations for imperfections used
in the IIW Collections of Reference Radiographs.
Sometimes misleading and false indications appear
on radiographic films, caused by carelessness during
the exposure or by incorrect handling or processing of
the film. An inspector should learn to recognise and
evaluate such indications and be able to order re-
radiography when warranted.
While in the case of most critical fabrications, one
would insist on zero defects as revealed by radiography,
many standards permit a reasonable amount of defects.
Many important codes and specifications have laid
down acceptance standards for radiography. Most of
them permit limited porosity, and slag inclusions in
varying degree. Typical examples are the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code and AWS Specification for
Welded H i g h w a y a n d Railway Bridges. Since
acceptance standards vary considerably, the inspector
must decide which particular specification will govern
his inspection work.
Some specifications p e r m i t partial or spot
radiography, in which case only the critical locations,
or locations selected at random on a percentage basis
are radiographed. If serious defects are encountered, the
inspector may order 100% radiography. Spot
radiography by itself will not confirm the total quality
of the work, but w h e n a welder knows that this
inspection procedure will be applied, he will take all
the care to ensure that the welds will pass the inspection.
All persons concerned with radiographic inspection,
including those who work in the vicinity of an X-ray or
gamma-ray source, must remember that its radiation
has harmful effects on the human body, which in some
respects are cumulative. Rigid safety rules and radiation
exposure limits are set up by agencies such as Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre in Bombay, w h o are the
suppliers of gamma-ray isotopes. These must be fully
complied with.
Non-portable radiation sources must be housed in
isolated concrete rooms w i t h wall thickness
commensurate with the source strength. When portable
isotopes or X-ray machines are used in shop or at site,
the area around is cordoned off to prevent anyone
straying into the critical area. Alternately, the
radiography is carried out in night shifts when other
workers are not around. The radiation dosage rate at
any particular location is checked with a suitable survey
meter. Personnel concerned with radiography are
provided with pocket dosimeters and film badges to
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 593
check the cumulative dose absorbed by an individual.
An inspector should be familiar with all such safety rules
and must insist on their observance.
Ultrasonic Inspection
In this method of testing, ultra-high frequency sound
waves are projected in the form of a beam into the
material being tested. The sound beam emanating from
the transducer (sender and receiver) travels through the
homogeneous medium in a straight line until it meets
an acoustic boundary. At the boundary, some of the
sound is reflected in the same way as light reflects from
a smooth surface. The reflected sound is termed an echo.
The time and amplitude of the echoes received are
analysed to provide the data.
When two different media are bonded together and
their acoustic properties are similar (for example,
stainless steel cladding on carbon steel), the amount of
sound reflected is relatively small. When, for example,
slag inclusions are present ina weldment, the consequent
difference in acoustic properties results in reflections of
about 25% of the incident sound beam. When a metal-
gas interface exists, as in the case of a crack or incomplete
fusion, the acoustic properties are so widely different
that 100% reflection occurs. Such variations in reflections
are shown in Fig. 13.49.
The manner in which sound beam reflects from
boundaries is shown in Fig. 13.50. In the case of normal
incidence, the reflected sound returns to the transducer
over the incident path. The same happens with a right
angle corner. When the sound strikes at an acute angle,
the sound is reflected away from the incident beam.
Reflections from smooth surfaces are smooth and direct.
But in the case of rough surfaces, a large amount gets
randomly scattered.
The frequency of sound used for weld inspection is
around 2.25 MHz (1 mega hertz = 1 million cycles per
second). At lower frequencies, the sound beam has
greater penetrating power, but isolated defects such as
scattered porosity are likely to be missed. The higher
frequencies, on the other hand, are capable of picking
up minute defects in a weldment.
Ultrasonic testing equipment consists primarily of
electronic instruments to produce, receive and display
electronic signals, and a transducer which carries a small
piezoelectric element capable of converting electrical
signal generated in the instrument into ultrasound. The
element is contained in a solid block having acoustic
damping properties.
A transducer may be straight-beam type or angle-
beam type. With the former, the transducer is in direct
594 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

^3
1 «-s
<-3
Good Bond

i * >
<-*
Slag inclusion

ml*\ Crack or
^H
incomplete fusion
Fig. 13.49: Variations in reflections due to differences in acoustic properties caused by defects at the boundary.

Jl_ X^_ t^L

NORMAL
INCIDENCE
ANGLE
INCIDENCE
CORNER
INCIDENCE
r
Inspection
surface
- Transducer
Lucite wedge

Fig. 13.50: Sound reflections at boundaries (similar to

light reflections)

contact with the part and provides normal incidence. It

provides simple test technique, but is not adequate for
weld inspection. In the angle-beam type, the transducer
is mounted at an angle behind a wedge, which is either
plastic or liquid, as shown in Fig. 13.51. At the interface
between the wedge and the test material, the sound
beam may undergo refraction and the longitudinal
sound wave in the wedge may get converted into a shear
wave in the test material. The effective angle in the test
material is important and this is controlled by proper
selection of wedge material and its angle. Fixed-angle
beam units are generally used for production, tests.
The heart of the equipment is the clock. On receiving
a signal from the clock, the pulser sends a momentary
high-voltage electrical signal to the transducer. The
transducer, which is in contact with the material surface,
Test material I-Ultrasonic beam
Fig. 13.51: Angle beam head with transducer mounted
at an angle behind clear plastic
converts the electrical signal to a mechanical vibration
of ultrasound. The sound then travels through the
material, reflects from the boundaries and returns to the
transducer. The transducer reconverts mechanical
vibrations into an electrical signal, which then traverses
a receiver amplifier. Finally, a vertical deflection is
produced on a cathode ray tube. The clock circuit also
initiates a sweep circuit of the oscilloscope, which causes
 TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 595

a horizontal deflection of the trace on the cathode ray

tube proportional to time or distance.
In the resulting pattern, the horizontal deflection
which is related to time indicates the relative position of
the various reflecting surfaces. The amplitude of the
vertical deflection of these boundaries indicates the
intensity of the sound reflected from them.
Angular incidence of the sound wave through a
wedge gives rise to what are termed surface waves,
which are capable of travelling along the material surface
while penetrating only a short finite distance below the Fig. 13.53: Four transducers set at 45° angle to the weld
surface. While travelling, the surface wave will pass to locate suspected longitudinal and transverse defects.
around gentle curves with little loss of intensity, and will
even pass round sharp corners with some reflection and the transmitted signal is registered on the transducer R1.
some transmission. It will reflect from boundaries in its If there is a lengthwise crack or an area of lack of fusion
path, and very likely return to the original transducer. (B in figure), the signals will go to the transducer 1^. If
Multiple-transducer techniques: Multiple transducerstransverse cracks are present (C infigure),the signal will
consist of two or more separate elements, one for the be picked up by the transducer R3. If porosity is
transmission and the others for the reception of sound. encountered (D in figure), the beam will be scattered
For straight beam testing, it is preferable to use a dual and no discrete signal will be registered on any receiver.
transducer which has two small elements built into a Detect location: Using the ultrasonic test, one can
common test head and uses a short-delay line between determine the position, type and extent of defect within
the transducer and the test surface. Such a transducer a weld. The location of defects (reflectors) is based on
gives very high resolution and permits a test close to the the factors of direction and time. The initial test set-up
entrance surface, which is not possible with a single enables one to predict the beaming of the sound and its
straight-beam test. direction. In angle-beam tests, one can also predict the
One often comes across cases where the primary echo point of reflection. From the time base on the CRT
is not likely to return to the transmitting transducer. An display, one can determine the relative distance the
example is a double-V butt joint having inadequate joint sound has travelled over the known path. Special
preparation shown in Fig. 13.52. In this case, two angle- attachments and accessories are available to assist in
beam transducers in tandem, with their axes in line, have the location of defects. An example is a flaw location
been used. The transmitting and receiving elements ruler, which is attached to the transducer and helps to
have been so positioned that a reflected beam from the relate the CRT data to the actual test specimen. The ruler
perpendicular reflecting surface will produce a readily has to be calibrated for a specific angle, material
recognisable signal. thickness, and test distance.
Figure 13.53 shows four transducers being used to For the evaluation of defects, that have been detected,
look for possible longitudinal and transverse cracks in use is made of the vertical signals on the CRT. The
continuously welded seams of line-pipe in a production amplitude of such a signal is proportional to the sound
mill. All are positioned at 45° to the axis of the weld. T is energy returned to the transducer, which in turn, depends
the transmitting transducer. If the weld is good, there is on the size, type, orientation and shape of the reflecting
hardly any reflection of the sound (A infigure)and hence surface or defect. In a way, the amplitude of the signal
serves as a primary criterion for the acceptance or
rejection of a weld.
To obtain quantitative information, a reference block
which helps to define the various test parameters is used.
^ Possible inadequate In some cases, a test plate in which a simulated defect is
^ joint penetration
introduced is used. Vertically drilled holes, 1.5 mm
diameter and 12.5 mm deep, are often used as a reference
reflector. Horizontally drilled holes are also used as they
Fig. 13.52: Dual angle-beam transducers used for resemble defects such as slag inclusions. Square-sided
special cases or V notches also provide a reference standard.
596 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

The calibration block containing a combination of
drilled holes and notches designed by the International
Institute of Welding is shown in Fig. 13.54.
The ultrasonic test equipment usually includes an
attenuator, calibrated in decibels, which provides linear
relationship between a single standard reflected signal
amplitude and the actual defect signal. The attenuator
enables one to make such comparisons with both the
signals at equivalent screen heights, thereby allowing
more detail of the defect signal to be obtained.
In ultrasonic testing, confusion is often created by
absorption and scatter of the sound waves in the weld,
the surface roughness of the job, the presence of internal
reflectors and various geometric effects. The surface
roughness should be better than 20 jam and the surface
shape should be such that at least 80% of the probe is in
contact. The geometric effects which commonly cause
difficulties are large reinforcements, concavity of the
root, surface grooves and general irregularities. In some
cases they are overcome by examination from two sides
of the weld. Changes in wall thickness adjacent to a weld
may also adversely affect determination of defect
location. Geometric effects must be eliminated in cases
where it is only possible to examine a weld from one
side. Ultrasonic testing of lap fillet welds and partial
penetration butt welds is of little use, as the areas where
most defects are likely to occur (the root runs of welds)
are not accessible for examination.
Eddy Current Testing
In this method, eddy currents are induced in a part
by subjecting it to the influence of an alternating
electromagnetic field. The frequency chosen to excite
the field ranges between 500 and 20,000 Hz (cycles per

6.25" H

-1h - -080"
0"HK f-f—
cU
40° 50° 60° i
-♦*♦" f in"l
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3.6"
Echo Surface
2 (Ground)
•125'

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Cylinder of Lucite
12"
Echo surface .0S0"
^ , ^* ♦ ♦ " ♦ ♦ r-

* " T ^ _ Silvercoated surface Test surface

b—M«.yg==r-*i
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Test surface
(Planed)
.10"
.16"; I
** 11 t m ^.,,,r f t l ,.l.,.|.,.,.,^
Material; LQMC 5.2

Fig. 13.54: Diagram of IIW calibration block for ultrasonic test equipment

second). The field is usually produced by an inductor
placed close to the part under test. The inductor can be
of any shape and design depending on the geometry of
the part and on the type of defects to be detected.
When discontinuities are present in the part, they
alter the magnitude and direction of the eddy currents.
The alteration is detected by a detector coil and the
discontinuity is registered. Changes in the eddy current
are interpreted by various electrical variables such as
voltage, current, impedance, phase or their combin-
ations. These variables are electronically analysed and
the desired information obtained in useful form.
Eddy current testing is used almost exclusively in
the mass production of elongated articles of uniform
cross-section, such as tubes, pipes, bars and billets.
In the case of welded tubular products, the inductor
is in the form of coils that surround the material. If they
are designed to induce a circumferential current flowing
through the entire tube wall, one can detect defects all
over the wall of the tube. However, to inspect only the
longitudinal seam weld of the tube, detector coils are
positioned tangent to the tube near the weld. In this
case, one can obtain more accurate information on the
presence and magnitude of small defects. The inform-
ation picked up by the tangent detector coil is transmit-
ted to the test circuit and analysed electronically.
Since eddy currents can be induced in any conductor,
the test method may be employed equally well on
magnetic and non-magnetic materials. In the case of
magnetic materials, it is advisable to magnetically
saturate the part, while it is being tested, by surrounding
it with a DC solenoid. This helps to suppress the
influence of certain disturbing magnetic variables.
To successfully develop the test, it is necessary to
establish the relationships between all types of natural
defects, harmless variables, and the artificial defects
created for calibration purposes.
Eddy current testing can be fully automated to
provide automatic inspection at high speed and at
relatively low cost. Under certain conditions, the tests
are useful for grading and classifying defects, since the
indications produced are proportional to the actual
defect size.
Proof Testing
Important welded structures are proof tested by
subjecting them to stresses above those they are
expected to carry in service, but below the elastic limit
of the metal, and making sure that they will not fail or
get permanently deformed in any part.
TESTING AND INSPECTION OF WELDS 597
Closed containers such as pressure vessels and boiler
shells are proof tested by applying internal pressure with
compressed air or water pressure. The pneumatic test
using compressed air is used only for low-pressure
testing, because of the inherent danger of explosion if
the job fails suddenly. The hydrostatic test using water
under pressure is a high-pressure test. In this case, the
pressure used is the design working pressure plus a
certain percentage in excess. The container under
pressure, which may also be subjected to a hammer test,
is visually examined for leaks.
Open containers like water or oil storage tanks are
simply tested by filling with water and visually
examining for leaks.
Welded structural members designed to carry certain
loads in service can be proof tested by setting them up
and loading them in a testing machine. Large members
may be inertly loaded with weights like sand bags to
determine whether the resultant deflections are within
the calculations. By loading in measured excess, one can
determine if any part of the structure undergoes
permanent deformation.
Procedures of the proof test, if specified, must be
provided in the drawing, specification sheet or contract
for the welded product.
Leak Testing
Welded products such as vessels and piping systems
are leak tested to determine if through-thickness
discontinuities exist in the welded joints, which will
result in a loss of liquid or gas in service. A simple leak
test consists of internally pressurising the container with
water or light oil, and examining the welds externally
for evidence of leakage. While water is cheap and readily
available, light oil is more effective, as it can penetrate a
given discontinuity at half the pressure that water would
require. In water testing, small leaks may sometimes be
missed. To increase the sensitivity of the method, a water
soluble fluorescent dye is added to the water and the
outer surface of the container is inspected with
ultraviolet light.
In pressure testing with a liquid, care must be taken
to ensure that all air within the container is completely
removed as it gets filled up with the liquid. This may be
achieved by providing the necessary vents in the
topmost part of the container.
When air or inert gas is used for pressurising, a soap
solution is applied outside on the joints, and the leaks
are located by means of bubbles formed. If the container
is small enough, it may be completely immersed in a
598 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

liquid. In this case, the leaks are indicated by bubbles of
the escaping air or gas. In some cases, leakage of gas
can be simply determined by the hissing sound of
escaping gas or the flickering of a flame held close to
the leak. Pressure testing with gas is hazardous and it
should be carefully controlled.
Leak testing can be m a d e more sophisticated by
adding a small percentage of a tracer gas to air or some
other carrier gas, introducing the mixture into the vessel
and increasing the pressure to a predetermined level,
A sensing probe is then passed over the outside of the
vessel and any leak present is detected by the presence
of the tracer gas. For critical vessels which have to be
fully guaranteed against leakage, helium leak detection
is used, which can detect the presence of one part of
helium in 2,00,000 parts of air. In this case, any possible
leak is d e t e c t e d b y m e a n s of a h e l i u m m a s s
spectrometer.
W h e n pressure tests are used on high pressure
vessels such as heat exchangers, it may be necessary to
maintain the pressure for periods between 30 min and
four hours.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 9, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Welding Inspection, 1980, by American Welding Society.
Guide to Welding Inspector Qualification and Certification including AWS QC1-84
Standard for Qualification and Certification of Welding Inspectors, 1964, by American Welding Society.
Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds, by American Welding Society.
Handbook on Radiographic Apparatus and Techniques, 1973, by International Institute of Welding.
Handbook on Ultrasonic Examination of Welds, 1977, by International Institute of Welding.
IS 822-1991 Code of Procedure for Inspection of Welds.
IS 1182-1983 Recommended Practice for Radiographic Examination of Fusion Welded Butt Joints in Steels.
IS 4853-1982 Recommended Practice for Radiographic Examination of Fusion Welded Circumferential Joints in Steel Pipes.
IS 3657-1978 Radiographic Image Quality Indicators.
IS 3658-1981 Code of Practice for Liquid Penetrant Flaw Detection.
IS 4260-1976 Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Welds in Ferritic Steel.
IS 4904-1987 Reference Block for Calibration of Ultrasonic Flaw Detectors.
IS 7343-1974 Code of Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Ferrous Welded Pipes and Tubular Products.
IS 3703-1980 Code of Practice for Magnetic Particle Crack Detection.
Radiographs of Welds by International Institute of Welding.
 CHAPTER 14
Metal
Cutting
Processes
Arc Cutting of Metals
The various methods used for the severing or
removal of metals can be divided into two main
categories: mechanical a n d thermal. Mechanical
methods are sawing, drilling, shaping, milling, etc.,
commonly used in metalworking and machine shops.
Thermal cutting methods involve heat. The process
chart presented in Chapter 1 shows the break-up of the
thermal cutting processes as follows:
Oxygen cutting is based on the chemical reaction
between oxygen and the metal at high temperatures.
The necessary high temperature is obtained from an
oxyfuel gas flame, the most popular fuel gas being
acetylene. The process is therefore commonly referred
to as oxyacetylene process and is widely used in all
metal fabrication shops. A wide range of oxy-cutting
machines are available, with a simple manual cutting
torch at one end and the most sophisticated design with
an electronic tracing device at the other end.
Since this chapter is restricted to arc cutting
processes, nothing more will be stated about the oxygen
Thermal Cutting
Oxygen Oxygen Arc
Arc
Flame Powder Lancing
Carbon Metal
arc arc
cutting process except its limitations for cutting some
of the common metals and alloys.
It is difficult to cut cast iron by the normal oxyfuel
process, because of the presence of graphite and iron
carbide which hinder the oxidation of the iron. Alu-
minium and its alloys and stainless steels are also diffi-
cult to cut, because the oxides of aluminium and chro-
mium have melting points much higher than those of
iron oxides. These high-melting oxides, which are re-
fractory in nature, continuously accumulate in the kerf
as cutting proceeds and prevent exposure of fresh iron
to the cutting oxygen stream. Special oxygen cutting
techniques using metal powder or chemical flux are
therefore employed for cutting these difficult metals.
For getting clean and efficient cuts at high speeds in
these metals, arc cutting processes are preferred.
Thermal cutting also includes spark erosion, elec-
tron beam and^ laser, as indicated in the chart. These
modern sophisticated processes are rarely used in the
fabrication shops and, therefore, they are not discussed
here.
Spark Electron Laser
Erosion Beam
Air Plasma
arc arc
600 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Oxygen-Arc Cutting
This method uses a specially designed oxygen-arc
cutting electrode to cut, pierce or gouge metals. The
electrode is similar to a manual arc welding electrode
and is coated with a flux whose functions are to provide
an insulated sleeve, to stabilise the arc and to make the
products of combustion more fluid. The core wire,
however, is in the form of a hollow tube through which
a stream of oxygen is passed and directed to the area of
the metal being cut. A specially designed holder, capable
of conveying electric current to the electrode as well as
oxygen to the arc, is used. The process is schematically
shown in Fig. 14.1.
In this method, the necessary preheat is provided
by the electric arc, while the actual removal of metal is
effected by the stream of oxygen and the coating by a
combination of melting, oxidising, diluting, fluxing and
mechanical ejection. In the case of oxidation-resistant
metals such as stainless steels and aluminium and its
alloys, the cutting occurs more by melting than by
anything else. In this case, the electrode covering helps
the molten metal to flow away from the cut in the same
Oxygen in
Fig. 14.1: Schematic of oxygen-arc electrode in operation
manner as the powdered metal or flux helps during
oxyacetylene cutting of stainless steels.
The equipment used for oxygen-arc cutting is an AC
or DC manual welding power source of adequate
capacity. For rapid cutting, DC with electrode positive
is preferred. A fully insulated electrode holder is used.
The common dimensions of tubular steel electrodes are
6 mm and 8 mm diameter, 450 m m length and bore
diameter of 1.6 mm. The coating is usually of AWS E6013
class (rutile type).
For piercing operation, the arc is struck by tapping
the electrode tip at the desired point. As soon as the arc
stabilises, the oxygen valve is opened. As the piercing
action starts, the electrode is pushed into and through
the plate to form a hole. The coating prevents the
shorting of the electrode core against the sides of the
hole.
The cutting operation starts with the piercing action
as described above. The electrode is then inclined at a
suitable angle and dragged along the plate surface at a
travel speed dictated by the progress of the cut, while
applying slight pressure. Using this technique, mild steel
up to 75 mm thickness and non-ferrous metals up to
12.5 mm thickness can be cut. For gouging, the electrode
is inclined steeply until it is almost parallel to the plate
surface and pointed away from the operator along the
path to be gouged. Due to the scouring action of the arc
and oxygen, a pool of slag is formed beyond the
electrode tip. The electrode is pushed rapidly over the
plate surface into this pool.
In all these operations of piercing, cutting and
gouging, the coating is constantly kept in contact with
the base metal. The coating prevents arcing of the core
with the work and automatically maintains correct arc
length.
The metallurgical effects of oxygen-arc cutting are
similar to those of manual arc welding, but the HAZ is
shallower and harder with the cutting process, because
of the h i g h e r speed of arc travel. Cast iron a n d
hardenable steels may develop cracks on the face of the
cut. Grades of austenitic stainless steels which are
subject to intercrystalline corrosion when welded by the
shielded metal-arc process become sensitised along the
cut made with the oxy-arc process.
The faces of the cuts are r o u g h e r t h a n w i t h
oxyacetylene cutting and need some amount of chipping
or grinding before fabrication by welding. The cut faces
of cast iron and hardenable steels are likely to be non-
machinable.
This method is used effectively by foundries and
scrapyards to cut all types of metals in all positions. It

is, however, more effectively applied in underwater
cutting operations.
For underwater cutting, a fully insulated holder
equipped with a suitable flashback arrester must be
used. During cutting, positive p r e s s u r e m u s t be
maintained against the metal being cut, irrespective of
its thickness.
Manual Metal-Arc Cutting
This is a rough and ready method of cutting which
uses a normal welding electrode or specially designed
cutting electrode (4, 5 or 6.3 mm diameter), at a current
setting which is 20 to 50% higher than that used
normally for a given size. Although AC can be used,
DC with electrode negative is preferred. Sometimes it
helps to make the electrode slightly wet. Water in the
coating reduces overheating of the electrode to some
extent and dissociates in the arc to render it more
penetrating.
Since there is no great action tending to force the
molten metal out of the cut, some provision must be
made to permit the molten metal to drop or run out of
the cut, irrespective of the position of the work. This is
achieved by starting the cut at some convenient point,
from which the flow of the molten metal is facilitated
by the gravitational force.
Plates 10 mm in thickness or lighter can be cut by
simply moving the electrode along the line of cut. For
heavier plates, it is necessary to work from the underside
of the plate, so that the molten metal and slag may have
a chance to drop or run off.
Fig. 14.2: Technique of manual metal-arc cutting
METALS CUTTING PROCESSES 601
The cut may be started at the edge of the plate, or a
hole may be burned through the plate, and thus the cut
may be started at any desired point.
In piercing operations, the cutting electrode is held
perpendicular or at a very steep angle to the surface.
High currents must be used for piercing operations.
To keep the metal and the slag flowing out of the
cut, a short arc should be held and the electrode should
be kept pushing closely up in the slot, with the tip of
the electrode being pushed right into the molten crater
and manipulated with an up and d o w n action as
indicated in Fig. 14.2.
The upward motion should be very fast and the
downward motion should supply a pushing effect, thus
helping to force out the molten metal and slag.
The metallurgical and physical effects are similar to
those occurring in the oxygen-arc cutting process.
When no better method is readily available, metal-
arc cutting is widely used for cutting holes into piping,
through plates for subsequent welding of extensions,
attachments, etc.
For piercing, drilling and cutting operations, the
cutting electrode is particularly effective on the difficult-
to-machine metals and alloys. Armour plates, air- and
d e e p - h a r d e n i n g steels, stainless steels, and hard
overlays are some of the materials easily cut. In ferrous
and non- ferrous foundries, the cutting electrode is used
for the removal of riser and gates and to cut heavy scrap
for remelting.
Carbon-Arc Cutting
In this method, cutting is performed by the are
formed between two carbon or graphite electrodes or
between one such electrode and the base metal. No
compressed air is used. At one time, this process was
u s e d by small s h o p s , garages and h o u s e h o l d
metalworkers as it involved a small investment, but
today it has almost entirely been replaced by better arc-
cutting methods.
TIG and MIG Arc Cutting
The normal TIG welding process can be converted
into a cutting process by increasing the current and rate
of inert gas flow. The moderately high velocity of the
gas, which is usually a mixture of argon and hydrogen,
blows away the molten metal to form a kerf. Using cur-
rents in the range of 200-600 Amps., stainless steel and
aluminium up to 13 mm thick can be cut with ease. The
MIG process can also be used for cutting in a similar way.
Considering the expense of inert gas and electrodes,
TIG and MIG cutting processes are rarely used in
602 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

industry. Hence they are not mentioned in the chart. shielding gas. In either case, the cut quality is not as
Today, the most efficient and commonly used processes good as when a single-flow technique is used.
are plasma arc cutting and air carbon-arc cutting. The most efficient system of PAC which is capable
of giving narrow, sharply defined cuts at high speeds
Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) involves injection of water into the plasma flame, as
The PAC torch is designed in the same manner as shown in Fig. 14.5, to further constrict it and to prevent
the plasma arc welding torch shown in Fig. 5.36. DC is the plasma from turbulent mixing with the surround-
used and the tungsten electrode is connected to the ing air. This process is termed water injection plasma
negative pole. A transferred arc is employed for cutting, cutting.
i.e. the arc is sustained between the electrode in the torch PAC equipment consists of a power source, a control
and the work. The cutting arc is initiated by a pilot arc, unit, one or more gases to function as orifice and
which is first formed between the electrode and the shielding gas, and a cutting torch. It can be manual or
constricting nozzle by the high frequency generator. The mechanised. The power source is of drooping type,
constricting nozzle, which is water-cooled, is connected giving DC with open-circuit voltages in the range of
to the positive terminal of the power source through a 120-400 V and output current in the range of 70-1,000
current limiting resistor and a pilot arc relay contact. Amps.. It may also contain the pilot arc and circuitry
The simple PAC circuitry is shown in Fig. 14.3. for high frequency generation. For cutting ferrous
This figure shows a single flow PAC torch, i.e. a torch material as thick as 75 mm and aluminium up to 90 mm,
which provides for the flow of orifice gas and not of OCV of nearly 400 V and current up to 500 Amps, may
shielding gas. The orifice gas, which is preheated by be required. Diagram of a typical outfit of this capacity
the arc plasma, expands and is ejected through the is shown in Fig. 14.4(B). Because of the inherent danger
constricting orifice at a high velocity. The metal which of electric shock to the operator, manual cutting
is melted by the arc is then blown away by the kinetic equipment uses lower OCV of 120-200 V, and current
energy of the gas stream to form the kerf. The orifice in the range of 70-100 Amps., and achieves relatively
gas is usually argon. low cutting speeds. Manual PAC can be used
Sometimes a dual-flow torch shown in Fig. 14.4(A) conveniently for cutting non-ferrous metals up to 25 mm
is used, in which provision is made for the flow of a t and carbon steel up to 12.5 mm t.
secondary shielding gas around the arc plasma. In this The control unit contains solenoid valves to turn
case, the usual orifice gas is nitrogen. The shielding gas gases and cooling water on and off as required. They
is carbon dioxide in the case of mild steel and stainless control the rate of flow of cutting gas through
steels, and argon-hydrogen mixture in the case of flowmeters, and have a water flow switch to switch off
aluminium and its alloys. The technique can be modified the operation if water-cooling is inadequate. The high
by using water as a shield in place of the auxiliary capacity automatic machines may contain features for
upslope and downslope control of current and orifice
gas flow.
Cutting torches are of several types and for each type,
nozzles with various orifice diameters are available. The
I higher the current, the larger is the orifice diameter
High
frequency required. The nozzle is designed according to the PAC
generator system used and the metal being cut. For better quality
cuts, multiple port nozzles, which have the auxiliary
Power
gas ports arranged in a circle around the main orifice,
supply Electrode are preferred to single port nozzles.
In mechanised equipment, PAC torches are mounted
Constricting on shape cutting machines similar to the commonly
nozzle
used mechanised gas cutting equipment, while the
cutting is steered by photoelectric tracing, numerical
JsVorkNWWW^NI control or computer control. With mechanised PAC, it
is possible to cut 150 mm of aluminium alloy at a speed
Fig. 14.3: Basic plasma arc cutting circuitry of 3 mm/sec, 100 mm t stainless steel also at 3 mm/sec,
and 50 mm carbon steel at 11 mm/sec.
 METALS CUTTING PROCESSES 603

Electrode
Orifice gas Shielding gas

Constricting
nozzle Shielding gas
nozzle

Workpiece

(A)

POWERSOURCE
CCR 320(400) lHf y
yj£&
^ 5 o c / CONTROL UNIT PENDANT UNIT
Spcci01

El El CARRIAGE
.SPEED POT
CARRIAGE
CARRIAGE V - -^ REV/FOR
ON/OFF y^TTSJOP
START
1*1 fit CABLE TO OPERATE
MAIN PENDANT CABLE

7«n
CONTACTOR

as
m
FLEXIBLE
TAP
F ^ B ^ G ' N P U T ^ B V WATER
BOX 3J50C/S "IN
_^
WATER
RESERVOIR
UNIT K 101
PRESSURE
REGULATE R

JM
CUM
FLOWMETER

WATER IN
zJ
(B)
CONTROL CABLE

CUTTING TORCH
PLUMBING^L PL-1000-(I)
BOX TRAVEL CARRIAGE
TC101
y/s/sssysTy; / / ^~M^ ">>'> \>>>>> > TT>

TRACK2MTR
INTERCONNECTION HDPC-101 ^
.WORKPIECE

Fig. 14.4: Plasma arc cutting: (A) Dual flow cutting operation; (B) Schematic diagram of heavy duty equipment
604 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Model / Specifications
Orifice gas swirl
/ / Elect rode Tracing Width : 1500 to 2000 mm
y^ Constricting nozzle Cutting Width : 1 x 1500 to 1 x 2000 mm
(With single torch)
Cutting Width : 2 x 750 to 2 x 1250 mm
C « L K ' Ceramic insulator (With two torches)
^Workpiece
Cutting Width : 4 x 375 to 4 x 625 mm
^tHUV^ (With four torches)
Cutting Thickness : 100 mm max. with torches
150 mm max. with 2 torches
Fig. 14.5: Water in jection plasma arc cutting arrangement 200 m m max. with 1 torch

Machine Speed Range : 70-1000 m m / m i n

Safety: PAC gives pronounced arc glare, spatter,
fumes and noise. It is necessary to protect operators and
other persons working in the vicinity from exposure to
these unpleasant aspects. It is specially important that
fume and noise are controlled. One way to control fumes
is to place the plate to be cut on a cutting table, which is
filled with water up to the bottom surface of the plate.
The plasma jet releases gases at high speeds, which strike
the water and produce turbulence in it. All the fume
particles get trapped in the turbulent water.
The noise is controlled by using what is termed a
water muffler in conjunction with the water table
described above. The muffler is in the form of a nozzle
which is attached to the torch body and releases a curtain
of water around the front of the torch. The water
required by the nozzle is pumped from the water table.
The water curtain around the torch and the water
surface of the table combine to form a sound-muffling
shield around the arc. The water muffler must not be
confused with water shielding and water injection used
in the modified systems of PAC.
Optical Profile Cutting
This is cantiportal construction, equipped with optical
tracer and controller with gas on-off controls by sole-
noid valves. The longitudinal and transverse axes are
controlled by Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) drive sys-
tem that gives precise control and accuracy. The main
beam is provided with all the transverse hose convey-
ors, hoses and cables, gas equipment, solenoids, con-
trol panel, torch stations, etc. The basic is machine com-
plete with all interconnecting cables, gas hoses and
manifold, etc. All controls are integrated in one control
panel for operators' convenience. The optical profile
cutter is equipped with gas cutting using Nozzle Mix
technology suitable for oxy-acetylene oxy-LPG gases.
A choice of four models is available.
Supply Voltage 200 V + 10%
-15%
50 Hz, 1-phase AC
Power Requirements: 500 VA (approx.)
Optical Tracer and Control Features
• Automatic shut-off of motion and cutting oxygen
gas if tracer loses line
Automatic line acquisition
Integrated control panel for all controls
Electronic kerf setting upto 3 mm kerf
Command mark option
CNC compatible — optional interface available
Patterns—silhouette or line (minimum line width
0.8 mm)
Optical Features
Gas economizer — preheat control
Motorized torch lifting
Upto 4 torch stations
Longitudinal hose conveyors
Trace Extensions — Units 1,500 mm or 3,000 mm
Tracing Table Extensions — Units of 1,000 mm
Air Carbon-Arc Cutting
In this process, which is also known as air arc cutting
(AAC), an arc is struck between a carbon electrode and
the workpiece to melt the latter. The molten metal is
ejected by a powerful jet of compressed air directed at
the point of melting. As' the carbon arc is advanced,
metal is continuously removed. The process is illustrated
in Fig. 14.6(A).
The process is well suited for gouging out metal from
a weld root or a defective weld area, and for groove
preparation prior to welding. It is also used for severing.
Unlike oxyfuel gas cutting which relies on oxidation and
removal of low-melting slags, AAC involves only
 METALS CUTTING PROCESSES 605

Table 14.1: Currents for air carbon-arc cutting electrodes

Electrode dia. DC electrode AC electrode AC electrode

mm with DC with AC with DC
Amps. Amps. Amps.
4.0 90-150 — —
4.8 150-200 150-200 150-180
6.4 200-400 200-300 200-250
8.0 250-450 — —
9.5 350-600 300-500 300-400
12.7 600-1,000 400-600 400-500
16.0 800-1,200 — —
19.0 1,200-1,600 — —

melting and no oxidation. The process is primarily During cutting, the carbon electrode tip is heated to
physical and not chemical; hence it can be used on all a high temperature but it does not melt. The carbon at
metals including those which produce high melting the tip, however, gets oxidised and also sublimates
refractory oxides. (changes from solid to gaseous state). Hence the

Electrode holder-

/% + Carbon
Air M electrode
jetsNw^

(B)
Air jet 1 '" **H
on-off
button

Fig. 14.6: Air carbon-arc cutting:

(A) Cutting operation; (B) Holder or torch for manual cutting
606 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
electrode is gradually consumed as cutting progresses.
The process can be manual, semi-automatic or fully-
automatic.
The AAC electrode is made from a mixture of carbon
and graphite. Carbon is amorphous, hard and highly
resistant to abrasion or erosion. Graphite, on the
contrary, is crystalline and soft, oxidises at a higher
temperature, and has a lower rate of oxidation and lower
electrical and thermal conductivity. For o p t i m u m
performance, the electrode must be hard and must have
a high resistance to erosion, a high oxidising
temperature, a low rate of oxidation, high electrical
conductivity and low thermal conductivity. These
properties are achieved through proper blending of
carbon and graphite. A suitable binder is used. The
mixture is baked at a high temperature to produce a
dense, homogeneous graphite electrode of low electrical
resistance, which is finally plated with a controlled
thickness of high purity copper. The copper-coating
increases its current-carrying capacity, extends its
operating life, reduces radiated heat and helps to obtain
a smooth and uniform groove.
The electrodes are commonly designed for use with
DC, electrode positive. AC electrodes are also sometimes
available. They carry a small proportion of rare-earth
metals to p r o v i d e arc stabilisation w i t h AC. AC
electrodes are preferred for cutting cast iron and nickel
alloys. AC electrodes may be used with DC, but in this
case the electrode is made negative. DC electrodes are
usually available in the diameter range of 4-19 mm,
while AC electrodes are available in the range of 4.8-
12.7 mm.
For continuous automatic cutting, jointed electrodes
are used. They are provided with a female socket and a
matching male tenon.
Suggested current ranges for the commonly used
electrode types and sizes are given in Table 14.1.
Holders are of special design. Holders meant for
manual gouging (see Fig. 14.6(B)) arc similar to the
heavy duty holders used for manual metal-arc welding,
but they are provided with air passages and orifices to
direct the air stream along the bottom side of the
electrode, and with valves to turn the air on and off.
Semi-automatic holders are designed to be mounted on
a mechanised carriage and they use standard lengths
of electrodes. The operator feeds the electrode manually
and controls the arc length at the same time. Automatic
holders are also mounted on mechanised carriages, and
the automatic gouging operation is achieved by using
continuous jointed carbon electrodes and a voltage
controlled unit to maintain constant arc length.
A constant-current motor generator or rectifier,
d e s i g n e d for m a n u a l metal-arc w e l d i n g , is
recommended for AAC with all sizes and types of
electrodes, provided it has an open-circuit voltage of at
least 60 V and sufficient current output. For AC
electrodes, a constant current welding transformer is
suitable.
Compressed air under pressure range of 560-700 kPa
(80-100 psi) is required to obtain clean cuts at optimum
speeds. If air pressure is inadequate, the gouges and
cuts get contaminated with slag and carbon deposits.
All hoses and fittings must be of large diameters to allow
sufficient volume of air to reach the electrode holder.
For light duty holders, hoses and fittings should have a
minimum inside diameter of 6.4 mm. For heavy duty
holders, a m i n i m u m inside diameter of 9.5 m m is
recommended. For automatic holders, the minimum
diameter is 12.7 mm.
For manual gouging, the carbon electrode is gripped
in the holder in such a way that the maximum extension
from the holder to the workpiece is 150 mm in the case
of ferrous metals and 100 mm for aluminium alloys. The
air jet is turned on and then the arc is struck by touching
the electrode tip lightly to the work. It is not necessary
to draw back the electrode after arc striking, because
the metal is being removed and not deposited. The
holder is held so that the electrode is properly slanted
with respect to the work, with the air blast behind the
electrode. If the air stream is correctly directed at the
arc, the removal of molten metal from the kerf is fairly
rapid and the operator must use his skill to maintain
correct arc length by moving the holder fast enough in
the direction of the cut. A steady progress is necessary
to ensure that the cut surface is smooth.
Gouging can be done in all positions. In the vertical
position, it should be in a downward direction. In the
horizontal position, gouging can proceed from left to
right or from right to left, provided the air jet is behind
the electrode. For overhead gouging, the electrode is
held nearly parallel to the holder, while the holder is
held at an angle that will not let molten metal drip on
the operator's glove.
The depth, width and contour of the groove are
controlled by the combined effects of electrode push
angle, arc travel speed and size of the electrode. A small
push angle and low travel speed give rise to a deep and
narrow groove, while a large push angle and high speed

produce a wide and shallow groove. The groove width
is usually 3 mm greater than the electrode diameter.
With a given size of electrode, a much wider groove
can be obtained by weaving. The proper travel speed
depends on the type of metal to be cut, size of electrode,
amperage and air pressure. A good clean cut is an
indication of the correct speed.
Data for automatic cutting are obtainable from the
equipment supplier. They cover the following param-
eters with respect to the U-groove size: electrode size,
current, voltage, electrode-feed rate and arc travel speed.
For severing or through cutting, the electrode is held
at a steeper push angle and the metal is pierced with
the tip of the electrode. The arc is then moved up and
down through the metal with a sawing motion.
Metallurgical effects: Since most AAC is done with DC,
electrode positive, ionized carbon atoms are transferred
from the electrode to the melted base metal. This carbon
absorption is unavoidable and, therefore, the air blast
must ensure that all such molten carburised metal is
removed from the kerf. If such high-carbon metal,
having up to 1.0% C, is left in the kerf, it gives a dull
grey-black colour to the groove. Insufficient air flow,
irregular electrode travel and a wrong electrode angle
can leave small pools or beads of carburised metal. If
the groove is correctly made, it develops a bright-blue
colour.
If the presence of carburised metal is suspected, it is
necessary to remove it by grinding before depositing
the weld, especially when optimum weld ductility and
toughness have to be guaranteed.
It has been established that copper is not transferred
from the electrode to the groove or cut surface. With
structural steels and non-hardenable steels, the groove
and cut surfaces are machinable, but in the case of cast
iron and hardenable steels they are non-machinable. In
all cases, the HAZ is usually very shallow.
Applications: The AAC process is commonly used to
cut and gouge mild, low-alloy, austenitic manganese and
stainless steels; cast iron; and alloys of aluminium, mag-
nesium, copper and nickel. It is also used to remove old
surfacing material before depositing new surfacing al-
loy. It is well suited for gouging out the root of a weld
to sound metal, before depositing a sealing pass on the
second side, as also for gouging out defective weld-
metal for subsequent repair. The AAC is a simple and
versatile tool, which is extensively used for cutting
out metals at construction sites and in foundries, scrap-
yards, shipyards/boiler shops, maintenance shops, etc.
METALS CUTTING PROCESSES 607
Advantages
1) Fast: five times as fast as chipping. Gouging a 9.5
mm groove at over 600 mm per minute.
2) Easily controllable: removes defects with preci-
sion. Defects are clearly visible in the groove and
can be followed with ease. The depth of the cut is
easily regulated and welding slag does not de-
flect or hamper the cutting action.
3) Low equipment cost: no gas cylinder or regula-
tors are necessary except in field operations.
4) Economical to operate: no oxygen or fuel gas re-
quired. The same man who performs the weld-
ing can operate the equipment.
5) Easy to operate: any welder can operate the
equipment with a few minutes of instruction, and
can become proficient in a few days. The elec-
trode holder contains air control valve and a ro-
tating nozzle, which permits changing the elec-
trode angle to suit the job while maintaining the
air jet in alignment.
6) Compact: not much larger than a shielded metal-
arc welding electrode holder.
7) Versatile: can be used in any place where it is pos-
sible to weld. It can be operated in spaces too re-
stricted to accommodate a chipping hammer or
an oxyfuel gas cutting torch. It requires no diffi-
cult adjustments for use on different metals.
8) Cuts cleanly: resulting surface is clean and
smooth. Welding or brazing can generally be
done without further grinding or cleaning.
9) Compared to oxyfuel cutting, the AAC process
involves lower energy input. Therefore, a
workpiece gouged or cut by this process distorts
less.
Safety: The process generates a high level of fumes
and noise. The operator should take care that the fumes
do not rise up to his face. If he is working in an enclosed
or semi-enclosed area, exhaust ventilation should be
provided and the operator must wear a respirator. If
the cutting operation is continuous, the operator as also
other persons in the vicinity must be provided with
suitable ear protection.
608 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 13, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society,
IS 8987-1978 Recommended Practices for Air-Carbon-Arc Gouging and Cutting.
IS 6431-1971 Tolerances on Dimensions of Plates Cut by Flame.
AWS C4.2 Operator's Manual for Oxyfuel Gas Cutting, 1978, by American Welding Society.
AWS C5.2 Recommended Practices for Plasma-Arc Cutting by American Welding Society.
AWS C5.3 Recommended Practices for Air-Carbon-Arc Gouging and Cutting, 1983, by American Welding Society.
 CHAPTER 15

Welding
Costs and
Economics
FOR PREPARING estimates of arc-welded fabrications,
one must have technical calculation data to determine
direct welding costs based on (a) consumption of
electrodes, (b) arc time, and (c) current consumption.
Electrode Consumption
The first step is to determine the quantity of
electrodes required to complete unit length of a given
type of joint. Once this is known, the arc time and current
consumption can be determined by simple calculation.
As an example, we can take a 10 mm thick single-V
butt joint of length 1 m, as shown in Fig. 15.1. The cross-
sectional area, divided into segments A, B, C and D,
can be calculated by simple arithmetic. This area
multiplied by 1 m gives the volume per metre length,
which can be expressed in cm3. Density of steel is 7.8 g /
cm3. Using this factor, the weight of weld-metal required
to fill the joint can be calculated.
Standard tables for weight of weld-metal for
common joints are available in engineering handbooks
and welding data books. Typical tables for fillet welds
and butt joints are given in Tables 15.1 and 15.2.
There are several m e t h o d s for calculating the
quantity of electrodes required to obtain a given weight
of weld-metal. A simple and direct method is to deposit
weld-metal from, say, five electrodes on a plate, using
the mean amperage of the current range and leaving a
stub of 50 mm length, and determining its weight.
Alternatively one can refer to the electrode producer
for the quantity of electrodes required to deposit 1 kg
of weld-metal, or the weight of weld-metal obtained
from each electrode.

Table 15.1: Weight of steel weld-metal for fillet joints

Flat Convex Concave

Size of fillet (mm) Wt. of metal (g/m)
3.15 48.3 58.9 55.9
4.80 108.7 131.4 125.3
6.30 194.8 234.0 222.0
8.0 303.5 365.4 347.3
9.5 436.4 527.0 500.0
12.7 776.1 936.0 889.4
Courtesy: Lincoln's Procedure Handbook
610 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
2 mm
Fig. 15.1: Segments of volume of weld-metal In a butt joint
Rather than providing the above-mentioned
information, electrode producers usually mention the
deposition efficiency (DE) of the electrode in the leaflet.
DE is defined as the ratio of the weld deposit to the
weight of core wire melted, expressed as a percentage.
For example, if an electrode has 90% DE, 90 g of weld-
metal will be obtained from every 100 g of the core wire
melted in the arc. DE depends significantly on the type
of electrode used,*and lies between 80 and 95% for
common types which do not contain iron powder and
do not have appreciable proportions of ferroalloys,
because some loss of metal occurs through spatter and
evaporation in the arc. Values over 100% are obtained
when sufficient iron powder is incorporated in the flux
covering.
Weights of steel wires of various standard diameters
per metre length are given in engineering handbooks.
From these data, one can calculate the weight of say
400 mm length of 4 mm diameter wire, which is the
length of core wire that is melted from one electrode, 4
x 450 mm long, after allowing for 50 mm stub length. If
this weight is X, and the DE of the electrode is 90%, the
weight of weld deposit yielded by the electrode is X x
0.90. If the DE is 120%, the weight would be X x 1.20.
Knowing the weight of weld-metal required to fill a
joint and the weight of weld-metal deposited by one
electrode, the total number of electrodes required for
the joint can be estimated by using simple arithmetic.
Where repetitive welding jobs are carried out in a
shop, it is easy to collect data for such jobs through
workshop experiments and job record cards. For
example, a firm constantly engaged in girth welding
of cross-country pipelines can build up data for
different diameters and wall thicknesses of pipes.
It must be remembered that the data arrived at
through mathematical calculations and welding trials
can be proved wrong in actual practice for the following
reasons:
a) Variations in the dimensions prescribed for joint
preparation
Even small departures from prescribed dimen-
sions in edge preparation or fit-up lead to significant
increases in the volume of weld-metal required for the
joint. For example, an increase of 3° in the 60° included
angle in a Vee leads to an increase of 5% in cross-section.
b) Inaccurate fit-up
In this case also, small departures from prescribed
dimensions result in large increases in cross-section.
For example, an increase of root gap from 0.5 to 1.5
mm in a 60°-V butt joint of 10 mm size results in 16%
increase in the cross-section of the weld joint
c) Variable weld shrinkages and weld reinforcements
In certain forms of joints, the shrinkage of the weld-
metal on cooling causes a decrease in the volume of
the joint and thereby a decrease in the consumption of
electrodes. In data tables, it may be that the average
shrinkage of joint is already accounted for. However,
there can be fluctuations in shrinkages and the
corresponding volume changes due to varying
contraction stresses exerted on the sections being joined
and these can cause departures within wide limits from
average shrinkage referred to above.
Above all, in tee joints, corner joints and I-joints
as well as in multi-pass V- and X-joints, more or less
weld reinforcement or convexity cannot be avoided.
This factor is also accounted for in data tables. However,
the amount of weld reinforcement or convexity
depends to a large extent on the skill of the welder,
 WELDING C08T8 AND ECONOMICS 611

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612 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
and so, especially in thin plates, there can be wide
departures from the values given in the tables.
d) Use of excessive current
The welder may use excessive current, due to
which the spatter loss increases and the DE of the
electrode is lowered.
e) Stubs too long
The welder may for various reasons such as
premature overheating of the electrode due to excessive
current, carelessness and inaccessibility of the joint,
discard stubs longer than 50 mm and thereby obtain
less weld-metal per electrode.
Arc Time
Arc time is pure welding time required to melt the
quantity of electrodes necessary for completing a
certain joint. To find this, one multiplies the number of
electrodes required for the joint by the melting time
per electrode. The melting time must of course be
determined for every type of electrode used and for
every diameter of electrode used, because each of these
has a different melting time. The melting time per
electrode depends on the welding current used. Widely
varying welding currents are used in a shop depending
on the conditions. When one wants to work accurately,
it is r e c o m m e n d e d that one carries out tests to
determine welding times for each electrode type and
diameter for current conditions used in one's own shop.
The pure welding time obtained by multiplying the
number of electrodes by the melting time per electrode
is exclusive of the time required for slag removal,
changing of electrode, setting up of the job, and other
incidental but unavoidable operations. For arriving at
the total welding time, which includes all other time-
consuming operations, there are two possible methods:
a) The accurate method consists of conducting time
studies to find out incidental time expenditure in
welding.
b) A less accurate method but which fully satisfies
the requirements of estimation work, takes into
account the incidental time expenditure by mul-
tiplying the pure welding time by a so-called
weld time factor.
Weld time factor can be determined by noting the
number of electrodes a welder consumes in a shift of
eight h o u r s (480 min) a n d the melting time per
electrode. For example, if 80 pieces are consumed in a
shift and the melting time per electrode is 1.5 min, the
total arc time amounts to 120 min, and the weld time
factor is 480:120 = 4.0. If 100 pieces consumed, the weld
time factor is 480:150 = 3.2.
The ratio between pure arc time and total welding
time is sometimes expressed as a percentage and
referred to as operator factor (O.F.). In the above
example, when 80 pieces are consumed in a shift, O.F.
is 25% and when 100 pieces are burnt, O.F. is 150 xl00/
480= 31.25%.
In manual welding, 100% O.F. can never be reached
for obvious reasons. A 60% O.F. can be maintained in
straight welds in the flat position, provided the setting
up of the joint, positioning, precleaning, etc., are
prearranged for the welder. 60% O. F. is considered
excellent, 40% is considered good, while 25% is
considered average. It is possible to reach higher O.F.
figures in semi-automatic welding, and still higher in
fully-automatic welding.
Current Consumption
This refers to the cost of electrical power used for
arc welding. The following equations help to calculate
this cost: f
Welding amps x arc voltage/1,000 = Arc kilowatts
Arc kilowatts/% efficiency at arc voltage = Input kilo-
watts
Input kilowatts x rate for kwh = Power cost per hour
Power cost per hour/metre length of weld deposited
in one arc hour = Power cost per metre
Power cost per h o u r / N o . of electrodes consumed in
one arc hour = Power cost per electrode.
Labour Cost
Direct labour cost of welding usually covers the
wages of the welder and the helper who helps setting
u p the job, precleaning, etc. From the n u m b e r of
electrodes consumed by a welder during a shift, the
total weight of weld-metal deposited can be calculated.
The combined daily wages of the welder and his helper
divided by the weight of wreld-metal gives the labour
cost per kg of weld-metal.
Overhead Cost
Overheads cover all the costs involved in shop
m a n a g e m e n t . They may i n c l u d e the costs of
s u p e r v i s i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e services, e q u i p m e n t
depreciation and repair, cost of cleaning and lighting,
etc. Overheads may in some cases even include the total
electric bill including welding power costs. For easy
calculation, the relation between labour cost and
overhead cost is determined and the resultant factor is
used for calculating overhead costs. In an average shop,
the overhead cost may be three to five times the labour
cost.

Thus the final cost of 1 kg of weld-metal of an
electrode consists of the following individual costs:
1) Cost of electrode per kg of weld-metal
2) Labour and overhead costs per kg of weld-metal
3) Power cost per kg of weld-metal
4) Equipment cost per kg of weld-metal.
Items 3 and 4 together normally a m o u n t to a
maximum of 10% of the total costs. In most cases,
therefore, it suffices to compare the cost of electrode
and the labour and overhead costs involved in its use
to judge the economics of various types of electrodes.
Economical Evaluation
In selecting an electrode for a welding job, all that a
consumer usually does is to find an electrode whose
performance characteristics appeal to the established
taste of his welder, which is suitable for welding in the
various positions as required by the job and whose
weld-metal meets the quality requirements dictated by
the specification. If need be, he also compares the list
prices of the electrodes in question and finally decides
on the cheapest electrode, thinking that he has chosen
the most economical one.
Here we w o u l d like to point out that it is an
exceedingly short-sighted policy to judge the economics
of an electrode by looking at its list price.
On an average, every rupee spent on welding costs
can be broken down into four categories as follows
(based on German conditions):
25 paise on electrodes
6 paise on electric power
4 paise on equipment cost
65 paise on labour cost and overheads.
From these figures, it is evident that the most effec-
tive means of reducing the total welding costs are avail-
able in the item of labour cost and overheads. Labour
cost and overheads can be lowered by reducing weld-
ing time. This can be achieved by the following means:
1) Choosing the right electrode and the right
sizes, where one must give careful consider-
ation to new electrode development like deep
penetration electrodes and high deposition effi-
ciency electrodes of the iron powder type.
2) Training welders in the use of newer electrode
types: making their jobs easier and increasing
their efficiency by installing suitable positioners
and manipulators.
3) Choosing the most economical form and dimen-
sions of the joint.
WELDING COSTS AND ECONOMICS 613
4) Maintaining accurately the chosen joint design
during preparation of joint edges and fit-up.
5) 100% inspection of welding with the aim of elimi-
nating completely defective or unacceptable
welding.
Very often, by going in for a more expensive
electrode, one can eventually bring down the total
welding costs. For example, paying 40% more for an
electrode becomes an economical proposition, if
because of its faster melting rate and higher deposition
efficiency, the labour and overhead costs can be lowered
by at least 16% when compared with the normal
inexpensive of electrode.
Oerlikon System Of Estimation
This system, prepared by Oerlikon Elektrodenfabrik
Eisenberg GmbH of West Germany, is explained fully
in Ador Welding's Welding Handbook. It has been
prepared specially for the designing and planning
engineer to help him specify the appropriate electrode
and welding procedure and also to help him estimate
the cost of electrodes and welding to complete a job.
The data will also help him to ensure that the job is
carried out most economically. It contains a large
number of tables which provide the data that could be
used for preparing estimates, and these data have been
arrived at through methematical calculations and
welding experiments.
The tables in the first section contain data for
effective standard electrode requirements per metre
length of weld for various forms of joints and welding
positions. An effective standard electrode means an
electrode having 100% deposition efficiency and 50
mm long discarded stub. In the case of 3.15, 4.0 and
5.0 mm diameter electrodes, the effective standard
electrode is assumed to have a normal length of 450
mm. In the case of 2.5 and 2.0 mm diameter electrodes,
the normal electrode length is taken to be 350 mm,
and in case of 1.5 mm size, the normal length is 250
mm.
Since electrodes in actual use can be of abnormal
lengths, can have different deposition efficiencies, and
since stub ends other than 50 mm length are common
in shops, tables have been provided for (1) correction
factor to account for deposition efficiency, (2) correc-
tion factor to account for stub ends, and (3) correction
factor to account for abnormal electrode lengths.
The second section gives the following data on
the Ador Welding range of mild steel and low-alloy
steel electrodes:
 Table 15.3: Theoretical weight off metal in 1 metre long V-joint (gram)
Plate
thickness 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Root gap Root gap Root gap
(mm) 1 mm 1.5 m m 2mm
4 86 102 117 133 157 102 177 125 149 172 117 133 141 169 180
5 125 149 172 204 235 141 165 188 212 251 164 188 212 235 274
6 180 212 242 282 329 204 227 266 306 352 227 251 290 330 376
6.35 180 227 266 305 360 220 258 298 336 385 251 282 321 369 415
7 243 274 321 376 430 258 305 352 400 462 290 329 376 430 495
8 290 352 415 479 555 330 384 446 510 590 360 415 478 540 620
9 360 430 510 595 695 400 470 550 635 730 430 510 580 675 770
9.5 400 477 565 660 775 430 518 605 700 815 470 555 650 738 855
10 440 531 630 735 860 478 571 665 775 900 518 611 705 815 940
Root gap Root gap Root gap
1.5 mm 2mm 3m m
11 565 675 790 920 1,070 611 720 840 970 1,120 700 810 930 1,060 1,210
12 665 790 930 1,080 1,260 713 840 980 1,140 1,320 810 930 1,070 1,230 1,410
12.7 738 890 1,030 1,210 1,410 795 935 1,080 1,260 1,470 890 1,030 1,180 1,360 1,570
14 880 1,050 1,240 1,450 1,700 940 1,110 1,290 1,510 1,760 1,050 1,220 1,400 1,620 1,870
15 1,000 1,190 1,410 1,660 1,940 1,060 1,250 1,470 1,720 2,000 1,180 1,370 1,600 1,840 2,120
16 1,120 1,340 1,600 1,860 2,180 1,160 1,410 1,650 1,940 2,250 1,310 1,540 1,780 2,060 2,380
17 1,260 1,510 1,800 2,100 2,470 1,330 1,580 1,850 2,170 2,540 1,450 1,710 1,980 2,300 2,670
18 1,400 1,680 2,000 2,360 2,770 1,470 1,750 2,060 2,420 2,820 1,610 1,890 2,200 2,560 2,960
19 1,550 1,850 2,200 2,600 3,050 1,620 1,930 2,280 2,670 3,130 1,770 2,080 2,430 2,820 3,270
20 1,700 2,050 2,430 2,870 3,360 1,780 2,120 2,510 2,950 3,450 1,940 2,290 2,660 3,100 3,600
The theoretical weight of metal refers to tlie weld-metal necessary to fill up the theoretical cross-section of the joint. It does not take weld reinforcement and weld shrinkage into account.
 Table 15.4: Theoretical weight of metal in 1 metr# long X-jckrt (gram)
Plate
thickness 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Root gap ]Root gap> Root gap
(mm) 1 mmi 1.5 mm 2mm

8 172 204 234 266 314 204 234 250 298 344 234 266 282 338 360
10 250 298 344 408 470 282 330 379 424 502 328 376 424 470 550
12 360 424 484 564 658 408 454 532 612 704 454 502 580 660 750
12.7 376 454 532 610 720 440 516 596 672 770 502 564 642 738 830
14 486 548 642 750 860 516 610 704 800 924 580 658 750 860 990
16 580 704 830 958 1,110 660 768 892 1,020 1,180 720 830 956 1,080 1,240
18 720 860 1,020 1,190 1,390 800 940 1,100 1,270 1,460 860 1,020 1,160 1,350 1,540
19 800 954 1,130 1,320 1,550 860 1,036 1,210 1,400 1,630 940 1,110 1,300 1,476 1,710
20 880 1,062 1,260 1,470 1,720 956 1,142 1,330 1,550 1,800 1,036 1,222 1,410 1,630 1,880
Root gap> Root gap Root gap
1.5 mm 2mm 3 mm
22 1.130 1.350 1.580 1.840 2.140 1.222 1.440 1.680 1.940 2.240 1.400 1.620 1.860 2.120 2.420
24 1,330 1,580 1,860 2,160 2,520 1,426 1,680 1,960 2,280 2,640 1,620 1,860 2,140 2,460 2,820
25.4 1,476 1,780 2,060 2,420 2,820 1,590 1,870 2,160 2,520 2,940 1,780 2,060 2,360 2,720 3,140
28 1,760 2,100 2,480 2,900 3,400 1,880 2,220 2,580 3,020 3,520 2,100 2,440 2,800 3,240 3,780
30 2,000 2,380 2,820 3,320 3,880 2,120 2,500 2,940 3,440 4,000 2,360 2,740 3,200 3,680 4,240
32 2,240 2,680 3,200 3,720 4,360 2,320 2,820 3,300 3,380 4,500 2,620 3,080 3,560 4,120 4,760 m
34 2,520 3,020 3,600 4,200 4,940 2,660 3,160 3,700 4,340 5,080 2,900 3,420 3,960 4,600 5,340 5
36 2,800 3,360 4,000 4,720 5,540 2,940 3,500 4„120 4,840 5,640 3,220 3,780 4,400 5,120 5,920
38 3,100 3,700 4,400 5,200 6,100 3,240 3,860 4,560 5,340 6,260 3,540 4,160 4,860 5,640 6,540 O
O
40 3,400 4,100 4,860 5,740 6,720 3,560 4,240 5,020 5,900 6,900 3,880 4,580 5,320 6,200 7,200
CO
The theoretical necessary tofillup the theoretical cross-section
weight of metal refers to the weld-metal of the joint. It does not take weld reinforcement and weld shrinkage into account.
>
z
o
616 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
a) Melting-off and deposition efficiency values and
correction factors to account for deposition effi-
ciency
b) Average welding currents
c) Pure melting time per electrode
d) Weld-metal yield per electrode
e) Electric power consumption per electrode
f) Weld-length coefficient: By this term is meant the
ratio of length of weld-pass obtained with an
electrode to the length of the electrode.
The maximum weld-length coefficient characterises
the maximum speed of arc travel, at which the slag can
still flow evenly with the weld-metal and which can
still guarantee an acceptable and clean welded joint.
By multiplying the electrode length by the maximum
weld-length coefficient, one arrives at the maximum
obtainable length of weld of an electrode.
The minimum weld-length coefficient refers to the
minimum speed of arc travel, at which one can still
avoid the slag running ahead of the arc. This is also a
measure of the possibility of weaving an electrode
during welding. By multiplying the electrode length
with the minimum weld-length coefficient, one arrives
at the m i n i m u m obtainable length of weld of an
electrode.
Numerically, the maximum weld-length coefficient
lies in most cases between 0.50 and 2.5. The minimum
weld-length coefficient lies in most cases between 0.10
and 0.50.
The m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m w e l d - l e n g t h
coefficients depend not only on the type of electrode
and its diameter, but also on the welding position, type
of joint and the welding current. This must be borne in
mind for comparing two types of electrodes.
The third section contains tables for the stub-length
and electrode length correction factors stated above. It
also contains the following tables:
Table 15.5: Basic data of two electrode types
Electrode Price per
_ kg. incl.
Type Size excise
mm (Rs.)
E6013 3.2 x 450 146.2
E 6013 6.3 x450 121.8
E 7018 3.2 x 450 133.4
E 7018 6.3 x 450 109.0
1) Ratio of electrode consumption by weight to the
total weight of welded fabrication based on ex-
perience.
2) Values of weld time factor based on experience
3) Theoretical weight of metal in a V-joint
4) Theoretical weight of metal in an X-joint.
The last two are reproduced in Tables 15.3 and 15.4.
They are somewhat similar to Table 15.2 and are equally
useful for the estimation of electrodes.
The Handbook finally gives typical examples of
application of the data for estimating the quantity of
electrodes and the total welding costs.
Calculation of Welding Cost: Typical Indicative
Examples
1) Manual electrodes
For comparison, we have calculated the costs of 3.15
mm and 6.3 mm diameter of E 6013 class electrodes
and of the same sizes of E 7018 class electrodes. The
basic data of these four types required for cost
calculation are given in Table 15.5.
We have assumed the arc time factor to be 25%, i.e.
the arc is in action for 120 min in an eight-hour shift.
Welding labour cost per shift is taken as Rs. 250, which
is the average combined daily wage of the welder and
his helper. The welding overhead cost is assumed to be
300% of the labour cost. The cost figures are shown in
Table 15.6.
The results show that it is economical to use the
largest size of electrode possible, and secondly, that high
deposition efficiency electrodes give lower overall
welding costs though they appear more expensive in
the price list.
C0 2 welding wires
Here we shall take up the commonly used wires of
1.2 and 1.6 mm diameter. The 1.2 mm wire used at 275
amp gives a deposition rate of 4 kg/arc hour, while the
1.6 mm wire used at 375 amp gives a deposition rate of
Deposition Melting Wt. of weld
efficiency time per deposit per
(%) electrode kg. of electrode
(Mts.) (gms)
55.0 1.5 550
55.0 2.0 550
60.0 1.5 600
60.0 2.0 600
 WELDING COSTS AND ECONOMICS 617

Table 15.6: Cost figures of two electrode types

Elecltrode Kg of Cost Wt. of Weld-metal cost per kg
electrodes of the weld-metal
Type Size consumed electrodes deposited Material Labour Overhead Total cost
(mm) in the shift (Rs.) (gm) cost (Rs.) cost (Rs.) cost (Rs.) (Rs.)

