IT-4412 Control Application

CONTROL APPLICATION TRAINING
SYSTEM
IT-4412
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 03
Features 04
Technical Specification 05
Theory 06
Study of DC Motor 12
Study of Servo Motor 18
Study of Control System 24
Experiment 1. Study and Observe Voltage to Frequency Converter 28
Experiment 2. Study and Observe Frequency to Voltage Converter 29
Experiment 3. Study and Implement Light Intensity Control Using PWM Method 31
Experiment 4. Study and Observe Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR) 32
Experiment 5. Study and Implement Motor Control Using PWM Method 35
Experiment 6. Study and Implement Characteristics of DC Motor (Speed/Vin) 36
Experiment 7. Study and Observe Position Control of DC Servo Motor 39
Experiment 8. Study and Implement DC Motor Control-Open-Loop 42
Experiment 9. Study and Observe DC Motor Control-Open Loop 44
Experiment 10. Study and Implement Temperature Control-Open Loop 46
Experiment 11. Study and Observe Temperature Control-Close Loop 48
Experiment 12. Study and Observe Working of Stepper Motor 50
Experiment 13. Study and Implement Light Intensity Control-Open Loop 52
Experiment 14. Study and Observe Light Intensity Control-Close Loop 54
List of Accessories 56
2
INTRODUCTION
Control Application Training System explores students & industry professional to the
fundamentals of Motor Control System. It tells, how one device can be used manage,
command, direct or regulate the behaviour of other system. Open-Loop Control,
Close-Loop Control is explained in the trainer. Speed Control of motors is the basic
requirement in many industries and process control systems. The main characteristics
of such a system are its steady state error behaviour and the disturbance rejection
properties. In the Control Application Training System, facilities are available to
directly to measure the principal performance factors of the speed control system like
Characteristics of motors as a function of the forward path gain. In addition provides
transient response of the motor and the characteristics of the Tachogenerator. Another
important feature of the Control Application Training System, it has both Servo
Motor as well as DC Motor.
Control Application Training System has sensors like temperature sensor, light
sensor, DC motor, stepper motor, filament lamps, IR sensor and many more which
can be used for study of Motor Control system. There is a wide range of experiments
which can be performed on the trainer; it also has PC interfacing software, which
increases the range of experiments.
3
FEATURES
• Servo motor control

• Stepper Motor control
• DC motor control
• Open loop Control system
• Close loop Control system
• Feedback concept
• Speed control
• Light intensity control
• Temperature Control
• On/Off Control
• Amplifier
• V/F & F/V conversion
• LED bar display
• On board supply
• Student friendly software
4
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
DC Motor : 12 VDC
Servo Motor : 5VDC
Stepper Motor : 200 steps; 1 step = 1.8 degrees
Temperature Sensor : 10mV / ˚C
LDR : 3K Ohm
Light Source : Two numbers of filament lamps
V/F : For 0-10V output is 0-1 KHz (approx.)
F/V : For 0-1 KHz output is 0-10V (approx)
I/Os : 1 analog input, 1 analog output,
2 Digital I/Os **
Buzzer : 5V operated
Power switch: 230V +/− 10%, 50Hz
Power Consumption : 4VA (Approx)
Weight : 4Kg (Approx)
5
THEORY
Study of Basic electrical concepts:

• Faraday’s Law
• Application of Faraday's Law
• A Single Coil DC Motor
• Motor Constants
Faraday's Law:
In the early 1830’s, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry independently discovered the
relationship between changing magnetic fields and induced EMF in circuits. If B is
the flux density of a constant magnetic field and a conductor is moved through this
field at a velocity V, an EMF E is generated in the conductor such that :
E=BxV
If the conductor is part of a complete electrical circuit with a resistance R, then the
EMF will produce a current in the conductor such that;
I=E/R=BxV/R
V B
Fig .1
The development of an EMF in a conductor moving in a magnetic field is the

principle on which many types of tachometers are based. By using the commutation
techniques described in the next section, a rotary device can be constructed which has,
as its input, a rotary mechanical motion and, as its output, a voltage proportional to
that input rotational velocity. Another specific application of Faraday’s Law is used in
electric motors. That is, if a conductor of length L carrying a current I is placed in a
magnetic field B, a magnetic force F is created such that:
F = BLI sin A
Where A is the included angle between B and I The force vector F is a vector
perpendicular to both vector quantities B and I.
6
l
F
B
Fig .2
Application of Faraday’s Law:

In order to make something useful of this generated force, more is required than
simply a single, current -carrying conductor in a magnetic field. Figure 3 illustrates a
coil carrying a current I in a static magnetic field of flux density B. Assume that the
coil is mounted on a rotational axis O - O’. The interaction of the current I in coil
segment AB with the magnetic field B will create a force F, shown downward in the
drawing.
The interaction of the current I in coil segment CD in the same magnetic field B will
also generate a force F. Since the direction of the current in CD is opposite to the
direction of the current in AB, the resulting force is in the opposite direction (upward
in Fig 3). Note that the current in coil segment AC is parallel to the magnetic field,
and the net force in this coil segment must be zero.
F I
D B
C A
F
Fig .3
The coil in Fig 3 will rotate about axis O - O’ ninety degrees and stop with the coil
oriented vertically (segment AC perpendicular to the magnetic field). If the direction
of the current flow is then reversed, the coil will rotate 180¡ and, again, come to a
stop. Thus, the arrangement shown in Fig 3 represents a crude rotary solenoid. One
could, theoretically, continue to switch the direction of current at the appropriate
angular position and generate continuous rotational motion. In order to make such a
device practical, however, it is necessary to add a means by which current can be
conducted to the coil and switched at the proper time to create continuous motion.
These functions are performed (in brush-type motors) by the brushes and commutator
of the motor.
7
A Single Coil DC Motor:
Fig 4 illustrates one method by which the commutation function might be
accomplished. Rather than hard wiring the current source to the coil, the current is
conducted through sliding contacts (brushes) connected to the current source. The
brushes ride on the ends of the coil wires, thus conducting current through the coil. In
this simplified motor, the brushes switch coil connections about once every 180¡ of
rotation. Therefore, the direction of current flow remains fixed with respect to the
magnetic field. Fig 5 illustrates the coil of the single-coil motor at angular positions of
0 degrees, 90 degrees, 180 degrees, and 270 degrees. At 0 degrees, the ends of the
coils are contacting the "brushes", and current flows through the coil. The interaction
of the current flow in coil segment CD with the magnetic field produces a force
upward on segment CD.
D B
Fig .4
The current flowing through segment AB interacts with the magnetic field to produce
a force downward. The two forces are identical in magnitude but opposite in direction
since the direction of the current flow in the two segments is reversed with respect to
the magnetic field. As mentioned earlier, there is no net force produced on coil
segment AC. As a result of the forces on segments AB and CD, there is a net
rotational force (torque) clockwise on the coil. As the coil reaches the 90-degree
position, the coil ends lose contact with the "brushes", and there is no current flowing
in the coil. Therefore, there is no force produced on any of the coil segments, and the
crude motor depends upon the rotational kinetic energy of the coil to rotate it past the
90-degree position. As the coil approaches the 180 degree position, the coil ends
contact the "brushes" again, and current flow is re-established. The current flow in
segment AB interacts with the magnetic field to produce a force upward in segment
AB. The current flow in segment CD produces a downward force on that coil
segment. This pair of forces produces an angular acceleration of the coil in the
clockwise direction. At the 270-degree position, there is, once again, no current flow
in the coil, and the coil continues to rotate only due to its own inertia.
8
0 degrees 90 degrees D
D A
C B
C A
A
180 degrees 270 degrees D
B D A
C B
A C
A
Fig .5
The crude motor developed in the preceding paragraphs has several design flaws
which prevent its use in most practical applications. Perhaps its most limiting feature
is the large amount of torque ripple produced during operation. Fig 6 is an illustration
of the motor torque output as a function of angular position. At each 90 degree and
270 degree position, the generated torque drops momentarily to zero. If a second coil
is added to the structure of the first so that the two coils would be represented by the
curves in Fig 7. A simplified curve for the output of the two segment-motor is shown
in Fig 8.
90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

deg. deg. deg. deg. deg.
Torque
Produced
Rotational Position
Fig .6
With this construction, the output torque never reaches zero but is smoothed out at
some nominal value. The number of coil segments can be (and usually is) increased
well beyond two coil segments. The resulting motor has very little torque ripple. A
second problem with the motor previously developed is that it is modelled using a
single conductor in each coil. In practice, the motor coils contain multiple conductors,
each adding to the torque production as the single conductor model has been shown to
do. The use of multiple conductors in the coils is discussed further in the next section.
90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