E6013 3.2 x 450 3.1 449.6 1691.8 265.7 147.8 443.3 856.8
E6013 6.3 x 450 10.6 1291.7 5832.8 221.5 42.9 128.6 392.9
E7018 3.2 x 450 3.2 420.2 1890.0 222.3 132.3 396.8 751.4
E7018 6.3 x 450 9.6 1046.8 5760.0 181.7 43.4 130.2 355.3

5.5 kg/arc hour. The average arc time factor for the
MIG/C0 2 semi-automatic process is 40%, which means
that in an eight hour shift, the arc is in action for 192
min. Hence the total weld deposit in the shift with 1.2
mm wire is 12.8 kg, and with 1.6 mm wire it is 17.6 kg.
In C 0 2 welding, 10% of the filler wire is lost in the form
of spatter, which means that the deposition efficiency
of the process is 90%. Making allowance for this and
assuming the welding labour cost of Rs. 300 per shift
(Rs. 200 for the welder and Rs. 100 for the helper) and
the welding overhead cost as 300% of the labour cost,
the total costs can be calculated as in Table 15.7. In this
costing, the cost of carbon dioxide gas is not included.
SA Flux:Wire Combination
Here we take two typical wire sizes: 2.5 and 4 mm.
The 2.5 mm wire used at 400 amp gives a deposition
per shift are assumed to be the same as for C 0 2 welding.
The cost of flux has also to be included in the costing.
Economics Of Welding
The overall economics of a welded fabrication
depends to a large extent on the efficient use of welding.
This demands proper care of welding consumables in
storage and use, and avoiding indiscriminate use of
weld-metal, which is a very costly item as shown by
the above cost figures.
CARE OF CONSUMABLES
Fabricating shops and construction projects are often
compelled to maintain stocks of consumables for six
months to two years. Long and careless storage under
humid conditions make them unusable or usable only
after p r o p e r rebaking. One often comes across

Table 15.7: Cost figures for C02, welding

co2 Kg Price per Cost of the Wt. of Weld-metal cost per kg
wire dia of wire kg. incl. electrode weld
(mm) consumed excise deposited Material Labour Overhead Total
in the (gm) cost cost cost. cost
shift (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
1.2 10.0 69.6 696.0 9000.0 77.3 27.8 83.3 188.4
1.6 12.5 67.3 841.0 11250.0 74.8 22.2 66.7 163.6
The cost details are given in Table 15.8.

rate of 5.4 kg/arc hour, while the 4 mm wire gives a
value of 10 kg/arc hour at 750 Amps. The average arc
time factor for the fully-automatic SA process is 50%,
which means that the arc is in action for four hours in
an eight-hour shift. Hence the total weld deposit in a
shift for 2.5 mm wire is 21.6 kg and for 4 mm wire it is
40 kg. The deposition efficiency of the process is 100%,
which means that the material cost of the weld-metal is
the same as that of the wire. The consumption ratio of
flux:wire is usually 1:1. The labour and overhead costs
consumable supplies d a m a g e d beyond repair in
storage. Sometimes they are wrongly or inadequately
baked at the user's end, resulting in their unsatisfactory
performance.
C o n s u m a b l e p r o d u c e r s s u p p l y guidelines for
storage, reconditioning and handling of their products.
These m u s t be asked for a n d i m p l e m e n t e d .
Consumables must be stored in a special room which is
either kept heated to 10-15°C above the ambient
temperature or dehumidified. For redrying, electric
618 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 15.8: Cost figures for SAW

SAW wire kg of kg of Price per kg Price per kg Cost of Wt. of weld Weld-metal cost per kg
dia wire flux of wire incl. of flux incl. consumable metal Matl. Labour Overhead Total
(mm) consumed consumed excise excise deposited cost cost cost cost
in a shift in a shift (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)

2.4 13.0 15.0 84.7 62.6 2040.4 13000.0 157.0 19.2 575 233.9
4.0 20.0 22.0 78.9 62.6 2955.7 20000.0 147.8 12.5 37.5 197.8

ovens of s t a n d a r d design m u s t be u s e d a n d possible use of back-ups and deep penetration

m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s instructions correctly applied.
P r o c e d u r e s for storing and r e d r y i n g of w e l d i n g
consumables are explained in earlier chapters on
welding processes.
A substantial wastage of manual electrodes occurs
through stub loss. The discarded stub length should
never exceed 50 mm. It is common to see stubs of 100 to
150 mm length thrown around on the shop floor. What
a colossal waste. This usually happens because the
welder uses very high current (200 amp for 4 m m
diameter) to speed up his work, whereby the electrode
gels prematurely overheated. To solve this problem the
welder may be given a larger diameter electrode, say 5
mm size in place of 4 mm. Some welders bend the
electrode, before starting to weld. This wasteful habit
must be discouraged.
DESIGNER'S RESPONSIBILITY
The designer's role in ensuring economical welding
has been discussed in detail in Chapter 17. The designer
can effect considerable saving in weld-metal by:
a) Specifying minimum joint thicknesses through
use of higher tensile materials.
b) Incorporating minimum number of joints in a
structure by using the following forming meth-
ods:
i) Press brake
ii) Bending rolls
iii) Roll-forming
iv) Tangent-bending and contour-bending
v) Flanging and dishing
vi) Press-die forming and drawing.
c) Specifying correct size of weld through use of
standard codes (example: AWS structural code,
AWS Bridge code, ASME pressure vessel code).
d) Specifying most economical joint preparation and
fit-up (type of joint, included angle, root gap and
technique). These have been elaborated in the
earlier chapters while describing welding proce-
dures.
e) Specifying intermittent fillet welds in place of
continuous weld under light-load or no-load con-
ditions (for example, stiffeners or diaphragms do
not need much welding).
Even after a most economical design is m a d e
available by the designer, the shop can undo it by
inefficient or careless implementation through incorrect
edge preparation, bad fit-up and overwelding. It must
be borne in mind that control of cost as well as quality
is a mutual concern of both designer and production
manager. The designer must be aware of what goes on
in the shop, and the production manager must pass on
his problems and experiences to the designer.
AT SHOP LEVEL
Everyone is aware that weld-metal is very expensive
and must be used judiciously. But few realise that more
weld-metal means more distortion, and the best way of
controlling distortion is to use least amount of weld-
metal.
Overwelding commonly occurs in fillet welds,
because fillet weld sizes are left to the discretion of the
welder. Fabricators are rarely conscious of the fact that
a small increase in fillet size results in an enormous
increase in the weight of weld-metal. Some idea of the
wastage of weld-metal incurred can be seen from the
graph in Fig. 15.2. For example, increasing the weld size
from 6 mm to 8 mm means 84% extra weld-metal.
Fillet weld sizes should be carefully specified by the
designer and strictly controlled during fabrication by
using fillet g a u g e s a n d s t a n d a r d i s e d w e l d i n g
procedures.
In butt joints, the type of joint and mode of edge
preparation determine the amount of weld-metal and
distortion. In single-sided preparation, the welding is
not balanced about the neutral axis of the plate, and
 WELDING COSTS AND ECONOMICS 6 1 9

metal consumption and distortion to the minimum. The

narrow-gap welding procedures have been described
in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.
The weld sizes specified by the designer in the
drawing are expected to have a built-in safety factor.
Yet shop people and welders resort to overwelding
under the mistaken impression that a joint becomes
stronger. Overwelding increases cost as well as locked-
up stresses and distortion.
Overwelding occurs due to the following reasons:
1) Heavy reinforcement is provided on the butt weld
FUlet size, mm 2) Fillet weld size is unnecessarily increased
Fig. 15.2: Effect of using 8 mm fillet instead of 6 mm 3) Fillet weld has high convexity
fillet 4) Fillet weld has unequal leg length.
These have been illustrated in Fig. 15.4.
angular distortion increases with plate thickness. In In butt welds, the conventional practice is to fill the
plate thicknesses above 12 mm, double-sided V-groove from one side, gouge out the root from the
preparations are economical, because of the saving in second side and deposit one or more filling passes in
weld-metal. At thicknesses above approximately 40 mm, the root groove from the second side.
a double-U preparation may achieve sufficient saving Root gouging and deposition of weld-metal at the
in weld-metal to justify additional machining costs. root can be avoided by using permanent or temporary
Figure 15.3 shows the relationship between joint type/ backing bars to support the metal at the root. Temporary
size and the weight of weld-metal required to fill it. backings are usually made of copper. They may be
The latest trend is to use narrow-gap SA, TIG and water-cooled if a long heavy weld is being deposited.
MIG welding of heavy sections in order to reduce weld- They can have a groove to provide weld reinforcement
at the bottom.
Various backing techniques and procedures are
described in the earlier chapters on welding processes
in the sections of welding procedures.
S 3 US DC DQ
smgie-y singie-u double-v cbubie-u
The deep penetration technique has been explained
in some of the earlier chapters. In this technique, an

(A) Extra reinforcement

in butt weld

Over- Fitlet
convexity oversize
(B)

o.
in fillet

Useless extra
(C) metal due 7to
unequal teg
10 20 30 10 50 60 70 80 90 length
Thickness of material, mm

Fig. 15.3: Effect of edge preparation on

weight of weld-metal Fig. 15.4: Examples of overwelding
620 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
appreciable portion of the weld-metal in the joint is
provided by the fused base metal. Thus, this is the
simplest and most effective method of saving weld-
metal.
Using this technique, a fillet weld is made in which
there is appreciable penetration beyond the root. The
effective throat of the weld then equals the fillet throat
plus the depth of penetration. The fillet size can thus
be reduced, resulting in considerable saving of weld-
metal [see Fig. 15.5 (A)].
With this technique a butt weld is made with square
edge preparation and a small root gap, depositing one
pass from each side. The technique not only saves weld-
metal but also saves the cost of bevelling, root gouging
and deposition of a sealing pass [see Fig. 15.5 (B)].
Specially designed manual electrodes are available,
which can butt weld joint thicknesses up to 12 mm by
this technique. The submerged arc welding process is
ideally suited for d e e p p e n e t r a t i o n w e l d i n g .
Thicknesses up to 25 mm can be easily welded with
single wire, while with twin-wire technique and partial
bevelling, a 38 mm thick joint can be completed in three
passes [see Fig. 15.5 (C)].
Fig. 15.5: Deep penetration techniques: (A) x = fillet throat, the physical exertion involved. Yet it can be as high as
y = pen, beyond root, effective throat = x+ y; (B) Two- 60% and as low as 20% depending on the type of work,
pass weld in a square butt joint; (C) Three-pass weld in the speed with which the job is delivered to the welder,
partial bevelled butt joint with twin-wire SA process
The use of positioning equipment which reduces
overhead and vertical welding to downhand welding,
results in lower costs where the welds are of sufficient
size and length and the work is of such a nature that it
can be positioned. Welding positioners are widely in
use in productivity-conscious shops, and they make
significant i m p r o v e m e n t s in welding output and
quality in p r o d u c t i o n w e l d i n g . They have been
described in Chapter 20.
In vertical and overhead welding, there is always a
tendency for the liquid metal to fall down by gravity
and though the slag characteristics of the coating may,
to a certain extent, control the tendency, it is the freezing
of the metal against the base metal which prevents it
from dripping. This condition p u t s a limit to the
amount of heat generated at the joint, and consequently,
to the size of the electrode and the amount of molten
metal which can be deposited within a certain time. It
has been demonstrated that in making a 9.5 mm fillet
weld, the welding speed is 0.140 min per 25 mm in the
flat position, 0.231 min per 25 mm in the horizontal
position and 0.412 min per 25 m m in the overhead
position. It can be deduced from these values that if
the costs are taken as 100% in the flat position, they
rise to 165% in the horizontal and to 294% in the
overhead positions.
Measurement of Productivity
Shops using arc welding continuously in their
production p r o g r a m m e can measure arc welding
productivity in terms of weld deposition rate and
operator factor.
Weld deposition rate means the weight of weld-
metal deposited per arc hour, usually expressed in k g /
hour. Operator factor (O. R), as explained earlier, is part
of the total work time in which the arc is in action, and
it is usually expressed as a percentage. It is obvious
that to achieve maximum production, both these factors
must be maintained at the highest level possible.
In manual welding, the largest diameter of electrode
and the highest welding current permissible for the job
must be used. Iron powder electrodes having high
deposition efficiencies must be preferred to normal
electrodes.
O.F. for manual welding is comparatively low,
because of the inherent drawbacks of this process such
as changing of electrode once every few minutes and
shop environment and whether production incentives

are given or not. O.F. well above 60% is attained by
experienced welders in making long continuous butt
or fillet welds in the downhand position. An average
figure for m o d e r a t e l y h e a v y a n d large w o r k is
approximately 40% in the U.S.A. and should be 30%
under Indian tropical conditions. Positional welding
will lower the O.F. because of the additional strain and
fatigue involved. Generally speaking, O.F. depends on
the type of structure, position of welding, the make-up
of the crew, and the experience and stamina of the
welder.
In manual welding, there are several insignificant-
looking factors which affect the O.F. in a given set-up.
For example, changing the electrode length from 450
to 350 mm lowers O.F. by anything between 3 and 5%,
because of the decrease in the duration of arc time
between interruptions and the consequent decrease of
the total arc time in a given period. Poor quality
accessories, uncomfortable stance during welding,
positional welding and bad joint fit-up also contribute
to the fall in the O.F. percentage.
How can one control the O.F. of a large number of
welders employed in a shop? Some of the firms in
foreign countries, especially shipyards, have installed
special electrical devices which measure up the total
arc time of every welder during his entire shift. Some
of these devices may work on the following principle:
A current relay is kept at the transformer end in the
secondary circuit. This relay has normally open contacts
which are connected in series with an electric clock of
the self-starting type. Each time the welder strikes the
electrode, the current relay operates and closes contacts
for the clock and records the time. At the end of the
day one can get total welding time directly from the
clock reading. Such devices not only help the
management to determine productivity, but also to
calculate the incentive bonus that may be paid to a
welder under an incentive system.
A simpler way of determining the O.F. from the
melting rate of the electrode and the n u m b e r of
electrodes consumed in a shift was explained earlier.
In this system, there is a loophole that the welder may
raise the welding current beyond the stipulate^ limit
and consume a larger quantity of electrodes in less total
time. In that event, his discarded stubs are likely to be
longer than 40 mm, because of the electrodes getting
prematurely red-hot. To prevent such an occurrence,
the number and lengths of stubs discarded by the
welder at the end of the shift must be checked. There is
also the possibility that the welder uses abnormally
high currents and at the same time consumes the entire
WELDING COSTS AND ECONOMICS 621
electrode (minus 40 mm stub) even when it is red hot,
thereby causing bad welds. This eventuality can be
controlled by checking the melting rate of the electrode
on the welder's holder from time to time, to make sure
that it has not fallen below 100 sec or whatever value
was originally fixed. Alternately, the actual welding
current may be checked with a tong ammeter.
In cold countries, manual welders can reach fairly
high weld deposition rates by using 6 mm heavy-coated
iron powder type electrodes at 400-500 amp. In tropical
countries like India, on the other hand, a welder finds
it difficult to use more than 300 Amps, under production
conditions. As the electrode size and welding amperage
increase beyond a certain limit, the O.F. percentage
tends to decrease.
Considering these shortcomings of the MMAW
process, our shops should look to M I G / C 0 2 and
submerged-arc processes for higher productivity. With
the M I G / C 0 2 process, O.F. of 40 to 50% can be easily
achieved, while with fully-automatic sumberged-arc
w e l d i n g , O.F. of well over 70% can be usually
maintained, because it is commonly used for making
long, continuous welds in the downhand or horizontal-
vertical position without interruption.
In the M I G / C 0 2 process, the wire diameters are
generally on the low side (2.4 mm down to 1.2 mm)
but even for small diameter wires, very high currents
can be used without the danger of overheating the wire,
because the electrical contact to the wire is hardly 20
mm away from the arc. This results in extremely high
current density and a penetrating arc. The wire-feed
rates are also extremely high (up to 18 metres per min)
and this factor leads to very high deposition rates. Also,
because of the penetrating arc and the ability of the
electrode to reach deep and narrow grooves, the butt
joint preparation can be suitably modified, needing less
weld-metal to complete the joint. In fillet welds also,
deep penetrations are obtainable. Root penetration of
at least 4 mm can be obtained at a welding speed of 50
c m / m i n compared to 1.5 mm penetration with a 6 mm
AWS E6024 class manual electrode used at a speed of
25 cm/min. This means that the visible fillet weld size
can be reduced as explained earlier.
As already pointed out in Chapter 4, the fully-
automatic submerged-arc process is highly economical
and gives highest productivity. H u m a n factor is
eliminated. Wires up to 6 mm diameter can be used
with currents up to 1,200 amp or even more. Because
of the very deep penetration given by the process, butt
welds up to 18.5 mm thickness can be made with square
edges and without any edge preparation with only two
622 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

passes, one on either side. Partial bevelling, narrower
grooves and wider root faces can be used for heavier
plates, resulting in least consumption of weld-metal and
least welding time. Here also, the joint can be completed
in two passes. Further economies achieved with
multiple wire SAW installations h a v e also been
highlighted in Chapter 4. For getting the best out of
this process, copper or flux backing device must be used
wherever possible, to eliminate the need for turning
over and welding on the second side, and jigs, fixtures
and manipulators which are properly integrated with
the welding equipment and the workpiece must be
devised.
It must be remembered that the high investment cost
of the SAW equipment and the comparatively higher
prices of consumables are justified only if O.F. of at least
50% is maintained. It has been estimated in the case of
a 12.5 mm fillet weld that by reducing the O.F. of SAW
from 50% to 12%, the cost of making the weld becomes
as high as with manual welding.
Table 15.9 gives weld deposition rates for various
arc welding processes worked out by a British authority.
The values of deposition rates have been corrected in
the last vertical column for assumed operator factors of
33% for manual metal-arc welding, 40% for semi-
automatic welding and 50% for fully-automatic welding.

Table 15.9: Deposition rates with various welding processes

Process Electrode Current Amps. , Probable

diameter amp deposition production
in (mm) rates deposition rates
kg/hour kg/hour

Manual welding
Mild steel general purpose rutile electrode 10 600 5.4 1.8
Mild steel general purpose rutile electrode 6 315 3 1.0
Rutile iron-powder electrode 6 400 5 1.66
Low-hydrogen rutile iron powder electrode 6 600 8 2.7
Semi-automatic welding
Gas-shielding bare-wire consumable electrode 2.5 450 6.8 2.7
Carbon dioxide shielded bare wire with magnetic flux 2.5 435 6 2.4
Carbon dioxide shielded flux-cored tubular electrode 2.5 425 6.3-9 2.5-3.6
Automatic welding
Gas-shielded bare wire 2.5 450 6.8 3.4
Submerged-arc (single-wire) 6 1,200 15 7.5
Parallel submerged-arc (2-wired): each 5 1,800 (total) 22.2 11.3
Submerged-arc (single-wire) 8 2,000 27.2 13.6
Multi-power submerged-arc (two wire and two
power sources): each 6 3,000 (total) 40.8 20.5
Continuous flux-covered electrode 8 1,000 10.4 5.2
Carbon-dioxide shielded continuous flux-covered electrode; 7 1,200 16 8

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ador Welding Welding Handbook.

The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, Sect. 12, by Lincoln Electric Co., U.S.A.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 3, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
Safety Requirements
in Arc Cutting
and Welding
ALL METAL cutting and welding operations which in-
volve the use of the electric arc as an intense source of
heat can harm the operator's eyes and skin, and are
potential health and fire hazards. The other potential
sources of fire in these operations are hot metal and its
flying particles, and stray arcs due to short-circuiting.
Further, electric welding and cutting processes expose
the welder to the danger of electric shock, and release
fumes, gases and dusts which can be potential health
hazards. It is imperative, therefore, that the shop man-
agement be fully aware of such hazards and adopt suit-
able measures for the safety and protection of person-
nel and property. Some of these measures are manda-
tory according to code requirements.
In purchasing the equipment, as much consideration
should be given to its safe operation as to cost,
availability and other factors. Standards have been
developed for most of the arc welding machines, and
they cover established practice in ratings, basis of
ratings, m e t h o d s of test and general m e t h o d s of
construction, which ensure safety during installation
and operation. Safety is assured by choosing equipment
complying with the relevant standard.
Construction
An AC arc w e l d i n g machine m u s t be a fully
assembled, compactly mounted unit of the air-cooled
or oil-cooled type. All its control apparatus must be
enclosed except for operating wheels, levers or handles.
Any arrangement for changing primary taps must be
enclosed with a cover, which is removable only with
tools. Panels or mountings for current-carrying parts
must be of suitable insulating material. Input terminals
must be totally enclosed and accessible only by means
of tools. The primary side of the welding machine
should be provided with suitable wire terminals inside
the machine case, for the connection of conductors of
at least the minimum size required, corresponding to
the rating of the welding machine. Output (welding)
terminals must be such that no current-carrying parts
can make accidental contact. A disconnecting switch
must be provided at or near the machine, if such a
switch is not mounted as an integral part of the welding
machine. All terminal connections, tap connections and
control must be clearly marked to designate their
purpose and correct usage.
In the case of a motor generator set, a suitable motor
starter of the hand or magnetic type, having an ampere
rating equal to the ampere rating of the motor, must be
used. It must be mounted integrally with the motor
generator and connected to operate the motor, and
should be capable of interrupting stalled rotor current
of the motor. The starter must have overload and low-
voltage protection incorporated. All parts of the motor
and generator equipment must be suitably enclosed and
protected to meet the normal service conditions.
Neither terminal of the welding generator must be
bonded to the frame of the welding machine.
Type of machine Voltage max. V
a) Single-operator, DC welding machines 100
b) Constant-voltage, multiple-operator,
DC welding machines 75
c) AC welding machines 100
Open-circuit voltage (no-load voltage) of the arc
w e l d i n g m a c h i n e s should not exceed the above
624 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
mentioned limits to avoid the danger of electric shock
to the operator:
To avoid possible electric shock to welders working
on wet steel or in confined quarters where they may
sweat profusely, it is possible in the case of transformer-
type welding machines to provide reliable control
equipment to automatically reduce the no-load voltage.
Installation
Installation including power supply must conform
to the relevant Electricity Act. The frame or case of the
welding machine must be efficiently earthed. For
i n d i v i d u a l w e l d i n g machines, the rated current-
carrying capacity of the supply conductors should be
not less than the maximum primary current of the
welding machines. Welding current should preferably
be returned to the welding machine by a single cable
from the work to the welding machine. Connection of
a cable from the w e l d i n g machine to a c o m m o n
conductor or structure on which the work rests, or to
which the work is connected is also permitted. Pipelines
containing gases or inflammable liquids, or conduits
carrying electrical conductors should not be used for a
ground return circuit. Chain or wire rope should not
be used to carry welding current. All earth connections
m u s t be checked to m a k e sure that they are
mechanically strong and electrically adequate for the
required current.
Before commencing operation, all connections must
be checked to make sure that they are correctly made.
The work lead must not be loosely placed on the work
but must be firmly clamped to it. Work leads should be
as short as possible. The welding machine frame must
be grounded.
Operation
To avoid electric shock, the following precautions
must be taken:
a) Welders m u s t be explained the m e t h o d of
avoiding electric shock. Voltages required for arc-
welding are low and normally would not cause injury
or severe shock. Hence, parts having these voltages
are liable to be handled carelessly. These voltages are,
nevertheless, sufficiently high and u n d e r certain
circumstances may be dangerous to life. This danger
is particularly marked in very hot weather, when the
welder is sweaty or when he is wet. The welder must
develop the habit of always keeping his body insulated
from both the work and the metal electrode and holder.
He must always wear shoes and gloves. Particularly,
he must never permit the metal part of an electrode,
the electrode coverings, or any metal part of the
electrode holder to touch either his bare skin or any
wet coverings on his body. Consistent use of electrode
holders with well-insulated jaws, well-insulated cables,
dry protective coverings on the hands and body and
insulations from g r o u n d are helpful in avoiding
contact. It should never be assumed that because
contact with the electrode at one time is not harmful,
similar contacts at other times would also be harmless.
b) Electrodes must be removed from holders when
not in use to eliminate danger of electrical contact with
persons or conducting objects. Electrode holders when
not in use should be so placed that possibilities of
electrical contact b e t w e e n t h e m and persons or
conducting objects are eliminated.
c) Welders and welding supervisors must check their
equipment regularly to see that electrical connections
and insulation on the holders and cable are in good
order. Anything that appears unsafe must be promptly
reported to the proper authority, and use of such
equipment must be discontinued until its safety has been
assured. Repairs must be made only by qualified
personnel.
Maintenance
All e q u i p m e n t m u s t be subjected to periodic
inspection and maintained in safe working order at all
times. Instructions for the operation and maintenance
of equipment supplied by the manufacturer must be
strictly followed. When the welding operation is
stopped for an appreciable time, or when the machine
is to be shifted, the power supply switch of the machine
must be kept open. The machine should be disconnected
from the source of power when not in use. When used
in the open, the equipment must be protected from
inclement weather conditions. When not in use over a
period, it must be stored in a clean dry place.
Welding Accessories
All accessories used by the welder are meant to
ensure his safety and guard his health. They must,
therefore, meet certain minimum quality requirements
as laid down in IS: 2641-1989, "Specification for electrical
welding accessories" or similar standards.
Electrode holder: All parts passing through the portion
of the holder which the welder grips in his hand must
be fully insulated against the m a x i m u m voltage
encountered to ground. Where service conditions
demand, even the jaws which grip the electrodes must
be insulated. Holders must be sufficiently robust to
withstand the maximum welding current at maximum

duty cycle, without getting excessively overheated. The
dipping in w a t e r o f overheated holders, whether
connected or not, must never be permitted as the
retained moisture within the holder may cause an
electric shock.
Cables and connectors: Welding cables must conform
to standard requirements as specified, for example, in
IS:434 (Part 1)-1964. They must be completely insulated,
flexible and capable of handling the maximum current
used on the job, taking into account the duty cycle under
which the welder is working. Minimum cable sizes
required to carry various m a x i m u m currents are
specified in the above standard. The cable must be free
from repair or splices up to a minimum distance of 3 m
from the electrode holder.
When it becomes necessary to connect or splice
lengths of a cable, substantial insulated connectors of a
capacity at least equivalent to that of the cable, must be
used. If connections are effected by means of cable lugs,
then these should be securely fastened together by more
than one bolt to give good electrical contact. The
exposed metal parts of the lugs must be completely
insulated.
Head shield: These are meant to protect the eyes and
face of the welder from the heat and injurious rays
(infrared, visible and ultraviolet) generated by the
electric arc. They should, therefore, be constructed of
heat-resisting, non-ignitable material, which is also
impervious to the harmful rays. They should be light
for convenience in use, and strong to withstand rough
service. The minimum amount of metal must be used
in their construction, particularly on the outside of the
shield. For example, there should be no metal frame
for the glass either on the outside or on the inside; metal
rivets should not be used unless one end is covered by
an insulating material, as these may be the means of
causing electric shock.
Head shields should be fitted with an adjustable
band to fit the wearer's head, and this band must be
made from an insulating material. The sides of the
shield must be sufficiently large, so as to give protection
to the neck and side of the head. This is especially
important, where several welders weld near each other.
The handles must be made of a material which is a bad
conductor of both heat and electricity.
The window through which the operator views the
arc must be of the required shade No. The frame should
be such as to take protective glass with a piece of plain
glass fixed in front, facing the arc so that spatter from
the arc is intercepted by the plain glass, which may be
renewed from time to time. The protecting glass must
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 625
be fixed such that the arc is not visible through cracks
and chinks r o u n d the edges. Helmets should be
preferred to head shields for overhead welding and in
conditions where both hands of the welder must be free.
Goggles: They are meant (1) to protect the eyes of
persons, other than the welder, from the rays of an
electric arc, and (2) to protect the eyes of persons from
small flying pieces of slag while chipping it from the
weld. Goggles to protect the eyes from the injurious
rays must always be fitted with opaque side shields.
The glasses of the goggles should be of a suitable grade.
(Refer table on the next page). Alternately, the goggles
can be fitted with Crookes spectacle glass. However,
goggles fitted with this glass are suitable only for
protection w h e n the arc is not in the immediate
neighbourhood. Glasses of greenish neutral colour are
considered to afford the maximum protection for the
eyes. Goggles to protect the eyes from small flying
pieces or slag must be fitted with clean non-splinterable
glass, if there is no need to protect the wearer from rays
from the arc.
Screens: All electric welding operations must be
screened to prevent the rays of the arc from affecting
other persons working in the vicinity. Where the work
is done at fixed benches or in welding shops, permanent
screens should be erected, as far as practicable. Where
this is not possible, temporary screens must be used to
limit the radiation. All screens must be opaque, of sturdy
construction to withstand rough usage, and of material
which will not readily catch fire by sparks or hot metal.
Protective clothing: The main items u n d e r this
category are leather or asbestos gloves and flame-proof
aprons made of leather or asbestos. For heavy work,
fire-resistant leggings or high boots are used. In
production work, a sheet-metal screen may be placed
in front of the w e l d e r ' s legs to p r o v i d e further
protection against sparks, and against molten metal in
cutting operations. During overhead welding, caps or
shoulder covers made of leather should be worn. If
helmets are being used, leather skull caps may be worn
under them.
Now a days head-shields are also made available
with the capability of autofiltering the harmful Infrared
& Ultraviolet rays. They are coimbined with the solar
and LCD technology. That is the most advanced and
comfortable protection device available to work in the
most critical areas. The shade number is adjusted on
continuous basis from shade No. 9-to-13 within the
range of plus or minus one. An Optrel Solarmatic
Comfort is the popular brand in this advanced category
of head-shields.
626 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Welding Process Current Range Recommended

shade No.
S.M.A.W. / M.M.A.W. Up to 160 Amps. 10
// 160 to 250 " 11
250 to 500 " 12
G.M.A.W. / F.C.A.W. Up to 160 Amps. 11
n 160 to 250 " 12
n 250 to 500 " 14
G.T.A.W Up to 50 Amps. 10
n 50 to 100 " 12
II 150 to 500 " 14
Up to 500 Amps. 12
C.A.G. 500 to 1000 " 14
Light duty works 4
O.A.W. Med. " " 5
II
Heavy " " 8
O.A.C. Light " " 4
Med. " " 5
Heavy " " 6
Note: As a thumb rule, selection offilter glass begins with a shade No. that is too dark to see the weld. These values apply until weld
puddle is clearly seen to the welder.

Welding in Confined Spaces
Quite often a welder is called upon to cut or weld
inside an enclosed container with one or two small
openings. Since this operation is hazardous, special
precautions must be taken to ensure the welder's safety.
Firstly, adequate ventilation must be provided and
arrangement must be made to exhaust the fumes and
gases generated in the arc. In C0 2 -welding, considerable
amount of carbon dioxide can accumulate and being
heavy, it may not permit the ingress of fresh air unless
the C 0 2 is exhausted. The gas cylinders and welding
machines must be left on the outside. Where a welder
has to enter a confined space through a manhole or other
small opening, means must be provided for quickly
removing him in case of emergency. When safety belts
and life lines are used for this purpose, they should be
so attached to the welder's body that he is not jammed
in a small exit opening.
A welder is likely to sweat profusely inside the
container. In this condition, he becomes more susceptible
to electric shock. The welder must therefore use fully
insulated holders, and well-insulated gloves even while
inserting the electrode into the holder. When arc welding
is to be suspended for any substantial period of time,
such as during lunch hours or overnight, all electrodes
must be removed from the holders and the holders
carefully located, so that there is no possibility of
accidental contact. The machine should also be
disconnected from the power source.
HEALTH PROTECTION
Welding is considered a safe occupation, because the
incidence of occupational illnesses and diseases among
welders, as proved by clinical evidence, is not higher
than among other industrial workers. Yet, it must be
admitted that welders are exposed to potential hygienic
hazards associated with welding fumes and gases when
they work in ill-ventilated areas over a prolonged
period.
Shop management must be aware of such hazards,
and must provide safe and healthy working conditions
to their welders. The management must continuously
educate the welders as well as the supervisors in the
use of proper ventilation procedures, the use of safety
e q u i p m e n t , a n d the observance of safe w o r k i n g
practices. In addition, the management must ensure
t h a t their i n s t r u c t i o n s are b e i n g s c r u p u l o u s l y
followed.
Constant inhalation of certain constituents of
welding fume and gas over a period can be eventually

harmful to the lungs and other organs of the human
body. The ultimate toxicity of a constituent depends
primarily on its concentration and the physiological
response of the human body.
The constituents of welding fumes and gases are
either particulates or gases. Particulates get deposited
in the lungs; this condition is termed pneumoconioses.
Pneumoconiosis can be harmless or harmful depending
on whether the particular constituent is non-toxic or
toxic. The harmful ones can be fibrotic or non-fibrotic.
Examples of harmless pneumoconioses are:
1) Iron oxide: The deposition of iron oxide in the lungs
leads to a condition known as siderosis. Siderosis does
not cause disability. But siderosis can get complicated
by the inhalation of silica dusts to produce silicosis. The
latter is a serious respiratory disease. The differential
diagnosis between siderosis and silicosis is often diffi-
cult, because they may occur together.
2) Tin-oxide: The inhalation of tin-oxide dust over a
long period causes stannosis, which is considered to be
non-progressive and non-disabling.
3) Aluminium: The constant inhalation of aluminium,
its oxide and hydrate is considered harmless. In rare
cases, complication can arise from the presence of some
co-inhalant such as silica.
Examples of harmful pneumoconioses of the fibrotic
type are:
1) Silicon dioxide: As stated earlier, silicosis is caused
by the inhalation of finely divided silicon dioxide in the
free state, which may be in a crystalline form such as
quartz. The size of the offending silica particles is
important, because it determines the depth to which
these particles penetrate into the lung and in what
amounts they may be retained there. Silicosis may be
either acute or chronic. Most cases are chronic and take
years to develop.
2) Asbestos: Deposition of asbestos in the lung is
termed asbestosis. Prolonged inhalation of asbestos
fibres between 20 and 50 jam long may lead to a typical
pulmonary fibrosis, which may be accompanied by
severe respiratory disability.
3) Copper: Inhalation of copper fumes is known to
produce fibrosis in animal studies. In welders, it causes
symptoms of metal fume fever. In addition, it can
produce congestion of the nasal mucous membranes
and other complications. The condition is referred to as
copperosis.
An Example of harmful pneumoconioses of the non-
fibrotic type is:
Beryllium: Inhalation of beryllium dust or fume can
lead to an acute or chronic systematic disease,
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 627
depending on the extent of exposure and the nature of
the beryllium compound involved. The condition is
termed berylliosis.
Pulmonary Irritants and Toxic Inhalants
This covers a group of particulates contained in the
welding fume, which do not produce radiographic
changes in the lungs, but are pulmonary (i.e. pertaining
to the lungs) irritants or toxic inhalants. Their examples
are given below:
1) Cadmium: Inhalation of cadmium oxide during the
soldering, brazing or welding of cadmium-plated or
cadmium-containing parts can cause respiratory irrita-
tion with attendant sore, dry throat and a metallic taste
followed by cough, chest pain, and difficulty in breath-
ing. Bronchitis, pneumonitis, and pulmonary oedema
may occur as a result of irritative action of fume. Addi-
tional complaints of headache, dizziness, loss of appe-
tite, and weight loss may be pronounced. The liver, kid-
neys, and bone marrow may be injured by the presence
of the metal.
2) Chromium: Welding of certain chromium alloys can
produce chromium trioxide fume, which is often re-
ferred to as chromic acid. These fumes react with water
vapour to form chromic and dichromic acid. Contact
with these fumes can produce small, painless, cutane-
ous ulcers as well as dermatitis from primary irritation
or allergic hypersensitivity. Inhalation of these fumes
will produce bronchospasm, oedema and hypersecre-
tion, bronchitis, and a hyperreaction of the traches bron-
chial tree similar to asthma.
3) Lead: Inhalation of lead fumes causes lead poison-
ing, whose signs and symptoms may include abdomi-
nal pain with tenderness, constipation, headache, weak-
ness, muscular aches or cramps, loss of appetite, nau-
sea, vomiting, weight loss, anaemia with pallor, and a
lead line of the gingival margin.
4) Magnesium: The oxide fumes from magnesium can
produce metal fume fever, which may result in irrita-
tion to mucous membranes.
5) Manganese: The fumes from manganese are highly
toxic and they can produce total disablement even after
exposures as short as a few months to high fume con-
centrations, but disablement is more likely after pro-
longed and repeated exposures above 30 mg/m 3 . Such
exposure is usually caused by inhalation of manganese
dioxide dust.
6) Mercury: The welding of metals coated with
protective materials containing mercury compounds
will produce mercury vapours. Exposure to these
vapours may produce abdominal pain, vomiting,
628 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

diarrhea, gingivitis, p n e u m o n i t i s , renal (kidney) 3) Emphysema (loss of elasticity of the lung)

damage, and circulatory or respiratory failure. 4) Chronic bronchitis
7) Molybdenum: Little is known about the effect of
5) Asphyxiation.
Mo fumes on human beings, but animal studies have
indicated a low order of toxicity. The common toxic gases associated with welding are
8) Nickel: Nickel and its compounds are known to carbon m o n o x i d e , ozone a n d nitrogen dioxide.
be toxic and to induce cancer of the lungs and sinuses. Phosgene and phosphine which are produced by the
9) Titanium: Ti0 2 dust in high concentrations can pro- thermal decomposition of chlorinated hydrocarbon
duce irritation of the respiratory tract. In a few cases, cleaning agents a n d p h o s p h a t e metal coatings
slight fibrosis has been observed in human lungs after respectively, are also toxic. Carbon dioxide is harmless
long industrial exposure to this constituent, but with- but long exposure to high concentrations of this gas can
out any disabling injury. produce serious effects. The effects of these gases are
10) Vanadium: When Vanadium is present in the described below in detail.
welding wire, the welder is exposed to Vanadium pen- Carbon monoxide: In some welding processes, carbon
toxide, which is moderately hazardous. Effects of ex- dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide. In the case of
posure are chiefly severe irritation of the eyes, throat, carbon dioxide-shielded metal-arc welding, carbon
and respiratory tract resulting in conjunctivitis, nasal monoxide concentrations exceeding recommended
catarrh, irritation of throat (pharyngitis), bronchopneu- levels have been detected in the fumes near the arc;
monia, and mild chronic bronchitis. however, the concentration decreased rapidly with
11) Zinc: Zinc oxide fumes are formed during the distance from the arc. With adequate ventilation, the
welding, brazing, or cutting of galvanised metals. The carbon m o n o x i d e concentration in the w e l d e r ' s
inhalation of freshly formed fumes may produce a brief, breathing zone can be maintained at harmless levels.
self-limiting illness known variously as zinc chills, Because of its great affinity for haemoglobin, the
metal fume fever, brass chills, and brass founder's fe- concentration of carbon monoxide should be kept at a
ver. This condition is characterised by chills, fever, nau- low level.
sea, vomiting, muscular pain, dryness of mouth and Carbon dioxide: C 0 2 is not usually considered a toxic
throat, headache, fatigue, and weakness. There may gas. It is present in the atmosphere in a concentration
also be a slight leukocytosis. These signs and symp- of about 300 p p m and it is present in somewhat higher
toms usually abate in 12 to 24 hours with complete re- concentrations in occupied structures. The air in the
covery following. lungs contains about 5.5% of C0 2 . If the air one breathes
12) Fluorides: During welding with basic low-hydro- contains C0 2 , the concentration of carbon dioxide in
gen electrodes, the welder inhales fluoride fumes. Pro- the blood increases, and the individual is induced to
longed exposure to fluoride fumes can produce respi- breathe faster in an attempt to lower the concentration.
ratory track irritation manifested by chills, fever, dysp- H e a d a c h e s are s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v e d by p e r s o n s
nea, and cough. The particles are readily absorbed, and exposed to concentrations of carbon dioxide greater
promptly produce an increase in the urinary fluoride than 1%. After inhalation of 4 to 5% carbon dioxide,
excretion. When excessive amounts are inhaled, this the ability to hold o n e ' s breath is reduced quite
excretion lags behind the daily intake resulting in a significantly.
buildup of fluoride in the bones. If storage of fluorides Since C 0 2 is heavier than air, it tends to accumulate
continues over a sufficiently long period, the bones may in high concentrations in the lowermost part of an
show an increased radiographic density, and structural enclosed chamber or walled area. Because of this
abnormalities may eventually develop. tendency, care should be taken during the welding
within such structures to ensure that carbon dioxide
Effects of Toxic Gases does not dilute the air to the extent that it can act as an
Prolonged exposure to the various toxic gases asphyxiant.
generated during welding can produce one or more of
Ozone: Ozone is formed by electrical arcs and corona
the following effects:
discharges in air or by ultraviolet photochemical
1) Inflammation of the lung (chemical pneumoni-
reactions. The inhalation of 1 to 2 p p m of ozone for two
tis)
hours produces headache, pain in the chest, and dryness
2) Pulmonary oedema (swelling and accumulation of the upper respiratory track. Welders who have had a
of fluids) severe acute exposure at an estimated 9 ppm of ozone
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 629

plus other air pollutants developed pulmonary oedema silicon and manganese. They also contain an
(i.e. presence of fluid in the lungs). appreciable concentration of fluorides.
Nitrogen dioxide: This gas is very irritating to the eyes When galvanised sheets are welded, the resulting
and mucous membranes. Exposure to high concen- fumes have been found to contain up to 65% ZnO, and
trations may produce immediate coughing and chest lesser amounts of Fe203 Ti02, Si02 and Mn0 2 .
pain. A study has shown that the amount of nitrogen
Phosgene: Inhalation of this gas will produce contact dioxide evolved per electrode varies between 15 and
dermatitis from primary irritation. Inhalation in high 980 mg. The data indicate that the N0 2 content increases
concentrations will produce pulmonary oedema. with increasing electrode size and current. The volume
Phosphine: This gas in high concentration is irritating of carbon monoxide produced is quite low.
to the eyes, nose and skin. The acute effects of Such studies of workshop fume samples have
phosphine can be serious and they include serious shown that the following constituents are sometime
damage to the kidneys and other organs. found to be in excess of the minimum permissible (i.e.
they are above the threshold limit value or TLV) and
FUME GENERATION IN ARC WELDING therefore present health hazards to the welders:
PROCESSES Zinc, iron, copper, vanadium, fluoride, nitrogen
dioxide, sulphur dioxide (caused by oil contamination),
Manual Metal-Arc Welding ozone, manganese, chromium, lead.
In a particular study of mild steel welding with Basic coatings: Fume studies on basic electrode
various types of mild steel electrodes, the quantity of coatings have shown that a coating having a high
fumes generated and their compositions were roughly percentage of CaF2 can sometimes give a lower
as indicated in Table 16.1. proportion of fluorides in the fume than a coating
In another case study, 1,700 welding fume samples having a lower percentage of CaF2. This is because the
were collected from various locations in shipyards. concentration of fluorides is also influenced by the Ca2/
Their analyses indicated that 50% of the total fume CaC0 3 ratio, melting temperature of the coating and
content by weight was Fe203, 15% was Ti02 and the the arc current.
remainder was a mixture of acid-soluble metals such The most likely fluoride compounds formed during
as Mg, Ca, Al, Mn, Cr, Cu and Na. In yet another study welding with basic electrodes are the fluorides of
of fumes evolved from E6010, E6011, E6012, E6013, sodium, potassium and silicon. A Japanese study has
E6020 and E6030 electrodes, it was found that the indicated that the combination of potassium and
average fume sample contained 60-70% by weight fluorine increases the hazards presented by basic
of Fe203 and Ti02,10-20% Si02 and 2-12% Mn0 2 . electrodes. The principal source of potassium is the
The fumes evolved during the welding of low-alloy potassium silicate used as a binder. The Japanese team
and high-alloy steels have been found to contain developed an improved electrode using sodium silicate
measurable amounts of nickel oxide, chromium oxide, as a binder. The fume analysis of this electrode showed
and copper oxide in addition to the usual oxides of iron, that it produced lesser amounts of soluble fluorides.

Table 16.1:: Compositions of fumes from SMAW electrodes

Qty. of fumes
Electrode g/electrode Fume composition, wt%
Type size FeA Si0 2 Ti0 2 MnO CaO F
mm
General purpose, neutral 4 0.5-1.5 40-60 15-35 trace 12-16 trace —
General purpose, neutral 10 4.0-7.0 28 29 -1 2.9 trace —
High-deposition, neutral 4 1.5-3.0 42 33 0.3 10.5 trace —
Fully mineral rutile type 4 0.5 70 8-10 2.5 6.5 trace —
Cellulosic rutile type 4 0.5-1.5 54 20 3.5 6.7 trace —
Basic lime-fluoride 4 1.0-2.5 22-28 6-12 0.6 4.8-10.2 14-20 17-28
Basic lime-fluoride 5 1.5-3.0 — — trace 4.2 19 23
Basic lime-fluoride 6 2.0-4.0 35 11 0.8 4.6 19
630 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

GTAW and GMAW Welding volume of 55 m3, the concentration of CO reached a

The gases evolved in GTAW welding are ozone and
nitrogen oxide. Tests conducted during the welding of
titanium have shown that considerable quantities of
these two gases are produced. When thoriated tungsten
electrodes are used, thorium evaporates and becomes
air-borne. The radioactive fumes of thorium can present
a hazard. But investigations have shown that thorium
concentration is well below the accepted limit at a
distance of 300 mm from the arc. In GTAW welding, the
quantity of fume evolved is low.
Comparative studies of GTAW and GMAW welding
of Al-Mg alloys have shown that the total quantity of
fumes evolved with GMAW was 17 times the quantity
evolved w i t h GTAW; also the q u a n t i t y of ozone
produced was almost four times. Nitrogen dioxide was
in traces in both the cases.
The fumes evolved during the GMAW welding
of Al alloys consist largely of A1203. When Al-5% Si filler
wire is used, the fumes contain up to 12% Si0 2 and the
balance is A1203.
The concentrations of nitrogen oxide produced are
found to be generally higher when GMAW welding
aluminium, than when GMAW welding stainless steel.
The fume studies conducted on GMAW welding of
aluminium is shipyards have shown that concentrations
of nitrogen oxide and ozone can be dangerously high
under unventilated conditions. The concentrations are
considerably lowered when good ventilation is used.
When C 0 2 is used as a shielding gas, the welder is
exposed to the hazard of carbon monoxide. Studies have
shown that concentrations of CO in excess of the
recommended value can be found as far as 0.6 m from
the welding arc. Even in a ventilated room with a
dangerous level after 10 min of welding.
In C 0 2 welding, there is a more or less direct
relationship between welding current and the amount of
fumes produced. Total amount of fumes produced with
different sizes of wires and different currents and their
analyses are given in Table 16.2.
In C 0 2 welding, the concentration of CO is far higher
than the concentrations of ozone and nitrogen oxide;
but the amount of CO has been found to decrease with
increasing welding current and increasing filler wire
size. When C 0 2 welding is carried out in an enclosed
area, there is an overall increase in the fume and gas
levels in concentration. Also, surprisingly, there is nearly
five-fold increase in the amount of ozone in such areas.
This increase is attributed to the repeated reflections of
ultraviolet radiation in enclosed areas. The following
data collected during studies in open sections of the
ship structure and in semi-enclosed areas bear out these
facts:
All these findings emphasise the need for more
thorough ventilation when welding is done with the
M I G / C 0 2 process than with the manual metal-arc
process.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Flux-cored continuous electrodes generate the
highest levels of fumes. This is clearly shown in Figs.
16.1 and 16.2, in which the fume generation rates of
manual electrodes, GMAW with C 0 2 wires and flux-
cored wires are compared.
The significant constituents of the fumes given off
by flux-cored wires are Fe 2 0 3 , fluorides, and nitrogen
dioxide. A comprehensive investigation carried out in

Table 16.2: Fume compositions in GMAW process by co2

Filler Arc Arc Fume concentration Fume analy;sis, wt%
wire current, voltage, g / k g of g/min Fe Mn Si0 2 (total)
dia., mm Amps. V wire
1.0 190 22 4.62 0.23 56.7 13.7 7.6
1.2 315 29 9.30 0.84 59.7 12.9 10.0
2.0 415 34 13.50 1.62 63.6 11.1 8.8

Location Fume and gas; concentrations

Fumes co2 N02 03 co2
Mg/m3 mg/m 3 mg/m3 mg/m3 vol %
Compartments 20.0-55.0 20.0-90.0 1.0-3.0 0.0-0.03 0.14-0.47
Semi-enclosed areas 40.0-90.0 80.0-140.0 2.0-4.0 0.40-0.60 0.30-0.70
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 631

the U.S.A. showed that the amount of Fe 2 0 3 produced

by E 70T-4 class electrode was greater than that of E
3.0
7018 class electrode, while the amount of Fe 2 0 3 given
• off by E 70T-2 class was less than that of E 7018 class
• electrode. The average nitrogen oxide concentrations
25 ~ • Data points were of the same order of m a g n i t u d e for all the
• electrodes evaluated. The fluoride level was the highest
c for E 70T-4 class; the fluoride level for E 70T-2 was lower
e
~a> 2.Q L- —* than that for E 70T-4, but higher than that for the E 7018
V
(9 class electrode.
ai
b >K

4J t t 1 Submerged-Arc Welding
8 ~ ft «J
(9
The health hazards produced by SAW welding
4>
8 8 O«9 ©
o o O

1 ID
W W ♦S
are similar to those arising from other arc processes.
tt. £ £ 'a. -^ o © o o
**»
Though the arc is submerged and invisible, the very
L I S f t & fc UJ
UJ
high currents used in this process can develop some
<
2 2 «? ~
psV fumes. When internal welding of pipes and vessels is
2 2 as ^ being carried out, the operator in the vicinity of the arc
05 m m o o is likely to be exposed to dangerous levels of contami-
•s r*i
* • ♦

nants in the atmosphere. The welding area must there-

V«
fore be well ventilated. Operators are also likely to be
exposed to dust when dry flux powder is handled or
G MM AW fWG/ CO.
> Flux - C C M edel cctr odes
when the excess flux is removed from the welded joint.
Fig. 16.1: Fume generation rates of SMAW, GMAW and Studies carried out in Russia have indicated that
FLAW at various current the total a m o u n t of fumes a n d the a m o u n t of
manganese oxide generated during SAW welding were
lower than those produced with coated electrodes. Also
the total fume content produced during SAW welding
(5.1 to 12.1 mg/m 3 ) was considerably lower than that
I Data Points encountered in C 0 2 welding (8.4 to 36.0 m g / m 3 ) .
124- Similar tests carried out during electroslag welding
showed that the total fume content ranged from 5.0 to
6.0 mg/m 3 . The results of these studies indicated that
the main hazard of SAW and electroslag welding
8 1-5 processes is the fluoride content of the fumes produced
v by basic encountered fluxes; fluoride concentrations
v
1 © o considerably higher than the allowable limits were
i • •-» a
E frequently encountered.
p *
51.01 o o
In a production workshop of a Polish Shipyard
v\ © EJ £ having four SAW welding units and 30/40 manual
CM f\
£*
*rt r*»
•^ welding stations, fumes were collected in the immediate
r VI
E70S-

«J
E70S

° s <M
welding area and at distances of 6 and 12 m from this
00 00 .-* area. The results of fume studies are given in Table 16.3.
© o !•
These fume studies were coupled with clinical
1
UJ UJ
•* examinations of 30 welding operators who had used
submerged-arc welding equipment for an average of
MMAW MIG/CO. Flux-Cored Electrodes five years. The most c o m m o n ailments were
inflammation of the upper respiratory tract and the
Fig. 16.2: Weights of SMAW, GMAW with C02 and alimentary tract, conjunctivitis and psychoneurosis;
flux-cored electrodes converted to fumes at various
silicotic-type lesions were noted in the lungs of older
currents
workers.
632 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 16.3: Analysis of fumes collected during welding in shipyard areas
Sampling location Fume concentrations, mg/m3
SiOz FeO F Mn
Production shop
Operator's working area 4.59 3.30 0.32
6 m from operator's working area 2.37 3.10 0.30
12 m from operator's working
area 1.73 2.50 0.16
(1) Not detected.
Another study has shown that gaseous fluorides,
mostly SiF4, are evolved when high-silica type fused
fluxes are used. In poorly ventilated areas, SiF 4
concentrations can reach the threshold limit. Carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide produced from carbon
in the wire and the base metal can reach the threshold
limit in 15 to 30 minutes in similar conditions.
Plasma Arc Welding
The health hazards of this process are similar to
those of GTAW w e l d i n g , except that the arc
temperatures and the amounts of ultraviolet radiation
are much higher with the plasma arc. Additional
hazards of the plasma arc process are the high voltages
required to initiate the arc and the high level of noise
generated by the arc. However, the noise level is
objectionable during plasma arc cutting and not during
welding.
The concentrations of c o n t a m i n a n t s in fumes
generated during various plasma arc welding and
cutting operations arc summarised in Table 16.4, along
with the threshold limit values (TLVs).
In a study conducted in Romania, the concentration
of nitrogen oxides was measured at various distances
from the cutting plasma arc. One metre away from the
arc the concentration was 38 mg/m 3 , and 7 m away it
was 28 m g / m 3 . It may be stated in general that
quantities of nitrogen oxides and ozone in excess of TLV
can be produced during plasma arc cutting in poorly
ventilated areas.
Threshold Limit Values
Factory inspectorate and health authorities in
advanced countries issue recommendations for the
control of health hazards in welding and cutting in the
form of guidelines to the allowable concentrations of
airborne contaminants in the air of workplaces. The
guidelines are listed as threshold limit values (TLVs).
Gas concentrations, mg/m3
HF N0 2 CO C0 2
0.18 1.40 Trace 21.00 429.00
0.19 0.35 ND (1) ND 400.00
0.12 Trace ND ND 400.00
The TLVs refer to airborne concentrations of substances
and represent conditions under which all workers may
be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse
effect. When the TLV of a constituent is exceeded, it
presents health hazard to the welder.
The TLVs of particulate fumes are expressed in m g /
m 3 and of gases in parts per million (ppm). The smaller
the numerical value of the TLV, the more toxic is the
constituent. For example, cadmium oxide which has a
TLV of 0.1 m g / m 3 is more toxic than zinc oxide having
a TLV of 5 mg/m 3 . TLVs refer to all airborne particles
irrespective of their size. As already pointed out, a
w e l d i n g process releases a n u m b e r of different
constituents in the fume, depending on filler and base
metal compositions, fluxes and shielding gases. Along
with their TLVs, one must take into account (1) the total
fume levels, (2) individual constituents, and (3) the sum
of individual constituents.
To add u p the effects of different components, the
following formula may be used:
A B C
— + —+ — + . . .
T
X
T TX L
A B C
where A, B, C are the concentrations of the constitu-
ents of the fume, and TA, TB,TC are their respective TLVs.
If the sum of the fractions is more than 1, the mixture
should be considered as having exceeded the limit.
TLVs refer to time-weighted concentrations for a
seven- or eight-hour workday and a 40-hour work
week. They should be used as guides in the control of
health hazards and should not be used as fine lines
between safe and dangerous concentrations. Time-
weighted averages permit excursions above the limit,
p r o v i d e d they are c o m p e n s a t e d by e q u i v a l e n t
excursions below the limit during the workday. (If the
substance also has a ceiling limit, C, excursions are not
allowed.)
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 633

Table 16.4: Concentrations of various fumes generated at plasma arc torch operations
Contaminant Concentration TLV Remarks
mg/m 3 mg/m 3
Barium 0.23-0.72 0.5 Spheroidisation of barium compound. Operation performed
out of exhaust hood.
0.02 0.5 Operation performed in hood.
Beryllium 2.8* 2* Spraying with exhaust ventilation equipment on.
0.9*
3.3*
4.3*
Total fume 31.3-fO.l 15 Breathing zone of welder welding stainless steel,
Chromium 3.1+0.1 without exhaust ventilation.
Total fume 24.5+0.1
Chromium 2.4+0.8
Total fume 0.41 15 Cutting stainless steel.
5.7 15 Cutting monel metal.
0.7 15 Breathing zone of plasma-arc cutter cutting inconel, with exhaust
ventilation.
0.5 15 Breathing zone of plasma-arc cutter after cutting monel with
exhaust ventilation.
Nickel Minimal 1 Cutting copper-nickel plates, ventilation on.
CrA 0.03 0.1 Cutting stainless, control switch operator's exposure.
0.02 General air.
0.01 Crane operator's exposure, directly above unit.
0.09 Crane operator's exposure, up and down bay.
Fe 2 0 3 35.1 10 Cutting stainless. Plasma-arc cutter's exposure.
(tentative)
13.9 Cutting stainless, control switch operator's exposure.
F 2 20 3 35.1 Cutting stainless, operator's exposure.
F 2 20 3 16.2 General air.
F 2 20 3 11.9 Crane operator's exposure, directly above unit.
Crane operator's exposure, up and down bay.
W
Iron
19.6
Minimal 10.0
Lead Minimal 0.2
Tin Minimal 2.0 As determined by spectrographic analysis of fume from
Nickel Minimal 1.0 cutting mild and stainless steel and from spheroidisation
Bismuth Minimal of a barium compound with and without exhaust ventilation
Copper Minimal 0.1
Cobalt Minimal 0.1
Molybdenum Minimal 15.0
(insoluble compounds)
Manganese 5.0
Chromium 0.1
Barium 0.5
(soluble compounds)
•" Micrograms per cubic metre.
For all substances not bearing a C notation:
The number of times an excursion above the TLV is
TLV Excursion allowed is restricted by the need to conform with the
ppm or mg/m 3 factor
time-weighted average TLV.
0-1 3 Tables 16.5 and 16.6 reproduced from The Facts about
1-10 2 Fumes, a publication of Welding Institute, list examples
10-100 1.5 of threshold limit values specified by the factory
100-1000 1.25 inspectorate, in Technical Data Note 2/74. The list gets
634 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 16.5: Examples of TLVs for fumes specified in UK

Substance listed TLV, mg/m 3
Beryllium (Be) 0.002
Cadmium oxide fume (as Cd) -* C
Calcium oxide (CaO) 5
Chromic acid and chromates (as Cr03) 0.1
Chromium, soluble chromic, and chromous salts (as Cr) 0.5
Cobalt, metal fume, and dust (Co) 0.1
Copper fume (Cu) -*
Copper dusts and mists (Cu) 1.0
Fluoride (as F) 2.5
Iron oxide fume *
Lead (Pb), inorganic compounds fumes, and dusts 0.15
Magnesium oxide fume (Mg) 10
Manganese and compounds (as Mn) 5C
Mercury (Hg) 0.05
Molybdenum (Mo): soluble compounds 5
insoluble compounds 10
Nickel (metal and soluble compounds as Ni) 1
Silver (Ag), metal and soluble compounds 0.01
Tin (inorganic compounds except SnH4 and Sn02), as Sn 2
Tin oxide E
Titanium dioxide (Ti) E
Tungsten and compounds (as W): soluble 1
insoluble 5
Vanadium (V2Os) as V: dust 0.5
fume 0.05 C
Zinc oxide (Zn) 5
Nuisance particulates 10
Welding fume *
Cadmium oxide fume 0.05 C
Copper fume 0.2
Iron oxide fume 5
Notes: C = ceiling limit; F = simple asphyxiants; E = nuisance particulates; * = notice of intended change.

revised from time to time and hence one must consult
the latest version.
In the U.S.A., Threshold Limit Values of Airborne
Contaminants are issued yearly by the American
Conference of Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Fume Control
Generally speaking, a welder is not exposed to the
, i c f,. r -r /-i\ i_ i. • .1.
hazards of welding fumes if (1) he is working in the
open or in a large shop having good natural ventilation
through the roof or side windows; (2) the welding
workload is compatible with the floor space, air volume
and ventilation provided for each welder; and (3) he
keeps his head out of the fume by adopting the correct
position in relation to the plumes of the fume and to
natural draughts.
VENTILATION
USA S t a n d a r d Z49-1, "Safety in Welding a n d
C u t t i n g " has specified the need for mechanical
ventilation as follows:
Para s2.l: Mechanical ventilation shall be provided
when welding or cutting . . . :
i) I n a s p a c e o f l e s s t h a n 2 84 m 3 per welder
... T , . .,. , . ,L ,, .,
n) In a room having a ceiling height of less than
_ ° ° °
i[i In
) confined spaces or where the welding space
contains partitions, balconies, or other structural
barriers to the extent that they significantly ob-
struct cross ventilation.
Para 8.3: Mechanical local exhaust ventilation when
required shall be by means of one of the following:
 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN ARC CUTTING AND WELDING 635

Table 16.6: Examples of TLVs for gases specified in UK

Substance listed TLV / ppm
Acetaldehyde, CH3, CHO 100
Acetylene, C2H2 F
Acrolein, CH2, CHCHO 0.1
Argon, Ar F
Carbon dioxide, C0 2 5000
Carbon monoxide, CO 50
Helium, He F
Hydrogen chloride, HC1 5C
Hydrogen fluoride, HF 3
Nitric oxide, NO 25
Nitrogen dioxide N0 2 5C
Ozone, 0 3 0.1
Phosgene, COCl2 *
Propane, C3H3 F
Trichloroethylene, CHC1:CC12 100
Phosgene 0.05
Notes: C = ceiling limit; F = simple asphyxiants; E - nuisance particulates;
* = notice of intended change.

of ventilation required to accomplish this control

Table 16.7: Ventilation requirements for various
electrode diameters velocity using a 75 mm wide flanged suction opening
are presented in Table 16.8.
Electrode diameter, Ventilation required,
mm m3 / min
EXTRACTION
4.8 or less 57 The best way of controlling fume is to use local
6.4 100
extraction, which will prevent its release into the shop
9.6 128
3.2 (flux-cored) 128 atmosphere. The extraction unit consists of flexible
ducting, connecting a movable duct to an air suction
pump. The suction inlet is placed close to the arc and
Freely movable hoods intended to be placed by the in such a position as to suck the fume away from the
welder as near as practicable to the work being welded welder. The suction inlet is repositioned from time to
and provided with a rate of air flow sufficient to time by the welder as his welding progresses. Where
maintain a velocity in the direction of the hood of 30.5 several welders are working together, it is convenient
mm in the zone of welding when the hood is at its most to connect all flexible ducts into a larger common duct.
remote distance from the point of welding. The rates The flexible ducts can be supported on overhead arms.

Table 16.8: Mechanical local ventilation requirements

Welding zone Minimum air flow Duct diameter
in. mm eft / min m 3 / min in. mm
4-6 100-150 150 4.25 3 75
from arc or torch
6-8 150-200 275 7.8 90
from arc or torch
8-10 200-250 425 12.1 115
from arc or torch
10-12 250-300 600 16.6 5Vi 140
from arc or torch
Note: Special arrangements are necessary for use with cadmium, fluoride, zinc, lead, beryllium, mercury, and other toxic materials.
636 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

For GMAW with C 0 2 welding and flux-cored with

gas shield or self-shielded arc welding, specially
designed fume-extractor guns and fume-extractor
attachments marketed by some companies may be used
with advantage. A typical fume-extractor gun is shown
in Fig. 16.3.
For protection against toxic particulate fume where
the nature of the hazard is known, the welder should
use a dust respirator with filter as shown in Fig. 16.4
(A). In some cases, adequate safety is provided by a
welding helmet supplied with cleaned compressed air
at a slight positive pressure as shown in Fig. 16.4 (B).
When a welder has to weld in a poisonous gas
Fig. 16.3: Fume-extractor welding gun
atmosphere or inside a container where exhaustion and

Fig. 16.4: Means of protection against hazardous fumes and gases: (A) Dust respirator with filter; (B) Welding
helmet fed with cleaned air; (C) Breathing apparatus

Local extraction is a must w h e n the quantity and ventilation cannot be provided, or where the nature of
toxicity of welding fume demands special precautions, the hazard is unknown, he must be provided with a
as for example, in production welding of galvanised positive pressure air-fed breathing apparatus such as
steel and welding inside a closed container. shown in Fig. 16.4 (C).

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

IS 818-1968 "Code of Practice for Safety and Health Requirements in Electric and Gas Welding and Cutting Operations".
IS 3016-1965 "Code of Practice for Fire Precautions in Welding and Cutting Operations".
ANSI Z49.1 "Safety in Welding and Cutting" published by American Welding Society.
AWS F4.1-80 "Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding and Cutting of Containers and Piping That Hold Hazardous
Substances".
Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment, 1979, by American Welding Society.
Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment, published by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
The Facts About Fume, 1976, by the Welding Institute.
Welding Fume Control with Mechanical Ventilation, 1980, by Fireman's Fund Insurance Companies, U.S.A.
ANSI Z88.2 "Practices for Respiratory Protection" published by American Welding Society.
ANSI Z117.1 "Safety Requirements for Working in Tanks and Other Confined Spaces", published by American Welding Society.
ANSI/AWS Fl.1-78 "Method of Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding and Allied Processes", by American Welding
Society.
Welding Handbook, Chapter 10, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by American Welding Society.
General Hints
on Welded
Design
An engineer entering the field of welded design has
usually a mechanical or materials engineering back-
ground and very little understanding of the factors that
contribute to efficient welded design, because welding
technology and weld design are not regular subjects in
engineering colleges.
He must remember that to be a successful design
engineer he must be able to design a welded structure
that will perform its intended functions, will have ad-
equate reliability and safety, and is capable of being
fabricated, inspected, transported and placed in service
at minimum cost. Total cost includes costs of design,
materials, fabrication, erection, inspection, operation,
repair and maintenance.
In designing a weldment to replace a casting, the
novice usually duplicates the shape and appearance of
the casting by providing protrusions, brackets, housings
and other frills. The designer must appreciate that
weldments are different from castings. A weldment is
an integrated, functional unit having an appearance of
its own. A correctly designed weldment is much lighter
than the c o r r e s p o n d i n g casting a n d has a lean,
streamlined appearance. Efficient, cost saving welded
designs are possible mainly because of the availability
of
(1) mechanised flame-cutting equipment that can
produce smooth cut edges;
(2) high capacity press brakes which enable the
wider use of formed plate;
(3) a w i d e r a n g e of w e l d i n g processes a n d
consumables;
(4) welding positioners which permit smooth and
less costly welds to be deposited in the downhand
position.
To determine the load on individual members, the
designer must first ascertain the work the machine is
expected to do or the forces a structural assembly must
bear, a n d the service conditions that may cause
overload.
The design must satisfy strength and stiffness
requirements; at the same time, the designer must guard
against over-designing, which is a waste of material
and increases overall weight and cost. Sometimes the
safety factor can be unrealistically high.
In developing a design, the following factors are of
help:
1) Specify as far as possible steels which do not need
preheating and postheating.
2) Use standard plate and bar sizes, and standard
rolled sections wherever possible. If a standard
rolled section is not available, the desired sec-
tion can be formed from blanks flame-cut from
plate.
3) Use minimum number of pieces to reduce assem-
bly time and the amount of welding. Ensure that
minimum scrap is generated.
4) Use stiffeners properly to provide rigidity at
minimum weight of material. Put bends in a plate
to. increase stiffness. Use press indentations in
plate to act as ribs. Use corrugated sheet for ex-
tra stiffness.
5) Prefer closed tubular section or diagonal brac-
ing for torsional resistance.
6) Check with the shop that they are able to hold
the close tolerances and fits, you specify in the
design.
638 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
7) Pick up cost-saving ideas from the shop.
8) Consider the use of a steel casting or forging in a
complicated weldment to eliminate design prob-
lem and reduce manufacturing cost.
9) Consider use of hardfacing alloy at the point of
wear rather t h a n using expensive material
throughout the section.
10) Adopt weld-saving methods described in Chap-
ter 15. Specify intermittent fillet welds under
light-load or no-load conditions. Remember that
stiffeners or diaphragms do not need full weld-
ing.
ll)Break up the welded structure into subassemblies
to enable more men to work on the job simulta-
neously, to provide better access for welding and
to reduce the possibility of distortion or residual
stresses.
12) Remember the factors which help to control and
minimise welding distortion (refer chapter 12).
The designer must be able to use mathematical de-
sign formulae for calculating loads and their effects on
sections, and for determining the sections necessary for
withstanding such loads. A large number of formulae,
developed for various conditions and member types,
are available for use by the design engineer. These for-
mulae appear difficult to a newcomer, but by proper
approach and practice, he can simplify design analysis
and the use of the formulae. Guesses and rule-of-thumb
methods for selecting configurations and sections must
be avoided, as they result in excessive costs of materi-
als and fabrication.
The design formulae for strength and rigidity are
made up of terms describing load, member and stress
and strain. The application of load can be steady, impact
or repeated cyclic (fatigue). There are five basic types
of loads: tension, compression, bending, shear and
torsion. Properties of steel include tensile strength,
compressive strength, shear strength, fatigue strength,
modulus of elasticity (tension) and modulus of elasticity
(shear). Properties of a steel section include area, length,
moment of inertia (stiffness factor in bending), section
m o d u l u s (strength factor in b e n d i n g ) , torsional
resistance (stiffness factor in twisting) and radius of
gyration. Stress is expressed as tensile, compressive or
shear. Strain is expressed as resultant deformation,
elongation or contraction, vertical deflection or angular
twist.
Before proceeding with weld design, the engineer
must acquire a basic understanding of the design
approach, the various design and shop factors to be
taken into account, the types of loading to be dealt with
and the use of appropriate formulae. The formulae
should be applied only after the problem has been
clearly defined and carefully analysed.
In this chapter we have not dealt with design
formulae, procedures and problems. To get information
and guidance on these topics, the design engineer is
advised to refer to the publications listed at the end of
this chapter.
The design engineer should know how to indicate
the required welding information on engineering
drawings through standard welding symbols. Using
such symbols, he can specify joint design, face and root
details, welding process, type of weld, length of weld,
effective t h r o a t , w e l d i n g s e q u e n c e and other
requirements of welding procedure to the fabrication
shop in a concise manner. Sometimes it is not possible
to convey all the necessary instructions t h r o u g h
symbols alone. In such cases, the designer must provide
s u p p l e m e n t a r y notes and additional dimensional
details. On the whole, the designer must make sure that
there is no ambiguity in the interpretation of his
drawing by those for whom it is meant.
The designer is advised to refer to any of the
following standards to be able to adopt a suitable
system of symbols for use in his blue print drawings:
AWS A2.4: Symbols for W e l d i n g a n d N o n -
destructive Testing
BS 499 (Part 2): Symbols for Welding
IS 813 (1986): Scheme of Symbols for Welding
ISO 2553 (1992): Symbolic Representation on Draw-
ings.
Among these, only the AWS standard indicates
symbols for n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e testing. The Indian
Standard was originally based on the British Standard
BS499-(Part 2). The elementary or basic symbols now
used in the ISO, IS and European s t a n d a r d s are
identical, while those in the AWS are different.
In the AWS system, a complete welding symbol
consists of the following elements:
1) Reference line (always shown horizontally)
2) Arrow
3) Basic weld symbol
4) Dimensions and other data
5) Supplementary symbols
6) Finish symbols
7) Tail / Fork
8) Specification, process, or other references.
 GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 639

These elements have specified locations with respect
to each other on or around the reference line as shown
in Fig. 17.1. The designer need not use all elements
unless required to make the drawing more clear.
There are two prevailing systems of placing the sym-
bol with regard to the reference line. In the first system
which is followed in the AWS 2.4, the symbol is placed
below the reference line for welds on the arrow side and
placed above the reference line for the welds on other
side. The ISO and also the European standards have
accomodated now the systems identical to the IS:813-
1986. Where the reference line is made with one con-
tinuous line and coupled with another parallel break
line. The information placed over the continuous ref-
erence line for welds on the arrow side and placed over
the break line for the other side. This is irrespective of
the placement of the break line either up or down. The
designer must be aware of these two different systems
and take care that his drawing is not misinterpreted.
Besides the elementary symbols and a fairly large
number of illustrated examples of the use of symbols
based on both the systems, it gives only a few sup-
plementary symbols, explains how weld dimensions
have to be shown, and gives at the end indications for
peripheral weld, site welds and welding process to be
used.
In many organisations, the design engineer is ex-
pected to provide welding procedure sheets along with
his designs. To prepare them, he is expected to take
help from the welding engineer and shop supervisor.