Torque
Produced
Rotational Position
Fig .7
9
Motor Constants:
The nominal value of the torque generated by the single coil motor can be calculated.
In Fig 9, the single coil model is shown again. As previously discussed, the coil
rotates about axis O - O’. The force on conductor AB is given by:
90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

Torque
Produced
Rotational Position
Fig .8
F = BLI sin A
Where A is the included angle between B and I, and L is the length of coil segments
AB and CD. Assume for the sake of discussion that A is 90¡, then sin A = 1 and the
sin A factor can be dropped. Further, assume that multiple conductors are used in the
coil. The force on the conductor AB is then given by:
F = NBLI
Where N is the number of conductors in the coil the torque generated in the coil as a
result of this force F is the product of the force F and the distance from segment AB to
the rotational axis O - O’. If this distance is called R (radius), then the resulting torque
is given by:
T = FR = RNBLI
F I
D B
C A
Fig .9
Coil segment CD also contributes to the generated torque, however, and has a
contribution equal to that of segment AB. Therefore, the total torque generated is
simply twice that generated by segment AB and is given by:
T = 2FR = 2RNBLI
10
Note that the generated torque is dependent upon the current I, the radius of the coil
R, the number of conductors (turns) N, the magnetic field flux density B, and the
length of the conductors L. With the exception of the motor current, all other factors
are determined by the geometry of the motor and the materials from which it is made.
Since it is generally safe to assume that construction features of a finished motor will
not change, a constant of proportionality between the motor current and the
materials/geometry dependent factors can be assigned to the motor. In the case at
hand, there is a constant that describes the torque generated by the motor for a specific
motor current, the torque constant.
Kt = T/I = 2RNBL
In the early part of this section, it was shown that an EMF, E, is developed in a
conductor moving through a magnetic field of flux density, B, at velocity V. If one
were to use the same assumptions adopted to develop the crude motor using a coil,
brushes, and commutator, it can be shown that an EMF will be developed across the
brushes when an external torque physically rotates the coil. Like the principles
involved in the development of the torque constant, the magnitude of the EMF is
dependent upon materials/geometry factors. It is also dependent upon the velocity at
which the coil is rotated. Once again, there is a constant of proportionality that
describes the relationship between coil rotational velocity and materials/geometry
factors, commonly known as the back EMF constant (Ke). The back EMF constant is
typically given in volts per unit of rotational velocity. If one takes the reciprocal of the
back EMF constant, the result is a proportionality constant that relates the voltage
applied to the motor terminals to the rotational velocity of the coil. This version of the
motor constant is commonly known as the velocity constant. The velocity constant is
given in units of rotational velocity per volt. There is, of course, one constant for a
motor. The differences between the torque constant and the back EMF constant are
simply a matter of the units used to make routine calculations while the velocity
constant is simply a useful form of the back EMF constant. In fact, it can be shown
that if the torque constant is specified in Nm/A; and the back EMF constant in V-
sec/rad, then:
Kt = Ke = 1/Kv
A common selection of units of torque and speed in the United States for small
motors is oz-in for torque and rpm for rotational velocity. Using these English units of
measure, torque constants are often given in oz-in/A, back EMF constants in mV/rpm,
and velocity constants in rpm/V. These units are selected on the basis of common
usage in the United States. The relationship between motor constants given in these
units is as follows:
Kt is in units of oz-in/A
Ke is in units of mV/rpm
Kv is in units of rpm/volt
Kt = 1352.4 / Kv
Ke= Kt / 1.3524
Ke = 1000/Kv
Kv = 1000/Ke
11
STUDY OF DC MOTOR
A motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

(rotation). The key elements of a DC motor are field winding and an armature
winding. As electric currents flow through the windings, torque is developed between
these two windings .But in this trainer system, permanent magnet motor is used. The
permanent magnets provide constant lines of magnetic flux and therefore, the motor
speed becomes only a function of the voltage applied to the armature winding. This
relationship is plot in the Experiment No.1 which is “motor speed and input
characteristics” to overcome the mechanical friction from brushes, bearings, and other
moving parts before it starts to move once the input voltage exceeds the minimum
voltage, The speed of the motor is begins to increase in linear fashion as the input
voltage is increased. However, this linear characteristic is not maintained beyond the
saturation point, any further increase in input voltage does not produce increased
electric current in the coil.
Permanent magnets in the motor provide constant magnetic flux (KØ). Therefore, the
torque (τ) generated in the motor becomes the only function of input current (Ii).Also,
the counter emf (electromotive force) of a motor (Ei) is generated by the action of the
armature conductors cutting lines of force, and is proportional to the speed of the
motor (Sm). These relationships are expressed in the following formulas.
KØ = constant (1)
Ei = KØSm (2)
τ = KØ Ii (3)
Where KØ = magnetic line of force of the permanent magnet.
Ei = electromotive force in volts.

τ = torque in N.m
Ii = input current in Amp
The input voltage and speed of the motor are related to the parameters by the
following equation:
Vi = Ei + Ra Ii (4)
Sm = (Vi/ KØ) – (Ra* τ) / (KØ) 2 rad/sec (5)
Where Vi = input voltage in Volt
Ra = Resistance of armature coil in ohms
It should be noted that the input current increases as the mechanical load of the motor
is increased, resulting the increased in the input power. Also, the counter emf keeps
the motor speed constant when a motor is not loaded.
In industries motor is used to provide constant speed regardless of the change in

loads. A closed loop speed control system is a self - regulating system in which the
measured speed of the motor is compared to the preset value to produce an error
output. The detected error voltage is then amplified and feedback to the control circuit
to compensate the difference between the actual and preset speed. This self correcting
12
process continues until the detected error voltage becomes zero. At this point, the
actual speed of the motor is equal to the preset speed, and the motor maintains a
constant speed.
The basic difference between open loop and closed loop control system is graphically
represented as:
Feedback
Speed and Error

Desired (Preset) Speed
Speed Deviation Magnitude of Deviation
Mechnical Load Mechnical Load
( A ) Loaded Open Loop System ( B ) Loaded Feedback System
Fig .10
From Fig 10 we have clearly seen that a system with feedback is better than the open
loop control system because in closed loop control system speed of the motor is
constant against the load variations.
In a closed loop system, it is important that the error signal is amplified to a proper
level to eliminate (dead band) effect as shown in Fig 11. For this reason, the error
signal is amplified before it arrives to the input of the motor driver.
Saturation
100 Gain G1
Controller Output (%)
50 Gain G2 < G1
Saturation
0
(-) 0 (+) Error (%)
Narrow Band
Wide Band
Fig .11
In a closed loop control system, as shown in Fig. 2, reference voltage is applied to the
input of the comparator and the tacho generator produces a signal which is equivalent
to the speed of the motor, the to signal are compared at the input of the comparator,
which represents the difference between preset and actual speed. This signal
compensates the motor speed in the direction to achieve a constant speed.
13
MOTOR
Vref E EA=KE Motor