(N)
Number of spot
or projection welds
—Elements in —
this area
remain as shown
when tail and
arrow are reversed
Finish symbol 8 basic weld symbol or detail reference
Contour or profile symbol 9 Reference line
Root opening; depth of filling for plug 10 Weld-all-around symbol
and slot welds 11 Arrow connecting reference
Effective weld size
line to arrow side member of joint
Depth of preparation; size or strength
12 Site/Field weld symbol
for certain welds
13 Pitch distance (centre-to-centre spacing)
Specification, process, or other refer-
of welds
ence
14 Length of weld
Tail (tail omitted when reference is not
15 Groove angle; included angle of coun-
used)
tersink for plug welds
Fig. 17.1: Standard location of elements of a welding symbol
640 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Yet, to qualify as an expert designer, he must possess a
sound knowledge of welding technology. This should
cover welding processes, procedures and techniques
and weldability of industrial metals and alloys. He is
therefore advised to study this entire book.
Plate preparation: Cutting is the first step in welded
fabrication. The commonly used metal cutting methods
are listed below, and the designer must decide in
consultation with the shop floor supervisor which of
these will be the most economical:
1) Flame-cutting
2) Shearing
3) Sawing
4) Punch press blanking
5) Nibbling
6) Lathe cut-off (for bar and tube stock).
The next step is edge preparation. For single-bevel
or single-V plate preparation, single-tip flame-cutting
torch is suitable. For double-V, a multiple-tip flame-
cutting torch must be preferred, because the required
preparation is done in one pass on the cutting machine.
When a J or U groove is to be made in a thick plate, the
edge planer is most suitable. For back-pass preparation,
air carbon-arc gouging, flame gouging or chipping must
be preferred to machining.
Plate forming: Forming is the next step. The common
forming methods are listed as follows. When forming
is properly used, it can reduce cost by eliminating some
of the welds and machining operations.
1) Press brake
2) Bending rolls
3) Roll-forming
4) Tangent-bending and contour-bending
5) Flanging and dishing
6) Press-die forming and drawing.
Jigs and fixtures: The d e s i g n e n g i n e e r m u s t
familiarise himself with standard welding aids such as
positioners, rotators, booms and seamers (see Chapter
20) so that he can adapt his designs to suit proper
exploitation of these aids. They are marketed by
companies w h o are specialised in the design and
manufacture of such equipment. However, he may be
called u p o n to design jigs, clamping systems and
fixtures to assemble parts quickly and accurately for
welding.
A quality welding job is impossible without good
fit-up. Accurate and quick fit-up is accomplished by
using jigging and clamping methods. Jigs also control
dimensions and distortion. The best designed jigs are
often fitted into positioners and rotators, so that
downhand welding can nearly always be used. They
provide ample clearance so that the welder will not be
cramped, and they are also of sturdy construction to
withstand rough usage.
Simple devices for holding parts together are often
made from scrap plate, punched, cropped or sheared
as required. Some devices are based on wedges, others
on screw clamping. Improvised jigs are often quickly
built up from existing multi-purpose clamps, vices, etc.
In the heavier types of arc-welded fabrication, jigs of
the most complicated and ingenious type are to be seen
in the manufacture of automobile frames, tractors,
agricultural machinery, railway carriage and wagon
underframes, etc.
Toggle clamps are used in preference to nuts and
bolts in welding jigs for holding work against prepared
surfaces. These clamps can be self-locking. The biggest
clamp of this type can exert a working pressure of 450
kg. With one type of clamp, a wide range of inter-
changeable clamping spindles is available. The vari-
ous types of spindle include those of different lengths
and different ends, such as, plain, swivel, pressure
spring loaded, swivel plate, etc. Floor-type aligning and
holding tables such as shown in Fig. 17.2 are used for
heavy structural members and machinery parts.
Cam clamps with roller-cam action, C clamps and
pliers are also available. An improved form of C clamp
will incorporate a spring-controlled ratchet and pawl,
enabling the clamping pad to be pushed into contact
instantaneously with work of any thickness. Another
type of C clamp incorporates toggle action. Vices are
also used in jigging. A useful type of vice clamp consists
of a vice without the fixed jaw. Two such vices, moving
on a slotted bar, enable a very wide size range of job to
be clamped. Vices and clamps can be attached to slotted
bars, which, in turn, may be hinged, enabling the vices
to clamp vertically as well as horizontally, and in
combination to act as a quickly-arranged jig.
H y d r a u l i c a n d p n e u m a t i c c l a m p s are also
commonly used in jigs. Hydraulic pressure may be
generated by a lever or screw hand-pump, or by a
hydro-pneumatic intensifier, which uses compressed
air at low pressure, 60 to 80 lbs/sq. inch, to provide
hydraulic pressure at 1,400 to 1,500 lbs/sq. inch. The
advantages of such clamps are that equal pressure can
be applied at all points simultaneously and the pressure
may be determined according to the type of material
to be welded.
 GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 641

♦^s^^^^^rares^

-Grouted CJ. plates

w KR*
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Concrete

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Fig. 17.2: Floor-type aligning and holding table

642 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Magnetic clamps are also used to position plates for
welding, as for instance, in the fixing of a stiffener to a
flat plate.
Welding Procedures
The designer must be well aware of the factors
which make up the welding procedure. They have been
dealt with in the earlier chapters on Welding Processes.
For a new job, procedure may be selected after
welding a few sample joints and subjecting them to the
r e q u i r e d tests. For r o u t i n e jobs, s t a n d a r d i s e d
procedures based on past experience may be adopted.
The correct procedure is one which will complete the
job at the lowest possible cost and, at the same time,
meet quality requirements.
As far as possible, the steel selected must be easily
weldable, i.e. it should not d e m a n d preheat and
postheat operations. Most structural steels including
quenched-and-tempered steels need no such heat treat-
ment, provided that in some cases, suitable low-hydro-
gen type electrodes are used.
A root gap is specified to ensure accessibility to the
root of the joint. The bevel angle must be just wide
enough to permit a 4 or 5 mm diameter electrode to
reach the root. If the bevel angle is smaller, the root
gap has to be wider to get good fusion at the root. If
the root gap is too narrow, electrode of smaller size
has to be used to reach the root. This results in slower
w e l d d e p o s i t i o n rate a n d increases the risk of
hydrogen-induced cracking. If root gap is too large,
weld burn-through can occur (see Fig. 17.3(a)) unless
the gap is bridged with several small beads deposited
with smaller electrodes or a backing strip is provided.
If the backing strip is of steel, the joint has to be back-
gouged to remove the backing material. If it is of
copper, such back-gouging can be avoided, because the
copper strip is easily removable. Backing strips are
commonly used when all welding has to be done from
one side or when the root gap is excessive. Sometimes
the steel backing strip is retained as a part of the
Fig. 17.3: (a) Weld burn-through; (b) Root pass correctly deposited
completed joint. Root face should be avoided when
backing strips are used.
The root face is meant to prevent burn-through and
to provide additional thickness of metal as shown at
(b) in Fig. 17.3. To prepare an edge with root face, two
cuts with a torch are necessary, or possibly one torch-
cut plus machining. If the bevel cut is made with a single
torch-cut, it results in a feather edge. Such an edge is
prone to burn-through.
Degree of bevel for V-joints is usually 30° or 35°. In
confined places, the extent of bevel may be dictated by
the importance of maintaining correct electrode angle.
In Fig. 17.4, 45° minimum angle is necessary to permit
the electrode to reach the root.
J and U p r e p a r a t i o n s are preferred for heavy
thicknesses, to minimise the amount of weld-metal
required, but then it must be remembered that they
d e m a n d considerable accurate machining. These
grooves also must have root faces and they require
back-gouging. Such preparations are used mainly on
boiler shells and pressure vessels.
On butt welds, a nominal weld reinforcement of 1.5
mm is adequate. Additional build-up serves no useful
purpose and increases cost.
Without back-gouging, a butt joint welded from
both sides will have incomplete penetration and slag
inclusions. Gouging is done by grinding, pneumatic
chipping or air carbon-arc process. Gouging should be
deep enough to expose sound metal, and the contour
should permit complete access to the electrode.
A butt weld connecting two structural members
having the same thickness develops full force in the
member and is called a full strength weld. In this case,
it is not necessary to calculate the unit stresses in the
weld or to specify its size, since a butt weld soundly
made has equal or greater strength than the members
being joined. This is so in the case of mild steel as well
as low alloy high-strength steel, provided a welding
consumable of matching strength has been used. This
is permitted by recognised building and bridge codes.
(b)

Fig. 17.4: Relation between bevel angle and electrode angle
Fillet welds: When structural connection is to be
made with a fillet weld, it is necessary to specify its
size and length. The strength of a fillet weld is based
on the effective throat thickness, which is defined as
the shortest distance between the root and the face
of the triangular weld, and is shown in Fig. 17.5. For
an equal leg fillet weld, the throat is 0.707 times the
normal leg size. In an unequal-legged fillet weld, the
leg size is measured by the largest right-angle
triangle, which can be inscribed within it as shown
in Fig. 17.6. The effective throat in this case is slightly
larger than if the weld was symmetrical. But the
amount of weld-metal involved is considerable.
Measure
minimum
throat
Legw
-Leg w
Concave fillet weld
Fig. 17.5: Fillet weld dimensions
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 643
A fillet weld may be concave, flat or convex. A con-
cave weld produces a smooth change in section at the
joint and is to be preferred for dynamically loaded
structures. Such a weld, however, is more susceptible
to shrinkage cracks, especially in the higher carbon
steels. A slightly convex or flat fillet weld is to be pre-
ferred generally. Excessive convexity must be avoided
as it produces a notch-like effect, and since the excess
weld-metal does not contribute to strength, the cost is
increased.
The strength of a fillet weld depends upon the
direction of the applied load, which may be parallel or
transverse to the weld. In both cases the weld fails in
Leg<x>
-Leg » .
Convex fillet weld
644 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Increased effective
throat r 1.262t

Added weld metal

CO

(a) Throat increased by 265S

Area increased by 100*

Fig. 17.6: Unequal-legged fillet weld dimensions

shear, but the plane of rupture is not the same. The weld
will fail on the throat plane, which has the maximum
shear stress.
Data concerning the allowable force on the fillet
weld and minimum weld size required to join two
m e m b e r s of given thicknesses are p r o v i d e d in
recognised building and bridge codes, and other
equivalent codes dealing with welded structurals.
Designing for Impact
A structure may be subjected to impact loads under
the following conditions:
1) A direct impact by another member or an exter-
nal body
2) The sudden creation of a force on a member
3) The sudden moving of a force on to a member
4) The inertia of a member resisting high accelera-
tions or decelerations.
In (2) and (3), there is sudden application of forces
without a blow being involved. It is to be noted that
impact loading does not necessarily involve move-
ment of a mass over a long distance.
Usually it is very difficult to evaluate impact forces
quantitatively. The analysis of the design problem is
more of a qualitative nature and requires that all of
the factors involved and their interrelationship are
recognised.
In d e s i g n i n g m e m b e r s to w i t h s t a n d i m p a c t
loading, either of the two methods may be used:
1) Estimate the m a x i m u m force exerted by the
moving body on the resisting member by applying an
impact factor. Consider this force to be a static load
and use standard design formulae.
2) Estimate the energy (kinetic energy Ek= ^ ) that
is absorbed by the resisting members, and from this
value determine the stresses or deformation by formu-
lae for impact loads on members. This method is pre-
ferred for more accurate results.
The dimensions and material properties that give the
resisting member maximum resistance to an impact or
energy load are quite different from those that give the
member maximum resistance to a static load. A steel
having good tensile strength and ductility under static
loading, may fracture if subjected to a high velocity blow.
The two most important properties that indicate a
metal's resistance to impact loading are obtained from
the stress-strain diagram. One is the m o d u l u s of
resilience, which is the energy the metal can absorb
per unit volume when stressed to the proportional
limit. This is represented by the area of the triangle
OAB having its apex A at the elastic limit shown in
Fig. 17.7. The second property is the ultimate energy
resistance, which indicates a metal's toughness or
ability to resist fracture under impact loading. This is
represented by the total area OACD under the curve
in the figure.

!
Fig. 17.7: Parameters of impact resistance
In designing, the notch effect on energy adsorbing
capacity has to be considered. For example, if a notch
produces a stress concentration of twice the average
stress, then for the same maximum stress, the average
stress in the rest of the member will be reduced to half
and the energy absorbed will be one-fourth of the energy
absorbed if no notch were present.
Notch bar impact test values are of little use to the
design engineer and can even be misleading for the
following reasons:
1) The test is highly artificial in respect to severe
notch condition and manner of load condition.
2) The results can be altered over a wide range by
changing size, shape of notch, striking velocity, and
temperature.
3) The test does not simulate a load condition likely
to be found in service.
4) The test does not give quantitative values of the
resistance of the material to energy loads.
GUIDELINES
Under impact loading, the member is required to
absorb a certain amount of kinetic or potential energy.
It is important to observe the following:
1) Design the member as an energy absorbing
system, that is, to have the maximum volume of material
stressed to the highest working stress; this increases the
energy absorbed.
2) Have the maximum area subjected to the
maximum allowable stress, for any given cross-section
of the member. Stress the entire length of the member
to this maximum.
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 645
Unit strain ($
3) Reduce stress concentrations to a minimum and
avoid abrupt changes in section.
4) Use the impact formulae as a guide to the proper
design of the member, rather than as an actual
determination of the impact stress or impact
deformation.
5) In general, with steel, as the speed of loading is
increased, the yield strength has a noticeable increase.
6) Material should have a high modulus of resilience
u = sy 2 /2E. This is the energy absorbed per unit volume.
Although a lower modulus of elasticity (E) appears to
be helpful, materials with lower values of E generally
have correspondingly lower values of yield strength
(s d ), and this latter value is more important because it
is squared. Therefore, steels with higher yield strengths
have higher values of modulus of resilience and are
better for impact.
7) The material should have sufficient ductility to
relieve the stress in any area of high stress concentration.
8) The material should have high fatigue strength,
although this is not considered to be so important as
high yield strength.
9) Place material so that the direction of hot rolling
(of sheet or bar in steel mill) is in line with impact force,
because the impact strength in this direction is higher
than if impact occurs at right angles with the direction
of rolling.
10) It is important to restrict the weight of the
member and yet maintain proper rigidity of the member
for its particular use or service. This means light-weight,
well-stiffened members having sufficient moment of
inertia (I) should be used.
646 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
11) Where required, to build in protection against
inertia forces caused by the rapid movement of the
member due to earthquakes, explosions, etc., it is
important to decrease the possible acceleration a n d / o r
deceleration of this member through some form of
flexible support.
Problem of Brittle Fracture
The failure of all-welded Liberty ships built in the
U.S.A. during World War II drew world attention for
the first time to the liability of steel to brittle fracture.
Then there was the catastrophic failure of the all-welded
Duplessis Bridge at Three Rivers in the U.S.A. at a
temperature of -30° F on February 1,1951. In the winter
of 1962, the King's Bridge in Melbourne, Australia,
collapsed suddenly and without resistance, though
periodical routine inspection had not revealed any signs
of impending failure.
Research in the field of brittle fracture of steel is being
pursued vigorously since the last 35 years in many
countries. The research activity has received fresh
impetus through the need to install gigantic oil-drilling
platforms in the North Sea and elsewhere, where
extreme conditions of impact loading and temperatures
exist.
Brittle fracture usually occurs in very large structures
involving heavy plates such as bridges, ships, penstocks
and pressure vessels, and especially when the ambient
temperature is around or below 0°C. The fracture
initiates from sharp notches caused by design, or
introduced by arc strikes, crack-like weld flaws, raw
p u n c h e d holes, s h e a r e d e d g e s , etc. The r a p i d
propagation of the crack is encouraged by the notch
brittleness of the parent steel.
It is now understood that the commonly measured
mechanical properties of structural steels such as
ultimate strength, yield point and elongation, which the
designer is accustomed to use as a basis for material
selection, do not always assure freedom from brittle
failure. This is true even when the design load is not
exceeded. To ensure safe performance, the steel must
be resistant to the initiation and propagation of a crack
under all service conditions. This resistance to brittle
crack initiation and propagation is referred to as notch-
toughness or notch-ductility. In the context of brittle
fracture phenomenon, the real meaning of ductility is
the ability and capacity of a metal to yield plastically
under constraint and high local stresses, such as those
that exist at the root of a notch. Its inability in these
respects is called notch-brittleness.
It is possible to distinguish between a plastic fracture
in a completely ductile metal and a running crack in a
fully brittle metal. Ductile fractures have a shear mode
of crystalline failure as opposed to a cleavage mode in a
brittle fracture. Consequently, the ductile fracture has a
surface texture that is either silky in appearance (as if
the two surfaces of the fracture had been rubbed or
slipped together), or is actually fibrous in appearance.
Ductile fractures often appear to have failed mainly by
shear. Plastic flow is very much in evidence throughout
the entire development of a ductile fracture, that is,
during initiation, propagation and the final separation.
At no stage does the fracture run freely without energy
dissipation.
Brittle or cleavage fractures have either a granular
or a crystalline a p p e a r a n c e . Cleavage occurs by
separation of the cube faces of the crystals. Little plastic
deformation is found in the metal in the vicinity of the
fracture. Brittle fractures usually initiate at a nucleus of
some kind, as shown in Fig. 17.8. This may be a small
crack initiated by any kind of mechanism (dislocation
pile-up, ductile crack propagation). The nucleus also
could be a pre-existing flaw. It is important to point out
that when the nucleus crack represents a critical size
for the particular metal and the conditions to which it
is exposed, a running crack develops.
Unfortunately, no single test can quantitatively
evaluate or measure the ductility or bittleness of a large
section of a material. The common practice is to use the
Charpy-V impact test. The steel must give a minimum
impact value of 15 ft-lbs at the lowest temperature, to
which it is expected to be exposed in service. Because
this test incorporates multiaxial stresses and high strain,
and can be carried out at selected low temperatures, it
is considered that a value of over 15 ft-lbs assures the
steel's ability to withstand a reasonable amount of notch-
effect from w e l d m e n t design or questionable
w o r k m a n s h i p , a n d to sustain impact loading.
Furthermore, if the weldment is subjected to overstress,
one would expect deformation and a tough, shear-type
fracture instead of a sudden, brittle fracture. The 15 ft-
lbs criterion is included as a requirement in a number
of codes and specifications for steel to be used in low-
temperature service. It may be pertinent to mention here
that impact tests of fractured plates of Liberty ships
carried out at the temperatures at which the fracture
occurred gave a value of less than 11.4 ft-lbs.
Charpy-V impact tests and notch-bend tests on steels
at varying temperatures have shown that as the testing
temperature is lowered, the material first exhibits a

]B$m
Fig. 17.8: Chevron pattern frequently observed on the surface of brittle fractures will indicate the direction of origin.
Apex of chevrons point toward fracture source.
ductile type of failure with the absorption of large
amounts of energy, then passes through a transition
region and thereafter fails in a brittle manner with little
absorption of energy.
Every steel and weld-metal has a specific transition
temperature. The transition t e m p e r a t u r e may be
defined as that temperature at which the behaviour of
the specimen or structure changes from desirable plastic
behaviour to undesirable brittle behaviour. Steels or
weld-metals with lower transition temperatures are
considered more notch-tough, or more resistant to
brittle fracture than those with higher transition
temperatures.
Rimmed steel has poor notch-toughness and is not
recommended for use in critical structures subject to
dynamic loading. Semi-killed steel has reasonably good
notch-toughness. Fully-killed steel, especially silicon-
aluminium killed to fine grain size, possesses the best
notch-toughness.
For critical applications, normalised steels are
preferred, because normalising frequently refines the
grain size a n d r e d u c e s v a r i a t i o n s in the steel
microstructure introduced by different mill finishing
temperatures and cooling rates. These beneficial effects
in turn reduce both, the average transition temperature
and the variations from it.
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 647
APEXES OF CHEVRON PATTERNS
IN FRACTURE FACES OF MEMBERS
CONVERGE ON AREA WHERE FRACTURE
ORIGINATED. IN THIS CASE, CLOSER
EXAMINATION REVEALS FRACTURE
INITIATED NEAR ROOT OF POORLY
PENETRATED FILLET WELD
DEPOSITED IN ACUTE-ANGLE
JOINT ON RIGHT-HAND
SIDE OF UPRIGHT
MEMBER
For the same heat of steel, plates of greater rolled
thickness have higher transition temperatures (i.e. they
are less notch-tough) compared to those of lower
thickness, because of the different metallurgical
structures of such plates (see Fig. 17.9). This is probably
the main reason why failures are more prevalent in
large, than in small structures. Thick plates however
respond more readily to normalising treatment with a
larger i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t in transition
temperature, than thin plates.
A close look at the chemistry of plates which went
into the Liberty ships revealed that no attention was
paid to the important matter of keeping carbon as low,
and manganese as high as possible. Carbon content
ranged up to 0.35% with Mn between 0.30 and 0.60%.
Later studies have shown that carbon is the most
important single factor affecting the notch-toughness
of steels, raising the ductility transition temperature by
about 1.11 -2.22°C for each 0.01% increase in carbon
content (see Fig. 17.10). Mn acts favourably; each 0.01%
increase in Mn content (up to about 1.5% Mn) lowers
the ductility-transition temperature by about 0.42-
0.56°C. M n / C ratio thus becomes an important factor
in e n s u r i n g the n o t c h - t o u g h n e s s of the steel.
P h o s p h o r u s is another element which raises the
transition temperature markedly. A typical plate of
648 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

-40 -29 -18 -7 l\A

Transition temperature, °C

Fig. 17.9: Effect of plate thickness and deoxidation practice on the keyhole charpy
ductility-transition temperature

240 rn
V
T Carl: on
200

€0
0-011 |0.1 I
160
0.22
$120
8 0.31
Ui 80 - 0.4 ^
0.53
401 -0.63.
13L67
Ol —4
-184-130-73 -18 38 93 150 204 26C
TemperatureX

Fig. 17.10: Effect of carbon on the shape of charpy-V transition curve


class B specification taken out from the Liberty ship
had 0.24% carbon and 0.43% manganese, giving a M n /
C ratio of 1.79. The transition temperature for this steel
as determined by Charpy-V test was as high as +15.6°C.
The present day steel of the same class B used in ships
has a typical chemistry of 0.19% carbon and 0.71%
manganese, which means a M n / C ratio of 3.74. Its
transition temperature is -6.7°C.
The age-old practice of raising the tensile strength
of structural steel through increase in carbon is now
given up by steelmakers, because it results in steels of
low notch ductility and poor weldability. This is now
done through increase in manganese, while restricting
carbon to a specified limit. Beyond a certain limit of
Mn (up to about 1.5% Mn), any further increase is
effected through alloying elements in small controlled
quantities and through normalising. Very high tensile
strength coupled with good weldability and notch-
toughness is achieved in low-alloy steels through
quenching and tempering.
It is n o w easy to u n d e r s t a n d w h y in ship
specifications, three classes of steel A, B and C are
stipulated. Class A is for non-critical parts. Class B is
for plates of over 12.7 to 25.4 mm t. It is a semi-killed
steel with 0.21% maximum carbon and manganese in
the range 0.80-1.10%. Class C is for plates of over 25.4
mm and up to 51 mm t. This steel (C—0.24% maximum,
Mn—0.60 to 0.90%) must be fully-killed and made to
fine-grain practice. Plates of over 35 mm t made to the
class C specifications are required to be normalised.
Further information of this topic is given in the
chapter on Weldability of Steels.
Today's specifications and codes of practice relating
to pressure vessels, bridges, ships and similar standard
fabrications clearly lay down the requirements of steels
to insure freedom from brittle fracture. But when it is a
question of a new kind of fabrication where no standard
specifications are available and previous experience is
lacking, that the designer and the fabricator are called
upon to take cognizance of all the factors that cause or
prevent brittle fracture,
Fabricators must remember that once the steel has
been correctly chosen, the resistance of structures to
brittle fracture is directly dependent upon quality of
w o r k m a n s h i p a n d fabrication. They m u s t also
remember that non-structural details and secondary
members joined monolithically to the strength members
by welding should be treated with the same care as the
main m e m b e r s themselves, particularly in areas
subjected to high stress. Lack of attention to such details
and secondary members can result in failure, just as
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 649
catastrophic as if the main members were themselves
defective.
Prior cold work such as rolling, bending, punching,
shearing, straightening, etc., lowers the notch ductility
of a steel. When the amount of prestrain is small (1-
2%), its effect is more in rimmed steel, less in low-C
high-Mn semi-killed steel and least in killed steel.
Larger strains (5-10%) raise the transition temperature
of all these steels appreciably.
Some steels (especially Bessemer steel) are prone to
strain aging as a result of cold work. Strain aging, while
not fully understood, is usually associated with the
presence of carbon and nitrogen, that are always
present in steel. Strain aging further raises the transition
temperature.
Steels susceptible to strain aging may have their
notch ductility seriously affected, when after being
subjected to cold work, they undergo operations like
galvanising, heat straightening or adjacent welding,
which heat them in the range of 200-450°C. The loss in
ductility is restored partially after stress-relief at 600-
625°C and fully after a normalising treatment.
Bruising, or local deformation by a blow or bump
can be extremely damaging to a steel, resulting in
almost complete loss of ductility in the area and acting
as a source of crack initiation on subsequent critical
loading. Columns are vulnerable to inadvertent bruises.
Something similar to bruising occurs in cold flanging
or joggling of plates, especially when the forming load
is concentrated at the apex of the forming tool.
Providing a generous radius at this point can prevent
this unfavourable effect.
Punching holes for rivets or bolts makes the steel
less ductile at the edge of the hole, often leaving short
cracks there. If by chance the area is heated to 200-430°C
temperature range for galvanising, during Welding or
the lay-up of the overlapping plate edges, severe strain-
aging can occur, if the steel is prone to this phenomenon.
All these risks are eliminated if the hole is drilled or if
it is reamed properly after punching to remove the
severely cold worked layer of metal.
Sheared edges may also cause severe cold work and
small cracks. These will not be a problem if the edges
are later welded. The best practice requires that sheared
edges which are to be left exposed are machined to
remove 1.6 m m or more material, d e p e n d i n g on
thickness.
Fabrication notches are frequent causes of brittle
failure. Notches may be caused by sharp corners left in
oxy-cutting, weld defects and sudden change of cross-
section. It is important that necessary changes of section
650 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
are made in a smooth continuous manner in regions of
stress. Oxy-cut notches can be avoided by the use of
cutting machines, templates and radius bars in place
of free-hand cutting.
Preheating is a very effective means of reducing the
chances of cracking in welds and heat-affected zones
of large structures and improving their ductility and
notch-toughness. Postheat treatments like stress-relief
and normalising are also very effective in improving
the performance of structures subjected to dynamic
loading. While postheating is not practicable for large
structures like ships, bridges and vertical storage tanks,
preheating is easily possible and is used with benefit.
There is substantial laboratory evidence, some on large
specimens, that 200°C preheat may be as effective as
600°C postheat in improving the performance of low-
carbon steel weldments when subjected to static or
impact loading.
Accidental or deliberate arc strikes which do not
deposit any weld-metal, can have an effect as severe as
a notched brittle weld, more so when the steel is a high
tensile grade, as proved by laboratory tests. There is
additional confirmation from records of service failures.
Fabricators should consider arc strikes which do not
contain weld-metal as highly dangerous, and should
emphasise this fact to their production personnel. If arc
strikes occur, they should be completely removed and
the void filled up by welding using preheat if necessary.
Light fillet welds and thin single pass welds in heavy
plates m u s t also be discouraged unless adequate
preheat is used.
The use of low-hydrogen electrodes with proper
moisture control has distinct advantages from the
viewpoint of avoiding britle failure. Weld-metal
deposited by LH electrodes has lower transition
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l electrodes of
corresponding strength. Such electrodes are therefore
to be preferred in the fabrication of weldments for low-
temperature service. However, it must be noted that
complete elimination of the possibility of fracture is a
function of the proper combination of procedure,
electrodes, materials and workmanship, and not of the
electrodes alone.
Badly fitted or incorrectly prepared joints frequently
result in root cracking. This is particularly true in the
welding of thick plates due to high restraint. With poor
fit-up of the joint, it is either difficult to make the weld
bead span the joint, or to obtain proper penetration.
With too wide a fit-up, the resulting beads are usually
wide and thin when viewed in cross-section. Thick,
narrow beads, which can easily be made with good joint
fit-up, resist racking in root passes of butt welds better
than wide, thin ones.
Service experience shows that many failures origi-
nate at serious defects in welded joints (approximately
40% of the major ship failures). Many failures have
originated in welds at points of geometrical disconti-
nuity. On the other hand, there is almost no record of
failures having initiated in sound, properly made welds
of adequate design. Even when failures have originated
at obvious defects in welds, the crack has not propa-
gated for any distance in the weld-metal, unless it was
of extremely poor quality. Also, fracture does not usu-
ally propagate in the heat-affected zone of the plate.
Instead, the crack propagates through or across the
weld and continues on in the unaffected base plate. In
a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e n u m b e r of cases, cracks have
stopped at or near welds which were approximately
perpendicular to the path of the fracture. These obser-
vations indicate that sound weld-metal and the heat-
affected zones adjacent to the weld in mild steel are
not particularly sensitive to fracture propagation.
As was pointed out at the outset, conventional
design p r o c e d u r e s by themselves are sometimes
i n a d e q u a t e w h e r e brittle failure is of concern.
Nevertheless, the best course of action in design is to
use conventional procedure, at the same time keeping
in m i n d that certain a d d i t i o n a l p r e c a u t i o n s are
necessary if brittle failure is thought to be a problem.
The designer must recognise that these precautions
relate to greater care in the choosing of design details,
in the selection of materials and in procedures of
workmanship, fabrication, supervision, inspection and
proof testing.
The first g e n e r a l step in e s t a b l i s h i n g design
conditions, at least in so far as brittle failure aspects are
concerned, is to d e t e r m i n e the lowest operating
temperature for the structure. If available, a record of
previous service experience with similar structures, and
of the origin of cracks in such structures (if any) is most
helpful. Following this, materials and design details can
be decided upon. It is important to bear in mind at all
times that a crack may originate at a supposedly
unimportant, non-structural member. Such a crack may
propagate across a joint and cause extensive damage
to the main structure. Thus the design of non-structural
a n d s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r s , a n d their degrees of
participation is of great importance in the behaviour of
the structure as a whole. This is apparent in the failures
that have occurred when such members are attached
to the outer fibres of a girder, e.g., bilge keels or
bulwarks on ships, rubbing strips on cranebooms. The
 GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 651

degree of participation depends upon various factors, amount of fatigue damage. The one exception is shown
such as the relative length of the attachment and the in Fig. 17.12. This is not only one cycle of Fmax to Fmin
degree of rigidity of the structural details along the but also one cycle of ¥1 to F2,
paths of stress transfer. The designer must be aware of In fact, many structures and machines produce
this tendency for participation and choose details of stress/time curves of an entirely random nature, of
design and methods of attachment that will preclude which a typical one is shown in Fig. 17.13. This is called
serious concentrations of stress as a result of such random loading. The only way of obtaining such a type
participation. of curve is by actual measurements with strain gauges
during service. In critical design, this information is
Designing for Fatigue essential, and is far cheaper than trial and error.
Under static loading, a steel structure may be Dynamic strain recordings show both, the number
stressed to just below yield point without danger of of cycles and their magnitude. As the weld type adjacent
failure. However, when the load fluctuates, the to the gauge is presumably obvious, one obtains the three
maximum permissible stress may be very low. Such facts immediately to make an extremely accurate
reduced strength under fluctuating loads is assessment of fatigue life.
characteristic of most metals and their bolted, riveted
or welded connections.
When a structure is subject to fluctuating load due
to live loads, vibration or temperature fluctuations, and
the following conditions exist simultaneously:
1) Load or stress is very high
2) Anticipated service extends for a great number
of cycles
3) Stress fluctuates over a wide range (i.e. stress ■•Time
range is very wide)
Fig. 17.12: Curve with two cycles
The possibility of failure by fatigue must be consid-
ered at the design stage, and eliminated. The fatigue
life of the structure is then governed by (a) number of
stress cycles, (b) magnitude of stress fluctuation, and
(c) type of weld. In a critical design, each one of these 1 digging cycle of
three factors must be correctly determined. Determin- excavator
ing the number and type of stress cycles that will occur
in service is not easy. Fatigue life is defined as the num- 0)
ber of cycles that occur before failure. to
The shape of the stress/time curve between
successive upper and lower limit stresses does not affect
fatigue strength, provided that the slope of the curve
does not change sign as shown in Fig. 17.11.
Time
Each of the cycles shown in this figure or any other
odd shape one may encounter, produces the same Fig 17.13: Random loading curve

Loading frequency has little effect on fatigue

strength. For example, take a press operating once a
minute, or a machine operating 5,000 times a minute; if
the stress in each on a similar weld detail is the same
(see Fig. 17.14), they will each fail after the same number
Time of loading cycles, assuming of course that the designer
1 stress cycle chose excessive working stresses. They will not fail after
the same amount of time has elapsed. Each cycle
Fie. 17.11: Shapes of stress/time curve produces the same amount of fatigue damage.
652 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Type
°r\A/v/\/v/i • Alternating

Time
lAAAAAA Pulsating tension

T>ME PuUoting
+k / \ / \ A / H / \ / »
Fig. 17.14: Stress and time factor in loading 0 \j\/\/\j\/\J compression

Half tension
STRESS RANGE
The stress range necessary to produce fatigue failure Half compression
decreases with increasing numbers of stress cycles.
W h e n specimens are tested in the laboratory, VS\z\y\s\s^
identical specimens are loaded at various stress ranges Fig. 17.16: Examples of fluctuating stress
until failure occurs. A convenient method presenting
the results is an S-N curve shown in Fig. 17.15. If the
horizontal scale is logarithmic, the curve becomes a -A 8 |min f
max fatigue life
straight line. This is the usual form of an S-N curve. If (cycles)
we consider the specimen represented by point A, this 5
0.5 8 0.8x10
was tested at a stress range of x tons/ inch 2 and failed

after 5 x 105 cycles. In establishing an S-N curve, Fmin is
the same for each specimen and the stress range is
varied by changing Fmax.The relative position of the
fluctuating stress to zero has a considerable effect on
fatigue life. In Fig. 17.16, all the examples shown obey
the same rule. For a given stress range, as the mean
stress increases in magnitude, the fatigue life decreases.
Mean stress is the mean of the upper and lower limit
stresses. Stress range is the difference between the
maximum and minimum stresses.
To explain the effect of mean stress, curves relating
to a certain type of weld are shown in Fig. 17.17. In
each case, the stress range is 4 T/sq. inch but fatigue
lives vary.
1 0
Cycles t o failure ' "
Fig. 17.15: S-N curve
i°rwvr, -' *
2x10
0.5 -8 100x10'
kA/WC
Fig. 17.17: Figures to explain effect of mean stress
EFFECT OF WELDING
It must be remembered that stress concentrations
give rise to fatigue cracks, and that stress concentration
arises at every abrupt change of section of the material.
A weld usually causes change of section and is the cause
of stress concentration. But the change of section must
lie transversely to the direction of stress to have any
effect, as illustrated in Fig. 17.18. Small attachments
such as clips, gussets, ribs, etc., all normally attached
by fillet welds, and not in themselves carrying any load
may result in a low allowable stress in the member to
which they are attached.
The stress concentration formed by welds, whether
fillet or butt, lying in the direction of stress (such as
web /flange weld on a beam) is due to unevenness on
their surfaces caused by ripples, start and end craters,
a n d other factors. The m o s t h a r m f u l type of
longitudinal weld is the intermittent weld, at the ends
of which sharp stress concentration is formed.

(No effect on fatigue strength)
-£ 3-
(Considerable effect on fatigue strength)
Fig. 17.18: Effect of change of section on fatigue strength
In welds transverse to the direction of stress, stress
concentration is formed by weld reinforcement and
undercut. Partial penetration single-V butt welds and
double-V butt welds with lack of penetration at the
centre should never be used.
Cruciform butt welds have a geometric stress on
centration due to stresses in the components joined,
being coupled with those caused by the weld as shown
in Fig. 17.19 (A). However, this type of joint is much
stronger than fillet welds doing the same job shown at
(B). A load carrying fillet weld such as this has the
lowest fatigue strength of all types of weld. In between
these two cases is the transverse non-load carrying fillet
weld shown at (C). In this case the weld is carrying no
load, but it does produce a stress concentration on the
load carrying plate.
When failure occurs from a transverse butt weld, it
will always originate from the weld toe and propagate
(A)
A smooth transition of sections.
"^
(B)
u
if~r\ n sitlk.
(O
Fig. 17.19: Cruciform joint designs affecting fatigue
strength
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 653
through the parent plate, not in weld-metal. The one
exception is a butt weld with lack of penetration; here
the mode of failure is through weld-metal.
It must be remembered that it is not welding that
reduces the fatigue strength, but the resultant shape or
geometry of the section. It is for this reason that fillet
welds have lower fatigue strength, simply because they
are used in lap joints, and all lap joints including riveted
joints have lower fatigue strength. It must also be noted
that dressing a butt weld level with the plate increases
its fatigue strength to that of unwelded plate, also that
stress-relieving the weld joint has no appreciable effect
on its fatigue strength.
Information on allowable fatigue stresses for
different steels and types of welded joints are given in
standards such as BS 153, Bridge Specifications such as
the one issued by the American Welding Society, and
data sheets provided by steel producers.
In the case of various types of welded joints, it must
be remembered that the allowable stresses refer to all
types of steel. In other words, when welded all steels
have the same fatigue strength. This is a fact which is
difficult to explain. The only time the use of high tensile
steel is justified in a fabrication subjected to fatigue
loading is when Fmax is above the permissible stress for
mild steel.
The following guidelines will help a designer in
designing a fatigue-resistant weldment:
1) In general, a machine or structure is stressed to
the full maximum value for only a portion of its fatigue
life or cycles. For most of its fatigue life, it is stressed to
a much lower value, and not to its full rated capacity;
hence, most fatigue loading is not as severe as it may
first appear.
Consider actual stress rather than average stress.
Reduce, if possible, the range of stress without
increasing the maximum or average stress.
2) Fatigue loading requires careful fabrication,
Avoid attachments and openings at locations of
high stress.
Avoid sharp corners.
Use simple butt weld instead of lap or T fillet weld.
Grinding the reinforcement off of butt welds will
increase the fatigue strength. This weld will have about
the same fatigue strength as unwelded plate. Grinding,
however, should not be specified unless essential, since
it does add to the final unit cost.
Avoid excessive reinforcement, undercut, overlap,
lack of penetration, roughness of weld.
Avoid placing weld in an area which flexes.
654 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Stress-relieving the weld has no appreciable effect
upon fatigue strength.
Difficulties are sometimes caused by the welds
being too small, or the members too thin.
3) Under critical loading, place material so that the
direction of rolling (of sheet in steel mill) is in line with
force, because the fatigue strength may be higher in
this direction than if placed at right angles to the
direction of rolling.
4) Where possible, form member into a shape that
it tends to assume under load, and hence prevent the
resulting flexial movement.
5) Avoid operating in the critical or resonant
frequency of individual member or whole structure to
avoid excessive amplitude.
6) Perhaps consider prestressing a beam in axial
compression. This will reduce the tensile bending stress
and lessen chance for fatigue failure, even though the
compressive bending stress is increased to some extent.
7) Avoid eccentric application of loads which may
cause additional flexing with each application of load.
8) Stiffeners decrease flexibility of member and
result in better fatigue strength, unless it causes a more
abrupt change of section. If the latter should happen,
the stiffeners may do more harm than good.
9) A rigid-frame type of structure or statically in-
determinate type of structure may be better than a
simple structure, since the load is shared by other mem-
bers; hence, the structure is less likely to collapse im-
mediately if a fatigue failure starts in one member. This
will result in a more gradual failure of one part, then
another, and this would provide a better opportunity
to notice that a fatigue failure is in progress.
10) Avoid biaxial a n d triaxial stresses, avoid
restrained internal sections.
Vibration Control
In machinery design, quite often, one has to consider
steps to control vibration. While cast iron has inherent
damping capacity, correctly designed welded steel is
known to cope with vibration problems in many types
of machine tools more effectively.
Every member has a certain natural frequency; it
can also be forced to vibrate at any frequency by striking
it repeatedly. This is called forced frequency. When
forced frequency equals natural frequency, the member
becomes resonant and the amplitude of vibration rises
to a very high value with disastrous results. It is the
damping property of the material which enables it to
absorb the energy of the vibrating force.
The solution to a vibration problem lies in:
1) Changing the forced frequency, preferably to a
lower frequency. This usually means a change in motor
or operating speed.
2) Changing the natural frequency of the member,
preferably to a higher frequency.
3) Increasing the damping capacity through efficient,
steel design.
In starting up a machine from idle state, it is safer to
ensure that it does not pass through its critical speed
or frequency, by moving the natural frequency of the
member up to a still higher value. The natural frequency
can be increased by:
1) Increasing the moment of inertia (I) o/the mem-
ber.
2) Using a material having a higher modulus of elas-
ticity (E).
3) Reducing the cross-sectional area (A) of the mem-
ber (similar to weight).
4) Reducing the unsupported length (L) of the mem-
ber.
When compared to an equivalent grey-iron casting,
a steel weldment has 2.5 times higher modulus of
elasticity, and requires 40% less moment of inertia and
40% less area for the same stiffness. This means that
the natural frequency is increased by 58%. In other
words, simply changing from-grey-iron casting to steel
weldment gives a 58% greater operating range.
When grey iron and steel are stressed to the same
value, the former exhibits three times the damping
capacity of steel. However, in an efficient redesign
based on equal stiffness to replace the casting, the steel
member is always stressed more than the equivalent
casting.
Steel, having a higher modulus of elasticity, requires
less moment of inertia for the same stiffness, and as a
result, has a lower section modulus. Therefore, for the
same load, the steel member will have a corresponding
higher stress. Because of its higher stress, its relative
damping capacity will increase.
In a machine tool, if the redesign from casting to
welded steel is m a d e for equivalent stiffness, the
increased modulus of elasticity allows a corresponding
decrease in the required moment of inertia. This reduces
the weight considerably, w i t h o u t any increase in
amplitude of vibration over that of the casting.
Experience has shown that when steel weldments
are correctly designed to replace castings, the resultant
reduction in weight does not create vibration problems.
On the contrary, steel has the following superior
properties for designing for improved vibration control:

1) Steel can have a damping capacity equal to or
greater than cast iron, because an equivalent steel
design under the same load is stressed higher.
2) The reduced section of the steel equivalent design
has a greater modulus of elasticity; hence, reduced
amplitude of vibration and, therefore, higher natural
frequency. This means a greater operating range.
3) The design flexibility of welded steel makes it easy
to shorten unsupported lengths by means of stiffeners
and to make other changes that increase natural
frequency and decrease amplitude, even after the
machine has been fabricated, machined and tested.
A few design ideas for reducing vibration are given
in Fig. 17.20. At (a), the ends of the rigid member are
welded to reduce the amplitude. At (b), a hole is
punched in the stiffening panel to reduce the area and
increase its natural frequency. At (c), the long panel is
flanged to increase stiffness and natural frequency. At
(d), closed sections or diagonal bracing increases
torsional resistance, which increases the frequency and
reduces the angle of vibration. At (e), tack-welded
stiffeners increase natural frequency and, when placed
at 45°, add resistance to twist.
Fig. 17.20: A few design ideas for control of vibration
GENERAL HINTS ON WELDED DESIGN 655
Dimensional Stability
In weldments, tensile residual stresses of the order
of the steel's yield strength may be present in the weld
area. To balance ou f these tensile stresses, the adjacent
areas are stressed in compression. .The balance is
achieved through some movement or distortion of the
member. After the final distortion is reached, no further
movement of the member occurs, If some of the tensile
or compressive areas are machined out, a new unbalance
of the stresses is created and a corresponding movement
or distortion of the member takes place to rebalance
these stresses. This is reflected in the gradual shift of
the member as machining progresses. To avoid this
difficulty, one is advised to stress-relieve a weldment
before machining. Experience has shown that a properly
stress-relieved weldment remains dead to any further
movement in course of time, once it has been machined
and placed in service, unless acted upon by an external
applied force.
Some metals, including steel, are known to creep
when stressed over a period of time. The creep factor
comes in only when high stress and high temperature
are present. It need not be considered in the dimensional
656 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

stability of a weldment, when operating under normal
conditions.
Torsional Loading
A designer must guard against torsional loading,
which may cause the m e m b e r to twist about its
structural axis. Through welding, torsionally rigid
sections can be easily developed by the use of stiffeners.
Where torsional loads are a problem, one can use closed
sections or diagonal bracing and make rigid end
connections.
Braces and Stiffeners
To ensure efficient use of material and reduce cost,
the designer can use thin plate, which is easily sheared
and formed and add stiffeners to achieve the required
strength a n d / o r rigidity. Ribs or diaphragms added to
a flat panel to strengthen or stiffen it are referred to as
stiffeners. When a frame is reinforced or braced by the
addition of members crosswise or diagonal to the
members, the added members are termed as braces.
The two terms are often interchanged, because the same
member may perform the dual function of bracing the
frame against torsion and of stiffening the top panel
against deflection under a bending load.
When stiffeners are used correctly, they perform
several useful functions, some of which are listed below:
1) Rigid stiffeners or diaphragms enable panel to
s u p p o r t a greater b e n d i n g load by r e d u c i n g its
unsupported length. This assumes a diaphragm welded
at the ends and having sufficient depth to give proper
support.
2) Stiffeners added to a flexible panel increase the
combined moment of inertia, reduce its deflection and
increase its strength under a bending load.
3) Stiffeners added to webs of beams and portions
of frames stiffen the w e b against buckling from
diagonal compressive forces.
4) Stiffeners or braces placed at 45° on a panel, or at
45° to side members of a frame, greatly increase its
resistance to twist.
5) Stiffeners a d d e d to a flat panel increase its
resistance to buckling from edge compression; this is
due to the increase in radius of gyration.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Chapter 1, Vol. 5, 7th Ed., published by the American Welding Society.
The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, by Lincoln Electric Company, U.S.A.
Design of Welded Structures, by The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, U.S.A.
Design for Weldments, by The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, U.S.A.
Design Ideas for Weldments, Vols. 1 & 2, by The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, U.S.A.
Control of Steel Construction to Avoid Brittle Fracture, 1957, by Welding Research Council, U.S.A.
AWS D. 1.84, Structural Welding Code, by The American Welding Society.
Proceedings of International Conference on Structural Design and Fabrication in Shipbuilding, 1976, by The Welding Institute.
Proceedings of the Conference on Fatigue of Welded Structures, 1971, by the Welding Institute.
AWS D 8.4, Recommended Practices for Automotive Welding Design, by American Welding Society.
IS 813-1966, Scheme of Symbols for Welding.
IS 800-1962, Code of Practice for Use of Steel in General Building Construction.
IS 803-1976, Code of Practice for Design, Fabrication and Erection of Vertical Mild Steel Cylindrical Welded Oil Storage Tanks.
IS 806-1968, Code of Practice for Use of Steel Tubes in General Building Construction.
IS 6227-1971, Code of Practice for Use of Metal-Arc Welding in Tubular Structures.
IS 816-1969, Code of Practice for Use of Metal-Arc Welding for General Construction in Mild Steel.
SP:6, ISI Handbook for Structural Engineers.
IS 1024-1968, Code of Practice for Use of Welding in Bridges and Structures Subject to Dynamic Loading.
Fatigue of Welded Structures, by Gurney, published 1980, by Cambridge University Press.
 CHAPTER 18

Welding
Procedure
Specifications
A WPS is a document that describes how welding is to
be carried out in production. They are recommended
for all welding operations and many application codes
and standards make them mandatory.
WPS should include sufficient details to enable any
competent person to a p p l y the information a n d
produce a weld of acceptable quality. The amount of
detail and level of controls specified on a WPS is
dependant on the application and criticality of the joint
to be welded.
For most applications the information required is
generally similar to that recorded on a Procedure
Qualification Record (PQR), or also known as Welding
Procedure Approval Record (WPAR), except that ranges
are usually permitted on thicknesses, diameters,
welding current, materials, joint types etc.
If a WPS is used in conjunction with approved
welding procedures then the ranges stated should be
in accordance with the approval ranges permitted by
the welding procedure. However careful consideration
should be given to the ranges specified to ensure they
are achievable, as the r a n g e s given by w e l d i n g
procedure standards do not always represent good
welding practice. For example welding positions
permitted by the welding procedure standard may not
be achievable or practical for certain welding processes
or consumables.
Typical items that should be recorded on WPS:

A) Descriptions common to all Processes

Procedure number
Process type
Consumable Size, Type and full Codification.
Consumable Baking Requirement if applicable
Parent material grade and spec.
Thickness range.
Plate or Pipe, Diameter range
Welding Position
Welding current and Polarity
Joint Fit Up, Preparation, Cleaning, Dimensions etc.
Backing Strip, Back Gouging information.
Pre-Heat (Min Temp and Method)
Interpass, If Required (Maximum Temperature recorded )
Post Weld Heat Treatment. If Required (Time and Temp)
Welding Technique (weaving, maximum runs, width etc.)
Arc Energy Limits should be stated if impact tests are required or if the material being welded is sensitive
to heat input.
658 MODERN ARC WB iiG TECHNOLOGY

B) Descriptions specific to welding process

Descriptions MIG/
MMA TIG MAG/ SUB
FCAW ARC
Arc voltage yes If Auto yes yes
Pulse parameters (pulse time and peak &c If Used If Used
backgound current)

Welding speed if mechanised yes yes yes yes

Wire configuration yes
Shielding gas (composition, flow rate) yes yes
Purge gas (composition & flow rate) If Used If Used
Tungsten electode diameter and type yes
Nozzle diameter yes yes
Type of flux codification & brand name yes
Nozzle stand off distance
(Distance from tip of nozzle to workpiece) yes

C) Sketches 2. EN 288 Part 2: European Standard For Welding

A sketch of the joint configuration is required which
should include the basic dimensions of the weld pre-
paration. Some indication of the run sequence is also
beneficial, particularly if the correct sequence is
essential to ensure the properties of the weld are
maintained.
D) Non Destructive Testing
A WPS is primarily concerned with welding not N
D T, this activity should be covered by separate N D T
procedures.
There are two widely used codes employed for fabri-
cation:
1. ASME Sec. IX: American Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code
Procedure Specifications
ASME Sec IX
The following sub-articles are intended as a very
general guide to ASME Sec IX. There are certain
exceptions in the code that are not covered in these
articles, therefore it is urged to study the code carefully
before u s i n g its rules to carry out any w e l d i n g
qualifications.
Welding qualifications to ASME Sec IX are for use
with the ASME boiler and pressure vessel code or the
ASME pipework codes.
The ASME boiler and pressure vessel code embraces
its own QA system, which revolves around satisfying
the rules of the code. This demonstrates that an
accredited fabricator has some degree of competence
permitting them to perform a large amount of their own
inspection without the involvement of an Independent
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 659

A TYPICAL PQR FORM

Weld Procedure Number XXX Rev. A
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) YYY
Method of Preparation Machine and
and Cleaning Degrease
Manufacturer XYZ Parent Metal Specification Grade 304L
Stainless Steel
Location: Workshop Parent Metal Thickness 3 to 8 mm
Welding Process Manual TIG Pipe Outside Diameter 25 to 100 mm
Joint Type Single Sided Butt Weld Wall Welding Position All Positions
Welding Progression Upwards

Joint Design Welding Sequences

> N| / \ Cm™*|
1-2mm -H H- t

Run Process Size of Current Voltage Type of Wire feed Travel speed
filler metal A V current/polarity speed
1 TIG 1.2 mm 70-90 N/A DC(-) N/A N/A
2 TIG 1.6 mm 80 -140 DC(-)
&Subs

Welding Consumables Production Sequence

Type, Designation Trade Name: ER308L: Cronitig

Any Special Baking or Drying: 1. Clean weld and 25 mm borders to bright
metal using approved solvent.

Gas : Argon 99.99% purity

Gas Flow Rate — Shielding:
Gas Flow Rate — Trailing:
Gas Flow Rate — Backing:
8 -12 LPM 2. Position items to be welded ensuring good
fit up and apply purge
5LPM
3. Tack weld parts together using TIG, tacks
to at least 5 mm min length

Tungsten Electrode Type/ Size: 2% Thoriated 2.4 mm Dia

Details of Back Gouging/Backing: 4. Deposit root run using 1.2 mm dia wire
Preheat Temperature: 10°C Min
Interpass temperature: 200°C Max 5. Inspect root run internally

Post Weld Heat Treatment 6. Complete weld using 1.6 mm dia wire us-
Time, temperature, method: ing stringer beads as required
Heating and Cooling Rates*: Not required
7. 100% visual inspection of completed weld

Revision History
Date Issue Changes Authorization
dd/mm/yyyy A First Issue ABC
660 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Inspection Body, which would be required by other
standards for similar inspections.
This is why welding qualifications carried out under
the ASME code do not require Independent Inspection,
a fabricator can qualify his own procedures and welders
using the ASME code rules.
However there is nothing stopping anybody using
any of the rules of the ASME code without being ASME
approved, but to prove your competence in welding
an Independent Inspection Body is recommended to
approve your welding tests.
The advantage of ASME Sec IX is that its very
workable and very comprehensive. If there is a doubt
raised, it is almost certain an answer would be available
somewhere in the code.
The ASME code may at first glance appear complex
a n d very legalistic b u t once the basic rules are
understood, they are very easy to apply in practice. Its
main advantage is that it requires very few welding
procedures.
The main advantages of ASME welding procedures are:-
• All joint types approve each other, i.e. a double
sided weld approves a single sided weld and vice
versa.
• No limits on diameter approval for pipe. A plate
procedures can be used to weld any diameter of
pipe.
• Materials and welding consumables are listed in
groups, unfortunately only American grades are
included.
• Any butt weld will qualify all fillet weld sizes
on any parent metal thickness.
• A welding procedure qualified in one position
qualifies all positions, unless impact texts are re-
quired, in which care, procedure qualified in ver-
tical up position qualifies all positions.
• The code covers wide range of welding processes
and applications such as hard facing, stud weld-
ing, brazing etc.
The main advantages of ASME welder approval tests are:-
• There is no minimum parent thickness, only
maximums, and they are applied to the depos-
ited thickness of the weld not the parent metal
thickness.
• There is no upper limit on diameter approval,
only a lower limit.
• Any butt weld approval will qualify all fillet weld
sizes on any parent metal thickness.
The main problem with the ASME code is that it
treats all welding processes separately and imposes
separate restrictions for each on both procedures and
approvals. It is therefore prudent to check what the
code says about the welding process you intend to use
before you carry out any welding tests.
The ASME code covers a very wide range of welding
processes and applications such as hard facing, stud
welding, brazing etc.
The code is divided into four parts
QW100 General introduction to testing requirements
etc.
QW200 Procedure Qualification details.
QW300 Performance Qualifications (Welder Approv-
als) details.
QW400 Welding Data. This is the biggest section of the
code and covers data for both procedure and
performance qualifications. It includes :
• Material and consumable data
• Test requirements
• Approval ranges for thickness, diameter,
joint configuration and welding positions
• Definitions used in the code
Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) (QW 482)
A sample form is shown on pages 669 and 670
This document details the practical application of
the Procedure Qualification Record (PQR). It should
contain enough information to give direction to the
welder and should address all variables associated with
the welding process defined in QW250 including non
essential and supplementary.
A WPS can c o m b i n e w e l d i n g processes from
other PQRs but all the relevant variables must be
addressed including parent metal thickness. There
is an exception to this rule for root runs from PQRs
that are greater than 1.5 inches thick (38.1 mm), see
code for details.
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) (QW 483)
A sample form is shown on pages 671 and 672
This document contains details of the welding test,
it must include details of all the parameters listed as
variables in tables QW250 to QW265 for each process
involved and all the destructive test results.
The relevant variables for each type of welding
process are clearly defined in tables QW250 to QW265.
The left hand column of each table defines the section

and paragraph where each variable and its application
to the table is explained in the code.
Welding Variables
Variables used in a welding procedure test are divided
into 3 categories :-
• Essential Variables have a significant affect on
the mechanical properties of a joint. They must
not be changed except within the limits speci-
fied by this code. e.g. Material thickness range,
Material Group etc.
• Non-Essential Variables have no significant
affect on mechanical properties. They can be
changed without re-qualification of the PQR.
• Supplementary Variables have an affect on the
mpact properties of a joint. They are classed as
non-essential if impact testing is not required.
All variables listed as essential, non-essential or
supplementary should be addressed on both the WPS
and the PQR. If any of the variables do not apply to the
particular application then they should be specified as
not applicable.
Joint Configuration
Either plate or pipe can be used for the test piece
(plate approves pipe and vice versa ref. QW211), any
welding position approves all positions providing no
impact tests are required ref. tables QW250 to QW265
and any joint geometry approves all geometry's, e.g.
single V, double V, U prep, backed or unbacked.
A butt or groove weld approves branch and fillet
welds but not the converse, ref. QW202. Non-pressure
retaining fillet welds in pipe or plate can be tested but
they must be double sided if plate and at least the
dimensions illustrated in QW462.4a, ref. QW202.2c.
Pressure retaining branch welds must be qualified by
groove (butt) welds.
Material Grouping
Refer Table No. 19.1 on pages 667
Materials are assigned P numbers in QW420; a test
in one P number approves all materials listed under
that P number, except where impact tests are required
then approval is restricted to materials listed in the
group number within the P number. Other P number
groupings are permissible ref. QW424.1 for details. Ref
QW 424.1 for further details.
It is normally permissible if the material is not listed
in QW422 to assign it to a P n u m b e r which lists
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 661
materials with the same metallurgical and mechanical
properties although this is not in strict conformance
with the code. Typically BS1501 151 430A low carbon
steel could be regarded as PI and stainless steels such
as 316, 304 as P8.
Note P5, 9 & 10 are divided into sub groups e.g.
5A,5B etc., Treat each subgroup like a separate P
Number
Dissimilar materials are acceptable providing they
are compatible. For example PI to P8, but this does not
cover PI to PI or P8 to P8.
Note S numbers are for pipework to B31, a P number
covers an S number but not the converse.
Consumables
The ASME code uses its own specifications for
consumables SFA. which is almost identical to the AWS
specification.
A change in c o n s u m a b l e is only permissible
providing it has the same F number and A number (if
applicable) as the PQR.
Thickness Limits
Thickness limits Groove welds. See QW451 for
precise details.
• When Impact tests are required the minimum
thickness approved is restricted. See QW403.6
• More than one PQR may be required to qualify
dissimilar thickness
The thickness little 'V of deposited weld metal for
each process involved is approved from 0 to 2xt except:-
• MIG/MAG (GMAW/FCAW) dip transfer weld
of deposited thickness less than > W approves
maximum thickness of 1.1 x t only Ref: QW255
(QW403.10)
• If any Pass in a single or multipass weld > W
then the thickness approval equals 1.1 xT
Dissimilar Thickness QW202.4:- The thicker and
thinner part must be qualified, Except P8 and P4X the
thinner part can be qualified if no Impacts and test
coupon > 6mm thick.
Thickness limits for fillet welds as per QW462.4a or
QW462.4d qualify all fillet weld sizes on all base
material thicknesses and all diameters in one test.
Testing Requirements (Ref QW 463 for location of
specimens)
There is no requirement for any non-destructive
testing such as radiography or MPI/DPI, although
radiography is recommended for butt welds.
662 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

The testing requirement for groove welds are as follows:- Diameter and Thickness Ranges
• Two Transverse tensile tests (QW150). Diameter limits for all circular welds including
groove welds, branch welds and fillet welds is given in
• Two Root bends and Two face bends unless the QW452.3. There are no upper limits on diameters
plate thickness exceeds 3/8" then 4 side bends approved and pipe covers plate
are required. All bend tests should be done to For branch welds the diameter considered for the
QW160 using the correct former ref. QW466 to above limits is the one containing the weld preparation.
an angle of 180 degrees. Longitudinal (all weld) Thickness limits, groove welds.
bend tests are not recommended unless the The thickness limit only applies to the deposited
base/weld materials differ markedly in bending weld metal thickness not the plate thickness and any
properties. See QW 466 for exceptions and pre- groove weld approves all fillet weld sizes.
cise details. For t greater than 12.5 mm there is no restriction on
The testing requirement for fillet welds on plate is 5 the size that can be welded (providing the test weld
macro sections only, for Pipe fillet welds 4 macro deposit contains at least 3 layers of weld).
sections. No fracture test required. Thickness limits, fillet welds.
A test on plate greater th<u\ 3/16" approves all base
Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ) metal thicknesses and fillet weld sizes ref. QW452.5.
(QW484) (Note the above diameter limits apply unless the fillet
4 sample form is shown on pages 673 & 674 weld is qualified by a groove weld)
M terials
I he purpose of this test is to determine the welders Joint Configuration
ability to deposit a sound weld therefore the base Joint geometry, a double V (or U) is considered the
material is not considered as critical as it is in the PQR. same as a joint with backing and does not qualify a
HL*i $e a performance test on any material in P groups single V (or U) without backing, but a single full
1 to 11 approves all those groups and sub groups, also penetration joint without backing qualifies all joint
P34 and P4X (P40-P49). Providing a compatible configurations.
consumable exists with the same F number used in the
qualification test (QW423.1) Approval Range
Note a single sided weld is classed as a weld without Extent of approval is very well explained in
backing and a double sided weld or weld with sealing QW461.9. Take particular note of welding positions
run is classed as a weld with backing. which are also explained in QW461, for example to
qualify a fillet weld in the normal horizontal-vertical
Consumables position with a groove weld, the groove weld must be
The F number cannot be changed without re qualified in at least the 2G position. The welding
qualification of the welder except that for performance positions defined in QW461.1.& QW461.2 should be
qualification only using SMAW (MMA) F numbers up referred to in the WPS. The position designations: 1G,
to and including 4 approve all lesser F numbers for 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, 6G (Groove Welds) and IF, 2F, 3F, 4F
double sided or welds with backing only. One (Fillet Welds) are test positions
Consumable from F41 To F45 approves any of these
consumables, except SAW. Ref. QW404.11. Period of Validity/Renewal of Qualifications (QW
Note 'A' numbers do not apply to welder approval 322.2)
tests. Provided the welder uses the process for which he
is qualified and there is no reason to question his ability
Variables then his qualification lasts indefinitely.
For each welding process there is a list of essential If the welder does not use the welding process for
variables in QW352 to QW357 and QW360 for welding which he is qualified for a period of 6 months or more
operators, these are not necessarily the same as the ones then he must perform a new test in pipe or plate, any
for the PQR. Essential variables cannot be changed. parent material, thickness and position, if successful
Explana-tions of all these variables is given in section all the welder approvals for that welding process are
IV of the code. renewed in one test.
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 663

Testing Requirements Min Deposit Size Approved:- Point Where Chemi-

Test requirements for groove welds QW452 consists cal analysis taken No upper limit QW402.16 (462.5a)
of either:- Welding Positions QW405.4 Performance Qualific-
• One face bend and one root bend except for ation approves all deposit thickness' No min.QW381
welding positions 5G & 6G which require 4
bends (Ref QW452.1 Note 4). If the plate ex- ASME Definitions, Consumables, Welding Positions
ceeds 3/8" side bends may be used. See QW ASME has adopted their own designation for welding
466 for precise details and exceptions. processes
Note:- Bend Tests can in most cases be replaced Designation Description
by Radiography {See Below}.
OFW Oxyfuel Gas Welding
• Radiography is optional and must be supple- SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
m e n t e d by b e n d tests w h e n using GMAW SAW Submerged Arc Welding
(MIG/MAG) with dip transfer (Short Circuit- GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/
ing Arc) or when welding some special mate- MAG)
rials. Ref. QW304. FCAW Flux Cored Wire
Note:- Ultrasonic Examination in lieu of Radi- GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
ography is not permitted PAW Plasma Arc Welding
Test r e q u i r e m e n t s for fillet w e l d s in p l a t e ref. Straight polarity - Electrode -ve Reverse polarity = Electrode +ve
QW452.5:-
• One macro section (QW 184) and One fracture F No. (QW 432)
test (QW182).
The location where each specimen has to be taken is F Number General description
defined in QW463 1 Heavy rutile cosated iron powder electrodes :-
Radiography Ref QW 191 A5.1 : E7024
• A length of at least 6" must be examined for 2 Most Rutile consumables such as :- A5.1: E6013
plate or the entire circumference for pipe. 3 Cellulosic electrodes such as :- A5.1 : E6011
• If the pipe circumference is less than 6" then 4 Basic coated electrodes such as : A5.1 : E7016
more samples must be welded u p to a maxi- and E7018
m u m of 4. Ref QW 302.2. 5 High alloy austenitic stainless steel and duplex

Visual Examination Ref QW 302.2 & QW 190 A5.4 : E316L-16

Performance test coupons must show complete 6 Any steel solid or cored wire (with flux or metal)
joint penetration with full fusion of the weld metal 2X Aluminium and its alloys
and base metal. 3X Copper and its alloys
The w e l d e r p e r f o r m a n c e test m u s t follow a 4X Nickel alloys
properly qualified WPS. Once qualified the welder 5X Titanium
must always work within the extent of approval of 6X Zirconium
Zirconium
any properly qualified WPS and his WPQ. 7X Hard Facing Overlay
The w e l d e r w h o qualifies the PQR is a u t o - Note:- X represents any number 0 to 9
matically approved within the limits specified in
QW304, QW305 and QW303. Ref QW301.2. A No. (QW442)
These refer to the chemical analysis of the deposited
Specialist Processes weld and not the parent material. They only apply to
Such as corrosion resistant overlay or hard facing welding procedures in steel materials.
are covered in QW 453.
Procedure variables are defined with all procedure Al Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.
variables in QW252 and in QW380 for welder approval. A2 to A4 Low alloy steels containing Moly and
Min base thickness approved = size welded or 1", Chrome Moly
QW 453 A8 Austenitic stainless steels such as type 316.
664 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Welding Positions Welding Positions QW461.1 and QW461.2

Note the welding progression (vertically upwards Basically there are three inclinations involved.
or downwards), must always be stated and it is an
• Flat, which includes from 0 to 15 degrees inclination
essential variable for both procedures and performance
qualifications. • 1 5 - 8 0 degrees inclination
• Vertical, 80 - 90 degrees
Welding positions for groove welds:- For each of these inclinations the weld can be rotated
Welding position Test position from the flat position to horizontal to overhead.
Flat 1G
P Material Numbers (QW420)
Horizontal 2G This is a general guide ASME P numbers and their
Vertical Upwards Progression 3G equivalent EN288 groupings. Groups referred to in the
Vertical Downwards Progression 3G Base Metal column are ASME sub groups. EN288
Overhead 4G material groups are included for comparison only.
Pipe Fixed Horizontal 5G
EN 288:
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards 6G EN 288 is the European Standard that covers the
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards 6G specification and qualification of welding procedures
for fusion welding. This standard at present consists of
Welding positions for fillet welds:- 9 parts.
Welding position Test position EN 288 Part 1: General Rules for Fusion Welding:
This part introduces the EN288 Series of standards, it
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45 degrees) IF includes definitions and a brief description of its other
Horizontal 2F parts
Horizontal Rotated 2FR EN 288 Part 2: Specification and Approval of
Vertical Upwards Progression 3F Welding Procedures for Metallic Materials: This part
Vertical Downwards Progression 3F of the standard defines the contents of a Welding Pro-
Overhead 4F cedure Specification in the form of a list of information
Pipe Fixed Horizontal 5F which should be recorded.

fillet W e l d *

K I I I K MtsvMlhiia
I irtriT'ftrttal orlzontal

Note. No Flat or Horizontal Position «tthl# Elevation

15*T©8Cf
ftitlts FfKVttliitti
I
Vertical

an TII «ur AH Positions Vertical

hJi«lc fcJcvuliun

EN 288 Part 3: Welding Procedure Tests for the Arc
Welding of Steel: This is the most familiar and widely
used method of qualifying welding procedures. It
involves the welding of a test piece representing the
p r o d u c t i o n w e l d in all essential features. The
completed test weld is then subjected to a variety of
specific tests to ensure that the properties of the weld
will be acceptable for most stringent applications.
EN 288 Part 4: Welding Procedure Tests for the Arc
Welding of Aluminium and Its Alloys: This is the
Aluminium version of EN 288 Part 3.
EN 288 Part 5: Approval by the Use of Approved
Consumables: An assumption can be made that a weld
carried out using welding consumbles, approved by
an inspection body, in accordance w i t h the
manufacturer's recommended welding practices will
produce welds suitable for simple fabrication work
without the need for any formal testing.
EN 288 Part 6: Approval by Previouse Welding Ex-
perience: If the same system of welding has been used
satisfactorily on welded fabrications for many years, it
can be assumed that the welds thus produced are ac-
ceptable. Unfortunately we know from our knowledge
of linear elastic fracture mechanics that a fine line of-
ten exists between a defective weld providing accept-
able service life and one that causes a serious failure.
Therefore this method should be used with caution.
EN 288 Part 7: Approval by a Standard Welding
Procedure: Fully documented procedures may be
purchased, from reputable authorities, for joining
materials that are relatively easy to weld such as plain
carbon and austenitic steels. This route will be useful
to companies which do not wish to get involved with
qualifying their own procedures.
EN 288 Part 8: Approval By A Pre-Production
Welding Test: If a particular joint geometry cannot sat-
isfy all the requirements of EN 288 Part 3 or Part 4 be-
cause of its size and testing requirements then a spe-
cial test can be carried out representing the joint in all
respects and subjected to as much of the testing required
by EN 288 Part 3 or Part 4 for a similar joint type.
BS EN 288-9: Welding procedure test for pipeline
welding on land and offshore site butt welding of
transmission pipelines: This is the most recent
addition to EN 288.
The chosen method of procedure approval should
take account of the following points:
• The requirements of the application standard.
This is the standard that specifies the welding
qualification requirements for fabricated items
such as boilers, pressure vessels or pipework.
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 665
• Customer specification.
• Examiner/Test Body requirements. This is the
p e r s o n or o r g a n i s a t i o n a p p o i n t e d by the
contract-ing parties to approve the procedure.
The use of a reputable third party inspection
Authority is strongly recommended for the
approval of all pro-cedures, as this may prevent
the test having to be repeated to satisfy future
contract requirements.
• The load carrying requirement of the weld and
the consequence of failure.
• Special welding requirements such as pre-heat,
post weld heat treatment, controlled heat input, etc.
For example, pressure vessels built to PD5500
require all welding qualifications to be approved by a
procedure test to EN 288 part 3 or part 4.
Welder Approval Tests
The European Standards for Welder Approval are
EN 287 Part 1 for steels and EN 287 Part 2 for
aluminium and its alloys. They only cover welding
processes that are manual or partly mechanised .ie.
where the skill of the welder has a significant influence
on weld quality. Materials to be joined can be wrought,
forged or cast.
Mechanised and Automated welding is covered by
EN1418
There is an option (non-mandatory) for a job
knowledge test (refer to appendix D of the standard)
to be carried out.
EN 288 And EN 287: Documentation
This is a general guide on how the certificates for
EN288-3 and EN287-1 should be completed.
Application standards, particularly those in other
European countries may impose additional rules and
restrictions on the qualification of welders and welding
procedures.
Welding Procedure Approval Test Certificate, Form
E1
A sample form is shown on pages 675
The numbers on the left hand side below refer to the
line numbers that appear down the left hand side of the
El form. The section and page numbers quoted below
all refer to EN 288 Part 3.
• 3 to 6 The Welding procedure reference number
can be any combination of numbers and letters
that are unique to your company The inspection
authority reference number is a unique number
666 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
issued by some Inspection Authorities, it is not a
mandatory requirement. The Manufacturer
named on this form should be the organisation
that is in control of the welding operation (Ref
EN 288 Part 3 Section 8.2).
• 7 The code/testing standard: EN288-Part 3
• 8 Date of Welding: or the date when the weld
was produced.
• 9 Range of approval: this applies from line 10
to line 20 (This line is a heading).
• 10 Welding process: state process used, if more
than one process specify which performed the
root and which performed the capping welds.
• 11 Joint type: Section 8.4.3. All joint configura-
tions approve fillet welds on plate or pipe. Single
sided full penetration welds without backing or
back gouging approve all butt welded configu-
rations with similar root details except branch
connections. Branch Connections may require
separate approval depending on the require-
ments of application standards and contracting
parties.
There are two types of double sided welds; with
gouging and no gouging, they should be correctly
specified as they have different approval ranges.
A Guide To Parent metal Grouping
• 12 Parent metal groups: Section 8.3. The parent
material must be put into the appropriate group,
see table no. 19.2 on page 668 for details. If the
material will not fit into any of the 11 groups then
it is classed as a group on its own and approves
no other material. If it can be assigned to more
than one group then it goes in the lower group. A
higher group number does not approve lower
groups except group 2 approves group 1.
Impact tests One set from H.A.Z. and one set from
weld metal for material less than 50mm thick. The ac-
ceptance criterion is that of the application standard,
refer to section 7.4.4.
Groups 1 to 3 only approve other materials in that
group with the same or lower minimum specified yield
stress {Note this the minimum value quoted by the
materials specification and not the actual value of the
material. However, it is intended for this rule to be
applied precisely but rather the general philosophy
behind it be adopted.}, e.g. For a BS1501-151-430A state:
• Group 1 with a yield stress less than or equal
to 250 N/mm 2 .
Groups 4 to 9 approve other materials in the same
group with the same or lower alloy content. The major
alloying elements should be simply summated for
comparison. Therefore a 316 stainless steel will approve
a 304 but not the converse {Note this may not be per-
mitted if it involves a significant change in consumable
composition ref 8.4.4) e.g. For a 316L stainless steel
state:
• Type 316L and lower alloyed steels in group 9.
For alloy steels the alloy content may be stated e.g.
• 2% Cr 1% Mo and lower alloyed steels in group 5.
• 13 Parent metal thickness: Section 8.3.2
A test piece of thickness 'f between 3 to 12mm
will approve thicknesses from 3mm to 2 x t.
Above 12mm the approval range is 0.5 x t To 2 x t
Single run welds made from one or both sides
for Butt, Branch and T Butt welds approve only
0.8 x t to 1.1 x t. This rule does not apply to fillet
welds.
Single Run Welds Don't Approve Multi-Run
Welds and Vice Versa, this rule applies to all joint
types including fillet welds
Fillet welds; state the range of throat thickness;
0.75 x a to 1.5 x a, a = throat thickness (approx.
0.7 x Leg length). The above range of parent metal
thickness also applies; refer to section 8.3.2.3. If
a fillet weld is qualified by a butt weld then the
throat thickness 'a' will equal the depth of the
weld deposit in the butt weld.
• 14 Pipe Diameter: Section 8.3.2.4.
• D < 168.3 approves 0.5xD to 2xD
• D = > 168.3 approves 0.5 x D to Plates
Note for Branch connection the diameter is the
branch pipe. If the branch is greater than 2 / 3 of
the main pipe diameter the joint geometry will
change significantly, therefore a separate test
should be considered. Branch connection may
consist of a pipe to plate subject to above rule.
It is generally accepted that all pipe diameters
cover plate all though this is not very clear in the
standard. Plate still covers pipe 500mm diam-
eter and above.
• 15 Filler Metal Type/Designation: Sections 8.4.4,
8.4.5, 8.5.1. Specify the codification of the con-
sumable used and what standard it is coded to.
If more than one type of consumable is involved
define which part of the weld each is responsible
for. e.g. BS 639 E43 22 C 2.5mm (Root weld), BS

639 E43 23 R 2 to 3.2mm (Cap weld). The con-
sumable type used must be compatible with the
material to be welded and have the same nomi-
nal composition or be in the same group of ten-
sile properties as the type used in the qualifying
procedure test. MMA electrode coating types can
not be changed and if impact tests are required
the brand of the electrode can not be changed
without further impact tests.
Note the range of approval for a MMA electrode
diameters is + and - one diameter, except for open
root runs (single sided without backing) then the
diameter can't be changed Standard diameters
are: 1.6, 2, 2.5, 3.2, 4, 5, 6 mm.
• 16 Gas/Flux: Section 8.5. Shielding gas and back-
ing gas composition or submerged arc flux speci-
fication. eg. Shielding and backing gas Argon
99.9% pure.
• 17 Type of Welding Current: Section 8.4.6. State
type used in test .e.g. AC or DC+ve or DC-ve or
pulsed current. Note one type of welding cur-
rent does not approve another.
• 18 Welding Positions: Section 8.4.2. This section
states that for an all position qualification the
hardness survey must be taken from the area of
lowest heat input and the impact tests from the
area of highest heat input.
This implies that restrictions exist on heat input
even when controlled heat input is not required.
Other factors may also affect heat input such as
a change from a stringer bead to a weave which
will increase heat input significantly
No hardness or impact requirements, e.g. Aus-
tenitic stainless steels State: All positions. (Pro-
viding the welding process and consumable is
capable of being used in all positions).
Hardness requirement only, apply the following
rules :-
Test position. Approved positions
Flat Flat , Vertical U p ; (Horizontal
vertical for fillet welds only)
Vertical Up Vertical Up only
Horiz-Vertical Horizontal-Vertical, Flat a n d
Vertical Up
Overhead All Positions except vertical down.
Pipe Horizontal All Positions (except v.down)
Hardness and Impact Requirements Approve
only the welding positions covered in the test
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 667
unless more than one test piece is welded, e.g. If
a plate is welded in the OH position and another
identical plate is welded in the Vertical Up posi-
tion then: all intermediate positions are approved
providing:- The hardness survey is taken form
the overhead plate and impacts from the verti-
cal one, each plate weld must be subject to Radi-
ography, Surface Crack Detection, one Tensile
and two Bend tests.
• 19 Pre heat: Section 8.4.8. If no pre-heat is used
state the actual ambient temperature. (Guidance
on pre-heat may be obtained from BS 5135). If
there is any interpass requirements then these
should also be stated.
• 20 Post weld Heat Treatment: Section 8.4.10.
Specify temperature range. Note if the applica-
tion requires post weld heat treatment then the
procedure test piece should be heat treated un-
der similar conditions. A procedure with post
weld heat treatment should not be used for ap-
plication that do not require it.
Welding Procedure Approval Test Certificate, Form E2
A sample form is shown on pages 676
This form should state what took place on the day
of the test, all the values stated should be actual values
or machine settings recorded during the test. A simple
way to record the data is to fill in an E2 form as the test
progresses and type it up later. A continuation sheet
may be appended if required. If more than one process
is involved the use of another E2 sheet may be an
advantage.
The material specification must be stated in full. e.g.
to state 316 is not acceptable as there are several 316
austenitic stainless steels with tensile strengths ranging
from 490 to 580 N / m m 2 . It is advantage to append the
material certificate to this form.
Test Results, Form E3
A sample form is shown on pages 677
This form gives summary of all the test results. It is
similar to the back of the WP form El. Laboratory report
for future reference should be retained.
Welder Approval Test Certificate, Form E4
A sample form is shown on pages 678
For a welder approval test it is only necessary to
complete form 'E4'. The section and page numbers
quoted below all refer to EN 287 Part 1.
• 2 Designation: Section 12. This is as an aid to
the fabricator to keep track of welders qualifi-
668 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
cations and therefore not to be considered man-
datory.
• 5 Welding Procedure Reference Number: The
number of the qualifying procedure or W.P.S.
• 16 Joint Type: Section 6.3 and table 3. The
approval range need only cover the range that
concerns the fabricator. Single sided full
penetration welds w i t h o u t backing or back
gouging approve all butt welded configurations
and a single sided pipe butt without backing
approves a branch connection but not for the
procedure test. All joint configurations approve
fillet welds on plate or pipe.
• 17 Parent metal Group: Section 5.4, section 6.4
and annex A
As a general rule:- (refer to the standard for more
precise details)
o W01 Unalloyed plain carbon/carbon manga-
nese steels with a yield stress <355 N / m m 2
o W02 Alloyed Steels; Cr Mo, Cr Mo V etc.
o W03 Fine grained structural steels.
o W04 Ferritic stainless steels.
o W l l Austenitic stainless steels.
There is no equivalent to BS 4871 Group W4,
High nickel alloys.
• 18 Filler Metal: Section 6.5 and section 5.5. State
full designation .e.g. BS2901 Part 2 316S92.
• 19 Gas/Flux: Section 5.5 and section 6.6
• 21 Material Thickness: Section 5.6
A test piece of thickness Y between 3 to 12 mm
will approve thicknesses from 3 m m to 2 x t.
Above 12 mm the approval range is 5mm and
above.
For dissimilar thicknesses Y is the thickness that
controls the size of weld deposit, usually the thin-
ner part.
Fillet weld leg lengths; EN287-1 does not specify
any approval range for fillet weld dimensions, it
recommends sizes for the test in Section 7.2. {Figs.
4 and 6}. However the size must be specified in
the WPS before the test begins and represent the
weld sizes to be used in production, Ref. Section
7.3.
• 22 Pipe outside diameter: Section 5.6
o A test piece of Diameter D approves Diam-
eters in the range 0.5 x D To 2 x D
o For Diameters greater than 150 mm OD there
is no upper limit but the lower limit of 0.5 x
D still applies.
o The minimum diameter that can be approved
is 25 mm, for diameters below 25 mm its the
diameter welded e.g for a welder approval
test in pipe 30 mm diameter butt welded the
approval range is range is 25 mm to 60 mm.
o For branch connection D is the diameter of
the branch.
• 23 Welding position: Section 6.8 and table 7. The
6G position for pipe, now referred to as HL045,
approves all positions except vertical down. A
plate inclined at 45° is not a recognised position
in EN 287.
Welding Positions For Groove welds:
Welding position EN
Flat PA
Horizontal PC
Vertical Upwards Progression PF
Vertical Downwards Progression PG
Overhead PE
PF
Pipe Fixed Horizontal
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards HL045
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards JL045
Welding Positions For Fillet welds:-
Welding position EN
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45 degrees) PA
Horizontal PB
Horizontal Rotated PB
Vertical Upwards Progression PF
Vertical Downwards Progression PG
Overhead PD
Pipe Fixed Horizontal PF
• 24 Gouging and backing: Section 6.3 and Table
3. State if backing was used for single sided welds
and if gouging was used for double sided welds.
Also state if a purge or backing gas was used.
• 25 Additional W.P.S.: State the W.P.S. number if
different from the procedure number in line 5.
• 33 Validity of Approval: Section 10. The date
should be 2 years from the date of issue. Then
the certificate must be re-validated by the an
examiner test body by providing evidence of
volumetric tests carried out on the welders
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 669

production work. This will involve evidence of
radiography, ultrasonics or fracture testing in the
form of radiographs or reports. These must be
traceable to the welder and taken at roughly six
monthly intervals, i.e. the basis for employer
updating. Results of visual examination and / o r
surface N D T will n o t be sufficient. If the
inspection b o d y is satisfied then it signs the
welder approval certificate making it valid for a
further 2 years.

Table 19.1
PNo. Base Metal
Carbon Manganese Steels, 4 Sub Groups
• Group 1 up to approx 65 ksi
1 • Group 2 Approx 70ksi
• Group 3 Approx 80ksi
2 Not Used
3 3 Sub Groups:- Typically half moly and half chrome half moly
4 2 Sub Groups:- Typically one and a quarter chrome half moly
5A Typically two and a quarter chrome one moly
5B 2 Sub Groups:- Typically five chrome half moly and nine chrome one moly
5C 5 Sub Groups:- Chrome moly vanadium
6 6 Sub Groups:- Martensitic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 410
7 Ferritic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 409
Austenitic Stainless Steels, 4 Sub groups
• Groupl Typically Grades 304, 316, 347
8 • Group 2 Typically Grades 309, 310
• Group 3 High manganese grades
• Group 4 Typically 254 SMO type steels
9 A, B, C Typically two to four percent Nickel Steels
10A,B,C,F,G Mixed bag of low alloy steels, 10G 36 Nickel Steel
10 H Duplex and Super Duplex Grades 31803, 32750
10J Typically 26 Chrome one moly
11A Group 1 9 Nickel Steels
11 A Groups 2 to 5 Mixed bag of high strength low alloy steels.
11B 10 Sub Groups:- Mixed bag of high strength low alloy steels.
12 to 20 Not Used
21 Pure Aluminium
22 Aluminium Magnesium Grade 5000
23 Aluminium Magnesium Silicone Grade 6000
24 Not Used
25 Aluminium Magnesium Manganese Typically 5083, 5086
26 to 30 Not used
31 Pure Copper
32 Brass
33 Copper Silicone
34 Copper Nickel
35 Copper Aluminium
36 to 40 Not Used
41 Pure Nickel
42 Nickel Copper:- Monel 500
43 Nickel Chrome Ferrite:- Inconel
44 Nickel Moly:- Hastelloy C22, C276
45 Nickel Chrome :- Incoloy 800, 825
46 Nickel Chrome Silicone
47 Nickel Chrome Tungstone
47 to 50 Not Used
51, 52, 53 Titanium Alloys
61,62 Zirconium Alloys
670 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 19.2
EN288 Base Metal

Carbon Manganese Steels, 4 Sub Groups

• • Group 1 up to approx 65 ksi
1 • Group 2 Approx 70ksi
• Group 3 Approx 80ksi
4 3 Sub Groups:- Typically half moly and half chrome half moly
5 2 Sub Groups:- Typically one and a quarter chrome half moly
5 Typically two and a quarter chrome one moly
5 2 Sub Groups:- Typically five chrome half moly and nine chrome one moly
6 5 Sub Groups:- Chrome moly vanadium
8 6 Sub Groups:- Martensitic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 410
8 Ferritic Stainless Steels Typically Grade 409
Austenitic Stainless Steels, 4 Sub groups
• Groupl Typically Grades 304, 316, 347
9 • Group 2 Typically Grades 309, 310
• Group 3 High manganese grades
• Group 4 Typically 254 SMO type steels
7 Typically two to four percent Nickel Steels
— Mixed bag of low alloy steels, 10G 36 Nickel Steel
10 Duplex and Super Duplex Grades 31803, 32750
— Typically 26 Chrome one moly
7 9 Nickel Steels
— Mixed bag of high strength low alloy steels.
— 10 Sub Groups:- Mixed bag of high strength low alloy steels.
— Not Used
21 Pure Aluminium
22a Aluminium Magnesium Grade 5000
23 Aluminium Magnesium Silicone Grade 6000
— Not Used
22b Aluminium Magnesium Manganese Typically 5083, 5086
— Pure Copper
— Brass
— Copper Silicone
— Copper Nickel
Copper Aluminium
— Pure Nickel
— Nickel Copper:- Monel 500
Nickel Chrome Ferrite:- Inconel
— Nickel Moly:- Hastelloy C22, C276
— Nickel Chrome:-Incoloy 800, 825
— Nickel Chrome Silicone
— Nickel Chrome Tungstone
— Titanium Alloys
— Zirconium Alloys
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 671

QW-482 SUGGESTED FORMAT FOB WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS (WPS)

(See QW-200,1, Section IX, ASME Boiler ami Presswe Vessel Code)
Company Name„ By:.
Welding Procedure Specrficabon No.„ . Supporting PQft No4s|«
Revision No Date.

Welding Processes) Typeis)

CAatom*r»c Mamsai. fWUtchin*, or S«mrAmtoJ

JOINTS CQVM02J Details

Joint Design —
Backing (Yes) .(Noh
Sacking Material (Type)
ffefar tt» bo«fe twcfctog and iMrimnkJ

O Metal O Nonfustng Metal

D NonmetaWc D Other
Sketches, Production Drawings, Weld Symbols or Written Description
should show the general arrangement of the parts to be welded. Where
applicable, the root spacing and the details of weld groove may be
specified.

(At the option of the Mfgr, sketches may be attached to Illustrate joint
design, weld layers and bead sequence, e.g., for notch toughness proce-
dures, for multiple process procedures, etc)

►BASE METALS (GW-403)

P*#fc>. . Group No. ..toP-No,
OB
Specification type and grade .
to Specification type 9nd grade
Oft
Cham, Analysis and Mech Prop. —
to Chem. Analysis and Mech. Prop.
Thickness Range:
Base Metal; Groove
Other

•RLLEf* METALS (QW-404)

Spec No. (SPA)
AWS No. (Das*)
F-N©
A~No
Size of Filler Metals,
Weld Metal
Thickness Range:
Groove
Fillet
Electrode-Rux (Class).
RUJC Trade Name .
Consumable Insert
Other ..

•Each base metal-filler metal combination should be recorded individually

672 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

QW-482 (Back)
WPS No ft*».
P0STWELD H6AT TREATM€f*T {O*«407>
POSITIONS *CWM05J
Pmitkwkl o* Groom*. T e m p e r a t u r e Fl»r*ge —. ,—

***&<*§ Pfogre$s*Of»: U*»_ ». Ocwwft „. Time Bangfe ,—■. :

GAS <O*-408}
Percent C o m p o s i t i o n
P R £ B £ A T IQW-#QSI
G«tlc»1 {Mixture} Plow R e t *
Pr«fc*»t T « m p . Mta._
f ni*tpm* T«mp, M»x..
ftrthmt M**m*ttane« - Shrekfcng

( C o r n e o u s or special NNrttng *rf*ere a p p l i c a b l e sfcowki b e r e c o r d e d ) Trailing

Backing

Frflar Metal
Offter
le.g,, Jrtonarfcs. C o m
Tiawef m e o t f . H o i Wfwne
Weld Type Amp Volt Speed A d d m o n , Technique,
Layer b ) Process Polar Range Range Torch Ai»0e. 6 * c J
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 673

QW-483 SUGGESTED FORMAT FOR PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORDS (PQR)

(See QW-200.2, Section IX, ASME Roller and Pressure Vessei Code)
Record Actual Conditions Used to Weld Test Coupon.

Company Name ,
ProcedureQuaM*c*t*Oft Record No _ D#t*_
*/*$ Ho ,
Wefdtng *>ocesstes* „ _
Type* *Mam*af, Automatic. Sem*-AutoJ

.JOINTS tOW 4021

Groove Oes«*m of 1 Cou0t%„

IFor combmatton «auaM*cat<on»# t!*e deported *e*d metal tn«* tie *«^ft*ed »o» each tmer metal or process usacM
BASE M6TAC5 <OW~4e3t TREAT|y|6f4T iCWM07J
Mater «a< Spec
Type or Grade
PNo. to P-Ho.
Thickness Q* Test Coupon .
Diameter of Test Coupon _
Other _
IQMM08)
Percent Composition
Gastesl <M<xture) Flow Rate

Shielding
Trading
F l t L E R METALS {CMr-404) Backing
$F A Specification -
AWS Ctatstt >cat*o#> . ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS <QW^09»
Filler Metal F N o Current _ - _ . .., ._,.... _
Wtkt Meta* Analysts A-No. Polarity . „
S**e of Filler Metal Amps _ Vo»t5^__
Other „ ^,„ y *~ w „„„^ TO ^,, ! ,„„„ Tungsten Electrode Sire _ _ _ _ _ _ „ _ _ _ .

Weld M e t a l Thickness

POSITION iOW^OSi TECHNIQUE ^QW-4101

Position ol Groove.-.....™,,.....,.. ,,_ Travel Speed .„ ..,, , _ , _
*¥e4d Progression iUphrfi, Ocwvnr>*lH_ String or Weave Bead _ „ „ _ _
Other___ : .„...„.„,„. Osc«Hatton_ _
Multipass or Single Pass ipe* stde)^
Single or Multiple Electrode* _..
PREHEAT IQW-406) Other
Prei>eaf Temp
Inter pass Temp,. „_
Othe* _ . _ _ _
674 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

QVV-483 (Back)
PQRMo.
Teneie Test <OW 150)
Ultimate Ultimate Type of I
I Spactn*en Total toad Unit Stress Fafture*
Ho. Width Thickness Area lb PSi IxRaatjofi

Guided-Beiid Tests tQW-t*J0t

[ Type and Figure No. Result j

-A. I

^
'^^r
Tests (QttMTO)

Notch : Specimen Test IM^tVaJues^

I Specimen
j Mo. Location Sue Temp. Ft. I b l ^ JlShear ^ I ^ M i t e Drop Weight Break fY/WJ |

S ^ iP

f -•#

t »
1
_ ^a
F»*t Weld Test fOW t * 8

Ve*_ Pewetretioii into Pererit Metal? TetL.

Other Tests

Type of Test

Other

Welder's Name ,Cloc* No , . Stamp No -

Tests conducted by: ««_____. „ .Laboratory Test No.
We certify that the statements m this record are correct and that the test wetds were prtpated. welded, and tested m accordance with 1
requirements of Section IX of the ASME Code

Manufacturer «

&*» " By , ,
(Detail of record of tests am iiiustratrve oofy mnd may be modified to conform to the type and number of tests required by the Code)
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 675

QW-484A SUGGESTID FORMAT A FOR WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATIONS (WPQ)

(See QW-301, Section IX, ASME Rotor and Pressure Vessel Code)

Welder's name, .Identification no..

Identification of WP$ followed. G Test coupon O Production weld

Specification of base metaKs) - Thickness.

Testing Conditions and Quttrftcattoo limits

\f QW-350) (%ftmal Vatvee Reage QMeWied

Welding processies)
Type tie: manual, semi-auto) used
Backing (metal, weld metal, douWe-wekled, etc)
Q Plate O Pipe (enter diameter if pipe or tube)
Base metal P ot S*Nomber to P- or S-Number
RtJer metal or electrode specification^) (SFA) (info only)
Filler metal ot electrode classiftcationte} {info only)
Filler metal F-Numberts)
Consumable Insert (GTAW or PAW)
Rller type (solid/metal or flux coreoVpowder} (GTAW or PAW)
Deposit thickness for each process
Position qualified f2G, 6G, 3F, etc,)
Vertical progression (uphill or downhill)
Type of fuel gas {OFWJ
Inert gas backing (GTAW, PAW, GMAW)
Transfer mode (spray/globular or pulse to short rircurt-GMAW)
GTAW currem type/polarity (AC, 0C£P. DC£N>

Visual Examination of Completed Wekt (QW-302.4)

O Bend test; O Transverse root and face iGJ|0^e.3(a)j
(a)»^rLongrtudinal
Longitudinal ro<
root and face (QW-462.3<b)); D Side (QW-462.2);
Q Pipe bend specimen teyl|W462 5(c)j; O P
Q Plate bend specimen, <XHTc«kMwesistarrt overlay (QW-462-5(dft
G 9ft» [QW-462.5<b)];
'-462.5(b)]; O Macro
I test for fusion [GW^62.5{e}]

1 Type Result W 0 ^ Ty
P* *e»* Type Result I

Alternative radiograph* examination results (QW-191)

Fillet weld - fracture test IQW-1801 . Length and percent of defects .
Macro examination IQW484) Rllet size |ln.| „ . Concavity/convexity (In.) „
Other tests .„ , .,,. .,
Film or specimens evaluated by „ . Company.
Mechanical tests conducted by _. . Laboratory test no.,
Welding supervised by
We certify that the statements in this record are correct and that the test coupons were ptep&rod, welded, and tested in
requirements of Section IX of the ASME Code.

Organization.

Date By-
This form (E0Q08A) may be obtained from the Order Dept, ASME, 22 l a w Drive, Sox 2300, fmriioki, H I 07007-2300.
676 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

OW-4S48 SUGGESTED FORMAT B FOR WELDING OPERATOR PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATIONS (WOPQ)

(See QW-301, Section IX, ASME Boiler ami Pressure Vessel Code)

Welder's name. . Identification no,

Test Description \tn(knuwikfii Onfy)
Identification of WPS followed . D Test coupon O Production weld
Specification of baseroetaMs)_ . Th#cfcness.
Base metal P or S-Nurober . . to P or S-Number. „ Position (2G, 6G, 3F, e t c ) .
Q Hate D Pipe (enter diameter if pipe or tube):
Filler metal (SFA) specHtcatioo Filler metal or electrode classification .

Testing Conditions and Qualification limits When Using Automatic Welding Equipment

Welding Variables (QW-3611) Actual Values Range Quafirted

Type of welding (Automatic)
Welding process
Filler metal (EBW or LBW)
Type of laser for LBW CC02 to YAG, etc.)
Continuous drive or inertia welding (PW)
Vacuum or out of vacuum (E8W)

Testing Conditions and Qualification Limits When Using

Welding Variables (QW-361.2)

Type of welding (machine)
Welding process
Direct or remote visual control
Automatic arc voltage control (GTAW)
Automatic joint tracking
Position qualified (2G, 6G, 3F, etc.)
Consumable inserts (GTAW or PAW)
Backing {metal weld metal, etc.)
Single or multiple passes pet side

Visual Examination of Completed Weld C

O Bend test; O Transverse root and face i Q W ^ ^ J ^ l ; D Longitudinal root Bt*6 face (QW-462.3(b}L O Side (QW-462.2);
O Pipe bend specsmm, co«oston-reststant overlay (QW~462,5(c)|; Q Plate benfi specimen, corrosion-resistant overlay (QW-462.5<d)];
D Macro test for fusion fQW-462MW; Q Macro test for fusion fQW-462S|e)l

1 Type Result Type **«* Type - *~* ]

Alternatrve radiographic examination results (QW-131).

BWet weld — fracture test (QW-180) . Length and percent of defects ,
Macro examination {GW-184) FtHet size (in.\.. . Concavity/convexity (in,) m
Other tests
Rim or specimens evaluated by. .Company.
Mechanical tests conducted by _ . Laboratory test no..
Welding supervised by
We certify that the statements in this record are correct and that the test coupons were pr*p&rtxi, welded, and tested m accordance with the
requirements of Section IX of the ASME Code.

Organization.

Date - BY-

This form (E00088) may be obtained from the Order Oept. ASME, 22 Law Drive, Box 2300. FatrfiekS, KJ 07007-2300
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 677

WELDING PROCEDURE APPROVAL TEST CERTIFICATE

El
Manufacture's Welding Procedure Inspecting Authority
Reference Number XYZ124 Reference No
Manufacturer: A Fabricator
Address: Deansgate
Manchester
M60 9AP
l Code/Testing Standard BSEN 288 Pt.3
Date Of Welding: 14/11/96

1 Range Of Approval:
Welding Process:
Joint Type :
Parent Metal Group:
Parent Metal Thickness (mm)
Pipe Outside Diameter (mm)
Filler Metal Type /Designation :
Gas /Flux
Type otWelding Current
Welding Positions :
Preheat:
1 Post Weld Heat Treatment:
Other Information :
TIG [141] Root Run MMA [111] Fill &Cap
Butt Weld Single Sided (See Line 21 For Approval Range)
1 With a Yield Stress <=241 N / mm2
4.55mm ,(3mm To 9.1mm Multi-Run Weld)
33mm, (16.5mm TO 66mm And Plates)
BS2901 Part 1 : A15 IBS639:E5143B[120.2.6]H
Argon (99% pure) IBasic Coating
DC-Electrode IAC
No Restriction on Welding Position
Workshop Ambient Temperature Minimum
Not Carried Out
Joint Type Approval Range Continued From Line 11.

All Butt T Butt & Fillet Weld Configurations (Note Branch Connections Not Listed in Table 7 Approval
Range)
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness Approval Range = 3.41mm To 6.82mm

Certified that test Welds were prepared , welded and tested satisfactorily in accordance with the
requirements of the code/testing standard indicated above.

Location : Workshop Name and Signature : A Surveyor

Date of issue: 03/02/97

Inspecting Authority : A Surveyor

(CEOC Member Organisation)

678 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

DETAILS OF WELD TEST

E2
Manufacture's Welding Procedure Inspecting Authority
Reference Number XYZ 124 Reference No.:
Manufacturer: A Fabricator
Welder's Names : John Dyson Date Of Welding : 14/11/96
Welding Process : TIG [141] And MMA [111] Location: Workshop
Joint Type : Butt Weld Single Sided Method Of Preparation and Cleaning : Machine
Parent Metal Specification : API 5L Grade B
Parent Metal Thickness (mm) 4.55mm
Pipe Outside Diameter (mm) 33 mm
Test Piece Welding Position Flat
Weld preparation details (sketch)
Joint Design Welding Sequence

70 o
^
0mm I

2 mm
2.0 mm

WELDING DETAILS

Run Process Size Of Current Voltage Type Current Wire Feed/ Heat Input
Filler Metal A V Polarity Travel Speed
1 TIG 2.4mm 112 - DC- N/A N/A
2 MMA 3.25mm 160 - AC N/A N/A
3 MMA 3.25mm 160 - AC N/A N/A

Filler Metal Carbon Manganese Steel

Type Designation Trade Name See Other Information Opposite
Any Special Baking or Drying See Other Information
Gas Flux Argon (99% pure) TIG [ 141 ]
Gas Flow Rate -Shield 12-18 LPM MurexSaffire
-Backing N/A BS2901 Parti: A 15
Tungsten Electrode Type size 2.4mm Dia ,2% Throated
Details of Back Gouging /Backiiig None MMA 1111]
Preheat Temperature: Workshop Ambient Temperature ESAB Unitrode OK 48.00
Inter Pass Temper ature N ot Recordec1 BS639 :B 143 B[120.2.6]H

POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT Dried for at least 1 hour at

Time Temperature, Method: Not Carried Out 150 °C and held in a heated
Heating and Cooling Rates quiver prior to welding

The above test place was welded : Name and Signature : A Surveyor
In the Presence of:
Inspecting Authority : A Surveyor
(CEOC Member Organisation)
Note: Welding Procedure Approval to EN 288 Part 3 has been carried out and is applicable to the named
manufacturer alone. This approval is not a Standard Welding Procedure to EN 288 Part 7 and may not be
reproduced in whole or Part and used as such
 WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS 679

TEST RESULTS
E3
Manufacture's Welding Procedure Inspecting Authority

Reference Number : XYZ 124 Reference No.:

Visual: Acceptable Radiography: Acceptable

Examination:
Parent Magnetic Particle Test: Acceptable Ultrasonic Examination : N/A

Temperature : Ambient 20 °C

TENSLE TESTS

1 Type No. Re Rm A%on Z% Fracture Location Remarks

N/mm2 N/mm2
1 Requirement - 414 - -
Transverse 1 487 Parent Metal Acceptable
Transverse 2 - 494 - - Parent Metal Acceptable

BEND TESTS
Former Diameter = 4T
Type No Bend Angle Elongation Result
Filet Fracture Test: N/A
Face 1 180 N/A Acceptable
Macro/Micro Examination : 1 Off
Face 1 180 N/A Acceptable
Acceptable
Rootl 180 N/A Acceptable
Root 2 180 N/A Acceptable

IMPACT TEST Type N/A Size Requirement

Notch Location/Direction Temp °C Values Average Remarks

HARDNESS TESTS location of Measurements (Sketch)

Type /Load Not Required, Rm <420 & Re <270
Values Parent Metal
- H.A.Z.
- Weld Metal

OTHER TESTS

REMARKS
Test Carried out in accordance with the requirements BSEN 288 Part 3 and BSEN 287 Part 1 of
Laboratory Report reference No. 95/0999
Test results were Acceptable

Test carried out : Name and Signature : A Surveyor

In the Presence of:
Inspecting Authority : A Surveyor

(CEOC Member Organisation)

680 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Note: Welding Procedure Approval to EN 288 Part 3 has been carried out and is applicable to the named
manufacturer alone. This approval is not a Standard Welding Procedure to EN 288 Part 7 and may not be
reproduced in whole or Part and used as such

WELDING APPROVAL TEST CERTIFICATE

E4
DESIGNATION EN287-114[11 l],T,BW,W01,wm[B],t4 55,D33,P A ss nb
Manufacturer's Welding Procedure: Inspection Authority :
Reference Number: XYZ 124 Reference No.
Welder Names : John Dyson
Identification : W55
Method of Welders Indent Photograph
Identification :
Date and Place of: N/A (if required)
Birth:
Employer: A Fabricator
Code / Testing Standard : BSEN 287 Part 1
Job Knowledge : NOT TESTED

Weld test details Range of Approval

Welding Process TIG [141]Root MMA[111] Fill TIG[141]Root MMA[lllJFill
Plate or Pipe Pipe Pipe Or Plate
Joint Type Butt Weld Single Sided All Butt And Fillet Welds 1
! Parent metal group W01 {Carbon Steel} W01 Only
Filler metal type/designation BS 2901-1 :A15 BS639 E5143 B From Group W01 From Group W01
Gas/Flux Argon Basic Coating Similar Gas AR,R,RR,RB,RCB
Auxiliaries None N/A
Material Thickness (mm) 4.55mm 3MM To 9.1mm
Pipe outside diameter (mm) 33mm 25mm To 66mm
Welding positions PA {Flat Position} PA,PB
Gouging /Backing None Backing Gouging or None

Additional information on attached sheet/or welding procedure specification No. : None

j Type of test Performed and Not required Name and Signature : A Surveyor
acceptable
Visual YES - Inspecting Authority : A Surveyor
Radiography YES -
Magnetic particle YES - (CEOC Member Organisation)
' penetrate
Macro YES - Date of issue: 03/02/97
Fracture YES Location : Workshop
Bend YES - Validity of approval unit :14/11/98
Additional tests See WPAR
PROLONGATION FOR APPROVAL(Every six Month)
BY EMPLOYER/ SUPERVISOR
PROLONGATION FOR APPROVAL BY INSPECTING AUTHORITY
Date Signature Position or Title 1 Date Signature Position or Title 1 1
 CHAPTER 19
Welding
Applications
The advantages of welding having been well recognised
by designers and fabricators, there is hardly any indus-
try today which has not benefited from welding. Weld-
ing has made a significant impact on quite a large num-
ber of major industries, by raising the operational effi-
ciency, productivity and service life of the plant and
equipment involved. A few of them which are highly
relevant to India are listed below:
1) Structurals: Buildings and bridges
2) Field-erected vertical storage tanks *
3) Pressure vessels
4) Pipings and pipelines
5) Power generating plant
6) Chemical plant
7) Ships
8) Railways
9) Automotive
10) Machinery construction.
In this chapter, we have described how welding has
been applied in these industries and what specific benefits
have been derived.
1) Structurals
These can be divided into two areas: structures which
are subjected to static loading or a low frequency of
dynamic stresses as represented by buildings, and those
subjected to fluctuations in loading as represented by
bridges.
Application of welding to buildings and bridges has
been promoted by the availability of codes and specifi-
cations based on many years of shop and field experi-
ence and the extensive research carried out in recent
years. Examples are the Structural Welding Code issued
by the American Welding Society and Specifications for
the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel
in Buildings issued by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC). Among other things, these codes
provide design criteria and standard procedures for the
guidance of the designer and the fabricator.
The range and efficiency of welded structures have
been raised in recent years by the availability of a wide
variety of weldable structural steels having tensile
strengths from 400 to 930 N / m m 2 . The thickness range
available is also very wide. Plates 150 mm and more in
thickness are being welded regularly Column sections
weighing over 1,000 k g / m and having flanges 125 mm
thick are available as standard product in advanced
countries. The codes and specifications also specify the
standard grades of steel, which are permitted to be used
in structurals.
The welding processes used on structurals are:
manual metal-arc, submerged-arc, MIG/C0 2 , flux-cored
arc, electroslag, electrogas and stud welding. The AWS
Code permits the use of the first four processes without
welding procedure qualification testing, provided the
w e l d i n g p r o c e d u r e s conform to certain specific
limitations specified therein. For the other three, the
procedures have to be qualified as prescribed in the
Code.
Some of the s t r u c t u r a l elements which are
conveniently w e l d e d and covered in the AISC
Specification are described below:
Column base plates: These are required on the ends of
columns to distribute the concentrated compressive load
of the column over a much larger area of the material,
that is to support the column. Several welded designs
can be used. Gusset plates can be added if there is a
moment to be transferred at the base.
682 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Column splices: These can be designed in several ways
without punching the main columns.
Beam seats and framed connections: M e t h o d s of
designing both stiffened and unstiffened seats and tables
for p r o p o r t i o n i n g these types of connections are
described in publications such as the manual of design
published by AISC.
Rigid connections: The two basic types used are: (1)
the directly connected beam, in which flanges are
welded on the supporting member without using
connecting plates; (2) the beam cut-short and attached
with additional connecting plates.
Semi-rigid connections: The design is somewhat
similar to that for rigid connections.
Wind bracing connections: For w i n d bracing
connections, in a simply supported structure, the top
plate is suitably designed to carry the calculated wind
m o m e n t and w e l d e d to c o l u m n a n d b e a m . The
connection to the seat is also suitably designed.
Trusses: By designing trusses for arc welding, gusset
plates can be generally eliminated or reduced to the
minimum requirement for the transfer of forces. Several
designs are possible, in which the web members are
angles or channels and chords are turned out from T
and H shapes.
For the erection of framed structures, the usual
practice is to use two or more ordinary rough bolts in
p u n c h e d holes to position the m e m b e r s d u r i n g
plumbing and welding. With the help of two bolts, shop-
welded seats can be made to carry the erection loads
and the service loads. A larger number of bolts are used
if they directly carry the erection loads.
In the case of some rigid frame structures, the
common practice is to use welded hitch plates or angles.
All the holes are contained in the hitch material, which
is cut off with an oxyacetylene torch when the welding
has been partially or fully completed.
Even when a structure is designed to be all-welded,
bolted connections are preferred for items like roof
purlins, roof bracing, girts and secondary beams.
Bridges
Unlike buildings, bridges are subject to dynamic and
repetitive live loads. While the structural members of
buildings are protected from direct exposure to weather,
such is not the case with the structural elements of
bridges. These differences justify the more conservative
unit stresses specified for bridges.
For the welding of bridge members subject to static
loading, reference should be made to specifications
such as the Structural Welding Code of the American
Welding Society. For the design of road bridges against
live loads, guidance must be sought from specifications
such as the Standard Specifications for H i g h w a y
Bridges, adopted by the American Association of State
Highway Officials (AASHO). For the design of railway
bridges, reference must be made to the appropriate
publication issued by the railway authorities, for
e x a m p l e , Manual for Railway Engineering, of the
American Railway Engineering Association.
The welded components of a bridge are similar to
those of a building. They are mainly girders, beams,
stiffeners, diaphragms, floor beams and stringers.
For field erection, various types of fit-up clamps and
clips are used, instead of erection bolts. For site welding
of a splice, most of the bevel is placed on the top side of
the flange to keep overhead welding to the barest
minimum. In making a girder splice, welding sequence
must be properly chosen to minimise distortion. In one
sequence, after the assembly is fitted up, the web is first
partially welded, then the flanges are completely welded
and finally the weld in the web is completed. In the site
welding of diaphragms, floor beams and stringers too,
the welding sequence is important.
In India
Steel frames for buildings, factory sheds, sports
stadia, railway platform roofings, etc., are largely
welded. Typical welded details which go into structurals
are c o l u m n base plates, c o l u m n splices, truss
connections and crane runway girders. There are several
outstanding examples of steel-frame buildings designed
for shop welding and rivetting, and welding or bolting
at site. A m o n g them are the Telephone Exchange
Building, West Bengal Government's Building and the
Reserve Bank Building, all located in Calcutta.
Castellated beams, produced by suitably flame-
cutting and welding the standard rolled beams or
channels have been quite popular in India. Castellated
sections are just ideal for long s p a n s and light
superimposed loads, though these have been frequently
used as other structural members as well. Since, by
castellation the depth of the section increases by about
50% as compared to the original rolled section from
w h i c h it has been m a n u f a c t u r e d , there is a
corresponding increase in the moment of inertia and
section modulus of the section. The increase in the
moment of inertia is as much as 135% and that of section
modulus by about 56%. As a result of this, there is an
improvement in the carrying capacity of the beam due
to the section having acquired properties to resist greater
bending moments. Though there is an improvement

here, there is no effect in the shear capacity of the section.
In fact, at times it is adversely affected and sufficient
strengthening is necessary.
Use of welding in bridges makes them lighter and
stronger and gives them a streamlined look. Welding is
used in India both for the fabrication of new bridges
and for the repair or strengthening of existing ones.
The first long-span bridge, where web members have
welded battens and d i a p h r a g m s is probably the
Mortakka Bridge of Western Railway. The bridge over
the river Langulia, consisting of six spans of 45 m and
one span of 41.25 m lattice type girders, was designed
for shop welded and site rivetted construction by the
B.N. Railway. The bridge has been found satisfactory
on test for deflection and oscillation.
The rail-cum^road bridges over the river Ganga at
Mokamah and over the river Brahmaputra at Amingaon
are outstanding examples of saving steel through welding.
In the main trusses, top and bottom chords, end rakers
and posts are of high tensile steel rivetted construction,
but web members and floor systems and fixed-end and
free-end bearings are of mild steel welded construction.
Shear lugs have been welded to steel roadway stringers
to make a composite girder of steel and concrete.
All-welded Bridge
The all-welded bridge on the Rhine at Speyer in West
Germany, built in 1956, is a fine specimen of welded
structure, combining lightness with streamlined
elegance, strength with perfect symmetry. The total
weight involved—1,700 tons—meant a saving of 69%
in steel when compared with its predecessor, which was
built in 1937 and blown up by enemy action in 1945.
Design features
With a useful width of about 13.7 m when seen in
section, the vertical plates form an enclosed box, in
combination with the top and bottom girdle plates, and
this box formation distributes even eccentrically applied
traffic load uniformly over the entire cross-section. The
roadway forms simultaneously the top and bottom
plates of the box, which along with inter-crossing
Table 19.1: Impact properties of
+20°C +10°C +0°C
10.9 11.1 11.1
12.2 12.7 12.2
10.3 11.2 11.0
9.3 9.1 10.0
WELDING APPLICATIONS 683
lengthwise and crosswise ribs, constitute a form of
orthotropic plate (see Fig. 19.1). While due regard could
be given to complete symmetrical arrangement as
already recognised in bridges of this size, especially of
the main girders, a necessary condition was to maintain
a practically perfect smoothness of the vertical plates
on the outer sides of the box, and for achieving this the
problem of asymmetrical arrangement of weld joints
had to be resolved, more so as dents in these side plates
were not allowed to exceed 0.3%.
Materials
About 55% of the total steel used was of St 52 quality,
meant for all highly-stressed fabricated parts, while the
balance was of St 37, for those components which were
the least stressed in service.
While common bridge construction practice is to
weld extensively in the shops and to prefer rivetting on
site, here welding was used throughout. It was therefore
necessary to choose and control base materials and the
filler materials (in this case electrodes) so that they
together gave at no stage any deficiencies in completed
weldments, with regard to tensile strength, ductility and
homogeneity.
While the technological properties of steel St 52 are
so very well-known, it was necessary to determine its
weldability a n d impact p r o p e r t i e s b e t w e e n the
temperature range +20°C and -40°C. The DVM impact
test results are shown in Table 19.1.
Next, butt welds were made with approved electrodes
and DVM impact tests were carried out over a
temperature range from -30 to +20°C for butt weld joints
and -10 to -40°C for pure weld-metal. With the exception
of the roadway lengthwise joints, all the weld joints had
the root run executed with low-hydrogen type electrode
of German classification Kb IX/XIIS, and the top runs
with titania type electrode of German classification
TiVIIIS. The test results obtained in respect of these
electrodes are reproduced in Tables 19.2 and 19.3.
Test results of value more than 14.1 were not
recorded. Test-pieces in tests 4 and 5 were welded at -
15°C in unrestrained condition.
St 52 (values are in mkg/cm2)
-10°C -20°C -30°C -40°C
10.5 11.5 10.2 6.75
12.3 12.7 10.6 7.10
10.5 9.9 7.8 7.4
9.9 8.7 8.0 6.9
684 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Finally, the electrode weld-metal and the weld joints
completed with it were thoroughly examined under
conditions representative of those present in actual
construction work for tendency to surface and
underbead crack formation.
Although it was logical to use automatic welding
process on the roadway lengthwise joints, a cross-section
of which is sketched at (C) in Fig. 19.1, calculations based
on the conditions showed that it was more
advantageous in this case to use high efficiency iron
powder electrodes of German classification Fe Es VIII,
with a deposition efficiency of about 150%. Later
practical experience and actual calculations showed that
considerations of welding technique and economics of
Fig. 19.1: All-welded bridge on the Rhine at Speyer. (A) Normal cross-section; (B) Cross-section over the piles; (C)
Cross-section of roadway lengthwise Joint.
welding on which this particular procedure was based
were fully justified.
Shop fabrication
Next to materials, the fabrication procedure is an
important requisite to ensure a successful welded job.
Long before work commenced, careful thought had to
be given to the most appropriate assembly programme
and welding procedures, and corresponding working
plans had to be decided upon, which would keep
contraction stresses and/or distortion to the minimum.
Automatic welding, in this case semi-automatic Elin-
Hafergut Process, was used on a limited scale, and in
fact only for fillet welds in cross-beams between lamella
Type Ti VIII S
Type Fe Es VIII
Ti VIIIS
All dimensions in mm
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 685

and vertical plates. For all the remainder, hand-welding six components, namely the two main girders with
was given preference. varying vertical plate heights from 3.20 to 6.25 m over
As is clear from the sketch of the cross-section in Fig. the pillars (spans), and two top and two bottom box
19.1, the box-forming structure of the bridge consists of plates.

Table 19.2: Impact values for butt welds from St 52 steels at temperatures +20°C and -30°C
/ / ■ , _ ■

Impact value in/inkg/cm 2 at the testing temperature of

Test +2ri°c '; -30°c
No. Butt joint centre Heat-affected zone Butt joint centre Heat-affected zone
i) over 14.10 over 14.10 13.50 13.75
over 14.10 over 14.10 6.46 8.90
over 14.10 over 14.10 14.10 11.64
Average 14.10 14.10 11.00 11.40
2) 8.80 over 14.10 9.70 7.90
9.30 over 14.10 12.20 14.10
11.72 13.75 12.40 10.70
Average 9.90 14.00 11.40 10.90
3) 9.60 over 14.10 9.90 10.60
13.72 over 14.10 5.68 11.34
over 14.10 over 14.10 11.32 8.80
Average 12.40 14.10 8.90 10.20
4) over 14.10 over 14.10 5.60 11.00
over 14.10 13.80 10.26 12.90
Stress-relieved
over 14.10 over 14.10 10.70 13.40
Average over 14.10 14.10 8.80 12.70
5) 10.90 13.60 10.00 12.60
over 14.10 over 14.10 12.12 10.68
Stress-relieved -x
over 14.10 13.90 13.40 12.90
Average 13.00 13.90 11.84 12.10

Table 19.3: Impact values in mkg/cm2 of the weld-metal at temperatures of -10°C, -20°C and -40°C
Test No. Electrode -10°C -20°C -40°C
1 Ti VIII s 11.6 9.1 8.9
2 Ti VIII s 10.4 9.0 7.6
3 Ti VIII s 10.9 8.9 7.8
4 Ti VIII s 11.1 9.2 9.1
Average Ti VIII s 11.0 9.05 8.3
5 Ti VIII s 11.1 9.2 7.8
6 Ti VIII s 10.8 9.8 6.1
7 Ti VIII s 10.2 10.4 8.1
Average Ti VIII s 10.7 9.8 7.4
1 Kb IX / XII s 12.0 14.5 12.6
2 Kb IX / XII s 13.6 11.8 13.2
3 Kb IX / XII s 16.0 16.0 12.8
Average Kb IX / XII s 13.9 14.1 12.9
4 Kb IX / XII s 15.1 16.0 14.1
5 Kb IX / XII s 14.9 16.7 14.1
6 Kb IX / XII s 16.1 16.0 12.1
Average Kb IX / XII s 15.4 16.2 13.5
686 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
On account of large lengths and widths of individual
structural components, and with a large number of weld
joints r u n n i n g l e n g t h w i s e a n d crosswise, it w a s
impossible to fix u p in a d v a n c e the a m o u n t of
contraction that would result, and to make allowances
for it. Data on contraction allowances based on
experimental work are indeed known, but they cannot
be taken absolutely for constructional work, since
contraction effects vary from job to job. So it would be
futile to attempt to make markings for boring of holes
before welding had been finished. Moreover, the vertical
plates and the strapping plates, as also the top and
bottom boxplates had to be laid out in their lengthwise
and crosswise directions without marking off the correct
lengths; following this, the rolled beams in the upper
plates and the U-section in the bottom plates had to be
inserted as stiffening members, and finally the cross
girders could be inserted one after another and fastening
of the lengthwise stiffeners. Finally, the stiffening
assembly tied up in this manner was welded in the most
appropriate sequence to the respective top and bottom
boxplate. As a last preparation for the site work, the
corresponding weld joint profiles and drilling of holes
as were necessary for site assembly and rivet joints were
carried out.
More consideration was necessary on the welding
technique for the construction of main girders, since as
already mentioned, asymmetrical conditions were
present and on the outside of the plates perfect flatness
was necessary. Referring to the condition that the dents
should not exceed a value of 0.3%, it must be made clear
that it should be considered on a relative basis, since
with the temperature variation from -20° to +30°C in a
year (this means the structure can have a temperature
range between -20° and +30°C) the flatness must be
related to some nominal temperature, so as to avoid the
danger of uncontrollable stress concentrations, at
extremely low temperatures. As an example of the
necessity for the fixing up of a definite temperature as a
basis for determining the maximum denting, it may be
m e n t i o n e d that following m e a s u r e m e n t s at a
temperature of +22°C and in direct sun's rays, it was
found necessary to adjust for denting by 1.5 to 2% over
the defined mean temperature of+10°C.
As far as was possible in the finishing of main girders,
unitwise fabrication was followed, i.e. units were
welded together in series and laid out, so that with
further constructional elements they could be assembled
into one higher unit. The setting of the final remaining
work was completed by welding all the joints without
interruption. The final fitting up of completed units into
one another was checked up before their despatch to
site, so that difficulties of assembly at site were fully
avoided.
Site assembly and welding
All the main girders could not be fully welded
together in the shop. As there was a limit to the
maximum height of the vertical plates, it was necessary
to send the main girder to the erection site in two parts:
the top and the bottom, so that these two parts could be
welded to completion there.
In this work, three different joints had to be welded
up as follows:
1) The central joint of the main girder
2) The plates of the vertical reinforcements
3) The strapping plates of these reinforcements.
Joining together two parts of the main girder
involved placing them with the outer wall resting on
the setting-up floor and welding the V-groove joint. In
order to place the girder finally in the correct position,
special precautions had to be taken. In addition, the
permanent measurements of shrinkage associated with
welding were studied closely, so that one could change
over at once to another welding procedure, in case
measurements carried out in a certain procedure had
shown it to be not right, and also to enable one to lay
down fresh instructions for such constructions.
Inspection: Over 600 examinations were carried out
by X-ray radiography and ultrasonic method. The
objectionable welds amounted to only 3.4%. These were
cut out and the portions were rewelded.
2) Vertical Storage Tanks
For bulk storage of water, petroleum products, oil,
natural gas, propane, cryogenic liquids such as oxygen,
nitrogen and hydrogen, refrigerated ammonia and other
important products, large vertical tanks are field-welded
and erected. Such tanks are a common feature of steel
plants, fertiliser plants and oil refineries. They are
usually designed and fabricated in accordance with
codes and specifications prepared to meet the specific
n e e d s of a particular industry. Such codes and
specifications designed for one industry should not be
applied to other industries without a full understanding
of the design, material and construction aspects
involved.
Most of these tanks are made from mild steel, because
under normal stress and ambient temperature, it gives
satisfactory service. However, when a tank is exposed
to low and cryogenic temperatures and sufficiently
stressed, the steel may fracture in a brittle manner,
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 687

resulting in catastrophic failure. For low-temperature
service, the metal has to be qualified through Charpy-
V notch impact tests. For very low-temperature service,
Ni-alloyed steels, austenitic stainless steels and
aluminium and its alloys are preferred.
The tanks are designed in various ways. The most
common shape is the cylindrical tank with flat bottom
and a fixed cone roof (see Fig. 19.2) as used for refinery
products, tar, alcohol and other industrial liquids. When
a volatile liquid such as petrol is to be stored, the fixed
conical roof is replaced by a floating roof, which floats
upon the liquid, insulating its surface and minimising
vapour losses. Sometimes, a tank is designed to have a
fixed roof as well as a floating roof. The fixed roof keeps
out rain and dust and acts as a sunshade to prevent
heating of the stored liquid. The floating roof minimises
vapour losses, oxidation and contamination of the
product. Domed-roof tanks with flat reinforced or
curved bottom are designed for storing petroleum
products under low pressure to prevent evaporation.
For storing gas or petroleum products under pressure,
spheres known as hortonspheres are used (see Fig. 19.3).

Roof

Diameter

Fig. 19.2: Cylindrical oil-storage tank with cone roof.

Fig. 19.3: Sphere for storing gas or petroleum products under pressure.
688 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Each type of tank is provided with accessories such as
foundations, vents, gauges, d r a i n s , overflows or
manholes depending on the product stored, local
conditions and regulations.
A hortonsphere is of petal construction having a
number of courses and two caps. Petals and caps are
normally produced in the shop by hot pressing. In a
few cases, spherical plates have been produced by
rolling in a plate-bending machine, using a modified
technique. The sub-assembled components are finally
assembled and welded, and the completed vessel is
stress-relieved at site.
Cryogenic storage tanks designed for the storage of
liquid oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and liquefied natural
gas at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures of -
183, -196, -253 and -163°C respectively, are double-
shelled insulated flat-bottom tanks such as the one
shown in Fig. 19.4.
Since the erection of a tank involves positional
welding, the manual metal-arc process is commonly
used. M I G / C 0 2 or flux-cored gas-shielded arc process
is equally suitable, provided the area is shielded from
winds. Flux-cored self-shielded welding is better suited
for welding in the open breezy conditions. M I G / C 0 2
and flux-cored processes are particularly preferred for
lap jointed bottoms and roofs, and for fillet welds.
Specially designed submerged-arc welding equipment
is available for the fully-automatic welding of girth
seams in the 3 o'clock position. With this equipment,
full-penetration b u t t welds can be m a d e in plate
thicknesses up to 9.5 mm, without bevelling the plates
and by welding from one side at a time or from both
«*sK*m «**s*-
Fig. 19.4: Cryogenic storage tank.
sides simultaneously. For heavier plates, double-bevel
grooves are necessary. In both these cases, back gouging
is generally not required. The electrogas welding
process, in which water-cooled copper shoes contain and
shape the weld deposit to a desired contour until it
solidifies, has also been used with success on vertical
seam welds.
In the design of field-welded storage tanks, full
penetration butt joints in tank shell plating subjected to
100% radiography are considered as having 100% joint
efficiency; when spot radiography is used, they are
regarded as having 85% efficiency. Double lap joints
which are fully fillet-welded are considered as having
70-75% efficiency. The areas which sustain primary
stress and hence require welded joints of 100% efficiency
are: vertical joints in cylindrical tank shells, joints below
the point of support in suspended bottoms and all the
joints in low-pressure tanks. Less stressed areas such as
the circumferential seams of cylindrical tank shells must
have at least two-thirds penetration. The shell is usually
connected to a flat bottom by means of continuous fillet
welds on both sides of the shell plate. The fillet size is
equal to the thickness of the bottom plate or shell plate
whichever is less, but never exceeds 12.5 mm.
Flat bottom and roof plates on vertical cylindrical
tanks, if the thickness does not exceed 12.5 mm, are
usually connected with fillet welds applied to the top
side only. Heavier plates are usually groove-welded.
Dished bottoms and dome and cone roofs on tanks
subjected to low internal pressures must be designed
with a connecting weld capable of carrying the resulting
stresses.

A large number of all-welded vertical tanks and
hortonspheres made from mild steel have been erected
at various sites of steel plants, fertiliser plants and oil
refineries in India. At a few places, the completed
hortonspheres have been stress-relieved at site in one
stroke, by using special gas-jet burners (see Chapter 19).
All-welded stainless steel vertical tanks have also been
erected at a few places for storing corrosive materials
like ammonium sulphate. In some cases, Al and its alloys
have replaced the more expensive stainless steels. In one
example, a non-heat treatable Al-Mg alloy has been used
to fabricate a fully welded tank of 3,30,000 litre capacity,
using the TIG welding process.
3) Pressure Vessels
Application of welding to pressure vessels and
boilers has permitted design flexibility, significant
weight reduction and operation at higher levels of
strength and pressure. This has resulted in improved
quality and safety, longer service life and economy of
construction and operation. Pressure vessel technology
is developing rapidly. Industrial demand of pressures
up to 3,500 psi, temperatures from 649 down to -260°C,
pressure and temperature cycling, exposure to corrosive
agents, hydrogen-containing environments and neutron
irradiation have thrown up challenges to the designer
and the fabricator. They should therefore keep abreast
of the evolution in materials, design and welding
techniques.
Failure of pressure vessels and boilers in service can
not only cause monetary and production losses, but
could also constitute a serious health hazard. Designers
and fabricators must therefore scrupulously follow
safety codes, standards and regulations which govern
their construction. Examples of such publications are
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Rules and
Regulations of Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Rules for
Building and Classing Steel Vessels of the American
Bureau of Shipping, and the Indian Boiler Code.
These publications are quite exhaustive and cover
permissible materials, sizes, shapes, design, service
limitations, preheat and postheat treatments, inspection
and testing requirements, and even specify conditions
for the qualification of welding equipment, welding
procedures and welders. Since they are revised from
time to time, the designer /fabricator must use the latest
issue including the latest addenda and amendments.
The alloys used in pressure vessels and boilers are:
plain carbon steels, low-alloy steels, quenched and
tempered steels, chromium steels, austenitic stainless
steels, clad steels (carbon and low-alloy steels clad with
WELDING APPLICATIONS 689
straight chrome steel or austenitic stainless steel or nickel
and its alloys) and non-ferrous metals (Al and its alloys,
Ni and its alloys, Cu and its alloys and titanium). Their
choice is determined by the following properties:
a) Short time yield strength, tensile strength and
ductility at room and maximum operating tem-
perature
b) Notch toughness and impact resistance, espe-
cially when low-temperature service is involved
c) Creep strength, rupture strength and ductility for
service temperatures in plastic flow range
d) Weldability and need for preheat and postheat
treatments
e) Thermal conductivity, expansion and shock re-
sistance
f) Resistance to fatigue loading
g) Resistance to corrosion, corrosion fatigue and
stress corrosion
h) Structural stability in service
i) Age-hardening and embrittlement in service
Metallurgical features and weldability properties of
these materials are covered in Chapter 10. For more
information, the reader must refer to appropriate
handbooks.
A pressure vessel is usually cylindrical in shape, and
is made from a number of shell courses and either
ellipsoidal or two radii torispherical heads called dished
ends. Special shapes include cylinders, spheres, ellipsoids,
tori and cones in several combinations.
In designing pressure vessels, one must consider the
maximum allowable working pressure, maximum
working temperature and the possible use of pressure
relief equipment. The maximum working pressure and
temperature governing the design have to be stamped
on the vessel. There are also several other design criteria
to be considered, such as fluctuating and repeated
pressure loading and temperature, effects of platforms,
supports and attached equipment, and wind and
earthquake loading.
Pressure vessel codes provide design criteria for each
metal based on tensile strength, stress to produce
rupture in a specified time and creep strength. The
designer must be aware of various design formulae as
applicable to shells and spheres, ellipsoidal or dished
ends, flat covers, etc. The codes also describe various
types of welded nozzles and other connections to
pressure vessels. In choosing from these types, the
designer must consider the convenience of radiographic
inspection and economy.
690 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Designing of supports for the vessels is equally
important, because they introduce direct, bending or
secondary stresses which have to be maintained at a
safe level.
Code rules provide data on efficiencies for the
welded joints. Butt joints welded from both sides must
be used in the design as far as possible, as they offer
maximum assurance of uniform or complete fusion.
Fabrication procedure: Plates received from the steel
mill must conform to the required specifications with
respect to chemistry a n d mechanical p r o p e r t i e s
indicated by tensile and bend tests and in some cases,
by impact tests. Before starting fabrication, the edges
and surfaces of all plates must be carefully inspected
for the presence of defects such as l a m i n a t i o n s ,
blowholes, cracks and tears. The plate edges are usually
beveled in the flat position, but in the case of heavy
plates more accurate assembly is obtained if planing or
burning is done after forming. The plates are usually
formed by b e n d i n g in pinch rolls or offset rolls.
Sometimes they are press formed with dies. These
operations are commonly done in the cold. Hot-forming
may be necessary in the case of heavy plates, which have
to be press-formed. Since offset rolls or pinch rolls cannot
properly bend the extreme ends of the plate, the ends
are bent to the required curvature by means of a press
brake prior to roll-forming. Large hydraulic presses are
used for forming very thick plate sections as well as
double-curvature sections.
To assemble the vessel, the mating edges of the
cylindrical sections are brought closer and held together
with lugs and bars, and tack welded on the weld root
side. The joints are then welded, preferably by the
automatic submerged-arc process, or by the electrogas
or electroslag process (see Chapter 8) in the case of very
heavy plates. The completed cylinder normally shows
depression at the joint due to weld contraction, and in
most cases the out-of-round tolerance is exceeded. In
light plate, the out-of-roundness can be corrected by re-
rolling. In heavy plate, correct circularity is achieved by
judicious selection of edge bevel, making pressing
allowances during forming, and by placing supporting
struts at the cylinder during assembly and welding.
Double-bevel joints in place of single-bevel also help.
Dished ends are prepared for welding by cutting the
edges in a boring mill or lathe. Oxy-cutting, gouging
and plasma arc cutting are also used. They are attached
to the shells with or without backing strip or ring,
depending on the welding process and procedure.
Welding procedure is the same as for the circumferential
joints of the vessel.
Besides the automatic welding processes mentioned
above, m a n u a l metal-arc welding and M I G / C 0 2
welding are used, preferably for welding nozzles and
attachments. MIG process in semi-automatic or fully-
automatic form is sometimes used for non-ferrous and
stainless steel pressure vessels.
H e a t i n g before a n d d u r i n g w e l d i n g may be
necessary d e p e n d i n g on the type of metal, plate
thickness a n d rigidity of the joint. Preheating
requirements are specified in codes.
Attachments like nozzles and pads which go on the
dished ends are welded to the dished ends before these
ends are attached to the shell, because in this case all
welding can be completed in approximately the flat
position. Similar external connections to the shell,
however, are attached and welded after the dished ends
have been welded to the shell and after radiographic
inspection, in order to avoid the interference of the
connections with these two steps. Nozzle welding is a
very important step, and the relevant code requirements
m u s t be closely s t u d i e d , both at the design a n d
fabrication stage. If radiographic test is specified for
nozzle welds, the fittings must be designed to be
amenable to radiographic inspection.
Most boiler codes stipulate that the welded vessel
be subjected to a stress-relieving p o s t w e l d heat
treatment. The temperature range to which the vessel
must be heated is dictated by the type of metal, and the
time at m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d s on plate
thickness. For carbon steels, the treatment usually
consists of heating the completed vessel at a uniform
rate to a temperature of 600-650°C, holding at that
temperature for a period of one hour per 25 m m of
thickness and then cooling uniformly. The maximum
temperature ranges for postweld heat treatment for
various metals are indicated in the codes (see Chapter
10). Besides relieving locked-up stresses in the vessel
caused by c o l d - w o r k i n g a n d w e l d i n g , this heat
treatment slightly lowers the yield point and tensile
strength and marginally increases the ductility of the
plate material due to slight spheroidisation of the
carbide constituent. It also softens and increases ductility
of the weld-metal and HAZs.
Thick-walled vessels which have to stay in the
furnace for long periods and those having a high
d i a m e t e r - p l a t e - t h i c k n e s s ratio may, d u r i n g heat
treatment, sag and distort through plastic flow induced
by the weight of the vessel. This can be prevented by
providing properly spaced saddle supports capable of
providing a large bearing surface, and internal struts
across the diameter.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 691

In the fabrication of economisers, superheaters and longitudinal seam is welded using the underlayer as
heat exchangers which are important units of an oil- backing. Shrinkage in these welds further tightens the
fired boiler in a thermal power station, parallel tubular hold of the outer layer. An important advantage of
elements have to be connected between two or more multilayer design is that the vessel does not require
headers or drums. The welds in tubing are mostly stress-relief heat treatment.
circumferential butt welds. Such welds are made in Inspection and testing: The inspection methods
shops by flash, induction or automatic MIG/C0 2 commonly used in pressure vessel fabrication are visual,
processes. At site, such welds are made by TIG for the sectioning and etching, fluorescent and liquid
root pass and manual metal-arc for subsequent passes. penetrants, magnetic particle, radiographic and
Economisers usually operate at relatively low ultrasonic. For economic reasons, such inspection is
temperatures; hence their fabrication involves welding carried out before the vessel is postweld heat treated
of plain carbon steel. Superheaters, whose function is and subjected to pressure tests. For critical applications,
to raise the temperature of the steam delivered from and especially in the case of vessels made from special
the primary steam-generating pfortion of the boiler unit, alloys, the purchaser may demand radiographic
are located in the high-temperature region of the heating examination after the final postweld heat treatment.
gas flow. Superheater parts including tubing are In some eases, the completed vessel is subjected to
therefore made from oxidation-resistant and creep- hydrostatic, pneumatic or proof testing (see Chapter 13).
resistant alloy steels (commonly alloyed with Si, Cr and
Mo), which must be welded with special welding proce- 4) Pipings and Pipelines
dures involving preheat and postweld heat treatments In the industrial world, the term piping is usually
as prescribed in boiler codes (see Chapter 10). understood to cover pipe; tubing; fittings such as tees,
An important step in the fabrication of heat elbows, flanges and reducers; valves and headers used
exchangers, whose function is to transfer heat from one in oil refineries, power stations, nuclear plants, chemical
phase of the operation to another, is the welding of tubes and petrochemical plants and other industrial plants.
to tube plates. Special welding equipment, procedures The term pipelines usually applies to long transmis-
and techniques have been developed for this sion pipelines designed to conduct liquids such as water,
application. crude oil and petrol, and gases such as natural gas.
Multilayer vessels: When sufficiently thick plates for Today, piping systems and pipelines in industry are
high-pressure application are not available, or facilities almost fully welded. Threaded joints are rarely used.
for forming them do not exist, multilayer welded vessels Flanged joints are used only where sections have to be
may be fabricated. In their design (see Fig. 19.5), the opened for internal inspection or replacement.
inner shell, usually 12.7 to 32 mm thick, is first fabricated Piping and pipelines are dealt separately in this
by rolling and welding. Successive steel plate layers, section. Penstocks are also considered to be transmission
each about 6.5 mm thick, are then wrapped under pipelines, but for convenience they are dealt with in the
tension around the inner shell, and in each case the section on power generating plant.

Fig. 19.5: Elevation and cross-section of a multilayer cylindrical section

692 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Piping: Industrial pipings are critical items in a
production plant and they frequently operate under
high pressures, high temperatures and in corrosive
atmospheres. The efficiency, productivity and safe
operation of plants depend to some extent on how
effectively piping systems withstand the rigours of
service. Serious consideration has to be given to the
selection of grades and sizes of materials, design,
fabrication, erection, testing and inspection. Guidance
is provided by various codes and standards applicable
to w e l d e d p i p i n g systems p r e p a r e d by technical
societies, trade associations and standardisation bodies.
For example, the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) has issued Code for Pressure Piping, which
covers Power Piping, Industrial Gas and Air Piping,
Petroleum Refinery Piping, Oil Transportation Piping,
Refrigeration Piping, Chemical Industry Process Piping,
Nuclear Power Piping, Gas Transmission and
Distribution Piping Systems.
Piping connected to boilers are covered in several
sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
The American Petrol Institute (API) has issued a
standard for Field Welding of Pipe Lines. ASME Guide
for Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems is
another useful publication. The American Welding
Society has published the following recommended
welding practices:
a) Welding of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steel
Piping and Tubing, D10.4.
b) Welding of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel Piping,
D10.8.
c) Recommended Practices for Gas Shielded-Arc
Welding of Aluminium and Aluminium Alloy Pipe,
D10.7.
d) Welding Ferrous Materials for Nuclear Power
Piping, D10.5.
e) Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding of Titanium Piping and
Tubing, D10.6.
To ensure satisfactory welding of piping installation,
it is first necessary to establish and qualify the welding
procedure covering base metal specifications, filler
metals, edge preparation and joint fit-up, pipe position,
welding process, process parameters, welding techniques,
preheat, interpass and postheat schedules, and final inspe-
ction and testing. It is also necessary to qualify the welders
for the welding procedure adopted. Standard procedures
for the qualification of welders and welding machine
operators are given in relevant codes, for example, in
Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Pipe materOials and fittings are available in standard-
ised specifications, sizes and with standard tolerances.
Pipes are available in long lengths as seamless or welded
pipes. Pipings are longitudinally welded in a tube mill
from strips by using the electric resistance butt or high-
frequency resistance welding process, while pipes for
pipelines are welded along their long seams in a pipe
mill by the automatic submerged-arc or M I G / C 0 2
process. In the erection of pipings and pipelines, welding
is restricted to girth joints or to joints between pipes
and their attachments. Hence in the following sections,
only girth welding techniques are described.
The metals used for piping are: carbon steel, wrought
iron, C-Mo steels, Cr-Mo alloy steels, cryogenic steels,
stainless steels, Al and its/ alloys, Ni and its alloys, Cu
and its alloys and Ti and its alloys. Their weldability
characteristics are described in Chapter 10.
Carbon steel: Carbon steel piping is mostly welded
by the manual metal-arc process using E6010 or E7018
class of electrodes. For critical applications which
demand full penetration welds, split or solid backing
rings are provided on the inside, or the well-penetrated
root pass is made with the TIG process as described in
Chapter 5. This technique applies to all metals. MIG/
C 0 2 process using gas mixtures of C 0 2 and argon is used
on less critical pipings, where full root penetration and
fusion are not essential. In shop fabrication of thick-
walled p i p e h a v i n g O.D. of m o r e than 200 m m ,
automatic submerged-arc welding is used for the filling
passes, after the root pass has been completed with the
manual metal-arc or TIG process. If backing rings are
used and the fit-up is good, the entire joint can be made
by the SA process. Generally preheating is not necessary
if the carbon content of the steel is below 0.30%. If the
wall thickness exceeds 19 mm, postweld heat treatment
is usually recommended. It consists of heating to 600-
650°C and holding for one hour per 25 mm of wall
thickness, with a minimum holding time of 30 min, and
then cooling in still air. For further details, relevant codes
must be consulted.
During manufacture of boiler units, large numbers
of tube butt welds have to be made with the tubes
positioned at any angle from horizontal to vertical, and
being often in positions of restricted access. Automated
orbital TIG welding machines with automatic cold wire
feed have been developed for this purpose. A typical
orbital TIG welder has a weldhead, covering tube sizes
in the 25-50 mm O.D. range and requires only 44.4 mm
clearance between adjacent tubes. It features an integral
wire-feed system, i.e. the wire-feed facility is mounted
on the head and rotated with the electrode block. Arc-
voltage control provides a means of maintaining a
constant preset distance b e t w e e n electrode and

workpiece. These facilities allow for a number of
continuous orbits (i.e. multiple weld passes) to be made
around the tube joint. Such a machine can be applied
on pipings of all industrial metals. Lately welding heads
capable of joining tubes 18.2 mm O.D. with a clearance
of only 16.8 mm have been produced.
Wrought iron: Wrought iron piping has low carbon
content (0.12% maximum). It is usually welded by the
manual metal-arc process. It is advisable to use low
w e l d i n g currents a n d s p e e d s . Preheating a n d
postheating are generally not required.
C-Mo steels: The welding processes used for these
steels are the same as those used for carbon steels. For
manual welding, electrodes of E7010-A1, E7016-A1 or
E7018-A1 are used. For SA welding, the Mo alloy of the
weld-metal is derived either from the wire or the flux.
Preheat and postheat data are given in Chapter 10 while
discussing the weldability of these steels.
When used in service temperatures exceeding 425°C,
C-Mo steels h a v e been k n o w n to u n d e r g o
graphitisation, i.e. the carbon transforms to nodules or
flakes of graphite, which substantially reduce the
toughness of the steel. Though such unfavourable
phenomenon can be suppressed by stress-relieving the
welded joints at 720°C for four hours, use of C-Mo steel
pipings for high temperature applications is being
discouraged.
Cr-Mo steels: These grades are mostly used for service
in the 400-593°C temperature range. They are usually
welded by the manual metal-arc process, using low-
hydrogen type low-alloy steel electrodes of matching
alloy contents. An orbital narrow gap TIG welding
equipment of special design capable of welding pipes
of 100 mm maximum wall thickness has been described
in Chapter 5. For submerged-arc welding, it is advisable
to use neutral flux and alloyed wire in preference to
alloyed flux and neutral wire, because in the latter case,
the alloy balance in the weld deposit gets upset during
multi-pass welding at high interpass temperatures.
Preheat and postheat data are given in Chapter 10, while
discussing the weldability of these steels. However, for
Table 19.4: Steels and electrodes for low-temperature service
Min. temp. Type of steel
°C
-46 Fine-grained fully deoxidised steel
-60 2.25% Ni steel
-100 3.5% Ni steel
-196 9% Ni steel
WELDING APPLICATIONS 693
d r a w i n g u p p r o c e d u r e s , relevant codes must be
consulted.
Low-temperature steels: The types of steel used for
various low-temperature service pipings are given in
Table 19.4. They are usually welded by the MMA
process. The suitable AWS classes of electrodes are
indicated in the table. Preheating is a must for Ni steels,
because nickel renders the steel air-hardened. Preheat
and postheat data are given in Chapter 10 while
discussing their weldability.
Austenitic stainless steels: These steels are used for
high-temperature as well as low-temperature service
down to -196°C. Root pass is deposited by the TIG
process, while subsequent passes are completed with
the manual metal-arc or MIG process. For critical
applications, as in nuclear and power plants, the inside
of the pipe is purged with inert gas or a consumable
insert ring is used. No preheat or postheat is necessary.
Martensitic stainless steels: These are hardenable steels
and are susceptible to cracking during welding. Preheat
and postheat operations are necessary. The postweld
heat treatment must immediately follow the completion
of welding without withdrawing the preheat. Welding
data are given in Table 19.5. If for some reasons
postheating is not possible, type 310 or 309 stainless steel
filler wire must be used.
Ferritic stainless steels: These steels are less susceptible
to cracking during welding than the martensitic types,
b u t they may become embrittled due to the high
temperatures attained during welding and consequent
grain growth. To remove embrittlement, the steel is
annealed for one hour between 705 and 790°C, and then
quenched or air-cooled. The welding data are given in Table
19.6.
Al and its alloys: These alloys are commonly welded
by the TIG process and in some cases by the MIG
process. Before attempting to weld pipings, welders
must undergo training and gain some experience. In
welding horizontally positioned fixed piping, the
molten metal sinks due to its high fluidity. Aluminium
backing rings a n d c o n s u m a b l e insert rings are
AWS class
MMA electrode
E7016-1E7018-1
E8015-C1
E8015-C2
ENiCrFe-2
694 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 19.5: Recommendations for wrought martensitic stainless steel pipes

Type of Chemical composition Preheat and Postheat
steel % Recommended interpass temperature
electrode or temperature °C
C Cr welding rod °C
12 Cr 11.5-13.5 E, ER410 320-370 705-760
E, ER310 or
R, ER309 200-320 705-760
12 Cr 0.08 max. 11.5-13.5 E, ER410 150-260 705-760
E, ER310 or
E, ER309 150-260 705-760
13 Cr over 0.15 12.0-14.0 E, ER410 or 320-370 705-760
E, ER430
E, ER310 or 200-320 705-760
E, ER 309

Table 19.6 : Recommendations for welding ferritic stainless steel pipes

Type of Chemical composition Recommended Preheat and Postweld 1cteat-
steel /o electrode or interpass temperatui re
welding rod temperature °C
C Cr Others °C 610-760
12 Cr, Al 0.08 max. 11.5- 0.10- E, ER430 Not necessary Highly recommended
14.5 0.30 Al E, ER310 or •
E, ER309 Not necessary Recommer ided
16 Cr ■0.12 max. 14.0- E, ER310 or Not necessary Recommer ided
18.0 E, ER309

27 Cr 0.20 max. 23.0- 0.25 446 150-200 Essential

27.0 max. N E, ER310 or
E, ER309 Not necessary Recommended

sometimes used to obtain good root penetration.
Preheating is generally not necessary, but may be used
with advantage when the diameter exceeds 60 mm.
Preheat temperature ranges between 280 and 300°C.
Some Al alloys are u n f a v o u r a b l y affected w h e n
p r e h e a t e d above 200°C. Hence, h i g h p r e h e a t
temperatures must be used with care.
M and its alloys: These alloys are commonly used in
piping because of strength properties, good corrosion
resistance to many acids, and easy weldability. They can
also be readily welded to ferritic and austenitic steels.
The welding processes commonly used are: MMA, TIG
and MIG. Backing rings should not be used, because
they promote crevices, root cracks and corrosion.
Consumable insert rings should be preferred. During
root pass welding, the inside of piping must be purged
with inert gas, which can be helium, argon, hydrogen
or their mixtures.
It is important to remember that Ni and its alloys
are susceptible to embrittlement by accidental presence
of lead, sulphur, phosphorus and some low-melting
metals.
Copper and its alloys: They are commonly welded by
oxyacetylene, MMA, TIG and MIG processes. It is
advisable to use backing rings whenever possible,
because of the high fluidity of molten copper. Because
of the high heat conductivity of copper, preheating with
a gas torch is necessary when large diameter or heavy-
walled pipes are being welded. Red brass and yellow
brass are preferably welded by the oxyacetylene process
to minimise vaporisation of zinc. Cupronickel 30 (i.e.
70:30 alloy) is extensively welded and used for water
pipe and condenser tubing on ships, because of its
superior resistance to sea water corrosion. The most
suitable welding processes for this alloy are MMA and
TIG.

Ti and its alloys: As explained in Chapter 10, welding
of these materials demands special techniques and
specialised skill on the part of the welder. Pipes of wall
thickness 1.6 mm and below are normally welded by
the TIG process without filler wires. For heavier pipes,
filler metals are used. Unless the filler wire is thoroughly
cleaned and handled with care, it can contaminate the
weld. Contamination also occurs if the hot end of the
wire is withdrawn from the gas shield and exposed to
atmosphere during intermittent deposition. Special care
must be taken that there is 100% root penetration allover
the joint. A small root defect can develop into a crack
during service and lead to serious failure.
Dissimilar metals: Pipings of dissimilar metals are
often welded in power plants, oil refineries, nuclear
plants, etc. The metals commonly involved are carbon
steels, low-alloy steels, stainless steels and nickel and
its alloys. Normal welding procedures can be used in
these cases, because the melting points of these metals
are fairly close. They have been described in Chapter
10. The m a i n considerations are filler metal
compositions and preheat/postheat temperatures. For
dissimilar joints involving non-ferrous alloys, the filler
metal and w e l d i n g p r o c e d u r e m u s t be carefully
determined after studying the metallurgical aspects of
the joint in question. Sometimes, it helps to butter the
joint edge of the metal having the higher melting point
before final welding. For example, when carbon steel is
to be joined to silicon-bronze, the carbon steel is buttered
with silicon-bronze weld deposit. When the metals to
be joined have widely different melting points, brazing,
brazewelding or soldering should be resorted to.
Joint design: As stated earlier, the usual joint to be
welded in pipings is the circumferential butt joint. To
weld such a joint by the MMA process, the pipe edge
can be square or slightly chamfered when the wall
thickness is below 5 mm for carbon steel, and below 3.2
Fig. 19.6: Edge preparations of pipe end for MMA welding
WELDING APPLICATIONS 695
mm for stainless steel. Thicknesses greater than these
and up to 22 mm should have their edges prepared as
at (a) in Fig. 19.6, while thicknesses greater than 22 mm
should have edge preparation as at (b) in the same
figure.
In critical applications where carbon and low-alloy
steel piping, stainless steel piping and most non-ferrous
piping is to be TIG welded, joint preparations including
consumable insert rings as shown in Fig. 19.7 are used.
In all the cases shown, U or flat-land bevel preparations
are employed, because they help to minimise excessive
shrink.
For butt joints between unequal wall thicknesses (for
example, between a pipe and a cast steel fitting or valve
body), codes recommend that a smooth taper be
provided on the edge of the thicker member.
Fillet-welded joints are often used for pipe sizes 50
mm in diameter and smaller, and for joining pipe to
flanges, pipe to valves and pipe to socket joints. Three
examples are shown in Fig. 19.8.
Backing rings: Backing rings are commonly employed
for welding carbon steel and low-alloy steel piping by
the MMA process in steam power plants and other
applications. While split rings are sometimes used for
non-critical applications, solid flat or taper-machined
backing rings are preferred for critical applications.
Some designs of backing rings and the manner in which
they are fitted are shown in Fig. 19.9. The figure shows
that the pipe-end must also be suitably machined on
the inside diameter. Chemical composition of the ring
is important as also the seat contact between the pipe-
end and the ring. Guidance for the correct use of backing
rings is available in relevant codes. Backing rings are
rarely used for piping in oil refineries and chemical
plants.
Where the weld joint quality and especially its
corrosion resistance are important, consumable insert
1/16" ± 1/32"
696 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1/8" to 1/V 371/2o

TO 1/8"

Square butt (Flat land) V Bevel

1/4" to 3 / 4 "

A"
25°

1/8'

"3/32"l 1/16"
Flat land bevel U bevel

Over 3/4"

1/16"
Flat land bevel U bevel

Fig. 19.7: Joint fit-up using consumable insert for TIG welding

rings are placed at the root, as mentioned earlier and

h V 3 2 " - 1/16"clearance
illustrated in Fig. 19.7, and fused with a TIG torch, so
that a sound root weld pass results. This technique
dispenses with the addition of filler metal, which could
interfere with the welding operation and cause lack of
penetration. The subsequent passes, if required, are then

i deposited by the TIG process using a filler wire or by

the MMA process. If instead of using an insert, the pipe-
end is suitably machined at the root and autogenously
Welded sleeve coupling
welded, cracking or porosity is likely to occur because
of the unfavourable base metal composition. Use of a
c o n s u m a b l e insert ring of p r o p e r l y balanced
composition and dimensions (a) provides the best
welding conditions even in horizontal fixed or 5G
position, (b) minimises human element and thereby
ensures weld uniformity, (c) gives the most favourable
weld contour which can resist cracking arising from
weld metal shrinkage, and (d) gives weld-metal
composition which can guarantee optimum mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance.
At this point, it is pertinent to mention that the various
Socket end welding elbow pipe welding positions are defined by standard symbols
(1G, 2G, etc.) as shown in Fig. 19.10. Among these, 5G
position is the most difficult and it calls for high welding
Fig. 19.8: Examples of fillet-welded joints
skill. For this position, it is advisable to insert the
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 697

37 1/2" 42 1/2"
37 1/2°* 2 ^
• ? M - ' ' 3 / 1 6 " nominal
< " 1 ~ 4 - 3 / 1 6 " nominal

rnsspi:
1/16"±1/32"
y\
If**-
AB Z f c * . - - ^ c OT 1/8-R miriT (Bore)(R|ng 0 D )
Break corners 3/4" ( B o r e ) ( R j n g QD) Break corners*

For wall thickness (T) 9/16" For wall thickness (T) 9/16"
to 1" inclusive and tapered to 1" inclusive and straight
internal machining. internal machining

10° ± 1°
.10° ± 1°
.Rounded .0 Rounded
37 1/2°"±2t ^ 3 7 1/2° ± 2 1/2°
* H I M | 3 / 1 6 " nominal t | =T 4 ; ^ V ' |Aj3/16 M nominal
v I ! 4*»
mm ^ u ! i / V ^ . X^y'/yl/2Z\ -1/16"±1/32
+<%30° m a x ^ ? M / l\/il.
^ • D K R i n g OD)
Break corner (Bore) 0 D )
1/8" R M T n r B ^ a t - o T n ^ ^ ^ / ^ ^
For wall thickness (T) greater than 1" For wall thickness (T) greater than 1"
and tapered internal machining and straight internal machining

Fig. 19.9: Edge preparation using flat or taper machined solid backing rings

Fiat position Horizontal Vertical Overhead

position position position
1 G aG
2G

^Q
0

Plates and axis Plates and axis

ill"., Plates horizontal
2 a n d axisvertical
of pipe horizontal of pipe vertical Plates
Roll welding j j of pipe vertical!
0) Test position
> Test position
o horizontal 2 G Horizontal fixed
o 6G
O 5G
/ 4 5°±5°

Pipe shall not

be turned or
Axis of pipe vertical rolled while welding

Fig. 19.10: Standard symbols for designating welding positions

698 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

consumable ring eccentric to the centreline of the pipe as
shown in Fig. 19.11, so that it compensates for the down-
ward sag of the liquid weld-metal and helps to obtain
uniformly smooth root contour on the inside of the joint.
Consumable insert rings of proper shapes, diameters
and chemical compositions to suit various metals and
applications are provided by manufacturers in advanced
countries.
In the installation of piping systems, tees, laterals,
wyes and vessel openings have to be welded, and they
normally involve intersection joints. Since such joints
are difficult to weld, standard welding fittings supplied
by manufacturers are used. These fittings possess

p*.l<SSSf
bursting strengths equivalent to those of pipes of the
same weight and they are designed to be connected by
simple butt welds. Some examples of such fittings are
3/32" 3/16"
shown in Fig. 19.12. Manufacturers also provide factory-
made nozzles, necks, outlets, tees, etc., specially designed
>
1 for welding to simplify the fabrication of piping.

^dbd
Heat treatment: Preheating, concurrent heating and
postweld heating are important steps in the welding of
pipings; and their successful performance in service
X
1/16" ► often depends upon correct heat treatment. The heat
treatment procedure includes consideration of the
Fig. 19.11: Eccentric insertion of consumable insert ring
maximum temperature to be attained, time at maximum
for 5G position pipe welding
temperature, rates of heating and cooling, and the width

90° Long
radius elbow 90° Short Elbow 180° Return bend
radius elbow

J
Tee Reducing tee Tee reducing on run

Tee with concentric reducers Lateral straight run

Concentric reducer Eccentric reducer Cap

Fig. 19.12: Examples of standard manufactured commercial welding fittings

 WELDING APPLICATIONS 699

of the heating b a n d . The u s u a l m e t h o d s of heat
treatment are: (a) oxyfuel, (b) electric resistance heating,
(c) induction heating, and (d) heating in a furnace.
In the oxyfuel method, a simple gas torch is adequate
for small diameter p i p e s . For larger p i p e s a n d
connections, ring b u r n e r s are more effective. For
temperature control, temperature indicating crayons are
used. Electric resistance heating has been dealt with in
detail in Chapter 20. In this method, surface thermo-
meters or electrically operated pyrometers are used to
control automatically the current flow to the heating
units. Thermocouples are usually attached to the metal
to be heated by induction heating. The thermocouple
wires are then connected to control equipment, which
may automatically control the time-temperature cycle
and even programme the heating and cooling rates of
the metal.
During postweld heat treatment, it sometimes
becomes necessary to support the welded pipe sections
suitably, to prevent deformation and distortion. This is
accomplished in the shop by placing adjustable roller-
type supports under the parts being welded as near to
the joint as pos-sible, allowing sufficient space for the
placement of the heating apparatus over the joint. In
field work, where the welds are made in position, chain
falls or other suitable rigging secured to the building or
other suppor-ting structures are used to accomplish the
same objectives.
Offshore pipework: A company in the Netherlands
fabricates exacting offshore pipework in their shop using
several automatic TIG and MIG welding installations,
each having a turntable with two sets of adjustable roller
beds. For 100 mm diameter pipes, manual TIG is used
for the root pass and automatic TIG with cold wire feed
for filling and capping passes. For 300 mm diameter
pipes, the same procedure is used for the root pass, and
automatic MIG with a flux-cored wire is used for
subsequent passes. Table 19.7 shows a procedure for

Table 19.7: Procedure for offshore pipework welding

Material A333 GR6
Root pass TIG hand
Filling / capping MIG auto
Welding position 1G
Preheat temp. (°C) 100
Interpass temp. (°C) 300

Pipe dia. (in.) 4

Wall thickness (mm) 10.7
Joint preparation V2 x 30°

Root pass
TIG wire type PZ 6500
Wire dia. (mm) 2
Welding current (amp) 100

Filling I caspping
MIG wire type Flux-cored
Wire dia (mm) 1.2
Gas type Mixed gas, 80/ 20 (Argon / Co2)
Gas flow (1 / min) 10
Welding current (amp) 205 230 225 225
Welding voltage 28 28 27.5 27.5
Wire-feed speed (cm / min) 788 788 788 788
Welding speed (cm / min) 24.5 19.6 23.5 23.5
Total welding time (min) 2.0 2.5 2.1 2.1

Joint preparation and runs

700 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
C:Mn pipe steel, in which two types of flux-cored wires
can be used for the MIG passes, one for temperatures
down to -25°C and the other for temperatures below
-25°C The latter deposits a 2.5% Ni steel weld-metal
with Charpy-V notch value of 47 J minimum a -60°C,
which also meets the COD test requirement.
Pipelines: This section deals with cross-country
transmission pipelines which conduct natural gas or
liquid products such as crude oil.
Pipes of reasonably long lengths are produced in a
tube mill or pipe mill. They are either seamless or
electric-resistance welded, or submerged-arc welded.
Laying of pipelines involves only circumferential
welding in the field.
Seamless pipes are made from solid round billets of
proper diameter and length. Surface defects of the billets
are initially removed by scarfing. The billets are heated
and pierced to make a hole in the solid billet. The so-
formed pipe is passed successively through a plug-
rolling mill to elongate it and reduce the wall thickness
to the desired dimension. The pipe is rounded and
smoothed on the inside and outside surfaces by passing
through a reeling machine. The pipe is finally sized by
passing through sizing rolls, straightened, expanded,
hydrostatically tested and bevelled at the two ends.
Resistance-welded pipes are made from rolls of steel
strip in a tube-making machine. In this machine, the
continuously fed strip is passed through forming rolls to
form a straight O-shaped section, which is electric-
resistance welded at the seam. The emerging pipe is
tested continuously by means of a non-destructive
testing device and cut to the desired length. A coiler is
used if a long length of pipe is to be supplied in coil form.
The operation of producing large diameter pipes by
the submerged-arc process is best understood by
referring to the procedure followed by a firm in the
U.S.A.
This firm produces mild steel pipes up to 13m length
and diameter between 500 and 900 mm and thicknesses
between 6.3 and 12.7 mm in the following stages:
1) Shearing the edges to exact widths, bevelling the
edges and pre-forming the plate by an initial bending
of the edges
2) U-ing press
3) O-ing in a semi-cylindrical die with another top
semi-cylindrical die activated by two massive hydraulic
rams of 6,000 tons capacity
4) Tack welding and lack grinding
5) Cleaning the pipe in a degreasing bath
6) Tab is welded at each seam end to assure proper
lead-in and cut-off of finish welds
7) The pipe is welded finally by the submerged-arc
process, one run on the inside and another run on the
outside. For the first pass, water-cooled backing is used.
8) The finished pipe is moved on to the expander,
where it is surrounded by locked restraining dies, while
water at extreme pressure is pumped in, expanding the
pipe against the enclosing dies. The expander does the
following functions:
a) Pipe ends are mechanically expanded to size
b) Hydrostatic pressure expands the pipe to the exact
size of the mechanically locked dies
c) Pipe is tested to code requirements
d) H a m m e r s are d r o p p e d , while pipe is under
maximum code pressure
e) Inspector examines welds for leaks.
Two 13 m long pipes may be butt welded to make 26
m lengths, again using submerged-arc welding.
Finally, there is end facing and bevelling.
The forming is at the rate of 20 m / m i n and output is
up to 3,000 tons in eight hours.
A typical boom welder used for the internal welding
of pipe by the submerged-arc process is shown in Fig.
19.13. It is fitted with a television monitor. The 375 mm
diameter boom enables pipes of 450 mm and larger
diameters and lengths up to 10 m to be welded internally.
Pipes are also welded by the submerged-arc process,
using the so-called spiral welding technique. The main
advantage is that with a given width of plate or coil, a
wide range of pipe diameters can be fabricated.
In this technique, the edges of plates or coils are
trimmed to the required width and bevelled. They are
then subjected to a modified three-roll bending arrange-
ment supported by internal or external cage rolls, and
the result is a continuous helix. The first welding pass is
laid on the internal of the seam and then on the external
diameter, 180° away. The conventional single electrode
or two electrodes in tandem may be used for the
submerged-arc process. To feed the stock continuously
into the machine, ends of plates or coils are welded only
on the inside by the submerged-arc process prior to
forming. After seam welding, the required length of pipe
is cut off and the external cross-weld is completed.
The maximum outside diameter of seamless pipes
is 650 mm. High frequency resistance seam welding is
used to produce pipes and tubes of diameters ranging
from 12.5 m m to over 1,250 m m a n d w i t h wall
thicknesses of between a fraction of millimetre and 25
mm. Submerged-arc welding is best suited for large
diameter pipes, which can be internally and externally
welded. Penstock pipes of 10 m diameter and above
have been welded by this process.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 701

Electrode Boom height

wire reels adjustment handwheel

SA welding head

Electrode nozzle tube

Flux hopper

Flood lamp

T.V. Monitor
W screen

Welding nozzle \ Pointer

Flux flow
T.V. Camera regulating valve
control panel Control panel
for welding head
I Operator's and roller beds
control
desk

Fig. 19.13: Diagrammatic arrangement of boom and controls for internal pipe welding equipment

Generally, pipes for the transmission of liquid prod-
ucts are smaller in diameter than pipes meant for natural
gas. The common diameters used for gas transmission
are 600, 750 and 900 mm (24, 30 and 36 inch), though
recently these have been increased to 1,400 or 1,500 mm.
Transmission pipelines are usually manufactured to
the API Specifications for Line Pipe. They specify, among
other things, the strength levels of various steels to be
used, working stress levels and longitudinal joint
efficiency of pipes, and tests for the qualification of
procedures and welders.
Pipeline welding: Most pipeline welding involves
girth welding from external side only, because the
diameters are too small to permit welding from the
inside. The commonly used joint design is shown in Fig.
19.14. It is well suited for the stovepipe technique
described below. In special cases, the angle of bevel is
increased from 30° to 37.5°.

»1.6 mm
Fig. 19.14: Standard joint preparation for pipeline welding
702 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Internal backing rings are avoided as far as possible,
because they not only cause turbulence in the flow of
material, but also make it difficult to use devices for
internal p i p e cleaning. Moreover, the s t o v e p i p e
technique enables the welder to deposit sound weld-
metal at the root through the entire 360° in 5G position.
If welders cannot guarantee complete root fusion and
freedom from internal protrusions (icicles), the use of
backing rings is indicated.
Stovepipe technique: Stovepipe welding is the term used
when a number of pipes are laid and welded together
in 5G position one after another to form a continuous
line, and welding is carried out vertically downwards,
and not by the conventional vertical upwards method
which is time consuming and expensive.
In this technique, welding starts at the 12 o'clock
position on the pipe, and progresses vertically down
until the 6 o'clock position is reached. On completion
of one-half of the pipe, the opposite side is welded in
the same manner, thus producing an endless root run
known in the field as a stringer bead.
The second run, known as the hot pass, is then put
into the joint. Its name comes from the fact that a high
current is used to deposit the run, so as to burn out any
defects that may be present from the stringer bead. With
the exception of the final run, all subsequent runs after
the hot pass are termed filler beads. Their purpose is to
bring the weld deposit to just below the level of the
pipe surface. The number of filler beads required will
depend largely on the pipe-wall thickness and the
preparation.
There are times, however, when it is unnecessary to
deposit a filler bead all round the pipe periphery,
especially as the weld nears completion. In most cases
only the areas between 2 to 4 and 10 to 8 o'clock on the
joint (see Fig. 19.15) will require additional weld-metal.
These concave areas are rectified by the quick deposition
of a weld run called a stripper bead, which brings the
concave area flush with the remaining weld-metal
elsewhere in the joint. To finish the pipe weld the final
run is made, which is appropriately called the capping
bead.
The joint preparation and fit-up is as shown in Fig.
19.14. Welding is done with AWS E6010 and E7010 class
electrodes. These electrodes are chosen because the small
volume of stiff, thin slag coating deposited on the weld
bead, together with the forceful arc, facilitates rapid
changes of electrode angle d u r i n g vertical-down
welding on fixed pipes.
To compensate for the thin slag coverage, extra
protection from the atmosphere is provided by a gaseous
Fig. 19.15: Stovepipe technique; positions
for stripper beads
shield of carbon monoxide and hydrogen evolved from
the cellulosic coating during welding.
For stovepipe w e l d i n g , the m a x i m u m current
specified by the producer for the size of electrode is
increased by approximately 10%. DC supply with elec-
trode positive (positive polarity), is often recommended.
There may be occasions, however, where scale on the
pipe causes surface porosity. In such cases, changing
the electrode polarity from positive to negative tends
to reduce this problem.
For deposition of the stringer bead (root run), once
the arc has been established, the cup of the electrode
must be literally pushed into the root of the joint. No
weave of the electrode is necessary, only a tight drag
action as welding proceeds, to ensure that the arc is
allowed to burn inside the pipe. An electrode angle of
60° in the direction of travel to the pipe tangent (see
Fig. 19.16) must be held throughout.
This practice produces a very small root run, which
allows for a controlled penetration bead. If one or more
burn-throughs (windows) occur during the laying of the
stringer bead, they can be quickly rectified by the
remelting process of the second run.
Immediately following the stringer bead and while
it is still warm, the hot pass is p u t d o w n with an
electrode angle held at 60° to the pipe tangent. A short
arc must be held with a light drag, together with a
forward and backward movement of the electrode (see
Fig. 19.17), in order to fuse out any undercut a n d / o r
wagon tracks, caused by the stringer bead. In addition
to remelting the portions containing windows, the
higher current used for this run prevents the formation
of slag lines at the toes of the stringer bead.

Welding
direction
Finish
Fig. 19.16: Stovepipe technique; electrode angle during
deposition of the stringer and hot pass runs
Hot pass
Direction)
of
welding
Stringer bead
Fig. 19.17: Stovepipe technique; electrode manipulation
during deposition of the hot pass
For the filler bead deposition, it is necessary to alter
the electrode angle from 60° to 90° to the pipe tangent.
However, on reaching the 4 o'clock position (8 o'clock
on side 2 of the pipe), the electrode angle is increased
from 90° and reaches 130° at the 6 o'clock position of
tire pipe (see Fig. 19.18).
From the 12 o'clock position down to 4 o'clock (8 on
side 2), a normal arc length with a rapid weave across
the weld face is required, pausing momentarily at the
toes. From 4 o'clock (8 o'clock) down to the 6 o'clock
position, the electrode manipulation is changed from a
weave to a lifting or vertical movement of the arc away
from the deposit on to the weld pool. By adopting this
technique on the filler beads, flat weld faces with the
absence of undercut are produced.
For the stripper beads, a medium to long arc is
required to spread the weld deposit. A slight weave of
WELDING APPLICATIONS 703
Welding
direction
Finish
Fig. 19.18: Stovepipe technique; electrode angles for
filler and capper beads. From positions * electrode
angle changes from 90° to 130°.
the electrode may be found beneficial, depending on
the current setting and width and depth of the bead
required. The angle of the electrode is held at 90° to the
pipe tangent, irrespective of the position on the pipe
periphery.
Finally the capping bead completes the joint, using
a medium to long arc length, with a rapid side-to-side
movement of the electrode tip. The angle is maintained
at 90° to the pipe tangent, except from 4 to 6 and 8 to 6
o'clock positions, when the electrode angle is increased
to 130°.
For these sections, the tip of the electrode should be
manipulated to produce a lifting and flicking action. To
achieve best results, the capping bead should be
restricted to the width and depth of~19Xl.6 mm. Weld
beads wider than this are somewhat difficult to control.
The electrode size for various passes depends on wall
thickness. For depositing the stringer bead, for example,
3.25 mm diameter electrode is used for wall thickness
below 6.3 mm, and 4 mm diameter for larger thicknesses.
For first and second filler passes, 4 mm diameter
electrode is commonly preferred. For third filler, stripper
and cover passes, 4 or 5 mm diameter electrodes are
used depending on wall thickness.
It is difficult even for a normally well-experienced
welder to use stovepipe technique successfully, unless
he is given special training with suitable electrodes on
actual pipe joints. Experience has shown that only about
704 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
20% of the otherwise skilled welders are capable of
mastering the stovepipe technique.
The adoption of stovepipe technique in pipeline
construction demands a well-planned disposal of the
crew, in order to ensure that welding operations take
place rapidly along the line. The pipes are first lined up
by the line-up crew with the help of an internal line-up
clamp. A good joint fit-up is the necessary condition for
a flawless, well penetrated stringer bead, and it is the
responsibility of the line-up crew to ensure it. Two
welders then complete the stringer bead (first pass). The
line-up men and these welders then move on to the next
joint, while a second group of welders deposits the hot
pass (second pass). They then shift to the next joint,
while the third group of welders completely fill the joint.
The third group, called firing line, includes a larger
number of welders, since more welding is involved in
completing the joint. The stringer welders and the hot
pass welders work in groups of two or four.
Stovepipe technique is not possible with rutile type
(E6013 class) electrodes, because the relatively large
volume and high fluidity of the slag render vertical
downward welding difficult. With these electrodes,
good joints can be made by welding vertically upwards.
But the technique is slow a n d results in lower
productivity.
LH electrodes: In recent years, increasing use is made
of high-yield steels for pipeline, for example, the 5Lx60
and 5Lx52 steels. These steels are more p r o n e to
h y d r o g e n - i n d u c e d cracking in the H A Z than the
conventional mild steel. Hence the pipe ends need to
be preheated when E6010 - E7010 electrodes are used.
When this is done, the stringer pass and the hot pass
have to be made with an increased speed of 230-300
mm/min. This increases the strain on the welder.
Special LH electrodes have been developed for
welding 5Lx52 and 5Lx60 steels using the stovepipe
technique, without the need for preheating. With these
electrodes, the root gap is increased to 2.5 m m to
accommodate the heavier coating and the welding
speed is kept as low as 150 m m / min. The disadvantage
of reduced speed is more than made up by the thickness
of the root pass, which is twice that deposited with E6010
type. The deposition efficiency of the LH electrode being
20% higher than the E6010 type, the joint can be
completed with fewer layers and in shorter arc time.
MIG/COz process: The inherent advantageous features
of this process could make it preferable to MMA
welding, but there are several difficulties. The normal
spray transfer technique which is capable of giving high
deposition rates would give rise to burn-through and
considerable spatter when C 0 2 is used for shielding. The
dip transfer technique using argon/ C 0 2 mixture for
shielding is better suited for 360° welding, but the
shallow p e n e t r a t i o n of this process can lead to
incomplete fusion. Moreover, the u p k e e p of the
equipment at site demands the services of properly
trained mechanics and a regular supply of spares.
For the welding of pipes large enough to accommo-
date a M I G / C 0 2 welding head inside, fully automatic
equipment has been developed. A typical piece of equip-
ment consists of four welding heads, mounted at 90°
spacing, for internal welding and two welding heads
for external welding. The two top internal welding
heads proceed simultaneously from the top of the pipe
downward to make the weld. The two opposite inter-
nal heads then counter rotate to complete the joint. The
external welding units are light and portable, and they
are used in conjunction with a tracking band, which is
attached around the pipe at a fixed distance from the
weld. The two units operate simultaneously on each side
of the joint, proceeding from the top of the pipe down-
ward. It is also possible to use the external units simul-
taneously with the internal units.
For the internal weld which is made first, a small V-
groove is provided. For external welding, a V-groove
with 20° included angle is adequate to ensure complete
fusion. This means reduced weld-metal required to
complete the joint. The welding wire is of 0.8 mm
diameter and the shielding gas is 75% argon - 25% C0 2 .
This argon-rich shielding reduces spatter to the
minimum.
The system m a y also i n c o r p o r a t e a pipe-end
preparation machine, which is used ahead of the
welding operation. The internal welding machine may
be combined with a line-up clamp.
Such systems have been used with success for
various onshore and offshore construction projects in
the U.S.A., Canada and England.
Flux-cored process: A typical system utilising this
process incorporates an end preparation machine and
makes all the weld passes from the outside. It uses two
welding heads, mounted 180° apart, for the root pass
a n d four w e l d i n g h e a d s , spaced at 90°, for the
subsequent passes. The root pass is deposited over a
copper back-up attached to a specially designed internal
line-up clamp. All welding proceeds from the top to the
bottom. The flux-cored w e l d i n g wire is of 2 m m
diameter. No external gas shielding is used, which is a
welcome feature for site welding. The joint consists of
58° included angle, 1.6 mm root gap and 2.5 mm root
face.

Underwater pipelines: Pipelines for underwater service
are laid in m a r s h y land, shallow w a t e r s or in
considerable water depths. MMA process is commonly
used for welding. The welders work at stations located
on barges. The pipe laying starts from the land or shore
and proceeds towards deeper waters. As many as five
welding stations may operate on several barges,
followed by two radiographic stations and a coating
station. Coating is meant for corrosion protection. Large
diameter pipes are preferably concrete coated to provide
corrosion resistance as well as negative buoyancy. In
offshore construction, the completed pipe section is
lowered gradually by means of a semi-buoyant stringer,
which holds the pipe until it has neared the sea bed.
After laying, the pipe is buried in the sea bottom.
Inspection and testing: For i m p o r t a n t pipeline
construction, the welding procedure as well as the
welders must be qualified. The necessary guidance is
obtained from any of the following or equivalent
standards:
a) API Standard 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines
and Related Facilities
b) ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
IX
c) ANSI B 31.8. Code for Gas Transmission and
Distribution Piping
In the qualification test, a sample pipe is welded in
accordance with the procedure adopted and coupons
are removed by gas cutting. They are then subjected to
various tests such as tensile, nick-break, root and face-
bend tests. If these tests meet the code requirements,
the welder or procedure is taken as qualified.
Inspection is carried out both during and after
welding. During welding, the points to be checked are :
(i) edge cleanliness, edge preparation and joint fit-up;
(ii) physical condition of the electrodes; (iii) functioning
of the power source and current setting; (iv) soundness
and penetration of the stringer bead; (v) soundness and
quality of hot passes; and (vi) interpass cleaning. After
welding, the joints are subjected to visual a n d
radiographic inspection. The latter is carried out with
X-rays or gamma-rays. Special radiographic equipment
has been designed for large diameter pipelines, which
enables the X-ray or gamma-ray source to be propelled
through the pipeline on a battery-driven or engine-
driven crawler unit. The unit is provided with a
mechanical or radiological device to locate and stop at
a welded joint. Film belts are wrapped around the joint
circumference to radiograph the entire joint in one
exposure. The unit is programmed for speed, exposure
time and other radiography parameters before insertion
WELDING APPLICATIONS 705
into the pipeline. Such an equipment can travel several
kilometres t h r o u g h a pipeline, thus enabling the
contractor to proceed continuously with welding
without waiting for radiographic inspection to catch up
with him.
For small diameter pipe, radiography has to be done
from outside. In this case, the source is placed on one
side and the film 180° opposite. At least three exposures
are necessary to cover the entire joint, and increased
exposure time per exposure is required. Hence external
radiography is more time-consuming than internal
radiography. Other NDT methods are rarely used.
Ultrasonics, for example, cannot perform reliably because
of the irregularities of the manual-arc welded stringer bead
and cover pass.
Sometimes the completed pipeline needs to be
pressure-tested prior to being placed in service. The
common practice is to test it hydrostatically with water
to stress levels equal to the actual yield point of the base
metal.
5) Power Generating Plant
In power generation, whether it is thermal, hydel or
nuclear, welding plays an important role at every stage
of fabrication and erection. The main components of a
power plant are: pressure vessels like boiler drums,
economisers, superheaters, heat exchangers; reheaters
and waterwall pipings; turbines and generators.
Welding techniques and procedures applicable to
pressure vessels, tubings and pipings have been
described in sufficient detail in the earlier sections.
While the early steam generation plants were of 60
MW size, 200 and 500 MW plants are becoming more
common. A 200 MW boiler involves about 50,000 welded
joints, in a d d i t i o n to the w e l d s in turbines and
generators. Of these, nearly 30% have to be made at
erection sites. The materials to be welded range from
mild steel to sophisticated alloys like stainless steel,
monel and inconel. Thickness range is from 0.5 to 300
mm. Considerable amount of welding is carried out at
site using m a n u a l w e l d i n g . For shop welding,
submerged-arc, electroslag, MIG/C0 2 , resistance and
induction welding processes are used to the maximum
extent. Other interesting welding applications in a
thermal plant are: welding of stubs to headers, automatic
welding of peg fins to tubes, spot welding on the
collecting electrodes of electrostatic precipitators,
projection welding of studs to the valve bodies, welding
of columns and structurals. In the manufacture of spirals
for HP heaters, where the quality requirements are very
stringent, TIG process is preferred. Automatic hot-wire
706 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
TIG welding is well suited for the welding of tubes in
boilers and HP heater manufacture.
For the manufacture of transformer cases and
capacitor boxes, electric resistance process can be used
with advantage. Impellers of boiler feed pump, valves,
etc., are stellited or hardfaced with other suitable alloys
using automatic e q u i p m e n t . Large forgings a n d
castings are sometimes made by joining of smaller
forgings a n d castings by the s u b m e r g e d - a r c or
electroslag process. For bimetallic finned tubing,
induction brazing may be used.
As mentioned earlier, for high temperature and
pressure service, creep-resistant alloys such as 1 Qx/Vi
Mo, 1>A C r / 1 Mo, type 347 and type 304 stainless steels
are used. For sulphur-rich oil fired boilers, it becomes
necessary to use an alloy such as 12 C r / 1 M o / V type
martensitic steel for the tubings and castings of turbines
and generators. Such an alloy d e m a n d s a special
welding procedure.
Steam and hydro-turbines demand high quality
w e l d i n g . For example, the d i a p h r a g m s of steam
turbines made of Cr-Mo-V steel have to be welded to
extremely close tolerances. For this application, a typical
automatic unit consists of two C 0 2 welding machines
complete with synchronised welding heads and turn-
tables.
Penstock pipes: Penstocks have an important place
in a hydel project. They are laid on an inclination to
convey water under pressure from a large reservoir
located at a high altitude to hydraulic turbines at a
lower level to generate electric power. They may extend
in length from a few h u n d r e d metres to several
kilometres, and the pipe diameter may vary up to a
maximum of 15 m. Plate thickness can be as high as 60
mm.
Smaller diameter and lower pressure pipelines may
be made from structural quality steels, such as ASTM
A 283, Grades B and C. For large diameter high pressure
penstocks, pressure vessel quality steels such as ASTM
A 442, A 516, A 537 and A 517 are preferred. These ASTM
steels are described as below:
A 283 Low a n d Intermediate Tensile Strength
Carbon Steel Plates of Structural Quality.
A 442 Carbon Steel Plates with Improved Transition
Properties for Pressure Vessels.
A 516 Carbon Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels for
Moderate and Lower Temperature Service.
A 537 Carbon-Manganese-Silicon Steel Plates, Heat
Treated, for Pressure Vessels.
A 517 High-Strength Alloy Steel Plates, Quenched
and Tempered, for Pressure Vessels.
A 283 is a normal mild steel grade, and for penstock
application the carbon content is restricted to 0.30%
maximum. ASTM A 442 is made with definite limits
on Mn and Si contents and carbon is held low. Plates
thicker than 25 mm are made to fine-grain practice and
may be normalised if so stipulated. ASTM A 516 is
available in several grades with increasing strength
levels a n d is m a d e to fine-grain practice in all
thicknesses. H e a v i e r plates are s u p p l i e d in the
normalised condition and the lower thicknesses are
normalised if so stipulated. The A 537 Grade A and B
steels are two varieties of weldable steels with the
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s well s u i t e d for penstock
application. Both are fine-grained steels. Grade A is
normalised in all thicknesses and Grade B is quenched
and tempered. A large number of high head and large
diameter pipes in the U.S.A. and elsewhere have been
built with the Grade A steel. A 517 is a high-strength,
quenched and tempered alloy steel, which is used for
the very high heads and combinations of high heads
and large diameters. Compared to a low-carbon steel,
A 517 will require much reduced thickness and will not
require costly postweld heat treatment.
In the absence of recognised specifications for the
d e s i g n a n d fabrication of p e n s t o c k s , design
requirements are based on pressure vessel standards
such as ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Div. 1 or 2. The diameter of penstock is determined
from various factors such as fabrication cost, value of
power lost due to flow in the pipe, lowest annual cost
including depreciation and fixed charges.
In the design of penstocks, efficiencies of welded
butt joints must be determined from the relevant
sections of the ASME Code. Special attention must be
paid to longitudinal joints, since they are subjected to
the full operating head. These joints must be subjected
to complete radiographic inspection to ensure that they
are free from defects. Preheat and p o s t h e a t
requirements must also be considered. On high pressure
lines using plate thicknesses over 38 mm, postweld heat
treatment becomes necessary. This costly operation may
be avoided by using a higher strength steel, which
permits thinner plates to be used. The advantage of
using quenched and tempered steels has been pointed
out in Chapter 10.
The designer must also consider the selection of
appropriate grades of steel for structural steel supports,
stiffener rings and flanges for connection to gates, valves
or turbines. Pressure surges and impact loads due to
surge conditions must be taken care of by adjusting the
profile of the penstock suitably, and reinforcing the shell
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 707

with stiffeners at critical points along the profile. The important Indian penstock projects have been described
design of support rings and the length of span between in the following paragraphs.
supports must receive special attention. When the Kundah project: This project is located in the Nilgiri
penstock header has to feed two or more turbines or hills. Its plan is shown in Fig. 19.19. By building two
divert a part of the flow to an irrigation line, the designer dams. Avalanche and Emerald reservoirs were created
must consider the design of branch outlets or lateral in a wide catchment area. Water from the reservoirs is
connections between the header and the branch pipe. carried by a 162 m long low-pressure welded steel
Such outlets or lateral connections require special pipeline to the mouth of a 4,200 m long tunnel, which
reinforcement to compensate for the metal removed for extends to the other side of the hill. From the exit end of
hydraulic reasons. Exposed penstock must be provided the tunnel, which is at an altitude of 1,966 m the water
with expansion joints to prevent the b u i l d - u p of jumps down a height of over 360 m through three all-
temperature stresses caused by changes in atmospheric welded steel penstock lines to provide energy for the
temperature. running of turbines in power house No. 1. The exit water
To u n d e r s t a n d the techniques involved in the from the power house No. 1 pours into another reservoir
fabrication and erection of penstock lines, a few of the called the Kundah-Palam reservoir, for the completion
of which two more dams had to be built. From here also,
water is led in turn through a 196 m long low-pressure
all-welded steel pipeline, through a 3,988 m long tunnel
Emerald inside a hill, and then down through five all-welded
Avalanche reservoir steel penstock lines to drive the turbines in power house
reservoir
No.2.
Mild steel pipes for low-pressure pipelines and high-
tensile T-l steel pipes for high-pressure penstocks were
L P . pipeline imported from Canada in 7.2 m lengths. Each length
consisted of three 2.4 m long shells welded together,
and therefore contained three longitudinal welds and
two circumferential welds. These welds were completed
in the shops of Davie Shipbuilding Ltd. of Canada by
the automatic submerged-arc process. Site welding at
3 penstock lines
K u n d a h , therefore, consisted of m a k i n g only
PJH.No.1 +5335' circumferential joints by manual metal-arc welding.
Kundah-Palam Gasoline engine driven welding sets, electrodes and
reservoir certified welders for site welding were brought over
from Canada by Davie Shipbuilding Ltd., whose
representatives were in complete control of pipeline and
penstock welding at Kundah.
Welding on low-pressure mild steel pipeline was
carried out with AWS E6010 Class electrodes. Welding
on high-pressure T-l steel penstocks was carried out
with high-tensile low-hydrogen electrodes of AWS
E11015-16 class.
5 penstock lines All the electrodes b r o u g h t from Canada were
contained in hermetically sealed cans and these were
PJH. No.2 +2860' stored on high wooden racks in a dry storage room. But
since low-hydrogen electrodes are extremely susceptible
to moisture pick-up, the electrodes on use at site were
carried in specially designed electrode stabilising ovens.
The oven consisted of a simple cylindrical steel container
with insulated lining and an electrical heating element
Fig. 19.19: Plan showing penstocks, power houses and
reservoirs at Kundah Project of the resistance type. The oven heats the electrodes up
to a t e m p e r a t u r e of 150°C. The electrodes stand
708 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

vertically on a handle that can be raised up from the

top to pick up the electrode. The oven is illustrated in
Fig. 19.20. Handle to be raised up
The edges of the circumferential joints of pipes to be for picking the electrode
welded at site were already prepared before being sent
to India. The edges were bevelled so as to give a 60°
included angle and a shoulder of 3 mm at the butt joint. Insulated
As shown in Fig. 19.21, the top half of the pipe has the walls
root on the inside, so that the groove is filled up by
welding from the exterior of the pipe. The root is then
Electrodes
gouged out by Arcair carbon electrode to sound metal
from inside the pipe, in the overhead position, and the
final sealing pass is made also in the overhead position.
The bottom half of the pipe has the root on the outside,
so that the groove is filled u p by welding from the
interior of the pipe. The root is then gouged out by Arcair
carbon electrode to sound metal from outside the pipe
in the overhead position, and the final sealing pass is
also made on the outside in the overhead position. A
metre d e e p trench h a d to be d u g in the g r o u n d
underneath the pipe joint for the last two operations. Lamp
Extreme care and skill on the part of the operator
was found necessary in laying the first pass on US T-l
steel. The pass is very susceptible to porosity, which may
occur at any point and at any time. The welder must
immediately detect and gouge out the defective portion
and reweld. Such care and conscientious work on the
part of the welder can save considerable labour and
expense that may be incurred, if the defects are left over Fig. 19.20: Electrode stabilising oven
to be subsequently detected in radiographic testing.

Across AXB

v-"-v
70

\ / A 1.6 mm

1.6-3 mm

v*V
Across AYB
\a
H|— T
1.6mm
1-6-3

Fig. 19.21: Edge-preparation for circumferential joints to be welded at site


Radiographic inspection was carried out at site. A
200 kVA portable X-ray machine called Baltospot 200
and manufactured by Balteau Electric Corporation of
Connecticut, U.S.A. was used. The unit weighed only
35 kg. Another 120 kVA unit was used later side by side.
About 3,000 m of welded joints were radiographed on
the project.
For use in places where access for heavy X-ray
machines was difficult and as a stand-by in case of
damage to X-ray machines, a gamma-ray camera was
also provided. It carried a Cesium 137 isotope.
While X-rays required an exposure time of only three
to five minutes on steel thicknesses u p to 25 mm,
gamma-rays required an exposure time of 50 to 60 min.
However, as gamma-rays are emitted by an isotope
source over 360°, filming of an entire circumferential
welded joint was possible in one exposure. A one-hour
single exposure was made on a circumferential joint 11.0
mm thick and 1.42 min diameter using 12 Dupont 506
slow films wrapped around on the exterior of the pipe
joint. The isotope was located exactly at the centre of
the pipe after being pushed out of the heavy lead
container by means of an extension rod. The necessary
precautions were taken by keeping people at least 10 m
away from the source d u r i n g the exposure. The
radiographs were clear enough and had a sensitivity of
3% or below as shown by the impressions of the
penetrameter.
This project called for considerable planning, skill
and experience, even though by comparison it was a
simple straightforward job. It involved small diameters,
1.27 to 1.57 m, and thicknesses only up to 14.28 mm.
Many projects involving penstocks of larger diameters
and of considerably higher thicknesses have been
successfully executed in India since then.
Among them is the Kalinadi project involving
Welten-80, a Japanese quenched and tempered low-alloy
steel. Before taking it up, it would be worthwhile to
discuss the productivity aspects of penstock fabrication
in a general way.
High strength steel plates of maximum possible
width, in line with the capacity of the bending roll must
be procured to minimise the total tonnage of steel to be
handled and the number of girth joints. The plate lengths
should also be such as to reduce the n u m b e r of
longitudinal joints in accordance with the shop handling
facilities. In a typical shop, it was found that single plates
up to 11 m length, suitable for shells of approximately
3,350 mm diameter, could be conveniently handled.
The economy of using high strength steel can be
demonstrated thus: For ASTM A-285 Grade C Steel, a
WELDING APPLICATIONS 709
design stress of 18,300 psi (125 N/mm 2 ) is taken, while
for ASTM A-517 Steel (quenched and tempered) the
stress is 38,300 psi (262 N/mm 2 ). Therefore for a 32 mm
thick plate of A-285-C steel, the equivalent thickness
in A-517 steel would be 15.2 mm (say 15 mm). While
the cost of A-517 steel would be about 1.6 times, the
tonnage to be imported and handled would be only
about 0.4 times, thus effecting a saving of 35% in the
cost of steel itself. The weld-metal requirements will be
reduced by 56%. The percentage saving in the weld-
metal goes on increasing as the thickness goes on
increasing. There is saving in almost every operation in
higher tensile steel, except rate of consumables, the total
cost of which is also less as the saving in requirements
more than compensates for the higher rate.
For butt welding plates, the general practice is to
adopt 60° V-groove with a root gap of 3-4 mm and a
shoulder of 3-4 mm. The root gap can be conveniently
reduced to 1.5 mm or even nil in carbon steels like A -
285-C, while using the automatic sumberged-arc
process, since high welding currents are permitted to
be used on this steel. The angle of V-groove can also be
reduced to 45°. This results in a saving of 30% in welding
consumables for plate thickness of 15 mm. This saving
will increase as plate thickness increases.
Though it is considered impractical to reduce the V-
groove angle to less than 60° for manual welding, some
fabricators have successfully reduced the angle to 45°
in thickness of 20 m m a n d below, and obtained
acceptable radiographic results. In one instance, instead
of bevelling both edges, only one edge was bevelled to
45° and the other edge was kept straight, thus effecting
some saving in the cost of edge preparation also. Use of
two torches mounted on the oxyacetylene cutting
machine reduces time and cost of such edge preparation.
As far as practicable, welding should be done in the
d o w n h a n d position, because in this case heavier
electrodes can be used, which are usually less costly per
ton than thinner electrodes. For example, changing over
from 4 to 5 mm electrodes reduces the cost of labour
plus overheads by as much as 25-30%.
It is always economical to use low-hydrogen iron
powder electrodes. Though the price of these electrodes
is higher, the ultimate weld deposit is definitely cheaper,
because of higher deposition efficiency, higher rate of
welding, reduced overheads and less completion time.
Besides low-hydrogen electrodes are less prone to
underbead cracking. Where preheating is required, iron
p o w d e r l o w - h y d r o g e n electrodes also save in
preheating costs, because of higher heat input obtained
with these electrodes.
710 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Maximum possible welding in penstock fabrication
should be done by automatic welding processes. It
requires some experience and skill to control the
curvature at the longitudinal joints when butt welding
with the automatic or semi-automatic process. For girth
or circumferential seams, all welding should be done
by automatic process to save completion time and
reduce welding costs. The chances of distortion are
almost negligible in girth joints.
Devices like turning rolls and rotators greatly
facilitate the work by bringing the workpiece quickly
in the most convenient position and dispense with the
need of helpers to a great extent. They also permit the
use of large sizes of electrodes by presenting the joint in
the downhand position and increase operator factor.
Accurate dimensioning, correct edge preparation,
close fit-up and proper alignment contribute to saving
in requirements of weld materials and permit use of
proper sizes of electrodes by eliminating the necessity
of using smaller diameter electrodes to prevent burn-
throughs. Badly cut joints mean wider V-groove,
requiring more weld-metal than necessary, necessitate
building up of edge, more cost in back cleaning of the
joint, longer time of execution and increased distortion.
Overwelding and throwing away of long stub ends can
increase cost of welding by as much as 50% or even
more.
The submerged-arc process can also be used for
welding stiffener rings, in which the welding time is
reduced by 50-60% as compared to manual welding.
Experience has shown that an automatic SA welding
installation, if used in a planned manner, can give output
equal to eight to ten manual welders.
Double bevel or X-grooves are commonly used for
heavy butt welds. The so-called equal grooves in this
type of joint are in fact unequal, as after back gouging,
the second side (back side) becomes deeper by 4-5 mm.
This occasionally presents problems in the control of
curvature at the longitudinal joints. This problem can
Lug
Wedge
Fig 19.23: Jigs for pipe alignment
be successfully overcome by adopting unequal V-
grooves having a difference of 4-5 mm and welding the
deeper side first. It will be advisable not to complete
the first side fully, but leave about two to three layers
and lay these depending upon the behaviour of the joint.
This deformation or bend at the joint is undesirable,
especially in high strength steels exceeding 60 kg class,
as the joint is liable to crack even under low loading.
According to experience, the limit of this bend has been
determined at 2.5° as shown in Fig. 19.22. Control of
this bend is very important as re-rolling can be avoided.
When attempt is made to correct excessive bend by re-
rolling, cracks occur in the weld.
For matching the abutting edges, the usual practice
is to weld an L-shaped lug on the lower surface and
drive a wedge between the overhanging arm of the lug
and the higher surface as shown at (A) in Fig. 19.23.
This involves unnecessary welding and wastage of lug
steel. The welding sometimes causes damage to the base
metal, which has to be repaired before the job can be
accepted. Besides, this operation involves cost of
fabricating the lugs and removing them by cutting or
gouging afterwards.
A considerable saving can be effected in this
o p e r a t i o n by u s i n g a jig w h i c h goes r o u n d the
circumferential joint and matching the edges by simply
driving the wedges at the required points. The jig, shown
in Fig. 19.23 (B), is made in two semicircles and is easily
put on the joint. Such a jig is also suitable for alignment
of longitudinal joints.
max. limit
Fig. 19.22: Curvature control of longitudinal joint of pipe
Wedge
n Alignment
iiJ ^li

Chipping and cleaning of each completed weld layer
before commencing the next one is an essential part of
the welding job. Proper tools and more joints in hand
(about twice the number of welders in a shift) give
optimum outturn by keeping the welders busy for most
of the time. Cleaning, chipping and welding should
proceed on alternate joints, thus keeping workmen busy
at all times and resulting in maximum utilisation of
labour. Treatment of back side of welding groove can
be greatly expedited by the combined use of arc-air
gouging and high speed grinding wheels.
Welded joints m u s t h a v e some m i n i m u m
reinforcement to ensure that no point on the weld seam
is below the plate surfaces. Excessive reinforcement, say,
above 1.5 mm for 12 mm plates, above 2.5 mm for 13-
25 mm plates and above 3.0 mm for plates more than 25
mm thickness is not permissible. It causes wastage of
weld-metal and also results in head losses on the inside
surface of penstocks. Besides, this extra reinforcement
needs to be removed and this involves avoidable labour
and materials for grinding off. The ideal joint would be
just flush with plate surfaces.
Radiographic inspection is an important step in
penstock fabrication, especially for longitudinal pipe
joints, which are subjected to maximum stress. Weld
surface irregularities, especially low points, are built up
beforehand and some grinding on the interior surface
is also done, so that radiograph contrast resulting from
any irregularities does not mask or is confused with that
of any objectionable defect. Either an X-ray machine or
a gamma radiography source is used. A common
procedure is to radiograph the longitudinal joints
separately, covering about three to four films (about 38
cm length each) in one exposure, thus requiring about
eight exposures for four longitudinal joints of two shells
of 2 m length each. This procedure increases the hazard
of radiation absorption by the radiography operator.
One fabricator has successfully radiographed one girth
joint (after joining two shells) and four longitudinal
joints each of 2 m length of a 4,880 mm diameter and 50
mm thick penstock in one exposure with a gamma-ray
source, thus cutting down the radiography time and
labour by 40% (see Fig. 19.24). This has also reduced
the cordoning off period and the disturbance caused to
other works in the vicinity.
The stress in the girth joint is about 50% of the stress
in the longitudinal joint when there are no expansion
joints or couplings. When expansion joints are provided,
this stress Considerably reduces in the direction of the
flow. Ultrasonic testing can be effectively substituted
for radiography for girth joints. This method is not only
WELDING APPLICATIONS 711
Radiographic source are fixed on
(Isotope) a || joints
Fig. 19.24: Improved radiography technique for pipes
cheaper but has other advan-tages. Testing can go on in
the shop along with other jobs at all times, as no
radiation hazards are involved. At erection sites, when
penstocks are being concreted from the outside, the
concreting need not wait for the completion of testing
and repair, as would be the case with radiography,
because ultrasonic testing can be done even with
concrete on the outside. For radiography, the other side
has to be approachable for affixing the films, while the
radiation source is on the inside.
All specifications provide for hydrostatic testing of
penstocks with a view to check any hidden defects. This
operation incidentally also effects mechanical stress-
relieving to a certain degree. While all straight sections
can be tested on a hydrostatic test structure, this is not
possible for bends and conical sections, which will
require welding of bulkheads and holding of bends from
opening out. It is permissible to test straight sections
individually or in assemblies, depending upon the
design of test structure, and then cut the sections to the
required profile and weld to make bends. The final girth
welds will have to be radiographed or ultrasonically
tested and this p r o c e d u r e has been accepted as
satisfactory. While making assemblies for hydrostatic
test (if it is a must, depending upon structure design
which may be suitable only for a fixed length), it is not
at all essential to fully weld such temporary girth joints.
About 20-25% welding on circumferential joints has
p r o v e d more t h a n satisfactory. This results in
considerable savings.
The conventional hydrostatic test structure shown
in Fig. 19.25 involves closing or sealing the ends with
bulk-heads fitted with rubber seals, in which huge
holding down bolts and blocks are used to counteract
the force on account of test pressure. This also involves
consider-able time and labour for fixing of blocks and
tightening of heavy bolts. A simple and quick test
structure shown in Fig. 19.26 can save all this trouble
and increase the speed of testing four to five times.
712 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Top seal
Detail-A
-4- *-4
IlL
i M m m aH3 m> 1

Water spaceii
127 mm i!
i! ftar

Top seal Detail-A

AJternative to Detail-A
B o t t o m seal

g Ufi HI
fl . D e t a i l - B Q } a Q 1 N

B o t t o m seal D e t a i l - B Alternative to D e t a i l - B
Fig. 19.25: Conventional hydrostatic test structure

Longer assemblies in accordance with handling and three days a joint (aggregate of many months for the
transportation facilities greatly reduce the cost of work entire project), thus not only slashing costs but greatly
and its completion time. It has been observed that by increasing overall productivity.
making an extra circumferential joint in the shop instead Proper care of electrodes and other consumables
of at the erection site (or field), one can save up to Rs. through dry storage facilities, redrying ovens and
200 per metric ton, i n c l u d i n g the saving in portable holding ovens not only reduces wastage but
transportation, crane handling, site alignment, site minimises welding defects, thereby lowering the cost
welding and welding consumables. The completion and adding to productivity.
time of the job is also greatly reduced at a rate of up to Preheating of joints to 95-100°C can be substituted
for stress-relieving u p to 38 mm thickness and may
eliminate the necessity of setting up a stress-relieving
Detail-A furnace for some projects. No preheating and stress-
relieving is needed for carbon steels up to 32 mm plate
thickness. Where preheating is a must, a controlled
speed of welding and use of thicker electrodes can save
Water space
75 mm
preheating costs up to 20-25%, as interpass temperature
can be maintained with reduced preheating, while using
the heat of the welding arc retained in the plate.
High pressure Welding of penstocks at site involves welding in all
pipe for annular positions. This situation can be greatly overcome (as was
water surface done at Kundah Project) by providing a V-groove in the
..i upper-half circle on the outside and in the lower-half
circumference on the inside, with transition at the
High pressure horizontal centre of the pipe. This will mean provision
pipe for Detail-A of single V-groove instead of X-groove, which becomes
rubber seal
uneconomical as thickness goes beyond 25 mm and is
not recommended beyond 32 m m plate thickness. This
will involve somewhat more weld-metal requirement;
b u t h i g h e r w e l d d e p o s i t i o n rate a n d less costly
electrodes of larger diameters and comparatively less
skilled welders will in many cases offset the cost of extra
Fig. 19.26: Simplified hydrostatic test structure
weld-metal.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 713

In tunnels excavated in rock, there is usually high

*•—r Surge
humidity, because of seeping water. The space between
L i--:rrrc=—OChamber
the liner and the tunnel is usually 600 to 750 mm. This
restricted space with high humidity and poor ventilation
greatly reduces the welding efficiency. Visibility is redu-
ced d u e to welding fumes and steam formation,
especially when concreting is following the installation.
These prob-lems are minimised by providing ventilation
blowers and handling/hauling larger length assemblies.
In many cases, the liners are joined and welded near
the tunnel face (portal) and pushed in part of the way
in the tunnel, as each assembly/liner is jointed. In this
way, most of the field welding is done outside the
congested and moist atmosphere, at a lower cost and
with better quality
For economical productivity in penstocks, a lathe-
turned roundness and workmanship should not be Fig. 19.27: Schematic diagram of
demanded and in fact cannot be justified. Out of Kalinadi hydro-electric project
roundness of 1% between maximum and minimum
diameters and minor (acceptable type) welding defects finger bars are welded to keep the joint in correct align-
should be accepted, as joint efficiency assumed in design ment before welding. Joint preparations adopted for
takes care of these factors. welding the Welten-80 steel, both at shop and field are
Kalinadi project: This project constitutes the first stage shown in Fig. 19.28. For one-side welding of circular
of hydro power development from the river Kalinadi,
which flows westwards in the Dharwar and North
Offset Less than 2 mm
Canara districts (Karnataka, India) and finally joins the
Arabian Sea. The Kali valley has an estimated power Fit up Less than 2 mm
potential of 1.3 million kW, which will be developed in Root gap For shop 5 mm
several stages. It is proposed to install six 135 MW for field 6 mm
generators at Nagjhari power house and two 50 MW Root face 3 mm
generators at Supa power house in the first stage. The
♦ Strong back, key plate
gross head is 560 m. Water will be supplied from the Key nut
surge tank through three main pressure shafts 4.75 m Carrot wedge
diameter, branching off to penstocks of 3.5 m diameter.
The pressure shaft which has an inclination of 50° is Finger bar
lined with A-285 Gr. C (M.S.) and the branch penstocks
are lined with Welten-80 steel (ASTM 517 Gr. F). Figure
19.27 shows the schematic diagram of the project. Tab plate
Welten-80 is a Japanese quenched and tempered low- Example of welding of plate
alloy steel which is an equivalent of T-l and T-1A of Backing plate
the U.S. Steel Corporation. It can be readily cold worked, 15(300)75 i.50 m m
J
cold bent and sheared. It provides high corrosion- and 3 mm
abrasion-resistance as it contains copper and chromium.
Fabrication of Welten-80 steel is based on ASME Sec.
VIII, 1971. All the plates are accurately marked and mm
trimmed to correct size by gas cutting or by edge
planing. They are then cold rolled to a true circle, once Field joint
•1st & 2nd pass
the edges are correctly made. The gas cut edges are manual backing
ground 2 to 3 mm to remove the hardened zone. Filler pass by A.W.
The edge-prepared plates after bending are matched
Fig. 19.28: Joint preparation for pipe welding
properly with matching screws and thereafter sufficient
714 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

joints, the edges are ground to prevent the occurrence Specifications of consumables for MMA and SA
of welding defects. The following conditions ensure welding of Welten-80 steel are furnished below:
good welding :
Root faces exceeding 3 mm are ground down to 3 A) Manual electrodes
mm. A root gap up to 6 mm is permissible, if the heat Classification: E10016(L-74)
input can be well controlled. Weld composition (%) C—0.07, Mn—1.20, Si—0.48
Before the fabrication is started, procedure tests and Ni—2.2, Cr—0.20, Mo—0.40
welders' qualification tests are carried out in accordance Mech. properties: UTS 74-85 k g / m m 2
with Sec. IX ASME Code or equivalent Indian standard. YP 63 k g / m m 2 min.
In addition to the tests specified in the Code, the Eln 20% min.
following tests were carried out on Welten-80 steel as Impact (CVN) 4.8 kg.
recommended by the steel manufacturer : m (-15°C) min.
1) Window cracking test Diff. hydrogen: Less than 3 ml/100 g.
This is a restraint cracking test, commonly used to
study the occurrence of transverse cracks in multi-layer B) SA flux-wire combination
weldments, in joints made out of 80 k g / m m 2 class tensile Solid wire C—0.18, Mn—1.64, Si—0.17,
strength steels. composition(%): Ni—2.56, Cr—0.52, Mo—0.70
2) Y-groove restraint cracking test Flux composition (%): Si02—38.6, CaO—15.2,
This test is the most common and is a highly effective MnO—18.1,
method of testing root cracking in tack welds and in the A1 2 0 3 —8.6, NbO—3.8,
initial layers of main welds. CaF2—14.2
3) Circular patch test Weld composition (%):C—0.06, Mn—1.26, Si—0.30,
In the welding of grout holes in penstocks, possibility Ni—2.38, Cr—0.40
of weld cracking is considered to be relatively high. The Typ. mech property UTS 84.8 kg/mm 2
circular patch test is to be conducted to investigate values: YP 74.1 k g / m m 2
cracking in the grout hole welding, since the welding is Eln 22%
carried out under high restraint. Impact (CVN) 7.9 kg- m (-15°C)
4) Diffusible hydrogen test
This checks the amount of hydrogen in the deposited In view of the extremely difficult working condition
metal of the electrode. in the tunnel where the humidity is more than 90%, the

Type of weld Type of welding Location Root pass Fillet pass

1) Long, joint SAW Shop E10016* Nittetsu Y-80M wire
(Nittetsu L-74) and Nittetsu NF16
Flux
2) Cir. joint SAW Shop £10016* Nittetsu Y-80M wire
(Nittetsu L-74) and Nittetsu NF16
Flux
MMAW Shop E7016** E10016
(Nittetsu 16LH) (Nittetsu L-74)
3) Fillet weld MMAW Shop E7016/E7018 E7016/7018
Welten-80+Welten-80 (Nittetsu 16LH)
m.s.+Welten-80
4) Cir. joint Welten-80 MMAW Site E7016 E10016
(Nittetsu 16LH) (Nittetsu L74
5) Cir. joint m.s. + Welten -80 MMAW Site E7016 E7016

* Remove the root pass by gouging.

** Strength should be secured by gouging.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 715

steel manufacturers r e c o m m e n d e d the following
manual electrodes and SA wire-flux combination to get
the best results (given in the Table below):
The following conditions for drying of welding
consumables were stipulated:
The manual electrodes after being taken out of the
container shall be dried at 400 ±15°C for about three
hours before use. The electrodes thus dried should be
transferred on to storage ovens immediately, and
maintained at 120 to 175°C. Only the electrodes required
for an hour's use shall be removed at any time. If an
electrode is exposed to the atmosphere for more than
an hour, it shall be redried under the same conditions
as before. The redr-ying can be done only once. If the
drying temperature is too high or the electrode is dried
more than four times, the coating will embrittle and peel
off during welding.
Fluxes for SAW shall be d r y and free from
contamination of dirt, mill scale or other foreign
material. In principle, the flux should be fused type.
a) As a rule, neutral-type flux should be dried at a
temperature of 250°C for two hours and highly basic
type of flux at a temperature of 400°C for two hours.
For uniform drying, the flux should be spread in a thin
layer and dried in an agitated oven.
b) After drying, the flux should be placed in an oven
at 150°C.
c) Flux should be used within 60 min of removal from
the oven.
d) If the flux has been exposed to the atmosphere for
more than 60 min after removal from the oven, it must
be dried again before use.
e) If the flux has been kept in an open container or
hopper for more than four hours, the upper 25 mm
should be discarded.
f) Before using the flux recovered from previous jobs,
care should be taken to see that the impurities are removed.
Conditions of preheating and interpass temperature
were stipulated as follows :
A preheat and interpass temperature of 150 to 200°C
shall be maintained. The preheat shall be uniform and
continuous. Electric stripheaters or gas burners may be
used for preheating the longitudinal and circular joints
in the shop. It is necessary to heat each part over a width
of 100 mm (4 x t) or more and maintain satisfactory
temperature control. It should be kept in mind that the
surfaces to be welded must be absolutely moisture-free.
When the preheat temperature is too high, or welding
is locally concentrated, the overall temperature of the
joint may become too high and adversely affect the
toughness of the weld-metal or the heat-affected zone.
Therefore, the interpass temperature should be checked
and controlled within the limit. When thermostats are
not available, freq-uent measurements of temperatures
by indicators should be made. The measurements
should be taken as close to the welding line as possible.
Local preheating may be carried out while repairing the
w e l d i n g defects of m a i n joints revealed in the
radiographic tests. The recom-mended heat input is less
than 45,000 J/cm in Welten-80 steel. Hence, input should
not exceed 50,000 J/cm.
In order to prevent embrittlement and softening of
the fusion line and heat-effected zone the heat input by
welding must be restricted as described below:
Classification of plate thickness (mm)
6 to 13 13 to 19 19 to 26 26 to 40
25,000 J/cm 35,000 J/cm 45,000 J/cm 48,000 J/cm
max. max. max. max.
Welding voltages commonly range from 24 to 26 V,
when welding is done with proper arc length. The

Tabulated below are typical examples of MMA welding conditions:

Welding Electrode Welding Welding Heat input
position dia. mm current, amp speed, m m / m i n J/cm
Flat 3.2 100 to 120 100 to 120 12,000 to 18,000
4.0 160 to 180 100 to 180 13,300 to 27,000
5.0 200 to 230 100 to 180 17,000 to 34,500
Vertical 3.2 90 to 110 40 to 120 22,500 to 37,000
4.0 130 to 150 40 to 120 30,000 to 45,000
Horizontal 3.2 110 to 130 100 to 180 12,000 to 15,000
4.0 160 to 180 100 to 180 13,500 to 17,000
5.0 200 to 230 100 to 180 17,500 to 34,500
Overhead 3.2 90 to 110 40 to 140 12,000 to 18,700
4.0 120 to 140 40 to 140 12,500 to 17,500
716 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
welding current is DC, straight polarity. The actual
welding heat input (J / cm), can be calculated from the
formula:
Current x Voltage
Heat input (J/cm)
100 x Speed in c m / m i n
In the case of SAW also, this formula holds good.
Typical examples of heat input are as under:
Thickness Preheat and interpass Heat input
mm temp. 0°C J/cm
25 150 to 200 44,200
38 150 to 200 45,000
50 150 to 200 45,000
In the fabrication and installation of penstocks,
welding is performed at three different locations,
namely, the fabrication shop, temporary site workshop
and the installation site. Generally MMA and SA
welding are carried out at the shop and only MMA at
the erection site. The longitudinal joints are welded
either by SAW or by MMA. For circumferential welding,
the longitudinally welded shells are matched with
sufficient finger bars to maintain alignment during
welding. SAW is permitted only if the thickness is more
than 19.2 mm. If it is less than 19.2 mm, only MMA
process should be adopted.
In SAW, penetration is relatively deeper and the
chemical composition of the deposited metal varies
widely with dilution of the base metal. For this reason,
the mechanical properties and especially the crack
sensitivity of the deposited metal are easily affected by
the cooling rate of the deposit. Therefore, in the selection
of the wire-flux combination, sufficient consideration
is given to the type of joint, build up, method of preheat,
interpass temperature, heat input, etc.
In manual welding, the arc length is kept as short as
possible, consistent with maintaining satisfactory
operation. The straightforward stringer bead method
is preferred for welding of Welten-80 steel. Weaving is
permissible if a steady arc length is maintained, but the
w i d t h of the weave should not exceed thrice the
diameter of the elect-rode used in the vertical position,
and twice the diameter of the electrode used in the flat
position (diameter of core wire). When welding is
performed in the vertical position, all beads progress
from the bottom to top, except the first pass, which may
be uphill or downhill, and the finish or wash beads are
r u n top to bottom using 3.2 or 4.0 m m diameter
electrodes and either two or three stringer beads to cover
the uphill passes.
The tack welding of jigs is carried out under the same
conditions as for regular welding (welding of the main
body). The bead length is kept 80 mm minimum.
In periods of high wind, the operator and joint are
protected to prevent the protective gas blanket of the
welding arc from being blown away. No welding is perfo-
rmed when water is falling/dropping on the surface to
be welded, unless the work is properly protected.
Extreme care is taken to remove slag during each
pass and inspect the surface with the naked eye. The
next pass is never deposited without looking for defects
such as overlap, pits, excessive undercut, etc. Any
defects that appear on the surface are removed by
g r i n d i n g or g o u g i n g before d e p o s i t i n g the next
successive bead. No arc strike is allowed on the base
metal, except in the groove. If this happens, that part of
the base metal will be hardened abnormally and may
become the starting point of crack.
The welds are ground till all weld ripples and surface
irregularities are removed and the weld surface is left
smooth, but not necessarily flush with plate surface. All
double welded butt joints are examined in accordance
with the requirements of paragraph UW51 of Sec. VIII-
1971, ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Longitudinal
joints and the circumferential joints are X-rayed 100%
of the length of welds in the shop. Radiographs are not
taken until 24 hours have elapsed after completion of
welding. Defects disclosed by the radiographs are arc-
air gouged or chipped out, rewelded, re-X-rayed and
the cycle repeated until satisfactory results are obtainejl.
All fillet welds, joining diaphragm plates, rings, lugs,
etc., must have smooth transitions into the sides of plates
with toes of the weld made before depositing the major
bead. The surfaces are ground to merge smoothly into
the plate surfaces. The fillet joints are subjected to
magnetic particle testing. The procedure of carrying out
the above test is as per Appendix 6 of ASME Code Sec.
VIII, 1971.
Grout holes are provided in the pipes for grouting
purposes in the field after they are installed in the tunnel.
Welding of grout plugs in the field is difficult in the case
of Welten-80 steel due to the difficult conditions and
high percentage of humidity. Hence a mild steel nozzle
with reinforcement plate is welded in the shop as shown
in Fig. 19.29. All precautions are taken while welding to
prevent any underbead cracks. The grout holes are
welded with E7018 electrodes both at the shop and in
the field for plug welding. As there is no scope to carry
out radiographic tests, the grout holes are plugged
temporarily and hydraulic testing is carried out to make
sure that there is no leakage. The plugs are of mild steel

I SQ. OR. DIA. 100 mm
1 1/2" STD. Pipe Threads
^ B a c k i n g plate
M.S.
Welten 80
pipe
Low carbon
Shop weld (0.18-0.20%)
Seamless tube-M.S.
Field weld
65 mm 1.0 x 10 mm
(Use E 7018 electrodes for all welds)
Fig. 19.29: Detail of grout hole plug
and the same are later welded in the field after the
grouting operation is completed.
The shop assembled pieces are aligned at the site
along the alignment. Sufficient finger bars are used on
circumferential joints to maintain alignment during
welding. No tack welds in the joints are permitted. As
there is no access to weld the joint from outside, only
inside welding is carried out with back-up bar, which is
made of mild steel having approximately 0.18% carbon
content. Preheating and interpass temperatures are the
same as followed in the shop.
In the case of embedded type penstocks where the
welding work may be carried out in highly humid
tunnels, delayed hydrogen-induced cracking of weld is
likely to occur. To prevent such weld cracks, low-carbon
equivalent steel materials are used and preheating
temperatures, heat input and electrodes are stringently
controlled. The first pass is deposited with a lower
tensile electrode to prevent cracking.
Heavy joints requiring multi-pass welding have a
high possibility of cracks occurring in the root pass,
which can be prevented by the application of continuous
welding. This kind of cracking is likely to occur when
temperature is u n d e r 150°C and w h e n h y d r o g e n
contained in the weld zone is high. In continuous
welding, however, it will take a much longer time before
the temperature comes down to 150°C or lower. During
this period, hydrogen levels are lowered and the
possibility of crack occurrence is thus eliminated.
In fact, welding should be done continuously as far
as practicable. As a general rule, the working condition
should be so set, that within the groove, continuous
welding can be done from the first pass to one-half of
the plate thickness. In any case, two passes must be
continuously welded without fail.
WELDING APPLICATIONS 717
The t u n n e l is kept well ventilated, such that
temperature and humidity are kept under 30°C and 80%
respectively. If the humidity exceeds 90% in the tunnel,
the welding work is suspended.
The field circumferential joints must be radiographed
100% for Welten-80 steel, but in the Kalinadi project,
due to the lack of space around the pipe at site,
radiographic tests could not be carried out. Ultrasonic
test was the only alternative test that could be used. This
testing was carried out 24 hours after the welding was
completed. It was based on the ASME Code. The
sensitivity was kept higher than what is specified in the
code, so that minute defects would not be missed.
ASME Code specifies 2.25 MHz probes as a general
rule for testing. Rut for testing Welten-80 joints, 70° angle
probes of 5 MHz are recommended for plates of
thickness up to 40 mm. The execution and interpretation
of ultrasonic testing requires specialised experience to
correctly judge the defects. A set of test pieces with
defects are prepared and radiographed. Ultrasonic tests
are thereafter carried out on these pieces. The results
are then tabulated for reference. The inspectors are
trained with the help of these test pieces to acquire
correct j u d g e m e n t . Wherever space permits,
radiographs are also taken and the results compared
with the ultrasonic method.
Nuclear power
In India, as in many developed and developing
countries, nuclear power is being increasingly used for
the generation of electricity. C o m p a r e d with
conventional plant, the capital cost of a nuclear plant is
much higher, but the running costs are much lower.
The heart of a nuclear plant is the nuclear reactor. In
designing a reactor, the important problems to be
considered are: efficient extraction of heat from the core
for conversion into electricity; containment of the fissile
material and the resulting fission products, and the
provision of a moderator. The fuel is usually placed in
sealed metal cans which prevent the release of the
radioactive fission products. The cans are usually finned
to aid heat transfer to the coolant.
A nuclear power plant is composed of extremely
complicated and sophisticated components. It incorpo-
rates several thousand welds to provide pressure-tight
containment of the liquids in the reactor vessel and
steam raising circuits. In addition, some reactor designs
rely heavily on welded structural steelwork to support
all the ancillary piping and equipment.
In India, important nuclear plants are located at
Kotah, Chennai and Narora, and are known respectively
718 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
as Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant (RAPP), Madras
Atomic Power Plant (MAPP) and Narora Atomic Power
Plant (NAPP). All the three are heavy water cooled and
moderated plants.
In the case of RAPP/MAPP design, the calandria and
the two end-shields, one at each end, are separate
components, each of which is suspended from the roof
by support rods. The design aims at optimum alignment
of the calandria a n d end-shield at the operating
conditions.
In the NAPP design shown in Fig. 19.30, the calandria
and the end-shields have been made integral by field
welding. The lattice tubes, 306 in number, which support
the end-fittings of the coolant channel, pass through the
end-shields and are welded at each end. End-fitting seal
bellows are provided at each end of the coolant channel
and are required to contain and seal the protective
atmosphere in the annulus between the coolant tubes/
end-fittings assembly and calandria tube/lattice tubes
assembly. At the calandria end, the end-shields have a
second tube sheet (baffle plate), which is situated 25 mm
behind the calandria side-tube sheet of the end-shield.
The lattice tubes are arranged on a 228.60 mm square
lattice pitch and welded to the fuelling machine side
tube sheet at one end and to the baffle plate and the
calandria side-tube sheet (tri-junction weld joint) at the
other end. Two support diaphragms, provided in each
end-shield, are d e s i g n e d to a c c o m m o d a t e the
differential thermal expansion between the stainless
steel and carbon steel portions of the end-shield and
between the Zircaloy-2 calandria tubes and the concrete
walls in which the end-shields are housed.
Some important and challenging welding jobs
developed for the NAPP project are described below.
a) Site welding between calandria and two end-shields
For integrating the main reactor vessel (calandria)
and the adjoining shielding components (end-shields)
by field welding, a special welding procedure involving
the MMA process and a well-planned block welding
sequence was developed to control distortion. Four
welders, each one working diametrically opposite his
partner, welded together on each seam.
b) Welding carbon steel to stainless steel
The end-shield diaphragm plates consist of two
parts, one of stainless steel (Type 304L) and the other of
carbon steel (ASTM A516 Gr. 60) as shown in Fig. 19.31.
These p a r t s s u p p o r t the end-shield-calandria
assembly, and in addition to supporting the dead load,
are subjected to both lateral and inplane loadings.
Briefly, these diaphragm plates are subjected to large
in-service stresses. The weld joint between the carbon
steel and stalinless steel was critically reviewed to
determine delta-ferrite content at various locations, i.e.
carbon steel/weld boundary, centre and stainless steel/
weld boundary. It is well known that ER 309 electrodes
are generally used for this conventional transition weld.
However, studies revealed that at the boundary of
stainless steel and weld material, the ferrite content is
lower than the minimum specified value of 5% by ASME
standards. To offset this, it was established that by giving
an overlay with ER 308L on stainless steel edge, the
problem of low ferrite content can be overcome. Hence,
the risk of undetected microfissures is taken care of.
Details A and B in the figure give the ferrite content
with conventional method of welding carbon steel/
stainless steel and the modified welding technique
developed for the project, respectively.
c) Welding of bellows
End-fitting seal-bellows are provided at either end
of the coolant channel: one end of the bellow assembly
would be welded to a collar, shrink-fitted on the end-
fitting and the other end to be rolled into the lattice tubes.
These bellows are required so as to contain and seal the
protective atmosphere around each coolant channel
assembly.
In bellow welding, approach and space restrictions
were the main limitations for obtaining sound welds.
Since manual welding is ruled out, a special welding
jig and fixture were designed and developed to make
the required weld of consistent quality.
To make the weld, the motorised welding gun of the
automatic TIG welding equipment is mounted on the
end-fitting and is firmly held on it. The automatic
sequence now takes over and the arc is struck between
the welding torch and the job at the partition line
between the shrink-fitted ring and the bellow ring. The
motor of the welding gun drives it around the end-fitting
precisely at the required uniform speed. Initially, a
pulsed TIG power source was considered in order to
obtain consistent weld quality and greater depth-to-
width ratio. However, by making suitable modifications
in the weld geometry, the desired results were achieved
with the conventional TIG power source. The welding
arrangement details are shown in Fig. 19.32.
d) Tri-junction welding
The tri-junction joint comprises lattice tube, calandria
side-tube sheet (CSTS) and baffle plate (BP) of each end-
shield. The schematic diagram of the tri-junction weld
 Outer
Cover supporU

lid A Solid shut off rod assy. 14

o Regulating rod (SHRC) 18
• Regulating rod (fine) 2
-► Booster rod
4- Liquid shut off rod assy. 12
+ Flux monitor 1
O.F. - Overflow pipe 1
OPR - Overpressure tube end shieldL
relief line 6 Balls HJ) Calandria
I-Moderator inlet 12 .2 tube
OT - Moderator outlot 4 Enlarged Detail , C I
Top hatch—^i

V
Journal ring and
See bearing sleeve Lattice
HjtO vault)
enlarged (Calandria ^r-ri tube
Detail ' C coolant shield
side) mil C a l a n d r i a * ^
End fittim
tearSh-^^ Pressure relief
End _sh[eld body
line
End shield"
Lattice tube
Calandria-

Ion chamber Moderator -Calandria-

inlet side tube sheet
♦ Fuel Moderator inlet.- Baffle plate
channel
(306) Vault liner- .Moderator Enlarged Detaij ,A,
Carbon steel outlet
End shield
Enlarged Detail 'B'
alternative to Detail 'A' m

>
♦o

O
5
5
z
CO

Fig. 19.30: General arrangement of reactor components at NAPP

720 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Octagonal flange
C.S.

Key diagram

Electrode 309
Section C-C
( Tube sheet
F / M side 5.S.

Overlay with
30 81 electrode
S.S,

Detail Detail B

Fig. 19.31: Welding of end-shield diaphragm plates

is shown in Fig. 19.33. The lattice tubes are seamless
austenitic stainless material of extra-low carbon type
ASTM A312 Gr. 304L and tube sheet and baffle plate
are made out of ASTM 240 type 304L stainless steel. The
finished w e l d s h a v e to meet ASME Class 1
requirements. The welding has to be done in horizontal
(2G) position and the welding is almost a blind operation
in the sense that operator's view is blocked during
welding. Welding distortion and locked-in stresses have
to be kept to a m i n i m u m , in order to maintain
dimensional stability during final boring operations; and
a high rate of production is required since the number
of weld joints is quite large.
For depositing the root run, a unique arrangement
of placing consumable welding wire was successfully
developed for getting full root fusion with a specially
designed auto-TIG torch. As seen in the figure, in this
case the insert is placed on the partition line between
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 721

945.5 225.5

Proposed welding head

End fitting-expansion
bellows assy.
Backing ring
Tig fusion site Bellow assembly
weld end piece

Shrunk fit ring

End fitting

Detail »X«
Dimensions are in mm.

Part end view of end fittings at

reactor lattice positions

Fig. 19.32: Details of bellow welding for NAPP reactor

Octagonal frame Outer shell j Calandria side

Manholi u . . , , , Tube sheet
Hand hole

Main shell

Baffle -7
plate /

Lattice tube
Detail 'A'

Key Diagram

Fig. 19.33: Joint configuration for welding CSTS baffle plate lattice tube
722 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

the calandria side-tube sheet (CSTS) and the baffle plate.

The necessity of preplacing the insert arises mainly
from introducing the required amount of ferrite in the
root of the weld, because fully austenitic welds are
likely to develop microfissures. Secondly, the insert so
placed also helps in achieving welds of consistent good
quality during the production welding. The subsequent
filling passes were deposited with the pulsed-MIG
process. The main problem faced during the filling
operation was the sticking of the feed wire. It was
observed that the wire was getting stuck due to arc Typ. weld detail for Typ. weld detail for
jumping from workpiece to the contact tip. This problem joining bulb and 'S* joining bulb to 'S' bend
was overcome by providing a ceramic sleeve on t h e bend to side plate
c o n t a c t tip a n d by spraying a silicone-base anti- Fig. 19.34: Weld details for dump port box assembly
s p a t t e r c o m p o u n d on t h e contact tip before the
deposition of each pass.
puddle difficult, besides making the operation very
s t r e n u o u s . Moreover, d u e to the large thickness
e) Welding of calandria (Reactor Vessel) difference, it is very difficult to achieve good root
In the fabrication of calandria for RAPP and MAPP, p e n e t r a t i o n on this weld. Good penetration w a s
which was made of Type 304L stainless steel, the overall achieved by developing a two-welder technique for TIG
dimensions o f 7 m x 6 m x 5 m had to be very precisely welding of the joint. Dual physical functions of a welder
controlled, bearing in mind that an austenitic stainless in TIG welding, viz. directing the arc and feeding the
steel is more distortion prone than a carbon steel due to filler wire, normally done by him with two hands, are
its higher coefficient of thermal expansion and lower separately done in this modified technique. One welder
thermal conductivity. TIG welding process with its holds the torch and guides the arc along the joint at a
following variations was found to be most suitable: proper angle and speed. The other welder, sitting on
i) Manual TIG with filler wire the opposite side, adds the filler wire to the weld puddle
ii) Manual TIG with consumable inserts and with- at a proper rate and also directs the torch bearer.
out filler wire The joint design for S-bend to side plate welding is
iii) Automatic autogenous TIG (i.e. without filler the same as that for bulb to side plate welding. However,
wire or insert). the approach for welding S-bends is very restricted. It
One of the most critical areas of welding in the cannot be welded by one hand, and the welder has to
calandria is the d u m p port box assembly. The d u m p change his position continuously while progressing
port box consists of three sub-assemblies, each along the weld (see Fig. 19.35). The welders were trained
incorporating 28 bulbs, 14 S-bends and two side plates.
The bulbs and S-bends are 10 mm thick and side plates
are 31 and 44 m m thick. Figure 19.34 shows the
configuration of welds joining bulb to side plate, bulb
to S-bend and S-bend to side plate. It is absolutely
necessary that the welds be free from defects and have
a smooth appearance without undercuts or excessive
reinforcement. All these joints are single-sided with no
access from the back side, and are done by manual TIG Right hand
process. The welders must have enough skill and for torch
familiarity with the joints to do a faultless job every time. Left hand Left hand for torch
It should be noted that accessibility for welding the for filler Right hand for filler
joints between the bulbs and side plate over its entire
length is very limited, and that compared to the
thickness of the side plate, the bulb is very thin. Limited Fig. 19.35: Welding of'S' bend
accessibility makes a welder's judgement of the weld

to control the welding torch and its movement along
the joint with either right or left hand, while feeding
the filler wire with the other hand.
Using the TIG process with consumable inserts, high
integrity welds with full penetration were achieved in
several hundred single-sided pipe joints varying in size
from 12.7 mm NB to 100 mm NB in each calandria.
As an alternative to the above method, an automatic
orbital tube welder was used, as shown in Fig. 19.36.
Using various welding heads, this system is capable of
welding the diameter range of 3-550 mm, which is the
full range of diameters encountered in calandria piping.
The system consists of:
i) Orbital welding heads
ii) A crater filling unit
iii) Preheating time relay
iv) Current control units for fine current selection as
well as for low currents, down to 5 amps.
Type 304L bulbs for MAPP calandria were welded
by the submerged-arc process using ER 308L wire and
a specially designed agglomerated flux. The weld
deposit contained less t h a n 0.04% carbon a n d
approximately 7% delta ferrite as stipulated. Welding
wires of 3.15 and 4 mm diameter were used in the
current range of 400-500 amp. The welded joints met
the radiographic requirements.
f) Welding of small diameter tubes
At MAPP, the S.S. tubes used in the instrumentation
system are less than 12.7 mm O.D., and they are designed
Fig. 19.36: Automatic orbital tube welder
WELDING APPLICATIONS 723
to carry heavy water from the main primary system
feeders to the delayed neutron monitoring room. The
welds in the tubing system must be of highest integrity.
Any failure in the system will result in the loss of heavy
water, which cannot be tolerated from the economic and
safety points of the operation of a nuclear power station.
In addition to the financial loss incurred by the heavy
water leakage, it creates a radioactive atmosphere inside
the reactor building, which will further hamper any
rectification work. The material selected for this system
is extra-low carbon austenitic stainless steel to overcome
the weld decay problems during welding.
An automatic tube welding equipment using the TIG
process was selected for this critical application. It
mainly consists of the weld head, the pendant box, the
power supply and control and shielding and purging
gas systems. The weld head is made of two parts. The
head proper is interchangeable for different tube sizes
and it is provided with clamps for holding the tubes.
The head is covered from atmospheric air entering the
weld chamber and can be opened by a cover. The head,
sketched in Fig. 19.37, contains the electrode assembly
in the form of a slotted gear and the electrical energy is
supplied through the slip rings. Proper diffusers are
provided to avoid the argon gas entering the weld
chamber directly, which otherwise will result in arc
shifts. The head also contains a reduction gear unit to
control the output speed of the motor in the handle. The
pendant box contains head control switches and an
ammeter to give the operator a visual check on the weld
programme. Fullwave silicon-controlled diode (SCR)
rectification power supply is employed for this machine.
The programme is obtained by changing automatically
the reference voltage by means of relay contacts and
preset potentiometers used as voltage dividers. Suitable
timers are employed to control the programme. The
complete programme consists of preshielding gas flow,
preheat, weld, Decay I, Decay II, taper current and
postshielding gas flow. The preheat is meant to heat the
metal to fusion temperature in the initial stage, the
absence of which otherwise will result in lack of penet-
ration. A high frequency circuit is included for arc initiat-
ion. The whole power supply can be switched off or on
from either of main unit or pendant box. The schematic
circuit of shielding gas and purging gas systems is
illustrated in Fig. 19.38. A recorder is also provided to
record the weld current versus time of each weld.
In this process, the success of achieving a good weld-
bead contour depends entirely on the internal purge gas
pressure, which is maintained manually. The internal
pres-sure is adjusted by introducing a manometer and
724 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Rotor
Drive gear
Tube clamped
hen
Type II
Fig. 19.37: A simplified sketch of the inside of weld head
a tee connection in between the argon cylinder and tube
as shown in Fig. 19.38. The required internal pressure is
adjus-ted by throttling the pressure control valve, till
the required height of water column is obtained in the
manometer (U tube) for a given value of flow rate. Then
the manometer and the tee connections are removed
and the argon gas cylinder is directly connected to the
tube. This procedure has to be followed for every five
or six welds to check the internal pressure and to make
correction if required.
First the inside of the tubes are purged with argon
gas and the required pressure and flow rate are
maintained. On pressing the start switch, the
preshielding gas starts flowing into the weld chamber
to provide an inert atmosphere. After the pre-gas-flow
Pendant box
Purge gas weld head
pressure control i ^
velve r ^ Tube
51/min
U-Tube
Fig. 19.38: Schematic diagram of shielding and purging gas system
Oiffuser
chamber
Electrode
Tube clamped here
time is over, the high frequency unit starts up, ionising
the shielding gas and establishing an arc. After the
initiation of the arc, the electrode will stay stationary
until the preheat time elapses. Then the electrode starts
rotating circumferentially with the tip of the electrode
making a concentric circle over the joint with an arc gap
of 1.5 ± 0.125 mm, making a full penetration weld. Then
the welding continues with two-step reduction of
current called Decay I and Decay II. By this time the
electrode would have completed one revolution and
continued to rotate approximately 160° more with
tapering current, to complete the weld programme as
shown in Fig. 19.39. The arc extinguishes automatically
at the end of taper current but the electrode will continue
to rotate and it will stop at the original starting position.
Recorder
zO
20 l/min
—^
$ 4 * Regulator-***
f*—Valve—«X
Purge gas Shielding gas
cylinder (Argon) cylinder (Argon)
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 725

The shielding gas flow is also maintained for eight to
ten seconds after the arc extinction, to protect the hot
weld from oxidation. Arrangements for no-weld
sequence operation and circumferential inching of
electrode are also provided. A graphical representation
of the weld sequence is shown in Fig. 19.40.
To qualify the procedure, the machine had to produce
50 continuous welds of acceptable quality in each of 5G
and 2G positions. Out of the 50 welds, six welds were
subjected to tensile tests, 15 were bend tested and the
remaining cut opened, visually inspected and subjected
to liquid dye penetrant examination. It was stipulated
that the weld shall not have any root concavity, lack of
fusion, excess inside reinforcement and burn-through.
Even a single specimen failure would lead to the
requalification of the automatic welding procedure.
The initial problems of arc striking and arc wander
were overcome by using 2% thoriated-tungsten

520°

Full weld current

Decay I current

Taper current

Decay II current

Full weld current

270° Decay I current 360
360° Decay II current
520° Taper current

Fig. 19.39: Change of welding current with reference to welding sequence

TIME

Taper adjusts slope

a
E
<
c
£
3
U

"3

Push
sequence m 1 Rotation
button HF initiates arc Electrode Arc is Rotation
starts rotation completed extinguished stops

Fig. 19.40: Welding sequence

726 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

electrodes of proper size and controlling the tip size and

the taper of these electrodes. Tolerances permitted for Hot sodium
weld acceptance are detailed in the following Table: Concrete shield
Control rods S3Z
The complete welded system was leak tested using
fteactor jacketl Steam
helium as tracer gas and observing the following
generator
conditions: the helium gas pressure to be maintained is
1 bar (15 psig) and the gas inside shall contain at least
50% helium. All joints shall be leak proof and when
tested, the leak rate should not exceed 7.6 x 10 3 m litre/
sec (1 x 10"5 standard cc/sec).
Fast breeder reactor: Many countries have been experi-
menting with fast breeder reactors, because they per-
mit more efficient utilisation of uranium, which in course
of time will either become scarce or rise substantially in Primary p u e | Intermediate
vessel elements heat
price. The reactor consists of a compact core, which con- exchanger 23E
tains the enriched P u 0 2 / U 0 2 fuel in stainless steel cans, Cool Sodium
surrounded by more cans containing U0 2 , which will
Fig. 19.41: Fast breeder reactor (FBR)
be partially converted to P u 0 2 by the breeding process
(see Fig. 19.41). There is no moderator. To remove the
intense heat generated in the core, liquid sodium metal feasibility of the design, performance of material vis-a-
is used as a coolant. This becomes slightly radioactive, vis neutron environment and other aspects so vital for
so instead of circulating directly to the steam genera- development of future reactors in the country. On the
tors, an intermediate sodium circuit is interposed. This p e r f o r m a n c e of this reactor will d e p e n d the
removes the dangerous possibility of radioactive sodium development of further fast reactors, and the decision
coming into contact with superheated steam, with which to switch over to fast breeder technology for the future
it would react violently, should there be a leak in the nuclear power programmes of our country.
steam generator. The fuel elements, primary sodium All over the world, austenitic stainless steel Types
pumps and intermediate heat exchangers are all sited 304 and 316 are used as principal construction materials
inside a stainless steel tank. All external connections are for sodium-cooled reactors. For the fabrication of FBTR
made through the roof, thus avoiding the need for pen- at Kalpakkarn, Type 316 (with 3% Mo) was the predom-
etrations through the tank walls or base. The coolant is inant material. For welding this steel, the important
not pressurised, and the high sodium outlet tempera- stipulations were that the weld-metal must give a
ture (560-600°C) gives a high thermal efficiency. minimum elongation value of 41% in the tensile test and
India is specially interested in fast breeder reactors, its ferrite content must be in the range of 2.5-5.0%. The
because they are meant to use Thorium-232 (converted modified 316 basic type electrodes successfully used on
from U-233) and Plutonium-239 (converted from U-238), this steel had the following composition (%) range:
and minimise our dependence on other countries for C .. 0.055-0.060 Cr .. 18.6-18.8
import of enriched Uranium-235 or natural Uranium. Mn .. 1.25-1.50 Mo .. 2-2.10
India has made a start in this direction by setting up the Si .. 0.50-0.56 S .. 0.010-0.012
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Ni .. 11.8-12.0 P .. 0.010-0.017
Nadu. Research will be carried out on this reactor to The factors which helped to achieve the stipulations
gain experience in sodium technology, fuel cycle aspects, were: low heat input, rapid cooling of weld deposit with

6 mm Tube 10 mm Tube
Maximum radial misalignment between butting tube ends 0.125 mm 0.25 mm
Electrode tip deviation from the joint along tube axis ± 0.125 m m ± 0.125 m m
Maximum concavity 0.125 mm 0.125 mm
Maximum reinforcement 10% of wall 10% of wall
thickness thickness
Bead width 3.175 ± 0.5 mm 3.30 ± 0.9 mm

dry air, short arc and stringer bead technique, sequential
welding, maintaining narrowest groove and minimum
root gap, thoroughly dried electrodes, avoiding cold
work, and employing trained welders. The welded
components included reactor vessel with double
envelope and thermal shields, large and small rotating
plugs, vessel and plug supports and liquid metal seals.
The fully welded reactor vessel consisted of five
shells (one conical) and five flanges of diameters varying
from 3 to 0.5 m and of total length of 7 m. The
dimensional requirements which were extremely
stringent were as follows:
a) Maximum mismatch of the edges of shells and
flanges allowed is -0.3, meaning that tolerance on the
ovality of the shells at the edges is -0.6 mm.
b) Maximum eccentricity allowed between centres
of flanges after assembly and welding of the reactor
vessel is ±0.5 mm on a span of 7 m.
Before venturing on the actual fabrication, mock-up
tests were conducted with stainless steel plates of 10
mm thickness. As each of the reactor vessel shells is
made of two half shells, mock-up tests were carried out
to fabricate two cylindrical shells, enabling study on four
longitudinal and one circumferential joint. Based on the
results of the mock-up tests, welding of shells of reactor
vessel and other components was carried out
successfully, all the time, however, analysing and
recording the results after each operation. To keep
eccentricity under control, the following measures were
taken:
a) Each of the rolled shells was completely rectified
to limit ovality.
b) Assembly and tack welding of shells with flanges
was carried out in the horizontal position.
Details of tests
S. No. Test/Inspection
Procedure qualification Welder qualification
1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection V V
2 Radiographic Inspection
3 Mechanical Tests
3.1 Tension Test
3.2 Bend Test
3.3 Impact Test
4 Metallographic Examination
4.1 Macrographic S s
4.2 Micrographic
4.3 Hardness Survey Across Weld
5 Ultrasonic Examination S
WELDING APPLICATIONS 727
c) Centring fixture and dial gauges were used to
check up concentricities.
d) Welding was carried out in horizontal position
for initial layers.
e) Welding effect on shifting of centre was observed
by means of dial gauges during initial runs and
steps were taken to follow suitable welding se-
quences.
Another vital component is the steam generator.
Austenitic stainless steel cannot be used for the
generator, because it is highly susceptible to stress
corrosion attack in aqueous media. In the FBTR, 2.25
Cr-1 Mo steel has been used for the generator shell and
tubing. Steam is generated in the exchanger with water
flowing inside the tubes and sodium in the shell. Sodium
enters the shell at 510°C and leaves at 300°C, while water
enters at 200°C and superheated steam leaves at 480°C
and 125 kg/cm 2 pressure. This design called for the
welding of transition Joint between 2XA Cr-1 Mo steel
on the generator side and Type 316 steel on the sodium-
system side. The joint was successfully executed by first
buttering the 2VA Cr-1 Mo steel face with Inconel
welding consumable and then making the weld between
the buttered face and Type 316 steel face with Inconel
welding consumable. The detailed welding and testing
procedure is described below:
Min. Width 4mm
S.S.316
Buttering Final welding
Procedure Welder
V •
S •
S
S
S
S •
S
S
728 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Execution
(1) Preheat 200-250°C on 2VA Cr-1 Mo during the but-
tering with Inconel 82/182 welding consumables
(2) Postweld 725°C for 1 hour
(3) Machine chamfer and weld to S.S. 316 with
Inconel 82/182 welding consumables
During development work on this reactor, it was
observed that while manual welding with 316 Type
electrodes gave satisfactory results, this was not the case
when the conventional 316 Type wires were used with
the TIG process. Studies showed that the modified 16-
8-2 composition was better suited, provided the
compositional limits were properly set. The final
specification drawn up is shown below. The composition
has been controlled in order to avoid the possibility of
martensite formation. For example, the ferrite forming
elements Cr, Mo have been specified at the higher levels,
as also the austenitisers C and Mn. The minimum carbon
level has been specified from strength consideration
also. The maximum carbon has been kept below 0.1%,
the maximum value allowed in AWS specification for
16-8-2 electrodes (no equivalent AWS specification
presently exists for filler wire); this was done to avoid
the risk of sensitisation in the weld and HAZ. A lower
limit of Mn is specified to combat against microcracking.
Test results confirmed its suitability.
C .. 0.05-0.07 Cr . 15.5-17.0
Si .. 0.25-0.50 Ni . . 8.0-9.0
Mn .. 1.0-2.0 Mo . 1.5-2.0
S .. 0.02 max. B 30 ppm max.
P .. 0.03 max.
At Bhabha Atomic Research
Electron beam welding:
Centre, Bombay, electron beam welding by partial
Diameters 38, 44 & 133
Note: All dimensions are in mm.
Fig. 19.42: Joint configuration for electron beam welding on stainless steel grade 304L
vacuum technique has been applied on stainless steel
cups in the end plenums of nuclear vessels.
Weighing around 8 tons each, and constructed from
Type 304L stainless steel plates of over 50 mm thickness,
the end plenums form a vital part of the nuclear vessel
and can be compared to the tube sheets of a heat
exchanger. However, the design and construction is
more complex and the requirements much more
stringent, because apart from meeting (or bettering) the
strict standards envisaged in ASME Sec. Ill, the fact that
heavy water would be circulating through the plenums
has a further bearing on the quality. For this reason the
joints in the plenum have to be absolutely leak-proof.
Even more important was the requirement regarding
control of distortion, which has to be held within very
close limits. The joints between the S.S. cups and the
plenum are comparable to tube-to-tube sheet joints. The
welding job covers over 3 m in diameter. The joint
configuration is shown in Fig. 19.42. Over 300 joints had
to be welded in each plenum.
In EB welding, the maximum clearance between the
mating components should not exceed 100 microns—
the less the better, preferably 30 to 60 microns, to achieve
weld quality. In this application, the cups were
machined to close tolerances and the holes into which
these cups would be fitting in the plenum were precision
bored with the aid of a jig. To leave no stone unturned,
selective mating of the cups and relevant holes was
carried out, so as to obtain the most ideal fit required
for the purpose. The cups and their locations in the holes
were match-marked to avoid any possibilities of mix-
up. Further, the standard of cleanliness has to be much
superior to that in conventional types of welding, to
ensure quality in EB welding. Hence, it was ensured

that the mating surfaces were thoroughly clean. In order
to minimise distortion, welding on the various locations
was carried out in a phased, staggered manner in
accordance with a predetermined plan based on careful
analysis. This involved shifting of the welding head to
locations not necessarily adjacent, and turning the job
completely for doing the welds on the reverse side at
planned intervals, in the interest of balancing distortions
and achieving an overall satisfactory result. The
mechanical system for radial motion of the welding
head was used for positioning it on the weld diameter
and for its circular movement. Initial setting was done
by using a suitably machined mandrel (fixed in the
bottom of the welding head) to fit into the centre of the
cup. This was followed by fine- or micro-adjustments,
by means of levelling screws on the four a r m s
(outriggers) attached to the welding head, till it was
ensured through the use of a closed circuit TV that the
locus of the beam and the joint coincided within about
± 0.1 to 0.2 mm on the joint. The next operation was to
confirm the correct coincidence of the beam path and
the joint by making four tack welds separated by 90° on
the joint while operating the beam on low power. Figure
19.43 explains the welding cycle used.
6) Chemical Plants
Most chemical p l a n t s are subject to v a r i o u s
combinations of corrosion, temperatures and pressures
in service. Their efficient operation therefore depends
largely on the correct choice of alloys and welding
methods during the design and fabrication stages.
Chemical plants produce a wide range of products like
petroleum, petrochemicals, fertilisers, industrial gases,
T7/pr~TH\
U
B
»U
C
»U
Welding time
•*«
E
*
Symbol Description | The clad plate is supplied by the steel mill. The clad
A Accleratinq voltage (kV) | metals are welded such that the overall corrosion
Beam current delay time 1 resistance of the cladding metal and the mechanical
B with respect to H T kV (sec)
C Up slope time of beam current (s<
D Beam current (milli amperes) | or submerged-arc welding. The clad side is welded by
[ E Down slope time of current (sec
Fig. 19.43: Electron beam welding cycle for stainless
steel grade 304L
WELDING APPLICATIONS 729
textile chemicals and dyes, pharmaceuticals, paper pulp,
foods and dairy products, in addition to the common
chemicals like acids, alkalis, salts and organic
c o m p o u n d s , all of which are vital to a country's
industrial development and prosperity.
In this section we shall deal in detail with oil
refineries and fertiliser plants, as they are the best
examples of the application of welding technology in
the chemical industry
It has been said that stainless steels and the
petrochemical industry have grown together, and it is
an accepted fact that many of the chemical processes
would not have been chemically viable without stainless
steel. In some cases, it is the only material that can be
used for the chemical in question. In other cases, it is
the most economical material w h e n the costs of
installation and maintenance of the plant and the
production cost of the product as well as the cost of the
initial equipment are considered.
Stainless steels used in the chemical industry can be
b r o a d l y classified as: austenitic stainless steels,
martensitic stainless steels and ferritic stainless steels.
These steels have been described in detail in Chapter 10.
Welding plays a pivotal role in the manufacture of
various equipments in the chemical and petrochemical
industry. They can be broadly classified as follows:
• Pressure vessels, boilers and heat exchangers
• Storage tanks
• Industrial and transmission piping.
Stainless steel vessels used in the chemical industry
are either solid stainless steel vessels, stainless steel lined
vessels, stainless steel clad vessels or vessels with S.S.
weld-metal overlays.
The stainless steel lining is applied after the carbon
or low-alloy steel vessel has been completely welded
and stress-relieved, if necessary. Commonly used linings
are 2 to 3 mm thick. The linings are attached to the base
metal by resistance spot or seam welding or using plug
welds by shielded metal-arc welding. The vessel is not
recommended to be subjected to heat treatment after
the lining has been laid.
properties of the backing metal are not impaired. The
backing metal is welded by shielded metal-arc welding
shielded metal-arc welding processes. It has been
considered a sound practice to weld the backing metal
first and cladding metal later. The first layer of welding
on the stainless steel side of the joint is deposited using
730 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
a filler metal rich in nickel, in order to eliminate the
dilution problems.
The dished ends, shell and the nozzles made of
carbon or low-alloy steels are overlaid with stainless
steel weld-metal, usually 4 to 6 m m in thickness.
Submerged-arc welding process using strip electrodes
or single and twin wires with oscillations is very popular
for weld-metal overlays. Gas metal-arc welding process
is also used successfully. Shielded metal-arc welding
process is employed for weld-metal overlays when the
work is of a smaller magnitude. Weld-metal overlays
have to be machined subsequently. They provide an
alternate source for integrally clad vessels required for
the chemical process industry.
In the fabrication of heat exchangers, tubes are
welded to tube sheets using MMA, TIG and MIG
welding processes, and the types of joints and welds
shown in Fig. 5.33. Automatic custom-built TIG welding
equipments are becoming increasingly popular for this
application, because they produce consistent quality
welds at high speeds. A typical one was described in
Chapter 5.
Keeping in view the minimum requirements of safety
of the operating pressure vessels, various codes have
been formulated for different applications. For the
chemical industry, the following codes and standards
are popular :
a) ASME Section I—for boilers
b) Indian Boiler Regulations—for boilers
c) ASME Section VIII, Division I & II—for unfired
pressure vessels
d) Indian Standard 2825—for unfired pressure ves-
sels
e) British Standard 1515—for pressure vessels
f) TEMA Standards—for heat exchangers.
Stainless and heat resistant steel piping is required
for the chemical process industry in large quantities and
various sizes. The piping which includes pipes, tubes,
valves, headers and fittings such as elbows, tees, flanges
and reducers may be intended to transport highly
corrosive fluids and fluids at extremely low or high
temperatures.
Austenitic stainless steel p i p e s are far more
extensively used than the martensitic and ferritic
stainless steel pipes. AISI 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are
very popular austenitic steel materials for piping.
Since the piping systems are exposed to increasingly
severe o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , v a r i o u s codes a n d
s t a n d a r d s have been formulated for different
applications such as power piping, industrial gas and
air piping, petroleum refinery piping, chemical industry
process piping, nuclear power piping and many others.
The codes are laid d o w n to cover m i n i m u m
requirements of quality and safety. The codes laid down
by the following societies /institutions are generally
followed:
• American National Standards Institute
• ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code
• American Welding Society
• British Standards Institution
• Indian Standards Institution
Storage tanks in numerous types and sizes and a
variety of materials are required for the chemical and
petrochemical industry. They have been dealt with
earlier in this chapter. Storage tanks are designed and
fabricated to the requirements of one of the following
codes and standards:
a) American Petroleum Institute Codes—API-650;
API-620
b) Indian Standards Institution Code—I.S. 803
c) Japan Industrial Standard
Great care should be exercised in selection of the right
welding process, fit-up, filler materials and the heat
treatments wherever required, to minimise stresses and
distortion due to fabrication.
The vessels, heat exchangers and columns are
fabricated in the shops where adequate facilities are
available and the working conditions are conducive for
good fabrication. But, when it comes to site fabrication,
the working conditions are far from ideal. Hence, great
care has to be exercised. The fabrication of heat resisting
steel should be isolated from the fabrication of other
materials to avoid rust formation and carbon inclusion
due to mixing up of tools and materials. Stainless steel
chisels and wire brushes are to be used in case of
stainless and heat resistant steels. In case of pipe
welding, proper gas-flow rates should be maintained
for shielding and purging to avoid oxidation. On
completion of the welding operation, the weld joints
should be thoroughly cleaned from contaminations,
either by mechanical or by chemical means. A clean
polished surface minimises effects of corrosion.
Mechanical cleaning is done by power brushes, whereas
chemical cleaning is done by using suitable pickling
solutions.
Any fabrication, whether it is a vessel or a piping
system, is complete only when it is pressure tested as
per the design r e q u i r e m e n t s . The most c o m m o n
methods of testing are by hydraulic and pneumatic

media. Hydrostatic testing of austenitic stainless steels
should be done only with potable water. After the
hydrostatic testing, all water should be drained and
cleaned by blowing air. Any stagnant water remaining
is likely to result in corrosion. It will be of interest to
cite an incident, where ordinary water was used for
hydrostatic test of a p i p i n g system instead of
demineralised water recommended. No flushing and
drying by air was done after the test and it resulted in
severe corrosion within three months from the date of
testing. All the weld joints in 5 G positions had to be cut
out whereas welds in 2 G were intact. It is essential that
chloride content of water is restricted to 3 p p m ,
wherever hydrostatic testing is done or the hydrostatic
testing should be substituted by pneumatic test.
Oil refinery
In the design of petroleum refining process plants,
the main considerations are safety, reliability and
economy. Welding plays an important role in ensuring
that these three factors are maintained at a high level.
The first step on the road to safe, reliable design and
fabrication is provided by Codes of Practice, which
Table 19.8: Some codes of construction
Country Issuing organisation
U.S.A. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Great Britain British Standards Institution
Germany Arbeitsgemeinschaft Druckbehalter
(published by Carl Heymans Verlag KG)
Italy Associazione Nazionale per il Controllo
della Combustione
Netherlands Dienst voor Stoomwezen
Sweden Tryckkarlskommissionen (Swedish
Pressure Vessel Commission)
Piping
U.S.A. American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American National Standards Institute
Great Britain British Standards Institution
Tanks
U.S.A. American Petroleum Institute
Great Britain British Standards Institution
WELDING APPLICATIONS 731
define certain minimum standards to be observed. Table
19.8 provides a list of some of the more important codes,
but in the oil refining industry, the most familiar and
universally applied ones are: the ASME Code Sec. VIII
covering Unfired Pressure Vessels, ANSI B31.3 covering
Pressure Piping and TEMA standards covering Tubular
Heat Exchangers. These are commonly employed by
refinery owners and contractors on a contract basis and
in some States in the U.S.A., the ASME Code and ANSI
B31.3 have the force of law.
It is important to remember that the codes do not
provide all the data necessary to design and fabricate
the p l a n t s . The designer m u s t decide, based on
additional knowledge and experience, which materials
to use for a specific set of conditions including corrosion.
He m u s t k n o w w h a t steps to take to overcome
metallurgical shortcomings of various alloys during
fabrication and service. He must be able to devise
welding procedures to meet the code's minimum
standards. He must decide whether the minimum
standards for the quality of finished fabrications and
for inspection set by the codes are adequate or whether
additional conditions must be stipulated. All such
Source document(s)
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII
BS 1515-Fusion Welded Pressure Vessel for
use in the Chemical, Petroleum and Allied
Industries.
BS 5500-Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure
Vessels.
A.D. Merkblatter
ANCC Code, Sections VRS, M, S&F
Regels Voor Toestellen (Rules for Pressure
Vessels).
Swedish Pressure Vessel Code.
ANSI B31.3 Code for Pressure Piping.
BS 3351 Piping Systems for Petroleum
Refineries and Petroleum Plants.
API Std. 620-Recommended Rules for Design
and Construction of Large Welded Low
Pressure Storage Tanks.
API 650-Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage.
BS 2654-Vertical Steel Welded Storage Tanks
for the Petroleum Industry.
732 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

important details left out or not clearly defined by the b) Chemical conversion processes — in which the size
codes must be covered by the Fabrication Specification, and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules are
which should be drawn up by the designer in changed to convert surplus products into dema-
consultation with the plant purchaser. The specification nded ones. The main processes in this group are:
should highlight all problem areas likely to occur in • Break-down processes such as cracking.
construction. It must impose restrictions on un- • Build-up processes such as polymerisation and
acceptable practices, and while leaving the door open alkylation.
to innovat-ion, must control it. The specification must
be careful to leave responsibility for fabrication with the • Type change processes such as dehydrogena-
fabricator and must allow him room to manoeuvre. This tion, isomerisation and reforming.
document, being a vital vehicle of communication, must c) Treating processes—in which the products of
give clear unambiguous instructions to the material separation and chemical conversion are purified
buyer, fabrication shop manager, welding engineer and to meet marketing specifications.
the inspector. d) Blending—in which products of the above pro-
The modern refinery is an extremely complex plant, cesses are combined, sometimes with additives
but its principal aspects may be described under the to produce optimum market properties.
following four headings : The refinery is made up of a variety of units to fulfil
a) Physical separation processes—such as distillation,the above-mentioned functions. The units are correctly
in which separation of hydrocarbon fractions is chosen and balanced in such a way that their
achieved without change in molecular structure. combination has the versatility to meet fluctuations in

5utphuc (11)
Gas recovery I > Propane (1)
J*l Butane (1)
Off gas
* » • fuel gas (12)
Sulphur -*► Light naphtha (2)
recovery Heavy
Naphtha naphtha
|Naphthas Reforming - * * Reformate (2) (3)
IHydrotreatingJ splitting
Crude
distillation kerosene
JHydfQtreating Kerosene (4) (5)
Gas oil Hydro- -Gas oil (6) (7) (8)
desulphuriser
--*» Propane (1)
Hydrogen sulphide
LonQ residue Gas recovery Alkylation Alkylate (2) (3)

Catalytic Gasoline Caustic *► Gasoline (2)

Vacuum cracking washing
Vacuum gas oil ■ Cycle oil (7) (8)
distillation -- Decanted oil (8)

-■'Naphthas (2) (3)

H HydrocracWing - * Kerosene (4) (5)
Gas oil (6) (7)

lube distilates Extraction

& ►J Hydrotteatinq Lube oil (9)
Short residue dew axing

Bitumen Asphalt (10)

blowing

— ■ Short residue (B)

-*» Long residue (8)

Fig. 19.44: Example of integrated flow scheme for crude oil processing: (1) LPG; (2) Gasoline: (3) Aviation spirit: (4)
Jet fuel: (5) Kerosene; (6) Diesel; (7) Heating oil: (8) Fuel oil: (9) Lubricating oil; (10) Asphalt: (11) Sulphur: (12)
Refinery gas
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 733

demand. Figure 19.44 gives an integrated refinery flow In Table 19.9, some of the more important processes
scheme, in which the relationship of the various in current refinery practice are listed. An attempt has
processes and units can be seen. been made in this table to summarise the different

Table 19.9: Oil refinery process units—summary

Process What is does Equipment Materials * Problems
Atmospheric crude Separates crude into its Desalter drum C.S. up to 250°C 1. Above 250°C
distillation component fractions feed/effluent sulphur attack
such as liquefied exchange train (steel oxidized to
petroleum gas Heater, fractionator 5Cr-V£Mo or above iron sulphide scale)
(LPG), naphtha, light overhead coolers. 250°C, C.S. 2. Uptol20°C
gas oil (LGO), + 13Cr clad acid (HC1) condensate
heavy gas oil correction in
(HGO), bitumen overhead condensers
LPG is a finished
product e.g. butane,
propane. Also some
gasoline produced
Vacuum distillation Takes the bottom As atmospheric unit, 5Cr-44Mo or above Ditto, only corrosion-
residue from the except no desalter 250°C, C.S.+ less severe because
atmospheric distil- 13Cr clad ^ S and HC1
lation tower and removed in atmospheric
separates it into distillation.
further fractions
Hydrotreater Removes by reaction Feed/effluent Shell Cr-Mo, tubes 1. Hydrogen embrittle-
with hydrogen those exchangers type ment if incorrect
parts of heavy Heater Type 321 s.s. tubes alloy used. Hence
gasoline which poison Reactor Type 347 s.s. clad C-^Mo, Cr-Mo
the catalyst in C-4£Mo or clad per Nelson Curve
reformers VACT-VMO 2. H2S attack
above 250°C
Catalytic reformer Improves the octane Feed/effluent l^Cr-V^Mo (possi- 1. Hydrogen embrittle-
of motor gasoline exchangers bly clad) ment if incorrect
produced by the 3 or 4 heaters Tubes 2V4Cr-lMo alloy used, Hence
hydrotreater by 3 or 4 reactors l^Cr-V^Mo C-ViMo, Cr-Mo
reacting the per Nelson Curve
treated gasoline 2. H2S attack
with hydrogen in above 250°C
the presence of a
catalyst, e.g. platinum
Hydrodesulphuriser Removes sulphur from Feed/effluent C-ViMo and Type Ditto, except that high
gas oil by reacting exchangers 347 s.s. temperature
with hydrogen at high Type 347 s.s. clad H2S corrosion
temperature VACr-^AMo is more severe
Heater Type 321 or 347
s.s. tubes
Reactor C-'AMo (or iy4Cr)
Clad with Type
347 s.s. weld
overlay
Fluid catalytic Converts lubricating Heater 5Cr-M>Mo 1. Main problem is
cracking (FCCU) oil from vacuum Reactor lV4Cr-4*Mo+13Cr erosion by catalyst
Table 19.9: (Contd.)
734 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 19.9: (Contd.)
distillation unit to
gasoline by cracking Regenerator
large hydrocarbon
molecules to lighter
ones in the presence Fractionator
of a catalyst
CO boilers
Hydrocracker Does same as cat High pressure
cracker but it can feed/effluent
produce gasoline exchangers
from heavier stocks Heater
such as bitumen Reactor
Effluent cooler
Separator
*s.s.—stainless steel: C.S.—carbon steel.
functions of each process, the c o m b i n a t i o n s of
equipment involved and the primary process problems
to be met by the materials of construction.
A m o n g the processes mentioned, the p r i m a r y
proces-ses of crude distillation and vacuum distillation
are impor-tant, as also the three basic items of equipment
involved:
a) Heaters to raise the temperature of the feedstock
to a vapour phase.
b) Distillation vessels to separate the various frac-
tions of the feedstock.
c) Heat exchangers to control temperature and make
most use of the heat generated in the refinery.
Distillation column: This is a vertical cylindrical vessel
with horizontal trays at fixed elevations throughout the
tower. Vaporised feedstock is fed into the tower at a
point close to the bottom and the various fractions of
the feedstock are separated by distillation at each one
of the trays. In Fig. 19.45, the principles of the distillation
column are illustrated. Each of the trays shown contains
a liquid fraction at a specific temperature. As vaporised
feed passes through the liquid, the fraction that liquefies
at that liquid temperature does so and remains in the
tray. The rest of the vapour continues upwards and the
process of condensation proceeds. A separate fraction
condenses at the liquid temperature of each tray.
The temperature at the bottom of the tower is
determined by a heater or reboiler. The temperature at
the top of the tower is controlled by a condenser which
may be liquid- or air-cooled.
cladding 2. External oxidation
Shell C.S. + refractory because of high
lining. Air ring temperature
5Cr-44Mo 3. Some H2S corrosion
C.S. or IViCr but almost zero
with 13Cr cladding. hydrogen
VACr-ViMo
refractory lined.
Stainless clad 1. Hydrogen embrittle-
2 1 / 4 Cr-lMo ment because
of high pressure /
Type 321 s.s tubes temperature
Stainless clad 2. H2S attack
2V4Cr-l Mo above 250°C
C-V2M0 and C.S.
ASTM A516
(Killed C.S.)
In the crude distillation process, the hot product from
each of the strippers is used, by heat exchangers, to
preheat the crude oil on its way to the heater. In the
main distillation column, separation results in the light
ends being taken off at the top for further processing in
the LPG unit, while the heavy residue goes for further
separation in the vacuum unit. Intermediate fractions
are taken off to the three stripper columns and the light
ends from each of these are fed back into the main
column. The heavy bottoms are taken either to storage,
or in the case of the heavy gas oil stripper, for chemical
conversion in the catalytic cracker.
Heaters: H e a t e r s consist f u n d a m e n t a l l y of a
continuous coil of tubing arranged in the form of a box
or vertical cylinder. Oil or gas burners supply heat to
the lower part of the heater, in which the coil and its
contents are heated by radiation. The hot gases from
the radiant section pass upwards to a convection section
and there the incoming feedstock receives its primary
heating. Spent combustion gases are exhausted to
atmosphere via a stack. The heater coil is contained
within a steel casing lined with refractory insulation.
Tube metal temperatures of up to about 500°C may be
reached in the radiant section and up to 300°C in the
convection section. Tube material must be chosen for
its creep- and oxidation-resistance. Tube supports
which are not cooled by the process fluid, must meet
the consi-derably higher temperatures (the fuel gas
(800-1100°C).
Shell and tube heat exchangers: There are various
designs of shell and tube heat exchangers but they all
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 735

-■ Gasoline

r— Liquid
Reflux
[A--jnuriLjnL
jnLjnLjjiLjnL r-*- First side
stripper return
[jj-—nununL-^
- * First side stripper
jrUTUTiL Tfl
QIjnLjnLJiLjni p**- Second side
stripper return
L^-JnunLii
[iijnLjnLjnLjrt ' Second side stripper
11HJuLR
hr
Bubble cap
pjiLjri_rLjnL|d
- Gas oil
hjr-nun!-Jlln
Hot crude oi, Jl*^ ^ G"7iJ mi
•L *^
n U<r-hH in»L
plilLJnLJILjnb
11 jjj
UHJRL

t t t tlfl
Steam Vapour '"

Residue
Fig. 19.45: Diagram of a fractionating column and bubble cap
In Fig. 19.45, the design of tray is of the bubble-cap type. Other designs in use are variously described as valve, jet
and sieve. While these types differ in detail, the principle of operation remains the same.

consist fundamentally of a cylindrical shell and tube
bundle. A drawing of the most common design in
refinery service is shown in Fig. 19.46. The following
points should be noted: The tube bundle has a fixed
tube sheet at the channel end and the other end is left
free to allow for longitudinal expansion and contraction
of the tubes. In the example, the channel cover and the
floating head of the tube bundle are removable to
facilitate cleaning of the tubes. When tube cleaning is
unimportant, or when leaking on the tube-side cannot
be tolerated, a U-tube design may be used. In such cases
the channel cover may be ellipsoidal and welded-on. In
all designs, the channel provides inlet and outlet nozzles
for the tube-side fluid. The exchanger may be designed
to pass the tube-side fluid once, or as many times as
required. The shell-side fluid is circulated round the
tubes and a baffle arrangement deflects flow to achieve
maximum heat transfer.
The various styles of heat exchanger design are
contained in S t a n d a r d s of Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association (TEMA) of U.K.
Hydrocracking: To meet the ever-increasing demand
of the internal combustion engine for light fuels with
good spark ignition, processes to break-down more
heavy fractions are required. A m o n g them,
hydrocracking is the latest development. The modern
hydrocracker exemplifies the principal metallurgical
problems of general refinery practice. It involves all the
commonly employed materials from carbon steel,
t h r o u g h the m o l y b d e n u m containing alloys, to
austenitic stainless steel. In addition, the combination
of hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide at very high
pressure and temperatures stretches those materials to
their limits. Finally, the resultant, very thick-walled
reactors and heat exchangers demand extraordinary
expertise of all those involved in fabrication.
In Fig. 19.47, a simplified example of a hydrocracker
flow diagram is presented, while in Table 19.10 is
presented the materials used for the heat exchangers.
Note again how heat from the reactor is used in heat
exchangers to preheat the heavy oil and hydrogen feed
before it enters the heater. The higher temperatures
736 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 19.46: Floating head type heat exchanger. 1 Stationary head—channel; 3 Stationary head flange—channel or
bonnet; 4 Channel cover; 5 Stationary head nozzle; 6 Stationary tubesheet; 7 Tubes; 8 Shell; 10 Shell flange— stationary
head end; 11 Shell flange—rear head end; 12 Shell nozzle; 13 Shell cover flange; 14 Expansion joint; 15 Floating
tubesheet; 16 Floating head cover; 17 Floating head flange; 27 Tie rods and spacers; 28 Transverse baffles or support
plates; 29 Impingement baffle; 31 Pass partition; 32 Vent connection; 33 Drain connection; 34 Instrument connection;
35 Support saddle; 36 Lifting lug (Reproduced by kind permission of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association).

T321
1
(7\ CS
Reactor I
2 1/A|
Compressor Quench hydrogen
m -»from recycle gas
./^scrubber
oil feed from
Cr-Mo I I vacuum unit
clad T347 i £jj. j-+> Recycle gas
/
T321

i Hydrogen
partial
pressure
Pump
J c o o l e n t o gas|
scrubber

Heater about I CMo HP

V
M7_MN/m csf separator
T32' Heat exchangers
T321 C 320^C 275°C P r °duct to
fractionator or
LP separator
Compressor
Recycle
hydrogen from
gas scrubber +
make-up hydrogen

Fig. 19.47: Simplified hydrocracker flow diagram

dictate the material selection: carbon steel at low
temperatures progressing through carbon-
m o l y b d e n u m a n d c h r o m e - m o l y b d e n u m alloy to
austenitic c h r o m i u m - n i c k e l steel at very h i g h
temperatures. In the reactor itself, heavy fractions are
broken down and combined with hydrogen by passing
them through a series of fixed catalyst beds. Additional
cold hydrogen is injected into the reactor to absorb the
heat generated by the exothermic reaction of the
cracking process.
The range of steels used in the hydrocracker forms
the basis of refinery material selection. The compositions
and room temperature properties of these steels are
given in Table 19.11.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 737

Table 19.10: Heat exchanger construction

Channel Shell
Unit Temp, °C Materials Temp, °C Materials
A 385-360 2%Cr-Mo 295-315 2UCr-Mo
Clad T347 Clad T347
B 360-320 2V4Cr-Mo 205-295 ■ ltfCr-Mo
Clad T347
C 320-275 2V4Cr-Mo 95-205 C-Mo
CladT347

Table 19.11: Composition and properties of plate materials

C,% Mn,% Y min, UTS El min.
ASTM Grade max. Si, % Cr, % Mo, % Ni, % N/mm 2 N/mm 2 %
A285 C 0.28 0.90 — — — — 205 380-515 23
A516 60 0.23 — 0.15-0.30 — — — 220 410-550 21
A516 65 0.26 — 0.15-0.30 — — — 240 450-585 19
A516 70 0.28 — 0.15-0.30 — — — 260 480-620 17
A204 B 0.20 0.90 0.15-0.30 — — — 275 480-620 17
A387 11 0.17 0.40-0,65 0.50-0.80 1-1.5 0.45-0.65 — 240 410-585 18
A387 22 0.15 0.30-0.60 max. 0.50 2-2.5 0.90-1.10 — 205 410-585 18
A387 5 0.15 0.30-0.60 max. 0;.50 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65 — 205 410-585 18
A240 T347 0.08 2.00 1.00 17-19 NblOxC 9-13 205 515 min. 40
to 1.10

Effect of temperature: Primarily, the choice of steel type compete with C-Mo steel at about 500°C. With an
is dependent on operating temperature. Increases in increase of t e m p e r a t u r e above that point their
temperature reduce tensile strength, and with some advantages become more pronounced.
particular corrodents, increases the corrosion rate. The
Code's allowable stress tables reflect the effect of
temperature on strength and this is shown graphically
in Fig. 19.48 for the group of steels involved. Here it
will be seen that from a strength point of view, carbon
steel (ASTM A516 Gr. 70) with a room temperature
strength equal to that of the ferritic alloys compares
favourably with all these alloys up to about 350°C.
Carbon steel is still competitive economically up to
400°C, but above that temperature, an addition of Vi%
molybdenum provides the equivalent of about 50°C
advantage in service usefulness. Compared with carbon
steel at 425°C, the C-Mo steel has the advantage of a
30% reduction in thickness and at 450°C over a 50%
saving in metal thickness is achieved.
From a code and strength point of view, therefore,
and weighing the thickness advantage against the
higher unit cost of the molybdenum alloy, the break-
point in choice between carbon steel and C-V^Mo steel
occurs at a design temperature of about 400-425°C. Still 400 500 600
considering only high t e m p e r a t u r e strength and
economics, VAQr-WtAo and 21/4Cr-lMo steels begin to Fig. 19.48: Allowable stress values for various steels
738 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
The austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels, it will be noted,
have excellent tensile properties at the top end of the
temperature range, but their relatively high cost restricts
their use to these high temperatures, when strength is
the only consideration. They come more into their own
w h e n corrosion, and corrosion plus temperature,
become a primary factor.
Effect of corrodent: Corrosion is a complex subject,
which is not within the scope of this book, but we must
consider briefly the three principal corrodents found in
refinery service. These, which may occur separately or
together, are: hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and sulphur.
• Hydrogen: H y d r o g e n , at certain coincident
pressures and temperatures, causes cracking and
blistering of steel. The higher the coincident pressure
and temperature, the higher is the risk of cracking.
Susceptibility to cracking and blistering varies with steel
composition. Carbon steel has a high susceptibility, but
increasing additions of molybdenum and chromium
reduce susceptibility in the ferritic steels while the
austenitic stainless steels appear to be immune from the
problem. G.A. Nelson recorded the incidences of
hydrogen attack on pressure containing equipment and
plotted failures of specific materials graphically as
shown in Fig. 19.49. From this actual experience, it
became possible to select material for a given coincident
hydrogen pressure and temperature with reasonable
reliability. The up-to-date curves are now contained in
Hydrogen partial pressure, kg/cm a
50 100 150
T
500 1000 1500 2000
Hydrogen partial pressure, psia
Fig. 19.49: Nelson curves—material selection for
hydrogen service
API Std. 941. As new experience is obtained the curves
are revised.
• Hydrogen sulphide and sulphur: H y d r o g e n
sulphide and sulphur cause general corrosion, which, as
a rule, is less with increasing additions of chromium in
the steel. Aqueous hydrogen sulphide, in particular, causes
stress corrosion cracking and this is of critical concern at
welded joints. Stress corrosion cracking may occur when
any two of the three possible factors coincide:
a) Tensile stress, as imposed by residual stresses at
welded joints
b) Hard microstructures, as often occur in the heat-
affected zones of ferritic steel welds and some-
times occur in their weld deposits
c) A corrodent such as wet hydrogen sulphide.
It follows that, when we have an environment which
involves wet H 2 S, precautions must be observed to
minimise the risk of stress corrosion cracking at welded
joints of ferritic steels. The hardness of welds and their
heat-affected zones must be controlled by postweld heat
treatment, and this also reduces the other contributory
factor, residual stress. Standards of the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) lay down
safety rules for the control of stress corrosion, and like
the Nelson curves, these rules have been developed on
the basis of collected service experience.
Final material choice: It is obvious that the following
main physical factors must be considered before the final
choice of material is made: pressure, temperature,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur and economics.
Hence choice must be carefully weighed in each case;
general rules cannot be given. At the same time it is
possible to indicate general trends as follows:
• Vessels: For vessels, carbon steel is used wherever
possible with a suitable corrosion allowance up to its eco-
nomic temperature limit of about 400°C If hydrogen is
involved then the temperature limit will be lower. If
hydrogen sulphide or sulphur is involved and the added
corrosion allowance becomes too large, then the econ-
omics of using a stainless steel clad plate must be
considered.
Above 425°C, C-V2M0 steel is the first choice, and
again hydrogen will be the first limitation. Stainless
cladding must be added when the necessary corrosion
allowance becomes uneconomic.
As hydrogen, temperature and pressure exhaust the
usefulness of C-V^VIo steel, the l a 4Cr-Mo steel is used.
Again, stainless steel cladding will be added as corrosive
conditions demand. Finally, at the extremes of hydrogen,
pressure, temperature and corrosive conditions, 2V^Cr-
lMo clad plate is used.

• Piping: The general trend for piping is similar to
that described for vessels, except that it is often not pos-
sible to use stainless steel cladding. This means that where
general corrosion is a problem, a solid corrosion-resistant
alloy steel such as 5Cr-V£Mo may be used. Again, the
choice is somewhat different, i.e. economic one as
compared with that in the case of vessels. Wall thicknesses
are relatively smaller and so larger corrosion allowances
can be afforded. When these thicknesses become too
great, then the much better corrosion resistance of the
5Cr-M>Mo steel makes it an attractive choice, but the
costs of welding, preheat and postweld heat treatment
are high. Solid austenitic stainless steel, with its excellent
corrosion-resistance and high temperature strength,
enables relatively thin-wall designs to be used and hence
becomes a close rival to the 5Cr-44Mo steel. In addition,
it presents lower welding costs.
With materials selected to meet all the basic
conditions described above, it only remains for the
designer to understand their various characteristics in
relation to their weldability and possible failure. The
designer can then see what precautions must be taken
and written into the fabrication specification.
For the common ferritic steels used in refinery
construction, Table 19.12 shows their calculated carbon
equivalents. When considering these CE values, it
should be borne in mind that a CE of 0.45% represents
the limit above which various precautions such as
preheat, low-hydrogen welding process and postheat
must be applied to increasing extents to achieve crack-
free welds. CE, as explained in Chapter 10, is therefore
a simple and more precise w a y of defining the
weldability of ferritic steels.
The higher the carbon equivalent and the thicker the
part to be welded, the more likely it will be for a hard
microstructure to form in the HAZ. With a suitable
a m o u n t of h y d r o g e n in the weld pool such a
microstructure will crack. Hence it becomes necessary
to apply the following precautions:
a) Use of a low-hydrogen welding process to mini-
mise the amount of hydrogen in the weld pool.
Table 19.12: Carbon equivalents for various materials
ASME
group Type of steel ASTM Grade CE
PI Low-carbon steel A285 55 0.43
PI Medium-carbon steel
A516 70 0.46
P3 Carbon-V^Mo A204 8 0.47
P4 VACr-ViMo A387 11 0.71
P5 2V4Cr-lMo A387 22 0.95
P5 5Cr-1/Mo A387 5 1.68
WELDING APPLICATIONS 739
b) Application of preheat and maintenance of a high
interpass temperature to arrest the cooling rate
and diffuse hydrogen away.
c) Use of a high arc energy to boost the weld pool
temperature and diffuse hydrogen away.
d) Application of postweld heat treatment to soften
the hard microstructure, minimise residual ten-
sile stress and diffuse out any residual hydrogen.
A p a r t from the fundamental characteristic of
hardenability, lamellar tearing is a problem that occurs
with plate, particularly in thicker sections. There are
several precautions that can be employed to avoid this
and they are explained in Chapter 12. It is up to the
designer, metallurgist and welding engineer to decide
on the most economic solution.
Other problems, which to a greater or lesser extent,
are dependent on the type of alloy, require the combined
efforts of the same specialists to resolve. These are:
solidification cracking, liquation cracking, reheat
cracking and temper embrittlement, and they have been
dealt with in Chapters 9 and 10.
FERTILISER PLANT
Here we shall describe welding applications in a
fertiliser plant in India designed for 1100 t o n s / d a y
ammonia, 1,600 tons/day urea, 470 tons/day sulphuric
acid, 165 tons/day phosphoric acid and 500 tons/day
DAP. The main materials of construction used in this
plant were:(a) carbon steels, (b) low-alloy steels, and (c)
stainless steels.
a) Carbon steels: The project used various grades of
carbon steel conforming to the specifications of ASTM,
such as A106 Gr. B and C, API 5L Gr. A and B, A53 Gr A
and B and JIS STPT 42, STPT 49, STPG 38, STPT 38 for
pipelines; and ASTM A515 Gr 60, BS 1501-161-Gr 28 A
L T, etc., for plates. For welding these materials, E7018
class electrode was generally used. In the case of pipes
of more than 19 mm wall thickness, the root pass was
deposited by the TIG process using TGS 50 filler wire,
and the subsequent passes were deposited with E7018
electrodes. For pipes of wall thickness less than 10 mm,
root passes were deposited with E6013/E6010 electrodes
and filler passes with E7018. This procedure successfully
met the radiography, face bend, root bend and tensile
test requirements.
Lines carrying vetrocoke solution were welded with
E7018 electrodes and the joints were stress-relieved at
600°C with soaking time of 0.5 hour. The line size was
from 51 to 406 m m NB and Such 40 with material
specification API 5L Gr. B-ERW. Vetrocoke solution is a
740 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
mixture of potassium carbonate and arsenic trioxide,
which induces caustic e m b r i t t l e m e n t a n d stress
corrosion on the weldments. To avoid this, all the
weldments which came in contact with this fluid were
stress-relieved. The bends used on these lines were of
stainless steel, conforming to ASTM A 312 Gr 304 to
avoid corrosion on the bends. The combination weld
between these elbows and pipeline created some
difficulties. The weldment hardness value was very
much on the higher side when compared to parent
material. Also lot of chromium carbide precipitation was
found on the side of carbon steel heat-affected zone and
half of the weldments. The weldments were therefore
annealed at 900°C with a soaking time of five minutes
and the hardness value was found to be acceptable.
Annealing heat was given on the side of carbon steel
and one-half of the weldment on side of carbon steel
was also included in the heating. In service, no problems
were encountered.
b) Low-alloy steels: The materials used conformed to
the specifications of ASTM A 335 Gr P 11, JIS STBA 11
and STPA 22. For JIS material, TIG process was used for
the root pass with TGS 1 CM filler wire and E8016-B2
type electrode for the filling passes. For ASTM material,
E8018-B2 electrodes were used entirely. Preheating and
stress-relieving were done as per the code requirements.
For the combination welding of P 11 and carbon steel A
106 Gr B / C , E8018-B2 electrode w a s u s e d w i t h
preheating and stress-relieving as per the alloy steel
requirement by the code.
c) Stainless steels: The materials in this category
conformed to the specifications of ASTM A 312, TP 304,
TP 321, TP 316, Inconel 800, JIS SUS 27 TP, SUS 32 TP,
SUS 33 TP. For all stainless steel welding, TIG process
was used for the root pass and matching manual
electrodes for the remaining passes. For most joints,
internal purging with argon gas was used. For some of
the low-pressure lines, nitrogen was used for purging.
The resulting welded joints were found acceptable and
gave satisfactory service performance. For 304 and 304L
materials, E 308-16 and E 308 L-16 type electrodes and
corresponding TIG Filler wires were used. For 316 and
316L materials, E 316-16 and E 316L-16 type electrodes
and corresponding filler wires were used. For 321
material, E 347-16 type electrodes and corresponding
filler wires were used. For urea quality JIS SUS 33 TP
material, E 316L-16 type electrodes with guaranteed
ferrite content of 2% maximum and 0.6% minimum in
the weld deposit were used. In the reformed gas boiler
of ammonia plant, Incoloy 800 liner plates above the
refractory were welded with ENiCrFe, type electrodes.
Maintenance welding is carried out regularly to keep
the plant functioning at maximum efficiency. This
involves building up of worn-out shafts; impellers, cast
components, blade tips, shaft sleeves, etc., and welding
of cast iron parts such as casings of bearing housings.
Cast iron parts are welded with Ni-based manual
electrodes, which do not require preheating. Chrome
cast iron is the material used for pipelines and pumps
handling hot sulphuric acid. This material is extremely
difficult to weld and a matching electrode is difficult to
obtain. For shafts, shaft sleeves and other parts. Alloy
20 and Duriamet 20 are used. Similarly, material CA 955
is used for handling hot phosphoric acid in pump shaft
and impeller. It is difficult to get matching electrodes
for these materials also. Hastelloy B and C are used for
phosphoric acid pump shafts, sleeves, agitator shaft, etc.
These materials can be satisfactorily welded. Parts which
are subject to heavy wear and tear such as jaw crushers,
granulators, scraper tips and plunger tips are built up
by stelliting.
Equipment for urea service: Of the nitrogenous
fertilisers, urea constitutes perhaps the most important,
due to its high nitrogen content, approximately 46.6%,
combined with easy transportability, ease of handling
and comparative economy in price. In manufacturing
urea, the process stream, however, is subjected to severe
corrosive conditions. The selection of materials for urea
service is principally governed by corrosion-resistance
to a m m o n i u m carbamate at various temperatures.
Ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) are reacted
in a synthesis converter to form urea (NH 2 CONH 2 ).
The ammonium carbamate is formed as an intermediate
product during the reaction, as shown below:
2NH 3 + C 0 2 = NH 2 COONH 4 (ammonium carbamate)
NH 2 COONH 4 = NH 2 CONH 2 (urea) + H 2 0 (water)
The equipments, besides synthesis reactor, that come
into synthesis line are d e c o m p o s e r s , s t r i p p e r s ,
condensers, separators, crystallisers, etc. Depending on
the process adopted, the high pressure decomposers and
reactors work at temperatures in the range of 180-220°C
a n d p r e s s u r e s in the range of 240-140 k g / c m 2 .
Concentration of carbamate varies from equipment to
equipment and process to process, but in general, the
high pressure stages where high temperatures (up to
220°C) are encountered, can be termed as most critical
from the standpoint of corrosion. From the view of
ultimate economy and availability, three of the materials
have found wide usage in urea service. These are SS
316L (standard and modified grades), titanium, and
zirconium.

In urea plants, reactors are generally made either
with 316L stainless lining or titanium lining. In a few
cases, zirconium-lined reactors and titanium strippers
are used. Equipments like condensers, decomposers,
separators and crystallisers are made of 316L stainless
steels in most plants, due to the excellent service record
of the material.
Fabrication of SS 316L for urea service is no different
from fabrication of this material for other services.
However, there are certain subtle differences which
characterise these fabrications and they must be taken
into consideration in very early stages:
a) Selection of filler metal with controlled ferrite and
controlled composition
b) Use of proper welding technique and manipula-
tion for obtaining desired weld deposit of con-
trolled ferrite, free from micro-cracks
c) Type and nature of control tests.
In the selection of filler metal for 316L steel, ferrite
content of less than 2% in the weld deposit is specified.
Such ferrite control is justified by the results obtained
in detailed investigations on the relations between
corrosion rates in Huey Test (65% boiling nitric acid test)
and the rate obtained in practice in urea reactors. It has
been concluded that there is a definite reproducibility
between Huey test corrosion rates and corrosion rates
in carbamate. Hence this test (described in Chapter 13)
can be treated as a reliable test for evaluating materials
for urea service. Investigations showed that increase in
ferrite content increases corrosion rate in Huey Test
considerably. It is clear that to achieve a corrosion rate
lower than around 24 mils per year with 18-8-Mo
composition, the deposit should contain the least ferrite.
This requirement can be variously specified in the form
of either maximum limit of ferrite content, stipulation
of Cr (eq)/Ni (eq) ratio, etc. in the latter case the ratio
being maintained at 1.22 maximum, corresponding to a
ferrite level of 0.1% maximum. The ratio is sometimes
relaxed to 1.29 maximum. For practical purposes the
ferrite contents that may be accepted in the weld and
base metals in the high pressure and other equipments
without much deleterious effects are as given below:
a) For high pressure equipment such as reactor,
high-pressure decomposer, stripper, etc.
Parent plate : 0.6% maximum
Weld deposit : 2.0% maximum
b) Other equipments in the medium and low-pres-
sure stages
Parent plate no restriction
Weld deposit : 2.0% maximum
WELDING APPLICATIONS 741
Ni, Cr and Mo contents significantly alter the
resistance of the steel to Huey test and to carbamates.
The investigations have established that a Ni content of
13% minimum is necessary to get reasonable life in
carbamate service. Increase in the amount of Ni requires
an increase in chromium content to get a fully austenitic
deposit free from tendency to cracking. Besides higher
Ni, Cr and Mo contents increase the range of stable
passivity of the material, thereby making the material
less active even with lesser oxidising additions. In the
stripper of some of the urea plants using C 0 2 stripping,
25 Cr-22 Ni-Mo material has been used after persistent
failure of 316L material, the failure being caused
supposedly by the presence of lesser amount of oxygen
and extremely severe corrosive conditions prevailing in
the equipment together with excess amount of C0 2 ,
which shifts the active-passive range to the active zone.
The corrosion resistance of some of the stainless steels
which find application in urea service are given in Table
19.13, which clearly shows the superiority of 25-22-2
over standard 316L. However, suitably modified types
of 316L have given quite satisfactory service in reactors
as well as H.P. stage equipments. A typical composition
usually preferred for the purpose is:
C—0.035 maximum Ni—13-16 Cr—16.5-19.5
Mo—2.3-3.0 N—0.20 maximum
Welding technique: The welding technique used for
urea service should ensure the following: (a) controlled
ferrite, (b) controlled composition, (c) freedom from
micro-cracking, (d) in case of cladding, proper deposit
characteristics after dilution in at least top 3 to 5 mm
layer. Some of the precautions that should be taken in
this connection are :
1) Maintaining a short arc, so that transfer of the
elements through the arc is uniform and burning out of
the elements, specially chromium, is reduced to a
minimum.
2) Cleanliness of the welding edges/surfaces. The
surfaces must be absolutely free from carbonaceous and
sulphur-bearing materials such as oil, grease, etc., so that
pick up of C, S, etc., does not take place. This is neces-
sary to get adequate corrosion-resistance of the welds.
3) The weld should not be allowed to stay in the high
temperature zone for any length of time. Checks should
be made to ensure that the adjacent parent metal does
not cross 150°C at any time. The weld should not be
subjected to 500-850°C range for considerable time. This
is the range where the material is susceptible to
intercrystalline corrosion in the presence of nitric acid
742 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 19.13: S.S. compositions for urea service

Brand name Assab 724L Assab 724LN Dew 4435 Sandvik Sandvik
Sonder-2 3R60 2 RE 69
Chem. Composition C £ 0.03 C0.02 C £ 0.03 C £ 0.03 C £ 0.03
(%) Si £1.0 Si 1.0 Si£ 1.0 Si 0.6 Si £ 0.40
Mn£2.0 Mn£2.0 Mn £ 2.0 Mn 1.70 Mn£1.75
P £ 0.045 P 0.035 — — P £ 0.02
S £ 0.030 S 0.020 — — S £ 0.015
Cr 17.5 Cr 25.0 Cr 17.0-19.0 Cr 17.0 Cr 25.0
Ni > 13.5 Ni 22.0 Ni 13.5-16.0 Ni 13.6 Ni 22.0
Mo 2.6 Mo 2.1 Mo 2.4-3.0 Mo 2.8
Others — N0.12 — — —
Ferrite content < 0.6 % < 0.6% < 0.6% — —
Corrosion rate
(Huey test) < 0.6 mm/year 0.18 mm/year < 0.6 mm/year < 0.6 mm/year < 0.6 mm/year
Remarks 0.25 mm/year 0.09 mm/year
can be achieved can be achieved

and urea. Unfortunately, deterioration of the material
on this count cannot be detected by simpler tests like
strauss or acidified copper sulphate tests.
4) The selection of filler metal and welding technique
should ensure that the weld is free from any micro-
cracking. Fully austenitic deposits are quite susceptible
to this defect unless proper care is exercised. Researches
have shown that micro-cracking can be prevented by
increasing the Mn content of the weld-metal, without
affecting the corrosion-resistance of the metal. Some of
the brands of filler metal which have been already used
in this service have typical composition as below:
C — 0.05 maximum Cr — 20.5 Ni — 15.5
Mo —3.0 Mn —7.5 N —Present
The cracking susceptibility is also controlled by
limiting the heat input and hence dwell time at high
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e . Extra-low P a n d S contents,
preferably 0.020% maximum in the filler wire have
beneficial effect.
5) In case of weld cladding where carbon or Cr-Mo
steels may be clad with SS material, some of the
considerations given to the procedure are: (a) choosing
right filler metal for the intermediate and final layers,
(b) selection of parameters for preheating and postheat
treatment operations, (c) choosing the right sequence
and stage for postheat treatment and selection of
treatment p a r a m e t e r s in such a w a y that neither
brittleness nor loss of corrosion-resistance is induced,
(d) in case of flat plates such as tube-sheets, the sequence
of runs and other techniques to prevent or minimise
distortion of the component, and (e) choosing proper
welding parameters to keep dilution under control.
In clad constructions, generally two or more layers
of cladding metal are used for building up desired
thickness of corrosion-resistant layer. In case of manual
metal-arc m e t h o d , the dilution m u s t and can be
controlled to as low as 10 to 15%. Dilution of the SS layer
with carbon and chrome-molybdenum steel can result
in the formation of less corrosion-resistant intermediate
compositions and in some cases lead to martensite
formation. The martensitic phases can cause lower
ductility, giving rise to cracks and lack of cohesion with
the base metal. Stress-relief treatment can further lower
the toughness of the material. Suitable highly alloyed
fillers such as 25 Cr-12 Ni-Mo, 25 Cr-20 Ni and lnconel-
182 for buffer layer have been found to surmount these
difficulties. However, even with their use a final layer
of corrosion-resistant material must be given, as the
dilution in the deposit is difficult to predict with much
reliability, and the corrosion-resistance with higher
carbon content material (due to dilution of base metal)
may not be comparable to the undiluted deposit.
With clad constructions, stress-relieving treatments,
when considered necessary, should as far as possible be
given in the intermediate stage and not in the final stage.
This is because the material may get sensitised during
stress-relief treatment and lose its corrosion-resistance
properties to some extent. If it is not practicable to stress-
relieve the cladding in the intermediate stage and has
to be done after the fabrication is completed, proper time
and temperature should be selected after consulting the
a p p r o p r i a t e TTS (time-temperature-sensitisation)
diagram for the deposit, before embarking on the heat
treatment.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 743

Use of superalloys: Superalloys are heat-resistant blasting or grinding. If this is not done, the oxides
nickel alloys or highly alloyed ferrous metals, which are accumulate on multi-pass welds and they may become
used in the fertiliser industry for specific corrosion- thick enough to inhibit weld fusion and to produce
resistance and other severe service conditions, where laminar type oxide strings along the weld axis, which
the conventional materials fail prematurely. These alloys act as mechanical stress raisers and may cause stress
are used in some of the initial and intermediate stages corrosion cracking in service.
of processing with remarkable success. 4) Preheating: Preheating is generally avoided, but in
The superalloys commonly used are Inconel 625, some cases where job is below 15°C, it must be heated
Inconel 748, lncolloy-800, HK-40, Hastelloy B, Hastelloy to above ambient temperature. However, cast alloys
C, Hastelloy D and Hastelloy X, and some proprietory should be heated to 100-200°C, depending on the mass
alloys like R- 55. Their compositions are given below: of the casting at the joint.
5) Postweld heat treatment: No postweld heat
Inconel 625 —Ni—61%, C—0.05%, Fe—2.5%, treatment is needed to maintain or restore corrosion-
Cr—21.5%, Mo—9%, Nb—3.65% resistance, except where stress-relief is necessary. Age-
Incolloy 800 —Cr—21.7%, Ni—34%, Fe—Balance, hardening alloys are normally welded in the solution-
C—0.069%, Mn—0.75%, Si—0.52%, treated condition and age-hardened after welding.
Ti—0.36%, Nb—0.45%, Al—0.25%, 6) Filler metal: Ni-based alloys arc generally subject
S—0.009%, Cu—0.21% to porosity, if the weld-metal does not contain nitride
HK-40 —C—0.35 to 0.45%, Mn—2%, Si—1.5%, forming and deoxidising elements. So electrodes and
P—0.03%, S—0.03%, Cr—24 to filler rods meant for arc welding must contain Al, Ti, or
27%, Ni—19 to 22%, Mo—0.5% n i o b i u m or a combination thereof. Weld-metal
Hastelloy-B —Ni—62%, Mo—28%, Fe—5% deposited on Si-bearing 18% C r - 3 8 % Ni alloy is
Hastelloy-C —Ni—54%, Mo—17%, Cr—15%, susceptible to hot cracking, if the filler metal of identical
Fe—5%, W - 4 % chemistry is used. So the alloy should be welded with a
Hastelloy-D —Ni—85%, Si—10%, Cu—3% low silicon 80% Ni-20% Cr type filler, and dilution
Hastelloy-X —Cr—22%, Mo—9%, Fe—18%, should be kept minimum.
Ni—Balance 7) Precautions: Some additional precautions to be
R-55 alloy —Cr—22.5%, Ni—Balance, W—4%, taken are:
Mo—4%, Si—4%, Fe-10.5%. a) Parts which have been worked or deformed are
given a stress-relief treatment prior to welding.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS b) Welded parts are rapidly heated and cooled
1) Process: The most widely used processes for through the aging range to avoid the harmful effects of
welding the superalloys are TIG, MIG and MMA embrittling carbides in grain boundaries.
welding. Solid solution superalloys are easily weldable, c) Since a m a t r i x - s t r e n g t h e n e d filler metal is
but precipitation hardening superalloys require special generally used, yielding between 80 and 90% joint
precautions. efficiency, fusion welds are designed where possible in
2) Joint preparation: Since the weld-metal of high-Ni low-stress areas.
superalloy electrodes does not spread and penetrate 8) Application ofNi-base consumables for welding: These
deeply as does steel weld-metal, angle of V for butt joint are preferred because they have the following interesting
preparation of these alloys is kept wider and proper properties:
provisions are made between the root faces to ensure a) A high metallurgical tolerance towards dilution
complete penetration of the weld-metal. by various metals.
3) Cleaning: Ni-based superalloys are susceptible lo b) Good mechanical strength and chemical resistance
embrittlement by lead, S, P and low melting-point at high temperatures.
metals like bismuth. Therefore perfect cleaning of the c) Good strength and ductility at room temperature.
welding joint is essential, so that it is free from dirt, d) High toughness, even at very low temperatures.
grease, oils and the above materials. After welding of
each r u n , slag on the surface m u s t be r e m o v e d WELDING OF R-55 ALLOY
thoroughly; otherwise severe corrosion can occur, A large number of pump casings and impellers made
particularly in oxygen containing atmosphere. Oxide of R-55 alloy for service of s u l p h u r i c acid and
formed during welding should be removed by abrasive ammonium sulphate solution are corroded and eroded
744 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
every year. Defective parts are put to service successfully
by weld surfacing by the following procedure:
Welding of wetted surface
a) Faulty p o r t i o n of the casting is g r o u n d to
approximately two-thirds of the d e p t h of casting
thickness and chamfered all round.
b) Casting is slowly heated to about 200-230°C.
c) Then material is welded either in the furnace or
on the outer edge of the furnace. Proper care should be
taken so that no heat loss takes place during welding.
d) Material is welded either with a cast R-55 alloy
or Hastelloy C rod using borax commercial flux.
e) Finally the material is cooled very slowly by
covering with insulation materials.
Welding of non-wetted surface
Arc welding process is used and there is no need for
heating the casting for this operation.
WELDING OF INCOLOY-800
In pigtails of naphtha reformer of a fertiliser plant,
lncoloy-800 is often used. The heater is spun cast and as
such requires no welding, but the critical joints between
the reformer (HK-40) tubes and the pigtails have to be
welded as well as repaired. For welding, lnconel-82 filler
metal having the following composition is used:
Cr—20 to 22% Ni—65 to 67% Fe—3% Mn—2.5 to
3.5%
C—0.1% Si—0.5% Ti—2 to 3% Nb—2 to 3%
The base metal and the filler metal differ in the
following respects:
a) lncoloy-800 is based upon 20 C r / 3 5 N i / 4 5 Fe
composition, whereas lnconel-82 is based on 20 Cr/80
Ni.
b) Incoloy is hardened and partly deoxidised by Ti
and Al, which form a fine intermetallic dispersion,
whereas lnconel-82 is hardened by Ti and Nb (and not
by Al). In addition, about 3% manganese is present m
the filler metal and is required for sulphur control, as in
ferritic weld-metals.
The root run is completed by TIG welding having
2% thoriated tungsten electrode with argon as shielding
gas at 90 amps, and the successive run is also completed
with TIG.
The following welding conditions are observed:
Reformer tube Outer header
side side
Electrode for lnconel-82, 2.3 lnconel-82, 2.3
first layer mm dia mm dia
Electrode for Inconel 182 Incoweld
subsequent layers
Preheat temp. 150°C nil
Interpass temp. 150°C nil
Besides other benefits, the lncoloy-800 has the
advantage of nipping if any particular tube is to be
isolated in which the failure has occurred d u e to
excessive creep in the pigtails, or at the welds joining
pigtails to catalyst tube and header.
After welding, the solidification cracking is generally
restricted to the weld crater positions of the root runs.
Utmost care is required during welding. The inside
surface of the joint should be completely purged with
inert gas to protect from oxidation. After welding, the
weld surface should be finished by grinding, so as to
eliminate irregularities and examined by both the
radiographic and dye penetrant methods.
WELDING OF HK-40
The alloy finds its main use in gas reformer tubes in
fertiliser industries. The tubes are s p u n cast, and
welding is required only at the ends or for the repairs of
the tubes which have failed due to excessive bowing,
uneven heat flux, corrosion at internal as well as external
surfaces, and deactivation of catalyst followed by delay
in replacement. Effective non-destructive tests have
shown that tubes have failed generally after attainment
of 4% creep and 0.5% or more of ferrite.
The filler metal used here also is lnconel-82 with TIG
welding, which gives welds having better stress rupture
strength.
To sum up, the following principles are to be abided
by before welding the superalloys:
a) To h a v e a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e of the
compositions of materials being welded
b) To make choice of right rods and electrodes
c) To maintain the time at preheating temperatures
d) To h a v e a control over w e l d e r s ' ability by
qualification tests.
Welding of tower of methanol scrubber : A fertiliser
project in India had to weld the tower of methanol
scrubber, received from Europe in four pieces, which
when erected would have a total weight of 320 tons and
a height of 72.9 m. The tower was designed for operating
in the sub-zero temperature range of 80/ -50°C.
The base material was TTStE36 (equivalent to 537
C l l ) and its thickness ranged between 48 and 58 mm.
The welding electrodes were of E8016-C3 classification.
Its weld-metal analysis was (%):
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 745

C-0.06, Mn-0.93, Si-0.27, S-0.05, P-0.018, Ni-1.10, M o -
0.32, and gave an average Charpy-V impact value of
4.3 kgf- m at -50°C
In each of the joints, 100 mm wide heating coil
(nichrome wires 4 mm diameter) was kept and insulated
approximately to 1 m width, and the heating was done
by electric resistance m e t h o d . The p r e h e a t i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e r e c o m m e n d e d is 120-150°C. The
preheating temperature was checked at various points
by means of suitable temperature indicating crayons.
The interpass temperature of 200°C was also controlled
by suitable temperature indicating crayons. Soon after
the required preheat temperature was attained, two
welders started welding on opposite sides in vertical
position as shown in Fig. 19.50.
The entire circumference of the tower shell was
divided into eight equal parts of 45°. The shell was in
such a position as to permit the two welders to start
welding only in vertical position 1, 2 and 2', 1'. In this
position, only 5% of the volume could be completed.
The vessel was rotated (through 90°) in such a way that
3.4 and 3', 4' occupied the position 2,1 and 2'', V. In this
3, 4,, 3', 4' position, 50% of the volume was completed.
Likewise, the vessel was rotated so that the position 5,
6,6', 5' and 7,8,8', 7' took up the vertical position. Under
these positions, the entire volume was welded. After
welding of these positions, the vessel diameter and
verticality were checked to locate distortion if any. If
any distortion was found, the heat input was adjusted
against the volume of weld left-out in 1,2 and 2', Y and
3, 4, and 4', 3'. Figure 19.50 explains this clearly.
At the root, the second side was grooved by grinding
till sound metal was reached, dye-checked and filled
u p with sealing passes in the same sequence as
explained earlier, by rotating the vessel.
Postweld heat treatment of the welded joints was
carried out by the internal bulkhead method (Chapter
20) which has been developed specifically for the heat
treatment of circumferential weld joints on large
diameter vessels. Using this method, the area around
the welded seam was converted into its own furnace as
shown in Fig. 19.51. Two insulated bulkheads were
erected on either side of the welded joint. These
comprised simple, single iron framework, on to which
two layers of mineral wool insulation were attached.
Between the bulkheads, a number of 4-bank channel
elements were mounted in tiers on a scrap channel
section. Each element was rated at 13.33 kW - 240 V, 57

S=48-58 mm

Thickness
180° 4 8 - 5 8 mm
i 50% of welding - 1, 2 2\V
\\ 50% of welding - 4,3,3' 4 '
III 100% of welding- 6,5,5'6'
IV 100% of welding - 7,8,8,7»
V 50% of welding - 1,2,2',V
VI 50% of welding 4 ^ y 4

Fig. 19.50: Tower T-501 methanol scrubber-welding sequence adopted

746 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

. Insulation two layers

mm Thk

50 x 6^ mm
M.S. Flat

Four Bank 4 Bank channel heaters up to

channel heater 1/3 height of the diameter

Note: (1) (2) (3) and (4) are

chrome I-a I u me I control
thermocouples 8 or 9 swg

Fig. 19.51: Postweld heat treatment of tower using Internal bulkhead' method

amps. The 4-bank channel elements were connected to
440V power supply via a heat control and distribution
board.
The control and distribution board provided the
control of energy output to each element by on/off
switching method. Energy regulators provided semi-
automatic control of heat treatment operation under a
skilled supervisor. Two layers of mineral wool insulation
were applied over the heated zone, b e t w e e n the
bulkheads to the exterior of the vessel. A further single
layer was applied at either side of the heated zone to
protect against any harmful temperature gradient. The
heat treatment procedure was as follows:
Stress-relieving temperature — 550-570°C
(two hours soaking time)
Heating rate—100°C per hour
While cooling, after the temperature dropped to
300°C, the joint area was allowed to cool in air.
Macro-hardness measurements were made across a
specimen of the welded joint. The results are shown in
Fig. 19.52.
PLANT FOR CRYOGENIC SERVICE
Cryogenics is a branch of physics concerned with
phenomena occurring below -100°C and d o w n to
-273°C (absolute zero). The cryogenic science is being
used in fields like gas separation, deep sea oil extraction,
missile launching, electronics, biology a n d food
handling.
For the separation and extraction of gases like
oxygen, nitrogen and argon from air and for many other
chemical operations, vessels and pipings capable of
operating satisfactorily at cryogenic temperatures are
required. In the fertiliser industry, the cryogenic vessels
form the heart of the process system, and any failure in
them may either be catastrophic or very costly. The weld
quality control is a single factor which will reduce such
losses and thereby finally result in reduced production
and maintenance cost of the plant. Proper under-
standing of the quality control procedures to be followed
in the welding of cryogenic materials will also avoid
undue repairs and rejection of welded fabrication.
The vessels are fabricated under ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Sec. VIII, and yet they must meet
additional stringent requirements. For example, the
welds have to be absolutely defect-free and leak-tight
in order to stand vacuum. Mechanical properties,
specially impact property of the weldment and its heat-
213-
218—-A 198 199 193 / -
170 1 7 2 ^ 9 3 20 f/161162
17g 17Q\206197 200170 1 i : R
M7^AV*$?>^ 247
236 '168 /193!170 243
229~~* 222
Material TTSTE 36 Tower T 501
Fig. 19.52: Hardness survey with vickers 10 kg load

affected zones at sub-zero temperatures is another major
factor that needs consideration. Role of w e l d i n g
technology starting from selection of materials to final
testing thus becomes crucial in the manufacture of
cryogenic equipment.
Selection of materials for cryogenic vessels
necessitates certain special considerations to physical
and mechanical properties. They would include the
familiar yield and tensile properties, ductility, fatigue
limit, impact and toughness properties. Ductility, the
ability of material to deform plastically and toughness,
resistance to brittle failure under specific conditions of
stress concentrations, are important prerequisites in
metals that are considered for use at low or cryogenic
temperatures. Selection of materials for cryogenic
services is also based on various physical properties like
low heat conductivity, low co-efficient of thermal
expansion and low emissivity. All such properties can
be used to advantage in storage vessels, vacuum transfer
lines and other components of cryogenic systems.
Of all the metals useful in construction for low
temperature applications, alloy steels remain the most
popular, because they are efficient, most readily
available, most versatile a n d most economical.
Austenitic stainless steel (which is non-hardenable by
heat treatment) is an excellent material over the entire
range of cryogenic applications, because of its toughness
and high ductility at low temperatures and because it is
highly corrosion-resistant. It remains tough even at
liquid-hydrogen and liquid-helium temperatures and
its co-efficient of thermal expansion and thermal
conductivity are lower than those of non-ferrous
cryogenic structural materials.
Linnert has described in his book Welding Metallurgy,
a few remedial steps in steel-making for securing good
fracture toughness, of which heat treatment and alloying
with nickel are important. Heat treatment can improve
fracture toughness of low-alloy steels and extend their
range of usefulness to about -60°C. By adding nickel in
substantial amounts, the range of applicability can be
extended as follows:
Steel composition Lowest service temperature
2VA% Nickel '/ _60°C
3%% Nickel —100°C
5% Nickel / —130°C
9% Nickel —200° C
These temperature limits are based upon a minimum
Charpy impact strength of 15 ft-lbs. Figure 19.53 by
Linnert indicates the impact properties of steels over a
WELDING APPLICATIONS 747
Temperature, °C
? § s
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Temperature °F
Fig. 19.53: Impact properties of carbon steel and alloy
steels at cryogenic temperatures. Boiling points of
gases are shown on abscissa.
wide range of temperature and superiority of austenitic
stainless steels at all temperatures (15 ft-lbs = 20 J).
In addition to these steels, copper and aluminium
alloys are also extensively used in cryogenic plants.
However, use of copper is restricted to the low and
medium capacity air separation plants in columns and
trays, while aluminium alloy (4.5% Mg) is extensively
used in tonnage plants. As mentioned earlier, selection
is based on factors like toughness, ductility and fatigue
resistance.
In the fabrication of cryogenic vessels, procedure
qualification tests are conducted as per ASME Pressure
Vessel Code, Sec. VIII and IX, before actual production
welding is allowed to take place. Mechanical tests
including low-temperature impact tests are conducted
on the procedure test specimens. Figure 19.54 shows a
typical arrangement for removal of test specimens from
the p r o c e d u r e test plate and test specimen
configurations. It can be noted that notches for the
impact test specimens are shifted from centreline of weld
to fusion line and slowly to the heat-affected zone. This
technique is practised in Czechoslovakia and many
other East European countries. The results can be plotted
in a graph, which will show the lowest impact strength
at a particular point between weld and the HAZ. The
acceptance of the impact test is based on the fact that
748 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

careful flux removal between the weld passes followed

by grinding the entire groove to bright metal, is required.
' 'f b) Joint design: For grooved joint, wider included
c 1
o 22V 2 C 221/i° angle, compared to ordinary constructional steels, is
1 *<n
-3 c,
a; I recommended. Joint angles of 60°-80°in both single and
u

1
" £
1 **** 5I double-vee groove welds are necessary.
a <D 1

H #1 d ^ej
2 c) Filler metal: Manual metal-arc welding, when first
^
0.25 Root rad. applied to the 9% nickel steel using electrodes of
la
fr^
\ o ml Enlarged view of 'A' matching metal composition, gave rise to weld-metal

unU ni
o Scale: - N.T.S. cracking. Besides, the weld-metal exhibited Charpy-V
1f
impact strength of 5 ft-lbs at -200°C, which was not
} adequate. Weldments made with Inconel type filler wire
13 5
1 tn
£ W ¥=\ have s h o w n a d e q u a t e fracture t o u g h n e s s at low
i & **— temperature, as can be seen from Fig. 19.55, having
Cn^PXTYP)- ^

4^
11 a tensile strength almost equal to base metal but having
I °- I U7T I yield strength up to 55 ksi compared to 60 ksi in base
E
JT- metal (ASTM A-353, Gr. A). No difficulty is encountered
S
' 1 V 1
1 i
Charpy V - N o t c h
test specimen
10
impact
in qualifying these electrodes for ASME Code
requirements and hence these are widely used. Because
IU & J k- the weld-metal deposited by these electrodes has
approximately 95% joint strength efficiency, the ASME
Arrangement for removal of
impact test specimens from allowable design stress is proportionately reduced for
weld procedure plate 9% nickel steel in welded constructions.
specimen
0
a
0
b
— -
c ~5~~ e
- - From parent | ' I Temperature °C
plate as shown
j F - L_g Lmm~ ^mr^J •5 mrr -in Fig. aboveJ -250 -200 -150 - 1 0 0 ' - 5 0
-1 1—r
50

Kange of applicability
Fig. 19.54: Weld procedure test: Charpy-V notch impact 1 8 - 8 Austenitic stainless steel
test specimen for cryogenic vessels ♦ 9% Nicke) stee'l"
b% Nickel steel
31/2% Nickel steel
the lowest impact value shall be equal to or more than
15 ft-lbs for a 10 x 10 mm 2 standard Charpy-V specimen
CD
CD 120 Q J — 21/4% Nickel-
steel

at the lowest service temperature specified.

Qualification tests for welding operators must also 100
be c o n d u c t e d before c o m m e n c e m e n t of actual
production welding. Since 100% X-ray radiography is u
80
75
required for the job, it is desirable that procedure and a
CO

p e r f o r m a n c e qualification test specimens are £

60
radiographed as per relevant ASTM standard before
sectioning plates to make test-pieces. c
The three major welding processes used with low- 40
temperature and cryogenic vessels are manual metal-
arc welding, submerged-arc welding and MIG welding. 20
U
Among the materials used for cryogenic service, 9%
Ni steel conforming to ASTM A353 needs special
consideration. The special precautions and procedure -200 -100 0 200
necessary for welding this material are: Temperature, °F

a) Cleaning: Adequate cleaning of joints in 9% Nickel Fig. 19.55: Impact properties of typical as-deposited weld
steel is required to produce X-ray quality welds. Mill metals at cryogenic temperatures. (SMAW = Manual
and flame-cutting scales should be removed from the metal-arc welding: GMAW = TIG or MIG C0 2 ; SAW =
weld area by blasting, grinding, or power brushing; Submerged arc welding).

Austenitic stainless steels are easily weldable with
matching electrodes or filler wires, but some special
precautions must be taken when they involve cryogenic
plant. TIG welding is ideally suited. The intense,
concentrated heat of this arc permits high welding rates
and the lowest heat input of any of the fusion joining
methods. These characteristics of the tungsten arc
minimise weld cracking and heat effects on corrosion-
resistance. Root passes laid down by TIG welding are
always specified for X-ray quality welds in large, heavy
walled pipe or vessels. The root may be formed by direct
fusion of specially prepared edges machined in parent
metal, or by fusing a consumable metal ring inserted
between the bottom ends of the pipe sections. TIG
welding of stainless steel is done with DC straight
polarity, using 1% or preferably 2% thoriated tungsten
electrodes,
Manual electrodes are widely used in stainless steel
welding. In comparison with stabilised electrodes, use
of extra-low carbon g r a d e (C-0.03% m a x i m u m )
electrodes, is mostly preferred. However, a real source
of trouble with coated electrodes comes from moisture
pick-up due to atmospheric humidity. As received, the
rods are normally packed in polythene bags inside
hardboard box to keep them dry; the coating materials
tend to absorb water depending on time of storage,
temperature, humidity and the coating composition. A
wet rod gives a sputtery arc and a porous weld deposit;
therefore, it is wise to predry the electrodes in a drying
oven at about 100°C. Three or four hours' exposure at
high humidity can raise moisture content in coating to
about 4 to 5%, and t h u s cause poor w e l d i n g
performance. In vacuum insulated vessels used for
cryogenic services, difficulty has been experienced very
often to achieve required degree of vacuum due to the
presence of porosity caused by wet electrodes.
In MIG welding, axial-spray type metal transfer
gives a clean, spatter-free weld with good penetration
and no problems of slag removal. Submerged-arc
welding, both semi-automatic and automatic types with
DC power sources, results in high speed, better control
over arc starting and arc length, high deposition rates
and good penetration. DC straight polarity gives highest
deposition rates and best arc stability with least
penetration, and is suitable for thinner materials. DC
r^yerse polarity gives greatest penetration and best bead
shape. Current range of 700-800 Amps, is normally
used. Economically, SA welding is preferred to other
welding processes, mainly because of high deposition
rates and superb quality. However, a problem of welding
stainless steel by SA process is high heat input.
WELDING APPLICATIONS 749
After completion of welding, the welded joints are
radiographed. To ensure highly sensitive quality,
adequate measures are taken. Films of type-II grade are
used and exposure selected, so that density of the
processed film corresponding to the weldment area is
around 2. Sensitivity should range between 1% and
1.5%, using DIN/ISO type Image Quality Indicator.
ASME flat type penetrameters are also used. Location
markers are used on the job, letters are written by Mag
ink, so that cross reference is always possible. In this
manner, 100% radiographic examination is completed.
Interpretation is done by viewing the radiographs with
a high power illuminator. The defects, if revealed, are
rigidly scrutinised against a predetermined standard,
to determine acceptance. If not accepted, the defective
location is marked and repaired by grinding and
re welding by a qualified welder and procedure. Re-shot
is taken and re-examination is performed. The process
continues as long as the defect is not completely
removed or not removed to such a degree that it is within
acceptable limit.
The vessel, now after completion of piping, is ready
for tests such as pneumatic, hydraulic and halogen leak
detection. In typical tests, hydraulic test pressure is 1.5
times the design pressure and pneumatic test pressure
is 1.25 times the design pressure. Halogen leak detection
test helps to find out exact location of any existing
through hole, howsoever minute it may be.
For hydraulic test, the vessel is completely filled with
water and pressure is raised to the required test pressure.
Peening all over and around the weld seams with
wooden hammer on the pressurised tank and thorough
visual inspection for locating any leaking water is
performed. Two pressure gauges are used, as is the
standard method for any such test. The tank is kept
under pressure for an hour. Initial and final readings on
the indicating gauges must be the same; otherwise, it
becomes obvious that a leakage exists somewhere.
Next, pneumatic test is undertaken, which should
be performed with greater care, since any leak may lead
even to fatal results during the test. Pneumatic test
consists of pressurizing the tank with air to the required
pressure, and testing the weldments and joints with soap
solution. Leak will be indicated by formation of bubbles.
Similar to hydraulic test, two gauges are used and
constancy of two readings taken at definite intervals is
also checked.
Halogen leak detection test supplements the above
two tests. The tank is pressurised, the probe is taken
near the weldments and joints and moved all over, and
leaks, if any, are detected.
750 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
7) Ships
The design approach to ships, which are large
floating structures, has to be different from that applied
to land structures, such as buildings and bridges. Ships
have to be as light in weight as possible, because any
avoidable excess of material reduces carrying capacity
and speed.
Modern ships are all-welded. They are constructed
in accordance with the requirements laid down by
regulatory agencies like Lloyds Register of Shipping
(LRS), American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), and Bureau
Veritas.
M o d e r n s h i p b u i l d i n g is considered a mass
production industry. As much fabrication as possible is
completed in the shops using flow-line technique. These
fabricated blocks are then assembled at the building
berths using high speed welding techniques, to complete
the ship construction in a very short time. Different types
of welding techniques are adopted for shop floor
fabrication and at berths.
Shipyards require large number of stiffened flat
panels and approximately 12-15% of total weld length
in a ship is panel welding. Different techniques have
been developed and adopted in Japanese and European
shipyards to increase the panel production rate. Panel
production lines have been developed using double-
sided welding and single-sided welding, and both
techniques use multi-electrode submerged-arc welding
process. Many of the European shipyards seem to favour
double-sided butt welding technique, whereas the
Japanese shipyards use mostly one-sided welding
technique. In the construction of a ship, the designer
has the responsibility of ensuring minimum cost and
m i n i m u m use of steel with m a x i m u m safety. The
designer must find answers to the question, how
efficiently can it be produced? Since welding design is
very much a part of structural design of ships, the
designer must also ask himself, how efficiently can it
be welded?
The steps commonly adopted to reduce weld-metal
deposition and welding costs have been explained in
Chapter 15. There are many other special points which
the designer must take into consideration. Some of them
are dealt with below.
• Access for welding: Access for welding is one very
important aspect, which the designer must bear in mind.
It is perhaps difficult for a designer without direct and
real experience to assess as to what might be a good or
bad access for welding. This often results in joints
without proper access or sometimes impossible to weld,
causing rectifications and renewals at site, joints should
always be located so as to be easily accessible to the
electrode or welding head. The welder must be able to
easily see and reach his work to deposit a sound weld.
A few examples and data on good access are given
in Fig. 19.56.
Where it is impracticable to avoid poor access due
to other limitations of space, interference of structurals,
etc., it may be necessary to provide access openings—
permanent or temporary—which should be clearly
indicated in the drawings. Sometimes, lightening holes
or other openings may serve the purpose. If fitting of a
member can be delayed to achieve good access for
welding the assembly, then it should be shown in the
drawing in terms of sequence of fabrication.
• Distortion: One of the major problems in ship
construction is distortion of welded structures, due to
the large a m o u n t of w e l d i n g that goes into each
weldment. All types of distortions, buckling, etc., are
seen during the fabrication and assembly of the hull
panels—though in varying degrees. The net result is that
the dimensional accuracy is affected, and on the
shipside, the aesthetic values and on open decks,
distortions pose maintenance problems.
Here the designer has a responsibility for taking
necessary precautions at the design stage itself, for the
p r e v e n t i o n or minimising of distortions, so that
dimensional accuracy of the structure and other features
are not hampered. The role of the designer lies in
considering and duly appreciating the likely causes of
distortion a n d choosing material scantlings and
arrangements accordingly (usually the smaller the
thickness of the plating, the larger is the distortion).
Having minimum number of welded joints (by using
largest and widest plates within the working capacity
of the shop) and minimum weld sizes in a fabrication
helps in reducing distortion.
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d always be given to the
possibility of incorporating folded, pressed or forged
components and rolled sections instead of built-up
sections in the design. An example: introduction of a
corrugation in a light thickness housing bulkhead to
avoid stiffeners, a lot of welding and the resultant
distortion. Groups of welds should be balanced about
the new axis of the section to the extent possible.
The designer should also try to avoid the joint
geometry that will increase distortion. When unstiffened
panels are edge welded to heavier sections, buckling of
the panels may be induced. Longitudinal asymmetrical
weld a r r a n g e m e n t (like a T-section) p r o d u c e s
longitudinal bowing due to offset line of shrinkage. Such
aspects are to be taken care of at design stage; otherwise
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 751

904

i
18+

16
T
144-

#t
12 +

10+
<0- No floor line
I in Restriction for (a)
8 |

6+
4
. #
#
2+ (a,b)

-I 1 L__ » '
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
d min inches

18
1
16
f Floor line
Restriction
141

121
1 in
10+
el
No floor line
restriction
6+ ^^

0 10 20 30
d max inches
Floor line

Fig. 19.56: Some examples and data on good access

distortion cannot be eliminated in spite of all other
precautions on the shop floor.
Since it is not possible to completely eliminate
distortion in a large weldment, the designer should give
m i n i m u m critical connections in areas of likely
distortion, making use of more lapped joints, sniped
ends to stiffeners, etc.
Shrinkage of the panel due to welding is also to be
appreciated and taken care of at the design stage by
providing required allowances to achieve overall
752 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

dimensional accuracy. This means that the fabrication
should be built oversize, by an amount sufficient to
cover the shrinkage. It is difficult to estimate the
shrinkage allowance accurately, except by long practical
experience. However, some shrinkage allowances that
are found to be reasonably accurate are given in Table
19.14. Tucking allowances for stiffeners are given in
Table 19.15.
For intermittently w e l d e d stiffeners: tucking
allowance is half the above values.
Sometimes, in cases w h e r e only one set of
dimensions is important, like the overall length of
fabrication, it is often possible to leave fitting of one
member, such as an end plate, until the remainder of
the fabrication has been w e l d e d and most of the
shrinkage has taken place. The remaining item of correct
dimensions, called float is then fitted and welded in
correct position. Such float should be clearly indicated
in the design.
Some general rules of welding sequence derived
from long experience h a v e become accepted in
shipyards. They are based on the principle of welding
towards free ends> or in the direction of the greatest
freedom. Special care is necessary when they are to be
applied at weld junctions.
The first basic rule applicable to the weld junction is
illustrated in Fig. 19.57. The extension of this rule to plate
sequence is shown in Fig. 19.58. The concept can be used
almost without limit as shown in Fig. 19.59. When used
extensively through the midship body, this sequence
results in a marked tendency for the ship to rise from
the keel blocks at bow and stern. This tendency may be
relieved by welding a complete band around the ship
and proceeding forward and aft, limiting the completed

Table 19.14: Shrinkage allowances

Butt welds
Transverse 1.6-3.2 mm for all thicknesses per weld of 60°-V
Longitudinal
Plate over 10 mm t 0.8-1.6 mm in 3 metres of weld
Plate below 10 mm t 1.6-3.2 mm in 3 metres of weld
Fillet welds
Transverse 0.8 mm per weld where leg length £ 3A plate thickness.
Longitudinal 0.8 mm per 3 metres of weld.

Table 19.15: Tucking allowances for stiffeners

For continuously welded stiffeners:
Plate thickness 12.5 mm No allowance
9.5 mm-12.5 mm 0.4 mm per each stiffener
6.5 mm-9.5 mm 0.8 mm per each stiffener
6.5 mm 1.6 mm per each stiffener

Crack here

OR here

OR here

Fig. 19.57: Sequence for welding junctions of two joints: (a) correct sequence; (b) incorrect sequence; (c) probable
result of incorrect sequence

s ( <D I
I B1 © B2
I A © J
Fig. 19.58: Proper sequence for welding plate: (1) butt
joint complete; (2) inboard seam weld complete; (3)
outboard seam weld complete
Fig. 19.59: Welding sequence for bottom shell with
staggered butts (butts in line simpler)
welding by a vertical cross-section, instead of permitting
the bpttom to progress ahead of the upper deck. The
use of subassemblies and panels facilitates this method.
Plated structures for ships generally involve
attachment of frames, stiffeners, bulkheads, etc., to the
plating. The extension of the general sequence in Fig.
19.58 to include this framing is explained in Fig. 19.60.
The idea is to permit most of the shrinkage to take place
before the plates are tied together at their edges. On
small plates, where this method becomes less practical,
the complete framing may be welded in steps 3 and 7 of
Fig. 19.60 instead of just the unwelded cross-overs. One
advantage of this welding sequence for plates is that
the framing may be welded independently of the butt
and seam welds, as long as the plates are not welded
together. This permits a greater number of welders to
be put to work and reduces the overall time of welding.
In all the above figures, the butts are staggered. When
butts are in line, subassemblies can be w e l d e d
completely in the shop. This permits trimming to exact
size after shrinkage has taken place. These
subassemblies are then treated as single plates. If
subassemblies cannot be made on the ground because
of shape or other peculiarities, the sections can be
WELDING APPLICATIONS 753
Girder
Fig. 19.60: Welding sequence for butts in line (with
under-framing)
welded as panels on the ship using the described
sequence. The seams or butt joints can be welded
complete with regard to local sequence, and all the
framing can be welded to the panel, complete within
about 300 mm of all panel edges. This permits many
welders to be put to work without damage to the
structure. Since there are only a few tie-in welds to be
made, the overall structure shrinks very little, thus
reducing the tendency of the ship to rise at the bow and
stern. This sequence is illustrated in Fig. 19.61.
No doubt, minimisation or prevention of distortion
also depends on various other factors like accuracy in
manufacture, assembly procedure, welding processes
used, welding sequence and metallurgy of the plates;
but good design and satisfactory joint details help a long
way in minimising distortion, rectification of which is a
costly matter.
The designer must be aware of failures of welded
structures in the form of lamellar tearing, brittle fracture
Fig. 19.61: Welding sequence for butts in line: (1) weld
seams in panels P1 and P2; (2) weld all to within 300 mm
of panel edges; (3) treat panels as individual plates in
over-all sequence
754 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

and fatigue cracking. They have been dealt with in

Chapter 12. Tapered end piece of Superficial weld in half round
In detailed designing, the designer must take half round \
precautions to reduce or prevent avoidable stress
concentrations, which may cause damage to the
structure. Abrupt changes of shape or section and sharp
corners and congregation of welds are to be avoided.
Unnecessary attachments and fittings, specially in areas
of vulnerability cause stress concentrations. D^311 of
Lloyd's Rules stipulates that the shear strake, specially
within 0.5 L amid ships should be kept free of isolated
welded fittings, scupper openings, etc. Similar is the case
in way of breaks of superstructures. This rule applies
equally to M.S. and H.T. steels, but is applied more
rigorously to H.T. steels as a precaution against both
brittle fracture and fatigue fracture. Welded joints
introduce local points of stress concentration, but these
are seriously magnified if HAZ cracking occurs, which
is more critical in case of H.T. steels. Hence, to avoid
HAZ cracks, welding should be limited to the bare
Fig. 19.62: Example of crack propagation
minimum required in critical zones.
from a minor weld
• Structural continuity: Structural continuity is very
important to avoid stress-concentration. Plating at
corners of all openings in strength decks is to be well Lack of proper appreciation of welding of joints in
rounded and free from notches. Welding in the region members like bilge keels—either fully welded type or
of the corners of openings must be carefully detailed. riveted-welded type—caused cracks leading to major
The failure of Encounter Bay design is an example of fractures of shell plating as shown in Fig. 19.63.
the effect of structural discontinuity. Equal attention must be giVen to the welding of such
Minor welds on main strength members are also very minor members as to the main members. Otherwise,
important, since they also are subjected to the same welding minor items to main structural members should
loading as the main members. Cracks emanating from be avoided as far as possible.
minor, seemingly unimportant welds extend into the • Hard spots: Where any unstiffened plating is locally
main structure and cause serious failures. Some attached to a stiffener, a region of intensified stress is
examples are: developed in the plating at the toe of the stiffener, and
A crack from the butt weld of a half round rubbing this is called a hard spot. Toes of brackets, etc., landing
piece extending into the shear strake caused serious on unstiffened panels of plating are examples of this
fracture in shell as shown in Fig. 19.62. (see Fig. 19.64). This effect of hard spot can be offset

Crack at butt in bulb plate

Cracks at the F.B. shell butt
Crack from butt, in F.B.

4*
F.B. welded to shell

Bulb plate riveted to flat bar

Fig. 19.63: Weld failure in bilge keel


Bottom longitudinal
Fig. 19.64: Hard spot and how to avoid it: (A) Cracking at toe of a bracket due to faulty design;
(B) Modified design prevents cracking
either by landing it on an adjacent stiffener or by adding
a doubler plate or special stiffener as shown at (B) in
the figure.
Chapter D-33 of Lloyds Rule gives a number of such
detailed requirements relating to detail design and
welding practice. Similar rules are also established by
other Classification Societies. These are based on
experience of problems that have actually arisen in
service, and are mainly intended to avoid incidence of
cracking either during welding or afterwards. A proper
understanding and application of these rules helps the
designer in developing a clear perspective of welding
design in shipbuilding.
HULL CONSTRUCTION
The most important component of a ship is the main
hull. Regulatory agencies have provided complete
specifications of ordinary-strength and higher strength
structural steels to be used for hull construction. ABS,
for example, specifies seven grades of normal strength
steels identified as A, B, C, CS, D, E and R. Their tensile
strength ranges between 41 and 50 k g / mm 2 Grade A
has no limits on chemistry; grade B is semi-killed; grade
C is fully killed and normalised over 35 mm; CS is fully
killed and normalised in all thicknesses. For grades D
and E, impact requirements are specified at 0 and -10°C
respectively. Higher strength steels u n d e r ABS
specification have tensile strength range of 50-63 k g /
mm and are graded as AH33 or 36, DH33 or 36 and
EH33 or 36. The first one is semi-killed, and the latter
two are fully killed and h a v e to meet impact
requirements at -20 and -40°C respectively. Thickness
WELDING APPLICATIONS 755
Horizontal Gusset
or stiffener
limitations for these various grades have also been
specified with respect to ordinary applications and
special applications.
The regulatory agencies demand that special notch-
tough steel be used for a few fore- and aft-strakes, which
are strategically located around the main hull. These
strakes have taken the place of riveted crack-arrestor
seams used in the earlier ships.
A close study of the hull structure of any commercial
vessel reveals the following features (see Figs. 19.65 and
19.66):
a) The hull consists of many individual structural
units which are conveniently p r o d u c e d inside a
fabrication shop and later erected and welded u p
outside, in a building berth or dock. Size of these units
depends on the cranage and other facilities of the
shipyard.
b) The parallel middle body, where shaping and
forming is almost absent, forms the prominent part of
the hull. This may be of the order of 60-90% of the total
structural weight, depending upon the ship's size.
c) One feature common for the structural units
located in the parallel middle body is the existence of
flat panels. Each such panel may contain about three
plates of thickness 10-40 mm (again depending upon
the ship size and location on the hull), which are butt
welded together and stiffened.
In a modern shipyard, automatic welding is used to
the m a x i m u m extent in hull construction. This is
illustrated and well explained in Fig. 19.67.
In a typical large and modern shipyard in India,
several welding processes are used in combinations. For
756 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 19.65: The hull structure of a ship

Fig. 19.66: Mid-ship section

the butt welding of hull plates, automatic submerged-
arc welding is commonly used. Two methods are used
with this process. In the conventional method, welding
is done from both the sides and this involves turning of
the panel to enable the completion of welding from the
second side. This can be a laborious and time-consuming
operation, as the panels are usually quite large, though
it can be streamlined by installing elaborate permanent
turning fixtures. The other method, called the flux
copper backing (FCB) system, uses a much more
convenient one-sided welding technique. This technique
has been described in detail in Chapter 4.
The obvious advantages of the one-side welding
process are the lower equipment and operational costs
when compared to the two-sided welding process
together with the turning gear, and increased welding
speeds. As for weld quality, it is quite satisfactory and
would meet the requirements of the ship classification
societies. The weld impact strength, though slightly
inferior to that obtained in a two-sided process, is always
well above the minimum requirements, as shown in
Table 19.16.
Welding of stiffeners to flat panels : These joints involve
straight and long fillet welds, which are deposited by
the twin head submerged-arc process, and by the MMA
process using heavy iron powder type electrodes of
longer length. In some shops and especially in Japanese
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 757

General view of erection stage

Electroslag welding

Horizontal SA welding

Erection joint of deck assembly

One-side
automatic welding
SA welding

t^
r i i v N vr^
"">w
Consumable nozzle
type electroslag welding
Erection joint of bottom shell assembly

Erection joint of side shell assembly

One-side automatic welding
Semi-automatic welding Electroslag welding

One-side automatic One-side

welding
automatic)
welding

Consumable nozzle
Horizontal
type electroslag SA welding
welding

Fig. 19.67: Automatic welding processes for erection joints of ship's hull
758 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Table 19.16: Comparison of impact strength of weld on
25 mm M.S. plate (typical values)
Process Impact strength,
kgf • m at 0°C
MMA welding using basic coated electrodes 14.00
Two sides SA process (multi-pass) 10.50
Vertical electrodes welding 7.00
Electroslag welding 5.50
One side (FCB) welding 8.00
shipyards, the gravity welding system and spring-
loaded type auto-contact system are used for depositing
these fillet welds. These methods have been described
in detail in Chapter 3.
Erection welding : Erection welding means welding
of sub-assembly panels in the building dock after correct
alignment. Even here normal submerged-arc welding
can be used for many erection joints in the flat position,
which have easy accessibility. In some cases, it may be
worthwhile to use the electrogas or electroslag welding
for the long, straight, vertical butt joints of the side shell.
Also, in certain cases, it may be advantageous to use
short length electroslag w e l d i n g (preferably the
consumable nozzle type) for butt welding between thick
stiffening members. These sophisticated processes are
being used in Japanese shipyards.
Apart from all these, the one major point which
remains is the necessity of welding the root side of butt
joints. This has to be done after gouging or chipping
out the weld root. In the case of a relatively big ship,
this operation may have to be done over a length of
thousands of metres in all the three difficult positions,
viz., overhead, horizontal and vertical. For some time
now, attempts have been made to develop and improve
the welding procedure by using suitable backing
materials in the form of ceramic tiles, coated refractory
pipes, sand-filled flexible fibreglass ropes, flux-asbestos
foils, etc. All of these are intended for an effective one-
sided welding system, which would obviate the need
for gouging out and welding from the root side. Out of
the various types of backing mentioned, the ceramic tile
is very widely used, especially by the leading shipyards
in Europe (see Fig. 19.68). Here the tiles, each of which
is about 150 mm long are set in a small channel-shaped
metallic case, which is made to press against the bottom
of the joint with the help of a suitable clamping
arrangement. Joint fit-up need not be of high accuracy.
Misalignment of plates can be of the order of 2 mm. It is
possible to weld even curved plates, provided that the
radius of curvature is not too small.
Tile
I | / 4 - 9 mm
Fig. 19.68: Typical arrangement for ceramic backing
Submarines: Submarine building demands special
welding considerations, not only because high-strength
and ultra high-strength steels (mostly in quenched and
tempered condition) are used, but also because the
tolerances in deformation are very critical. Joints are
designed for 100% joint efficiency and pressure hull
w e l d s h a v e to be 100% r a d i o g r a p h i c quality.
Understandably, submarines are a highly classified unit
in every country, and hence the published information
on the subject is scarce.
Submarines are cylindrical cigar-shaped pressure
vessels, saddled by ballast tanks. In normal loading, the
submarine will be floating like a surface ship. When
ballast tanks are flooded, the s u b m a r i n e will be
submerged. In submerged condition, the hydrostatic
pressure in the saddle tanks will be same as that of
external pressure and hence design feature of these tanks
is not complicated. The pressure hull, however, is
subjected to external hydrostatic pressure, and is a piece
of most challenging structural design. The pressure hull
is reinforced by equally spaced ring frames and the
w h o l e s u b m a r i n e is d i v i d e d into n u m b e r of
compartments by circular transverse bulkheads. The
design challenge is to assess the collapse depth for a
combination of parameters, viz., diameter, thickness of
the shell, frame spacing, frame geometry and the
spacing between the main bulkheads. The redundancy
being very high, the analysis of elastic instability is very
complex. Here the designer aims for the lightest possible
pressure hull to get the maximum feasible equipment
a n d w e a p o n pack inside the p r e s s u r e hull. The
cylindrical shell alone forms almost 70% of the structural
weight a n d hence one sees the constant race for
developing super high strength weldable steels for
submarine construction.
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 759

Submarine steels are quenched and heat-treated. Till
late 50s, not much details of these steels and their
welding particulars were disclosed. Again, the advent
of the deep submersible in ocean exploration field found
a common ground and some qualitative information is
available. These steels are termed differently in different
maritime countries:
U.S.A.—HY steels, U.K.—Q&T steels, Japan—NS
steels and U.S.S.R.—AK steels.
These are all low-carbon fully-killed alloy steels and
in some cases low percentage of vanadium and niobium
is added to the steel to get grain refinement. From
known sources, the details of some of these steels are
given in Table 19.17.
As mentioned earlier, the collapse depth is estimated
at the design stage, taking cognisance of various
methods of welding are among the recommended
precautions taken in submarine construction.
We have discussed the weldability of HY and Q&T
steels in Chapter 10. In submarine construction, the main
p r o b l e m is to use extra-low h y d r o g e n w e l d i n g
c o n s u m a b l e s to p r e v e n t H A Z cracking. Special
precautions have to be taken to store the electrodes in a
dry place, to predry them thoroughly before use, and to
ensure that they do not pick up significant amount of
moisture from the air while they are being handled on
the shop floor.
8) Railways
Welding is the principal process used in the
fabrication of all railway facilities which include
locomotives, passenger coaches, wagons, rail tracks,

Table 19.17: Composition and mechanical properties of different types of high strength steels used for submarines
Type C% Mn% Si% P% S% Ni% Cr% Mo% V% Nb% Y.S. Notch
kg/mm2 ductility,
kgm
U.S.A.
HY-SO 0.25 1.15-1.5 0.15-0.30 0.030 0.030 0.40 — 0.45-0.60 — — 57.0 4.0at-10°C
0.7-1.0 0.002&-
HY-100 0.15-0.2 0.6-1.0 0.4-0.8 0.030 0.030 0.15-0.5 0.4-0.65 0.4-0.6 0.07-0.08 0.0068 69.23 2.0at-40°C
HY-130 0.12 0.6-0.9 0.2-0.35 0.010 0.010 4.75-5.25 0.4-0.7 0.3-0.65 0.05-0.10 — 90.0 6.8at-20°C

U.K.
QT-28 0.17 1.3 0.10 0.030 0.030 0.50 0.30 0.30 44.0 7.8at-20°C
QT-35 0.15 1.2 0.30 0.030 0.030 1.20 1.00 0.50 0.12 0.02 55.0 6.9at-40°C

Japan
NS46 0.17 1.5 0.55 0.030 0.030 0.60 0.30 0.50 0.12 — 46.0 4.8at-20°C
NS-63 0.16 1.3 0.55 0.030 0.030 1.00 0.80 0.44 0.15 V+Nb 63.0 4.0at-20°C

parameters. Submarine pressure hull due to external

pressure will also be encountering circumferential
instability problem. Fabrication of a perfectly circular
pressure hull will not be feasible in practice. Initial out JZ
Increasing diameter
of circularity, as the fabrication error (due to Q. of pressure hull
workmanship and welding distortion) will cause onset -8
of circumferential instability at a lower depth. The
Q.
rough qualitative nature of the curves of collapse
iS
depth versus out of circularity of the pressure hull is
shown in Fig. 19.69. U
The designer therefore lays d o w n the limit of Out of circularity
fabrication error. Apart from taking all the general
measures in the fabrication of true circular ring frames,
various steps have to be taken to minimise the welding Fig. 19.69: Curves to indicate variation of collapse
depth with increase in 'out of circularity' of pressure
distortion. Use of m u l t i w e l d e r s , p o i n t - t o - p o i n t
hull
d o w n h a n d and overhead w e l d i n g and step-back
760 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
platform structures and bridges, and in the repair and
maintenance of components.
LOCOMOTIVES
To understand the role of welding in the production
of locomotives, we shall describe the main operations
in the Diesel Locomotive Works, Varanasi, which is
primarily engaged in the manufacture of BG (WDM-2)
and MG (YDM-4) diesel electric locomotives to meet
the mixed operation r e q u i r e m e n t s of the Indian
Railways. They also turn out WD 56 heavy duty diesel
shunting locomotives for use in steel plants.
The BG locomotive is powered by Alco Model 251-
B, 16-cylinder Vee diesel engine rated 2,600 HP at 1,000
RPM and the MG and WD56 locomotives by Alco Model
251-D, 6-cylinder In-line diesel engine rated 1,350 HP
at 1,100 RPM. Both models of diesel engines follow a
four-stroke cycle, are t u r b o s u p e r c h a r g e d and
aftercooled and have a bore of 9" and stroke of 10 W.
The chassis consists of the u n d e r f r a m e ,
superstructure, trucks and auxiliary equipment. The
underframes are of welded construction, the BG design
being of box type and the MG and WD56 being of
conventional I-Beam centre-sill type. The locomotive is
mounted on two six-wheel, three-motor, trimount type,
Top deck (sides)
22 mm
Side plates
PC 3,5
Foundation r ,, _m
plate RM.~&£J^
Fig. 19.70: Sectional view of the engine block; (M = Manual metal-arc: SA= Submerged-arc)
cast steel trucks having primary coil spring suspension
on four sets of double equalisers.
The electrical transmission equipment has three main
groups, namely, rotating machines, control equipment
and dynamic brake unit. The rotating equipment
consists of traction generator and motors, auxiliary
generator and exciter. The basic excitation system
employed is Type E control, using semiconductor
devices. Both BG and MG locomotives are provided
with dynamic braking units, in addition to the air-brake
system employed on locomotives.
The m a n u f a c t u r e involves a large n u m b e r of
separately fabricated and welded sub-assemblies, which
are finally assembled together to form a locomotive. The
techniques adopted for fabrication can be best illustrated
by describing the m a n u f a c t u r e of the following
important sub-assemblies:
a) Engine block
b) Underframe
c) Superstructure
d) Aluminium pistons.
a) Engine block: The engine block is the principal
structural member of the diesel engine. As shown in
Fig. 19.70, it is a composite weldment with heavy steel
Rib L.H.

forgings, which serve as the crankshaft housings and
hence become the backbone of the structure. The decks
and the foundation plates are built round the steel
forgings to form the box section, which provides the
maximum rigidity.
The steel material of the engine block has not only
to meet the requirements of weldability and physical
properties, but it should also be free from defects such
as laminations. The plates and billets are, therefore,
subjected to ultrasonic test before use. The plates have
the thickness range of 6-80 mm and conform to IS:2062.
The principal structural members of the engine block
are profile-cut from plates on the automatic flame
cutting machines. Splice is machined out of billet 5' x 7',
conforming to IS: 1875. The spline being the most highly
stressed item, it is made out of one piece instead of being
fabricated. Considering the large size of the engine block
(4,116 mm length, 1,292 mm width and 933 mm height),
the welded joints must necessarily have accurate fit-up,
particularly at the fillet welds. As such, the plates are
subjected to a straightening operation on a 200-ton
hydraulic press before use.
The engine block fabrication employs both manual
and automatic welding processes. The long continuous
welds which run through the entire length are mostly
done by automatic submerged-arc welding and the short
runs are made by the manual metal-arc process.
The foundation plates, forged saddles and the spline
are clamped together on a cast iron fixture mounted on
roll-over rings. The saddles and foundation plates are
given a pre-offset with 3.2 m m shim in the centre
tapering down to 0 at the ends. This offset is needed to
neutralise the distortion effects of welding. These are
then tack w e l d e d with E6020 electrodes in the
downhand position. These welded joints are subjected
to 100% radiographic examination. Any defects detected
during this examination are gouged out and rewelded
to give perfectly defect-free joints. This is necessary
because the foundation plates, saddles and spline
together form the backbone of an engine block and the
nucleus, around which the entire block is fabricated.
The inside walls, outside walls, middle decks, top
decks, side plates, fuel-shelf compartments, cam-bearing
supports and end plates are welded in sequence around
the above nucleus by manual as well as submerged-arc
processes. In between the above sequence of fabrication,
the critical joints are subjected to r a d i o g r a p h i c
examination. The weldment is also taken to the planing
machine to maintain the overall dimensions and for
proper edge preparation to ensure a good quality
welded joint.
WELDING APPLICATIONS 761
After these welding operations have been completed,
the fabrication acquires the final shape of an engine
block. The engine block is then stress-relieved at 620-
650°C in a furnace capable of accommodating two blocks
at a time. It is finally machined to very close tolerances
and as such, it is necessary that all stresses developed
during the fabrication stages are completely relieved
before this final step. This would ensure a longer life in
service without any distortion, which would normally
result on account of very high alternating stresses that
the engine block is subjected to, during its service. The
engine block is then shot blasted, hydrostatically tested
to a pressure of 75 psi and then handed over for layout
and subsequent machining operations.
b) Under frame-. The BG underframe is designed to
withstand a maximum static squeeze test load of 400
tons without signs of any permanent distortion. The
underframe load transfer members are so designed as
to transfer the vertical load on to each trimount bogie,
in the ratio of 60% through the centre pivot and 20%
through either of the two loading pads. The underframe
is welded, utilising plates ranging in thickness from 6.3
to 25 mm. The main structure of the underframe is made
out of ASTM-A-441 high tensile steel, having 1.5%
vanadium, 1.5% manganese and 0.22% carbon. The
underframe is about 15.6 m long and is made in three
sections—the two end sections and the centre section.
The centre section also forms the fuel tank of the
locomotive, having a capacity of 5,000 litres and the
fabrication has to be leak-proof. The manufacture
involves special welding skills and use of fixtures and
positioners.
In the fabrication of the end sections and the centre
section, apart from manual welding, semi-automatic
flux-cored arc welding without gas shield is used. After
the above three sections are fabricated separately, these
are welded together employing butt joints, the welds of
which must comply with radiographic standards. The
sequence of welding these joints plays an important part
in inducing the required camber of the underframe. The
vertical joints are welded first. The ends are clamped
firmly on to the surface plate and the downhand bottom
plate joints are then w e l d e d . Two welders
simultaneously attend to both the downhand joints. The
camber is obtained by inducing a calculated distortion
in the structure by means of welding heat. This is
accomplished in two stages, i.e., on the surface plate
and in the upright position, and is then checked at the
final check stand. The final camber is 12.7 to 19 mm.
c) Superstructure: The superstructure comprises of
short hood, driver's cab, contactor compartment, hood
762 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

over engine and radiator compartment. All these are floor pans are, in turn, resistance-welded to the centre
light structures fabricated from 1.6 and 3.15 mm steel sill. The side sills enclose the beams, floor pans and end
sheets. Apart from manual welding, resistance spot underframes. Following structural assembly, the floor
welding is also used on the smaller components. is inverted for installation of underfloor equipment (see
d) Aluminium pistons : Amongst the various types of Fig. 19.71).
main pistons used in the p o w e r packs of diesel Side assembly: The sideframe is a semi-monocoque
locomotives, there is one type in which the body is made type structure with shear panels at the ends and is
of forged aluminium alloy with a ring carrier of forged constructed with a 31.8 mm camber in 25.5 m. It is a
aluminium with Ni-resist rings shrunk fit on it. These completely resistance welded unit with the exception
pistons get worn out in use and they are reclaimed at of the butt joints between the deadlight panels, which
DLW by rebanding. On receipt of the old pistons, the are TIG welded. The outer exposed surfaces below the
ring carriers are removed and after thorotigh cleaning deadlight panels may be of light gauge corrugation-type
and treatment, a new ring carrier is shrunk fit on the construction, resistance welded directly to the structure.
crown of the piston and then welded by MIG welding Fluted panels may be attached in the final assembly. The
technique. In the initial stages, there used to be rejections
MIG process is used to attach heavy stainless steel tie-
due to excessive porosity in the welds. These problems in members at the floor level in door areas.
were overcome by ensuring intensive cleaning and End assembly: The end frame consists of end sheets,
temperature control. angles for connection to roof and side frames and
collision post assemblies, which connect the longitudinal
RAILCOACHES roof members (purlins) and the end underframe. This
Lightweight all-welded coaches are manufactured assembly is resistance-welded.
at the Integral Coach Factory near Madras and in several Roof assembly: Zee-shaped, stretch-formed roof
other units. The main components of a coach are bogies, carlines, h a t - s h a p e d roof p u r l i n s a n d side plate
bogie frame and body of the coach. For bogie and bogie assemblies are put together and welded in a cambered
frame fabrication, manual metal-arc and submerged-arc fixture. Corrugated mat assemblies, running the entire
processes are used. For welding the side walls and roof roof length, are then welded to this frame. Resistance
which are made from 1.6 to 2.5 mm steel sheets, foil welding is employed throughout. This completed roof
butt seam welding is used, which utilises a thin foil 0.2 is inverted for installation of piping, wiring, insulation,
mm x 4 mm wide. Resistance spot welding is also used air ducts and air conditioning. Ceiling support members
for fixing stiffeners and other items. Aluminium and are also resistance-welded in place at this time.
aluminium alloy components which are also used on Final assembly: Structural general assembly is divided
the coach are welded by the TIG process. into two stations—assembly of sides and ends to the
In the U.S.A. and several western countries, stainless floor and installation of the roof. Resistance welding
steel passenger coaches are used. The grades of stainless with portable tools is the major joining method, with
steel usually employed are AISI Types 430,201 and 301. manual metal-arc welding used to plug weld the
Type 430 is a corrosion and heat-resisting 17% chromium collision post to the end underframe, using stainless steel
steel, and is used in non-structural areas. Type 201 is an electrode E-308-XX.
austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese steel and is used Interior trim, floor, seats, windows, partitions and
in the cold rolled or annealed condition. Type 301 is an hardware are added following water testing. Arc-spot
austenitic chromium-nickel steel capable of obtaining w e l d i n g has been used to weld stainless steel
high strength and ductility by moderate or severe cold corrugation floors to the floor pans when this type of
working. Both these stainless steels are used in structural structure is specified. Interior aluminium panels and
areas. Fabrication procedure for these stainless steel sub-assemblies are joined by resistance welding and TIG
coaches is described below. welding before installation in the coach.
Floor assembly: The floor assembly consists of two end Bogie welding: The following description refers to
underframe assemblies of high strength low-alloy steel, bogie welding in India. Passenger coaches, in particular
joined by manual and semi-automatic arc-welding Electrical Multiple Unit (EMU) coaches, which develop
processes. These units are plug-welded or riveted or fast acceleration and run at high speeds, d e m a n d
both to the centre sill, which is made up of stainless designs which can be translated to fabrication by
steel drawbench sections, which are resistance-welded welding alone. The bogies of the EMU coaches are the
together. The transverse stainless steel floor beams and primary structures which bear the thrashing of high-

Floor surface
Sub floor
Continuous s.s,
floor beams
Fig. 19.71: Construction details of S.S. coach body. Coach roof (upper left), centre sill cross-section (upper right),
side frame assembly (lower right), floor construction (lower left)
intensity dynamic loads. The welding technology
a d o p t e d on the bogie frame takes care to avoid
premature and sudden fatigue and impact loading
failure, thereby ensuring passenger safety
The steel used for this type of fabrication is a carbon-
manganese steel with 0.22% maximum carbon, to obtain
good weldability (IS:2062). The bogie is so designed that
at no point the cross-section of the material exceeds 28
mm.
A few quality steel cast components are also utilised
in the bogie, particularly on account of their complicated
shapes. Other parts of the bogie made from premium
qualities of alloy steels and other metals are springs,
bearings, axle-bogie cover, some suspension and brake
rigging components and various pins, bushes and
fasteners.
The bogie is composed of five major sub-assemblies,
namely, (a) head stock, (b) side frames, (c) cross-bars,
(d) bolster, and (e) spring planks.
Jigs and fixtures are used to fabricate these sub-
assemblies individually, in order to facilitate
maintenance of dimensional tolerance. The final
WELDING APPLICATIONS 763
Bottom of
^floor pans
assembly also utilises suitable jigs and fixtures for giving
the final shape to the bogie frame. These jigs and fixtures
arc very often mounted on positioners and/or rotators,
with the ultimate object of attaining higher productivity
through ease of manipulation in downhand welding.
The typical welding involved in a bogie frame may
be grouped joint wise as shown in Table 19.18.
Generally, the flowing processes of welding are
adopted in the fabrication of bogie in the following
locations:
a) Manual metal-arc welding—assembly of bogie
frame
b) Automatic submerged-arc welding—bolster sub-
assembly, side frame sub-assembly, etc.
c) Semi-automatic submerged-arc welding—head
stock sub-assembly
d) Gas-shielded metal arc welding (C0 2 )—spring
plank sub-assembly, tube assembly etc.
In the welding of EMU bogie frames and similar
fabrications subject to dynamic loading and fatigue,
notches, cracks, inclusions, unfused zones, etc., which
act as stress-raisers must be scrupulously avoided. These
764 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 19.18: Weld details of a bogie frame

SI Joint details Locations

1. Side frame sub-assy.

^ ^1 [1.8
Joint in web.

2. Frame assy.
Head-stock flange
to side frame flange

Frame assy.
1 cross-bar to
T^^^^^T side frame

Bolster sub-assy.
Joint in web.

Bolster sub-assy
Joint in sleeve

Side frame sub-assy

» mm\\\\>K» -^
Head-stock sub-assy.
ESSW- 8 ~"*~

Bolster sub-assy

KTCTC AvmvvvvvwMii ■*-,

9. Spring plank sub-assy
EE
--H *~ io -►! K- )(/T

10. Cross-bar sub-assy

stress-raisers cause local stress much higher than the At the final assembly of the bogie frame, most of the
average values in the members joined. It is at such butt joints are comparatively short in length. Therefore,
points, that the fatigue failure starts. there always remains a possibility of presence of defects

at the ends of such joints. The defects may be incomplete
wTelding, a burnt notch or porous craters, or even end
cracks. All these defects are stress-raisers, and since they
are located at the end of the welds, they may easily lead
to weld failures. To prevent the occurrence of such
defects, it is a common practice to use run-on and run-
off plates. After completion of the welding, the plates
are broken off and the area is ground smooth.
Fillet welds are mostly deposited by SAW and MIG/
C 0 2 processes. Run-on and run-off plates are also used
here. A suitable sequence of welding is followed to avoid
any irreparable distortion.
Every bogie is subjected to in-process quality control,
as well as final inspection. These are carried out in the
following stages:
a) Inspection of weld fit-up
b) Visual inspection on weldments
c) Mechanical tests on run-on and run-off plates,
taken at random
d) Ultrasonic tests on typical weldments, taken at
random
e) Radiographic test on typical weld joints. The
radiographic acceptance standard is IIW blue category
Some of the highly stressed joints which require 100%
radiography have been shown in Fig. 19.72.
WAGONS
The main components of a railway wagon are bogies,
underframe, and the body. The bogies are somewhat
similar to those of a railcoach. The underframe is an all-
welded skeleton structure, usually consisting of centre
sill, side sills, end sills, body bolsters and cross members
that connect the centre sill to the side sills. When the
Fig. 19.72: Highly stressed joints (X) which require
100% radiographic tests
WELDING APPLICATIONS 765
wagon has to carry very heavy floor loads, additional
longitudinal floor stringers are placed between centre
and side sills.
The following paragraphs describe the fabrication
of wagons in the U.S.A. The centre sill is the largest and
most important component of the underframe. There
are several designs of the centre sill some .of which are
shown in Fig. 19.73. The most common design consists
of two Z bars welded toe-to-toe. Normally, these sections
are clamped in a fixture, using a preset camber for
distortion allowance. Large hydraulic cylinders may be
used to obtain this precamber. Submerged-arc welding
is done from one side only, using a flux backing or a
copper backing. This section may be welded with a
single SAW head, using a large diameter electrode;
however, where poor fit up is unavoidable, two welding
heads may be used.
Typical body bolsters (two per wagon) are a welded
box section. The top cover plate is continuous for the
full width of the wagon, and is attached to the top of
the centre sill with intermittent fillet welds, slot welds
or mechanical fasteners. The ends of the top cover plate
often lap under the side sill flanges, and are attached
with fillet welds. One end of the bottom cover plate laps
the bottom flange of the side sill and in some designs,
n.
Two 'HCS' section welded toe to toe
. Coverlfc
[►Structural
channel [
^Continuous
flat bar
Alternate welded section
\tf-beams
Two 'W1 beams welded flanqe to flange
I beam
Two
HCS
section
Two 'HCS' section VF reinforcing * W^' beam
Fig. 19.73: Standard designs of centre sill in the U.S.
766 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
an access hole permits the welds inside of the box section
to be tied in. The other end is welded to the bottom of
the centre sill flange. Various designs of welded bolsters
are shown in Fig. 19.74. All the parts of the bolster are
loaded in a fixture, then two automatic welding heads,
which ride on a welding gantry, automatically weld two
seams simultaneously. After the first side is welded, the
fixture is rotated and the two seams on the opposite
side are welded. A welding gantry may serve two
fixtures, one fixture being loaded, while the other one
is being welded.
To construct the side walls of the wagon body, a
framework consisting of a series of vertical posts, end
posts, and top and bottom chord members is made. The
framing members are assembled and tack welded in a
h o r i z o n t a l location fixture. Sheets or plates of
appropriate sizes and thickness are then tack welded
between the framework members. The sheets and plates
are then welded by the automatic submerged-arc or
M I G / C 0 2 process.
Wagon ends are often made from one or two pieces
of steel, with transverse corrugations hot-pressed in. The
vertical edges are usually curved 90° for connection to
the side assemblies.
Sect A-A
a
Sect B-B
One formed ft. and one flat R.
/w -<T yp-
Four flat plates
Fig. 19.74: Standard designs for bolsters
In the U.S.A., PS-I types of Pullman wagons were
being mass produced in the 60's by adopting a planned
flow of production. The two production lines with a total
of 1,800 people, including 400 welders, could produce
54 box-type wagons of 12 m length or 45 box-type
wagons of 15 m length per day.
The PS-1 had a load-carrying capacity of 50 tons,
weighed about 21 tons, and cost approximately Rs.
59,000. The wagon had four axles and two bogies. The
material used for the underframe and the shell was,
besides a few rolled products, mostly plate of semi-killed
steel with a maximum of 0.07%C. The thickness for the
underframe ranged between 5 and 15 mm and the walls
and roof between 2 and 4 mm. The latter wagons had a
cushion underframe, called Hydroframe 60, which
caused almost no deflection to the goods in the wagon,
even w h e n there w a s a s u d d e n acceleration or
retardation of speed up to 10 miles per hour. Hand-
welding, semi-automatic submerged-arc and fully-
automatic submerged-arc machines were in use. Jigs and
rotators enabled quick positioning and d o w n h a n d
welding. The underframe was assembled and welded
by supporting between two Aranson Rotators.The
whole underframe could be mounted, assembled,
welded and withdrawn in 20-30 min. The assembly flow
line is explained in Fig. 19.75.
RAIL WELDING
Railway tracks with welded joints possess distinct
advantages over those having fish-plated joints, as
welded joints offer better riding comfort with reduced
joint maintenance. It minimises considerably rail end
failure—a predominant cause of rail renewal. Welded
tracks are also less susceptible to sabotage.
In India, rail joints are welded in the shop by the
flash butt welding or gas-pressure welding process, and
in situ on the track by the thermit process. This thermit
process is simple and does not require expensive
e q u i p m e n t . The w e l d - m e t a l is p r o d u c e d by the
exothermic reaction between aluminium and iron oxide,
carried out in a refractory lined crucible. Short welded
panels made either by flash butt or by gas-pressure
welding processes are further welded insitu by the
thermit welding process to make continuous-welded
rails. In the conventional thermit welding process, the
time taken for completion of one joint is about 45 min,
of which the preheating time is about 35 min. In
Germany, a process known as SKV, using only 1.5 min
preheating of the mould has been developed. With this
process, the weld can be completed in less than 10 min
and rail welding on the tracks can be carried out without

Fig. 19.75: Production assembly track for PS-1 Pullman wagons
interruption, while the trains are running intermittently
on the track. The Indian Railways are keen to develop
and adopt this improved process.
9) Automotive Industry
The automotive industry relies heavily on welding to
mass produce cars, trucks and other automotive
products. The high production rates encountered in the
automotive industry have led to a high degree of
automation and associated special equipment. In
the case of automobile body components, multispot
welding machines make as many as 100 to 125 spot
welds simultaneously, at production rates up to 600
components per hour. Other associated components,
smaller in size and requiring fewer welds, are produced
at typical rates of 800 per hour. Obviously, the use of
specialised equipment for either resistance welding or
automatic fusion w e l d i n g requires a high initial
investment and must be justified by the volume to be
produced. In cases of lower volume production, more
versatile manually operated standardised equipment is
used.
Economics is an important factor in selecting the
metal-joining process for the product. In the case of high-
volume production, a fraction of a cent saving per part,
in either consumable material or labour can add up to a
considerable amount of money over a year's production.
A typical automobile body is fabricated from sheet steel
components or sub-assemblies, which for the most part,
are spot welded together. An automobile body may
contain as many as 6,000 structural spot welds, of which
half may be made by means of multiple spot welding
machines, often referred to as press welding.
Press welding is a multispot welding method,
wherein any number of welding heads or welding guns
containing spot welding electrodes simultaneously
engage and apply pressure to the workpieces, after
WELDING APPLICATIONS 767
which they are immediately initiated electrically, either
as a single large group, or successively in smaller groups,
to produce the required spot welds.
In the assembly of component sheet-metal parts,
where the physical size and shape make it prohibitive
to move the workpiece relative to the welding machine
(such as with completely assembled car bodies), it
becomes most practical to process these assemblies
using portable resistance spot welding guns (see Fig.
19.76). These guns come in a variety of physical shapes
and sizes; the shape and throat area are dictated by the
geometry of the component parts that the gun must
accommodate. The force and current capacity are a
factor of the metal thickness combinations, that are to
be welded. The air-operated guns are associated with
the lower force requirements of the lighter metal gauges,
while the hydraulic-operated guns are applied to
heavier metal, higher force applications. Current is
s u p p l i e d by a transformer rated to s u p p l y the
m a g n i t u d e of current required at the duty cycle
intended, and transmitted to the gun by means of a low-
reactance water-cooled secondary cable. The guns are
suspended on balancers and hanger devices to facilitate
gun handling and manipulation. Welding guns are
sequenced by NEMA type 3B timing devices, which
meter squeeze, weld, hold and off-time increments.
Welding rates will vary with the metal thickness to be
joined with typical rates being as high as 200 spots per
minute for light sheets (0.9 mm) and 60 spots per minute
for heavy sheets (2.5 mm and above).
Radiators are either brazed or resistance seam
welded. Exhaust and tail pipes are resistance upset seam
welded in one continuous operation. Exhaust mufflers,
made of light gauge sheet, are rolled and stamped to
shape. The side seams are usually spot or seam welded.
End joints are rolled as well as seam welded. Baffles
and other interior parts are spot welded in place.
768 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 19.76: Typical installation of an air-actuated portable resistance spot weld gun
In the manufacture of pressed steel rear axle
assembly, automatic SA welding is used to join the four
seams. The flanged bearing ends, formed separately, are
automatic arc welded on to the housing. The cover is
also welded to the housing. The various suspension
brackets that make up the assembly may be projection
welded, or arc welded to the housing. The brackets
themselves are often welded sub-assemblies. The fuel
tank is often soldered and welded by the resistance-seam
welding process, producing an economical, leak-proof
unit.
Propeller and drive shafts are commonly made from
resistance welded tubing, with the end forgings arc
welded by the submerged-arc or M I G / C 0 2 process.
Passenger car and truck wheels utilise resistance spot
welding or automatic submerged-arc welding in their
assembly.
Truck b o d i e s and freight-hauling trailers are
economically fabricated by the judicious selection of
MMA welding, M I G / C 0 2 welding and automatic SA
welding.
In the manufacture of farm tractors, the use of
welding has become increasingly important. The
processes in use include spot welding, seam welding,
gas welding, MMA and M I G / C 0 2 welding.
10) Machine Building Industry
Welding is used with advantage in the manufacture
of machinery used for various industrial purposes.
Examples are: road-making machines, earth-moving
 WELDING APPLICATIONS 769

machines, steel plant machinery, machine tools and
production e q u i p m e n t , m i n i n g machinery, farm
machinery, materials handling machinery, crushing
machinery, sugar and cement making machinery, etc.
A good example of earth-moving machinery is the
excavator, which mainly operates in quarries, iron ore
mines and dam sites where the service conditions are
most rigorous. All the important components of the
excavator including the revolving frame, car body,
shovel attachments such as the dipper handle and crane
boom are fabricated by welding.
Other equally interesting examples are the crawler
tractor, rear dumper and scraper. Examples of critical
welded parts in these machines are: the rear dumper
body of quenched and tempered steel; lift arm assembly
of the crawler loader, which involves the judicious
combination of castings and plates.
In the building of heavy machinery for cement,
paper, sugar, material handling, etc., composite welded
assemblies of rolled, cast and forged components help
to meet the complex service requirements, like dynamic
and fatigue stresses due to cyclic or shock load, abrasion,
erosion and corrosion problems which lead to heavy
wear and tear. Examples are: heavy fabricated gear
wheel, rotary table for bucket wheel excavator of 2,000
tons/shift, and stainless steel centrifugal basket.
As a remarkable example of steel plant equipment,
one may mention the fully welded 1,300 tons capacity
mixer designed and fabricated by Heavy Machine
Building Plant, Ranchi, for the Bhilai Steel Project. The
mixer is meant for storing the molten iron from the blast
furnace, until it is taken to the open hearth furnace or
converter for making steel. The main fabrication is the
shell assembly consisting of the shell, two tyres and two
ends. These heavy weldments were completed with
M I G / C 0 2 , automatic submerged-arc and electroslag
welding processes. Other examples of steel plant
machinery are: (a) 90 ton ladles and ladle cars fabricated
by TELCO for TISCO. The former involved welding of
28-40 mm thick shells, while the latter called for the
welding of 127 mm thick slab frames, (b) LD convertor
and its trunnion ring.
India's first 300 ton convertor has been fabricated
by welding at Bokaro Steel Plant. The convertor shell
having a diameter of 8,614 and a height of 10,770 mm
has a shell plate thickness varying from 60 to 100 mm.
The entire shell is supported on a trunnion ring,
comprising a box section made of plates of 60 mm (web)
thickness and 100 mm (flange) thickness. The depth of
the section is 2.5 m.

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Welding Handbook, Sect. 5, 6th Ed., published by the American Welding Society.
AWS Dl.1-1983, Structural Welding Code—Steel by the American Welding Society.
IS 8031976, Code of Practice for Design, Fabrication and Erection of Vertical Mild Steel Cylindrical Welded Oil Storage Tanks.
IS 2825-1969, Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sect. IX, by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Indian Boiler Regulations.
Pipe Welding Procedures by H. Rampaul, 1973, by Industrial Press Inc., New York.
Pipe Welding Techniques by Griffin, Roden & Briggs, 1978, by Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Proceedings of 1980 Conference on Pipeline Welding and Inspection, by the American Welding Society.
API 1104, Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities.
Proceedings of Seminar on Fabrication of Pressure Vessels for Chemical, Petrochemical and Fertiliser Industries, 1978, by HW, Bombay
Branch.
Proceedings of Seminar on Welding for Construction and Maintenance of Power Plants, 1979, by IIW, Bombay Branch.
Proceedings of Seminar on Fabrication of Boilers and Pressure Vessels, lanuary 1973, by IIW, Trichy Branch,
Productivity in Penstock Fabrication by Awtar Singh, IWJ, luly 1973.
Welding of 80 kg/mm2 H.E. T. Welten-80 Steel for Kalinadi Project by B. Ramaswamy, IWJ, July 1979.
Application of Gas-Shielded Arc Welding and Submerged-Arc Welding for Fabrication of Nuclear Vessels, by M.L. Gehani & W.D.
Rodrigues, IIW National Seminar, 1976.
Development of Special Welding Procedures for Narora Atomic Power Station by Dr. Srinivasan, S.L. Kati, et a l , IWJ, April 1979.
Automatic Welding of Small Diameter S.S. Tubes in a Nuclear Station by S. Panchanathan, IIW, Madras Branch Seminar, August
1976.
Selection and Evolution of Specification for 16-8-2, 17-10-2 and 308 Welding Consumables for Fast Breeder Reactor Applications by
S.C. Chetal, et a l , IIW, Madras Branch Seminar, January 1979.
Fabrication of Components for Fast Breeder Reactor by S.N. Krishna & B.N. Murthy, IIW, Trichy Branch Seminar, January 1978.
770 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Nuclear Power Generation—An Introduction, WIRR, October 1980.

Application ofEB Welding by Partial Vacuum Technique for Tube-to-Tube Sheet Joints in the Munufacture of Nuclear Vessels by S.
Challappa, R.S. Alekal, et al., IIW, Bombay Branch Seminar, December 1976.
Welding Applications in the Chemical and Petrochemical Industry by J.R. Prasher & M.S. Kamath, IIW, Bombay Branch Seminar,
December 1976.
Oil Refinery Process Plants, Met. Constr. November & December 1977.
Materials and Welding Consumables Applied to Constructions and Maintenance of Fertiliser Plant by K. Manickam, IIW, Trichy
Branch Seminar. January 1977.
A Study of Material Selection and Fabrication for Urea Service by S.R. Jana, IIW, Bombay Branch Seminar, December 1976.
Welding of Superalloys for Fertiliser Industry by R.C. Choudhary & S.C. Ghosh. IIW, Madras Branch Seminar, January 1979.
a) Scope of Welding Technology in the Manufacture of Vessels for Cryogenic Services by S.K. Burman, IWJ, May 1975.
b) Welding ofS.S. in Cryogenic Applications by Banerjee & Pradhan, IWJ, October 1979.
c) Welding Quality Control of the Fabricated Process Equipment for Low Temperature Service by N.K. Roy, et al., IIW National
Meet, November 1977.
Manufacture of Clad Vessels for Chemical and Petrochemical Process Equipment by W.D. Rodrigues, IIW, Bombay Branch Seminar,
December 1976.
Asia's Largest Nitric Acid Plant at Trombay by N. Srinivasan, IIW, Madras Branch Seminar, January 1979.
Tower Welding of Low Temperature Applications at GNFC, by N. Srinivasan, IIW National Welding Seminar, 1980.
Some Aspect of Welding in Modern Ship Construction by V.P. Nair, IWJ, October 1977.
Quality Aspects of Welding in Naval Construction by Cdr. M.K. Mukherjee, IIW National Welding Meet, November 1977,
Vizag.
Welding Productivity in Shipbuilding by Cdr. M.K. Mukherjee, Workshop on Welding in Shipbuilding by IIW & AIEI. November
1978.
Some Aspects of Quality Requirements in Welding Ships Main Hull Structure by K. Balamanohar. IIW National Welding Meet,
November 1977.
Proceedings of the Conference on Structural Design and Fabrication in Shipbuilding, 1976, by Welding Institute.
Contribution of Welding to the Indian Railways by A.K. Bhattacharya, et al., IIW National Seminar, 1977, Delhi.
Welding Processes Adopted for the Manufacture of Diesel Electric Locomotives by A. Badhwar, IWJ, October 1978.
Fabrication of 1300 ton mixer for Steel Plant by A. Khan & S.K. Roy, IWJ, October 1978.
Experiences in Heavy Fabrications in TELCO by Vogl & Jain, IWJ, October 1978.
Assembly Welding of India's First 300-ton Convertor by Anil Pandya, IIW National Welding Seminar, 1980, Calcutta.
 CHAPTER 20
Preheat and
Postweld Heat
Treatment
PREHEATING is heating the joint and its adjacent ma-
terial prior to joining. It is used in welding Carbon Steels
and Low-Alloy Steels to (a) slow down the cooling rate
so that hardness of the weld-metal and the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) can be reduced; (b) eliminate Hydrogen-
induced cracking (HIC) in these areas and (c) improve
CVN-Notch toughness. Preheating is also used in the
welding of metals, which are high conductors of heat
such as Copper and Aluminium and their alloys, and
in the repair welding of Cast Iron parts.
Preheat temperature and method can be chosen
based on (a) Base metal chemistry, (b) Section thickness,
(c) Weld metal Hydrogen content, (d) Constraints on
the joint and (e) Ambient temperature.
METHOD TO DETERMINE THE PREHEAT TEM-
PERATURE
To determine the preheat temperature steps below
are to be followed, based on the material data and WPS
parameters
EH t,
, i
t
u For welds between t, and t,/t3,
11- average thicknee over 75mm
&m t2
A) Carbon Equivalent = C + M n / 6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/
5 + (Cu + Ni)/15
B) Heat Input (KJ/mm) = {(Vxl)/S}x0.06
C) Combined Joint Thickness (mm) = t1 + t2 + t3 + t4,
where "t" is section thickness as per the sketch
below
D) Weldability Reference Number can be taken from
the table below, corresponding to Carbon Equiva-
lent (CE)
E) With the help of graph below, using Combined
Joint Thickness and Weldability Reference Num-
ber, suitable "Joint Weldability Index" Curve can
be identified.
F) Having identified the suitable "Joint Weldability
Index" Curve and Heat Input (KJ/mm), with the
use of following charts "Preheat Temperature"
can be determined.
i-t __-t }
ignore ti unless it is already
rto
welded to yt 3 .
For welds between t3 and t,,
ignore t i unless it is already
welded to L
772 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Carbon Equvalent Weldability Carbon Equivalent Welability

Reference No. Reference No.

below 0.30 1 0.55 to below 0.60 7

<0.30 to below 0.35 2 0.60 to below 0.65 8
0.35 to below 0.40 3 0.65 to below 0.70 9
0.40 to below 0.45 4 0.70 to below 0.75 10
0.45 to below 0.50 5 0.75 to below 0.80 11
0.50 to below 0.55 6 0.80 to below 0.85 12

Joint
Weldability
Weldability Q Index
Reference
Number 7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110120 and over

Combined Joint thickness (mm)

A simple method of preheating a job, such as a cast iron
cylinder head, is to construct a temporary brick furnace
around it, using charcoal or coke mixed with dry
cowdung as a source of heat (see Fig. 20.1). The area to
be welded is kept exposed, so that the welder can com-
plete the welding in situ. With such a furnace it is often
possible to stress-relieve the job at the same time. The
temperature of the job surface is measured with a
coloured crayon such as Tempilstik. These crayons are
available as a set with fusion temperatures as desired,
say 300°C, 350°C, etc., indicated on each crayon. A mark
made with a 350°C crayon on the job will fuse as soon
 PREHEAT AND POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT 773

250

Joint
200- weldaility
O Index
CD
v_
•4—•
cc
v_
CD
CL
E
0)
to
CD
.C
CD
a!

Welding energy input kilojule/mm of deposit

"^^^r L ^ L . Joint
~ —"~-——-JS Weldaility
o \ ^ ^ ~ \ _ " - - - Index
\ ~ ^ \^ H ^^ --4
\ \ G ^^--^^^ ~-~--~-I
\ ^ \ F
\ E " \
\
^^J
D \ ^
^\^_
v \ >
\ B X \ ^
-v A \ V
\. \_
-\A \
1 2 3 4
W e l d i n g e n e r g y i n p u t k i l o j u l e / m m of d e p o s i t

as this temperature has been attained. Where such cray-

ons or any other means of measuring temperature are
not available, the temperatures are indicated by the
colour of the heated steel as shown in Table 20.1.
Heavy castings and forgings are often preheated in
the regular heat-treating and stress-relieving furnaces
for repair welding. When they are taken out for welding,
there is bound to be a temperature drop due to air
cooling. This can be minimised by covering the job,
except for the portion to be welded, with asbestos paper
Fig. 20.1: Temporary brick-furnace for repair work
or blankets. Allowance may be m a d e for the
774 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Table 20.1: Temperatures indicated by the colour of steel when heated

Colour Approximate Temperatures*
(°C) (°F)
Brilliant-white 1,300 2,350
White 1,200 2,200
Yellow-white 1,100 2,000
Orange-yellow 1,050 1,900
Orange-red 1,000 1,800
Bright cherry-red 850 1,600
Cherry-red 750 1,400
Dull cherry-red 650 1,200
Dark-red 600 1,100
Faint-red in twilight 500 950
Faint-red in dark 400 750
Pale-blue 300 550
Light-straw 230 450
*The temperatures given are not necessarily exact equivalent; but are given to the nearest 50° for the sake of simplicity.

temperature drop, by heating the job to a temperature

about 50° more than specified before withdrawing it.
Otherwise, supplementary heating with oxyacetylene
torches may be continued until the welding has been
completed.
Circumferential and longitudinal joints of pipes may
be locally preheated by means of suitably-shaped
burners made out of 12 to 38 mm diameter pipe drilled
at intervals with 1.6 to 0.8 mm diameter holes along
one axis. A few types of self-made burners are shown in
Fig. 20.2. Fuel gas mixed with air is used to produce a
clean, hot flame along the joint. Care must be taken to
avoid sudden and severe heating of the area, as excessive
temperature differentials can cause high stresses,
resulting in distortion and cracked tack welds. At
Hinkley Point in U.K., a preheating ring with burners
using propane was employed to maintain the plate
temperature at 100 to 150°C during the circumferential
welding of shells of the steam-raising unit. The shells
were nearly 50 mm thick.
Electrical strip heaters connected to 110 or 220 V
supply line can also be used for preheating. These must
be carefully insulated at the terminals to avoid the Fig. 20.2: Simple designs of self-made burners
danger of shock to welders. Such heaters have been used
in the U.S.A. for the local preheating of castings prior to
repair by welding, and of pipe and pressure vessel joints powder. In this case, it is not necessary to switch off the
in the field. Strip heaters have also been used in preheat current during welding.
conjunction with a 55 V, 1,000 Amps. AC transformer Induction heating with specially-designed 60-cycle
for preheating joints of over 50 m m thickness. The transformers is sometimes used for preheating pipe
heaters are anchored to the plates about 100 mm from joints in the U.S.A. These transformers may be operated
and parallel to the joint. They are then covered with a manually or with automatic controls, to maintain a
channel or inverted angle packed with dry insulating desired temperature range or to follow a pre-determined

time-temperature programme. Coils may be heavy
flexible copper cable insulated with asbestos, buss bars
or water-cooled coils. Usually asbestos paper is wrapped
around the pipe before placing the coil in position.
Heating current has to be turned off during welding to
prevent interference with the arc.
Induction heating can also be obtained by the use of
a laminated core inside a pipe, or on the surface of a
plate adjacent to a joint. This method has been used with
movable coils preceding an automatic welding head
along a pressure vessel joint.
The most modern method of preheating uses what
are termed surface combustion units. They are described
at the end of this chapter. Figure 20.3 shows a unit in
operation.
The simplest, most flexible and accurate method of
preheating and postweld heating is electric resistance
heating. It is described in detail in the next section.
A welded fabrication contains internal stresses called
locked-up stresses, which sometimes rise to values as
high as the yield strength of the material. These stresses
added to the normal load stresses may exceed design
stresses and cause failure. Stress-relief is expected to
eliminate locked-up stresses.
Fig. 20.3: Preheating with surface combustion unit
PREHEAT AND POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT 775
Stress-relief is a form of heat treatment in which a
w e l d e d fabrication or c o m p o n e n t is heated to a
sufficiently high temperature and held there for a
sufficiently long time, until the locked-up stresses are
almost completely eliminated. Stress-relieving should
not be confused with annealing and normalising.
Temperatures for annealing and normalising are above
the critical r a n g e , from 750 to 900°C, w h e r e a s
temperatures for stress-relief are well below the critical
range. Annealing and normalising do remove internal
stresses, but at the high temperatures involved in these
processes, far-reaching changes take place in the grain
structure of the metal and its tensile properties.
Dimensional changes can also occur.
The effect of elevated temperatures as used in stress-
relief on locked-up stresses in a mild steel structure is
presented graphically in Fig. 20.4. It will be seen that
even at 500°C, 27% of the stresses still remain. It is only
when the temperature exceeds 600°C that they are
eliminated for all practical purposes.
Are the locked-up stresses totally eliminated by
stress-relief? An answer to this question is provided by
the manner in which stress-relief becomes effective.
According to a recognised authority, "the internal
stresses are reduced by permanent yielding caused first
by the r e d u c t i o n of the yield point at elevated
temperature, and second by creep under prolonged
loading at elevated temperature." Carbon steel at
temperature of 600-700°C has a yield strength of 1 to
4.5 tons/sq inch and thus the residual stresses relax to
the same level when the structure is soaked at the high
temperature. If the heating is not localised and if cooling
is slow and even over the section, the stresses will
remain at this low level, down to room temperature.
The yield strength of the carbon steel is thus largely
recovered.
600°C
Stress Relieving Temperature (°C)
Fig. 20.4: Relation of stress-relief to temperature
776 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Procedures of stress-relief are laid down in relevant

boiler and p r e s s u r e vessel codes. The complete
fabrication may be kept in a furnace and stress-relieved.
Alternatively, only the area around the weld joint may
Single
be stress-relieved, as in the case of a circumferential joint control
in a penstock pipe welded at site or a joint in pressure uniform
heatinq
piping. Sometimes a long vessel may be stress-relieved system
in two stages: first one-half and then the other half. In
this case, there should be an overlap of heat treatment
X Bottom couple
at the central portion. In addition to relieving stresses,
Top bottom control', Top bottom
stress-relief treatment causes the following beneficial Temperature not necessary | control essential
Differential °C
effects: «
a) It lowers the tensile and yield strengths of the
weld-metal by about 10%, but considerably in-
i /
30 y * Estimated
creases the ductility I / Ranged

b) It removes dissolved gases like hydrogen from 20-]

the weld-metal and HAZ
c) It softens the heat-affected zone 10-1
d) It eliminates undesirable consequences of cold
work, such as work-hardening and strain-ageing 25 75 125 175 225 275 325
Pipe diameter - mm
e) It eliminates the possibility of distortion of
welded components which may occur during the
final machining Fig. 20.5: Top and bottom temperature control in pipes

f) It reduces the possibility of failure by brittle frac-

ture in service.
In low-alloy and hardenable steels, it tempers the
martensite formed in the heat-affected zone.
Electric Resistance Method
During the 40's, heat treatment was carried out by
the wire and beads method. Lengths of 80/20 nickel-
chromium resistance wire were used with insulating
beads. These heating elements were wrapped around a
pipe and connected to a welding power source, the
current of the welding transformer adjusted manually,
to provide the control required for the heat treatment
cycles. In India, this is the most common technique used
in localised heat treatment.
The principal disadvantages are as follows:
1) During heat treatment, the nichrome wire ex-
pands, causing gaps between the insulating beads
leading to hot spots. Hence, in many cases lock-
ing up further stresses.
2) The insulating beads, being of very poor quality,
often break during handling. This can cause short-
circuits with the wall of the pipe.
3) Top and bottom control in pipes over 250 mm
diameter is mandatory (see Fig. 20.5). This can-
not be practicable using the wire and beads heat-
ing elements.
These disadvantages led to the development of
improved ceramics and modular types of heating
elements. The first type of efficient heating elements
manufactured were the popular finger elements. These
consist of twin 9 SWG nickel-chromium wire bent in
the form of fingers. Each finger is 100 mm long and
insulated by special sintered alumina ceramics. These
elements can be made to suit various diameters of
pipework by calculating a 1.3 V drop across each finger.
The longest finger element is the popular 62-finger
element, mainly used for postweld heat treatment of
vessels. These elements require 300 Amps., 80 OCV
welding transformers. Being manufactured from 9 SWG
nickel-chromium wire, the finger elements require
approximately 110 Amps.. A 62-finger element rating is
approximately 9 kW.
Advantages
a) 98% sintered alumina ceramics of high mechani-
cal yield strength are used. These do not break
easily while handling.
b) The hardness of the ceramic bead is comparable
with a sapphire.
c) It has excellent electrical insulation and heat
conduction properties.
d) Can be used for temperatures up to 1,050°C.

Disadvantages
a) A high inventory is required for maintaining dif-
ferent sizes of elements for various diameters of
piping.
b) Heat treatment on vertical vessels is very cum-
bersome by this method. Certain materials do not
allow tacking of cleats for holding finger elements
during heat treatment of the vessel.
c) For the postweld heat treatment of vessels of big
diameters and heavy wall thicknesses, a number
of welding transformers are required, e.g. for a
3,350 mm diameter vessel, 32 mm thick, conform-
ing to the BS 5500 code, 18 welding transformers
are required; or for a 3,920 mm diameter vessel,
48 mm thick, conforming to the ASME, 45 weld-
ing transformers are required as power sources.
For vessels over 3 m diameter and 90 mm wall
thickness, controlling such a large number of
welding transformers becomes impractical for the
following reasons:
i) Human error plays a predominant role as one
operator has to control a large number of weld
ing machines for numerous ours. These ma-
chines are, very often, not very close to each
other.
ii) The welding machines get damaged due to
misuse.
iii) It is more profitable to use welding machines
for welding purposes.
iv) It is, very often, not possible to acquire so
many welding machines for one operation.
Taking these factors into consideration, special modu-
lar flexible ceramic heaters have found wide applica-
tion, especially, in the piping field.
Flexible Ceramic Pads
Flexible ceramic pads consist of standard dimensions
and electrical ratings (65 V, 50 Amps., 3.25 kW). In
section, the flexible ceramic pad element comprises
interlocking sintered alumina beads, through which a
multistrand 80/20 nickel-chromium resistance wire is
threaded. These elements are extremely flexible (see Fig.
20.6).
These pads have the following advantages:
a) Beads are made out of sintered alumina ceram-
ics having good mechanical properties and high
hardness.
b) Beads are good electrical insulators and excel-
lent conductors of heat.
PREHEAT AND POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT 777
Fig. 20.6: Flexible ceramic pad
c) The elements being of modular type, require a
low inventory.
d) Flexibility is an excellent plus point for postweld
heat treatment of awkward flanges, branches,
valves, etc.
e) Same elements can be used for preheating.
f) If, during a heat treatment cycle an element burns
out (a very rare case), the insulation in that area
can be removed and a new ceramic pad placed
over the burnt out one. The heat treatment cycle
can be carried out without removing all insula-
tion, heaters, etc.
g) The flexible ceramic pads can be used for tem-
peratures up to 1,050°C.
For piping from 25 mm to 1 m diameter, only two
types of flexible ceramic elements are required. For
small diameter piping, 30 V elements can be used. For
piping of 200 mm diameter and above, where top and
bottom control is mandatory, standard 65 V, 3.25 kW
pads are ideal. Calculations for elements are straight-
forward, e.g. for 200, 300, 400 and 500 mm diameter 2,
3, 4 and 5 elements, respectively, are used.
Twelve of these elements can be used off a 40 kVA
constant potential heat treatment power source, such
as the one shown in Fig. 20.7. It has the following
advantages:
1) Very portable.
2) All controls in one place, saving the operator the
inconvenience of controlling several welding ma-
chines at a time. Having a low voltage output is
important from the safety point of view.
3) Contactorised power source with percentage
timer controls saves operator fatigue.
778 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 20.7: 40 kVA heat treatment transformer
4) Only a three-phase, 415 V, 60 Amps, supply is re-
quired. This saves connections to several weld-
ing machines for the same purpose.
5) Twelve 65 V elements at a time can be used off
one power source, hence 12 of 150 mm diameter
pipes or six of 200 mm diameter pipes or three of
400 mm diameter pipes, or a variety of different
diameter pipes can be simultaneously heat-
treated.
6) All cabling from one power source makes con-
nections very easy. Also, the use of twist-locks
ensures quick, positive and safe connections.
Fig. 20.8: Solid state programmer
7) Auxiliary power from the power source can be
utilised for the temperature recorder and solid
state programmer or any other auxiliary tools.
Solid State Programmer
The solid state programmer shown in Fig. 20.8 has
found wide use in the field of heat treatment. The
advantages are the following:
a) While some pipes are being heat-treated, auto-
matically controlled by the solid state program-
mer, more pipes can be set up by the same opera-
tor.
b) For certain applications, the temperature range
available is very small. To prevent operational
errors, it is ideal to programme the heat treatment
cycle and carry out the operation automatically.
c) This programmer also has parallel thermocouple
connections to the temperature recorders.
d) Up to eight thermocouples can be controlled at a
time.
Thermocouple attachment technique: A typical error in
a heat treatment cycle can be incurred unknowingly.
Normally, 9 SWG thermocouples are inserted in a
ferrule, which is tacked within the hot zone of a pipe to
be postweld heat-treated. Heating elements are fixed
around the thermocouple. The thermocouple picks up
the heat from the elements, as it will be influenced by
the higher temperature. The temperature recorded on
the chart is not the temperature of the pipe. The error
can range between 15 and 60°C as shown below. When
21 SWG thermocouples arc spark discharged (4 mm
apart) to the surface of the weldment to bi heat-treated,
the error is reduced to zero as the thermocouple directly
records the temperature of the heated joint.
Temperature measurement: It is a recommended
practice to use potentiometric multipoint temperature
 PREHEAT AND POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT 779

Comparison of thermocouple attachment errors:

Method Temperature Error
°C °C
Direct attachment 700 0
Thermocouple nut uninsulated 751 plus 51
Thermocouple nut insulated 731 plus 31
Stainless steel thermocouple ferrule uninsulated 728 plus 28
Stainless steel thermocouple ferrule insulated 715 plus 15

recorders in conjunction with type K chromel-alumel
thermocouples. These recorders should be calibrated
regularly, e.g. once a month.
Special constant-voltage devices are used during a
heat treatment cycle to check the calibration of the
temperature recorder. The constant voltage unit sends
a multivolt signal equivalent to a particular temperature,
e.g. 800°C. This signal is logged on one of the points of
the recorder. If there is any deviation from this
temperature d u r i n g the heat treatment cycle, the
recorder must be immediately checked for calibration
error.
Localised Stress-relief
It is a common practice to locally heat-treat the
closing seams of pressure vessels at site. These situations
arise in the sub-assembly and also in the final stages at
site. A number of factors are considered before the
implementation of a procedure as follows:
1) The interruption of a heated band by the pres-
ence of other members
2) The proximity of other welded attachments
3) Internal access
4) Joint dimensions
5) The possible effect of expansion and contraction
6) The permitted temperature differentials and tem-
perature gradient considerations.
The decision to effect the heat treatment by internal
or external means is based on diameter and internal
access, an internal method being preferred for sizes
above 1.2 m, on economic g r o u n d s and ease of
application. The typical arrangements for internal and
external techniques are given in Fig. 20.9.

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS RELIEF OF PRESSURE VESSEL USING

TWIN BULKHEAD METHOD & INTERNAL HEATERS OFF MAINS

U
.WEATHER PROTECTION

^ CABLES VIA BRANCH 4-12 mm RODS

12«mO ^ O
©
EXPANSION | | ( A n ). IRON WIRE M _ J
ROLLER SUPPORTS
^ | U Jt \ \ FIXED SUPPORTS
FIXED SUP
U- -*J M THIS
THIS SIDE
SIDE
DISTRIBUTION BOARD
AND TEMP RECORDER

1 mtn WIDE MINERAL WOOL

IRON MESH WIRED MATS 50 mm THICK 2 SINGLE
TO BULKHEADS STEEL BULKHEADS LAYERS AND 1 DOUBLE LAYER

HEAT INSIDE THE

THERMOCOUPLES
OUTSIDE TOTAL
680 mm 34.3 kw 60 V 6 COUPLES FITTED
CHANNEL ELEMENTS
TOTAL 36 FOR 3 m
DIA VESSEL

TYPICAL MILD STEEL SHOWS INFLUENCE

RECOMMENDED CHANNELS TO OF ELEMENTS ON
HEIGHT FOR SUPPORT ZONES OF SHELL TO
GIVE CONTROL OF
MILD STEEL ELEMENTS
HEAT, TOP/BOTTOM
CHANNELS
'SIDE/SIDE'

Fig. 20.9: Internal and external stress-relief techniques

780 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
The most popular technique used for this type of
heat treatment is the twin bulkhead technique. On either
side of the closing weld (distance approximately 1 m
apart), two bulkheads are fixed. These bulkheads consist
of a lattice type of framework, made out of scrap steel
flat bars or angles. On this lattice framework are impaled
two layers of 50 mm thick, 110 k g / m 3 density, mineral
wool. Between the bulkheads, channel element type of
heaters are placed at 5%, 15% and 35% heights,
respectively, from the bottom of the vessel. The outer
p e r i p h e r y of the vessel, b e t w e e n the b u l k h e a d
boundaries, is lagged with a double layer of mineral
wool. On half metre of each side of the double layer, a
single layer of mineral wool is applied. This is to prevent
harmful gradients away from the hot zone.
Fig. 20.10: Channel heaters
Structure
Fig. 20.11: Temporary furnace with channel elements
Basically, the zone between the two bulkheads is con-
verted into a furnace. The heat t r e a t m e n t is by
convection.
The channel heaters, s h o w n in Fig. 20.10, are
powerful heaters, rated at 240 V, 60 Amps., and 13-1/3
kW each. Groups of elements are connected, so that a
balanced three-phase network is formed, and are
controlled by the action of energy regulating units, in
conjunction writh overriding temperature controllers.
Normally, three 4-bank channel heaters are connected
in a star network and connected to a 415 V supply, via a
contactorised distribution board. Very accurate results
can be obtained by this method. The advantage of these
elements is that they can be used in temporary furnaces
built around the weldment, using weld mesh and angle
iron. The channel elements can be placed on the hearth,
or other positions, depending on the job requirements
as shown in Fig. 20.11.
High Velocity Gas Techniques
In large-sized vessels and complex structures, power
c o n s u m p t i o n by electrical resistance techniques
becomes appreciably high. Very often, such huge
quantities of power are not readily available. To cite an
example, a 150-ton load requires approximately 800 kW
power. To carry out postweld heat treatment of such
weldments in the shop or at site, the need for high
velocity gas techniques has become a must.
In a conventionally fired furnace, the stagnant air
forms a surface film around the load. This reduces the
convective heat transfer to the load. The high velocity
burner, due to its inherent characteristic of ejecting hot
Insulation
Heating elements
Temporary furnace

air at velocities of 130 m / s e c , circulates the hot air
ground the weldment, hence breaking the surface film
barrier. This improves the heat transfer and also reduces
the heating u p time, m a i n t a i n i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
differentials to a minimum. The principle of the burner
is shown in Fig. 20.12.
The high velocity burners utilise gas or oil as fuels.
Gas is most commonly used. A mixture of air and gas is
premixed and combustion takes place inside the burner
chamber. The flame is also very small and does not
extend beyond the burner cone, hence there is no chance
of direct flame impingement onto the weldment. The
flame stability over the entire firing range has an
advantage of a 35:1 turn-down ratio.
Eight hortonspheres have been postweld heat-
treated in India by U.K. technicians (one at Mangalore
and seven at Baroda). Each complete sphere was lagged
with 75 mm thick mineral wool, having a density of 110
kg/m 3 . A single burner of 20 million BTU/hour, was
introduced through the bottom manway of the sphere.
The high velocity burner has a specially designed cone,
through which hot gases are expelled. These gases have
a scrubbing action against the walls of the sphere. By
careful manipulation of the air/gas and compressed air
ratio, temperature variations u p to ± 10°C can be
maintained.
It may not be out of place to mention that 48
thermocouples are used for spheres of approximately
14 m diameter and 40 mm thickness. All thermocouples
must be within ± 20°C.
Spark ignition plug
Combustion
chamber Flexible gas
supply lines
Exit nozzle
velocity J ►——
stream ► *
Zone of random mixing
Fig. 20.12: High velocity gas burner
PREHEAT AND POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT 781
Maintaining the temperature is one aspect of heat
treatment, ensuring the lateral movements of the legs
of the sphere, during expansion due to heat treatment,
is just as important. Special rollers or lubrite pads must
be kept between the base plates of the legs of the spheres
and the foundation base plates.
Very often, attachments such as skirts of vessels, lugs,
economiser tubes, etc., need to be supplemented with
electrical resistance elements, to maintain a balance in
temperatures and hence minimising gradients.
Temporary furnaces, for stress-relieving, using high
velocity gas burners, can be made out of angle iron and
weld-metal framework with mineral wool insulation or
modular prefolded mild steel panels 3 mm thick. These
panels are bolted to each other to form a furnace. The
inside of the walls are lined with mineral wool and faced
with ceramic fibre. These types of furnaces are better
known as low-thermal mass furnaces. They are ideal
for large structures, or weldments where there may be
restrictive internal and external projections, or where
part of a vessel with a large hot zone has to be heat
treated. When we mean large temporary furnaces, a
typical example is 8 m x 11 m x 28 m long for a load of
210 tons, in which four high velocity burners of 2.5
million k c a l s / h o u r were used. These were p u t in
strategic positions, so that there was a tangential flow
of hot air.
The mineral wool and ceramic wool are excellent
insulators, used instead of heavy refractory walls. The
low-thermal walls are approximately 100 mm thick
S.S. outer case
/ | *— Fan air supply
t Pilot gas supply
Main gas supply
^^rr=i ir flow
Air flow
- Pilot gas flow
J Air flow
It-Main gas supply
f — - J A i r flow
782 MODERN ARC WELDING TECHNOLOGY
compared to the 450 mm thick refractory walls, which
require heavy steel sections as reinforcements.
The same burners are to be used in permanent low-
thermal mass furnaces. Since the framework and
insulation is_very light, the furnaces can be moved on
rails or lifted (the top hat type) or split apart.
Preheating Using Surface Combustion Units
The surface combustion units, such as the one shown
in Fig. 20.3, work on the principle of gas (natural or
propane) entering a plenum chamber and burning on
the ceramic plaque protected by inconel mesh. The
ceramic honey-combed plaque forms a resistance to the
flow of gas and allows the front face of the ceramic
plaque to glow at a temperature of approximately 800°C.
Atmospheric air is entrained by the gas flow and
mixes inside the rear tube and inside the plenum
chamber. A match or piezo-electronic igniter is used to
ignite the burner.
The rating of the burner is approximately 50,000
BTU/sq. ft. hour or nearly 15 kW/sq. ft. Propane gas at
a pressure of 20 lbs/sq. inch, at a consumption of 20
cu.ft./hour is the most efficient gas. These burners are
of modular unit sizes of 305x152 mm, 610x152 mm,
915x152 mm, 152x152 mm, etc. They can be connected
in series to give a longer length of preheat.
The flame generates infrared energy. Due to the
electro-magnetic nature of the heat, it is transmitted to
the weldment instantaneously. The heater can be con-
trolled either manually or by means of electronic con-
trols using temperature controllers, to monitor solenoid
valves which merely adjust the flame to high or low.
The only disadvantage of these units is that, one must
be careful to prevent back radiation from overheating
the burner.
The surface combustion burners are ideal for
preheating closing seams of vessels, hortonspheres, deck
girders, castings, etc.
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