+
-
Amplifier
Vt = KTØ
F/V
Tachogenerator
Fig .12
Where,
E (error voltage) = Vref – Vt
Vt = Tacho voltage (output of the Tacho generator)
EA = actuating error voltage
Ø = speed of the motor
EA is responsible for the speed of the motor hence:
EA ≈ Ø
Therefore relation between speed of the motor and error voltage is described as:
Ø = KE (6)
K = system gain (Amplifier gain)
Error voltage is equal to:
E = Vref – Vt (7)
We know Vt is equal to:
Vt = KT Ø
Hence
E = Vref – KT Ø (8)
From equation No (6)
Ø/K = Vref – KT Ø
By solving this equation we get:
Ø = Vref * K / (1+K* KT) (9)
14
If the gain of the system is very large then approximate equation is equal to the:
Ø = Vref / KT (10)
From this equation we have seen that the speed of the motor (Ø) depends on to the
only Vref and KT is constant this shows clearly that if the gain of the closed loop
system is large then the motor speed is constant.
From equation No (8) & (6) we get
E = Vref – K* KT*E (11)
By solving this equation:
E = Vref / (1 + K* KT) (12)
From equation No (12) we have seen that if the gain of the system is large then the
error is reduces. But in the practical system there is trade off between the error & the
system stability with respect to the gain of the system.
If the system gain is to large then the stability of the system will suffered but error
will be reduces and if the gain is too less then error will be increase but system
stability is maintained. Therefore there is certain limitation for selecting the gain of
the system hence gain is selected up to the proper level where error is reduces &
system stability also maintained. And for eliminating the dead band as well as
desensitizing motor speed to the load change s gain of the system should be high.
The relationships between load, error, and speed are plotted in the experiment No 4.
In the real situation, speed control of motor requires in both direction forward and
reverse will perform the speed control of motor in both directions. Direction of the
motor depends on to the input voltage polarity; hence the direction of the motor is
determined by the position of the potentiometer (pot1).Fig 4 shows the bidirectional
response of a motor at two different loads when a square wave input signal is applied
to the system. The curve labelled as “1” represent the response in forward direction
and curve labelled as “2” represents the response in reveres direction.
The tacho output in CST is an AC signal which does not discriminate the direction of
the motor. However when the AC Tacho output is converted into DC the input
polarity is monitored and correct polarity is assigned to the converted DC signal.
15
Light Load 1
Heavy Load
Fig .13
Bidirectional Response of Motor (Square Wave I/P)
In the trainer kit which is generated according to the speed of the motor. Motor shaft
is connected to the 3 teethed wheel this wheel connected between the transmitter and
receiver of the Opto-interrupter when the gap comes between the transmitter and
receiver then the output voltage is approximately zero and when teeth comes then
output voltage is approximately equals to +5v. In this term train of pulses (frequency)
will be generated this frequency goes to the F/V converter block where this frequency
is converted into the equivalent voltage. This voltage is used as a feedback voltage
and according to the speed of the motor this voltage is varied.
Typical Applications
Minimum Component Tachometer
VCC = 15 V
8 7 6 5 VOUT
- Charge
Variable + Pump
Reluctance -
IR + VRIPPLE
Pick Up f IN (RPM)
1 2 3 4
+ V OUT
0.01µF 100K 1.0F 10K
Fig .14
From Fig 14 we have seen the internal connection of the F/V converter IC 2907 which
is used as a F/V converter. In Experiment No 7 study of F/V converter is given.
16
To drive the motor driver is required in trainer kit motor driver is used which is shown
in the Fig 15.
+12V
M
-12V
Motor Driver
Fig .15
Here two transistor PNP & NPN are used this is basically a power transistor. From
Fig 15 By examining the circuit we conclude that the two transistors Q1 (NPN) & Q2
(PNP) can not be simultaneously conducting. Thus if Q1 is on, Q2 will be off, and
vice versa. Generally at the +Ve voltage on to the base of the transistors then
Q1(NPN) will be ON, but at the –Ve voltage Q2(PNP) will ON.
17
STUDY OF SERVO MOTOR
Servos are DC motors with built in gearing and feedback control loop circuitry. And
no motor drivers required!
A Servo is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be positioned to
specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As long as the coded
signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft.
As the coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft changes. In practice,
servos are used in radio controlled airplanes to position control surfaces like the
elevators and rudders. They are also used in radio controlled cars, puppets, and of
course, robots.
Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, as you can see by the
picture above, have built in control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their
size. A standard servo such as the Futaba S-148 has 42 oz/inches of torque, which is
pretty strong for its size. It also draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A
lightly loaded servo, therefore, doesn't consume much energy. The guts of a servo
motor are shown in the picture below. You can see the control circuitry, the motor, a
set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3 wires that connect to the outside
world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and the white wire is the control wire.
Fig. 16
So, how does a servo work? The servo motor has some control circuits and a
potentiometer (a variable resistor, a pot) that is connected to the output shaft. In the
picture above, the pot can be seen on the right side of the circuit board. This pot
allows the control circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo motor. If the
shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds that the angle
is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct direction until the angle is correct. The
output shaft of the servo is capable of traveling somewhere around 180 degrees.
Usually, it’s somewhere in the 210 degree range, but it varies by manufacturer.
18
A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of between 0 and 180 degrees. A
normal servo is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical
stop built on to the main output gear.
The amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to
travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If
it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is
called proportional control.
How do you communicate the angle at which the servo should turn? The control wire
is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse
that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse Coded Modulation. The servo
expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (.02 seconds). The length of the pulse
will determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5 millisecond pulse, for example, will
make the motor turn to the 90 degree position (often called the neutral position). If the
pulse is shorter than 1.5ms, then the motor will turn the shaft to closer to 0 degrees. If
the pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.
1.50 ms: Neutral
0
0.00 ms 1.25 ms 1.50 ms 1.75 ms
1.25 ms: 0 Degrees
0
0.00 ms 1.25 ms 1.50 ms 1.75 ms
1.75 ms: 180 Degrees
0
0.00 ms 1.25 ms 1.50 ms 1.75 ms
Fig. 17
Servo motors are used in closed loop control systems in which work is the control
variable, Fig 17. The digital servo motor controller directs operation of the servo
motor by sending velocity command signals to the amplifier, which drives the servo
motor. An integral feedback device (resolver) or devices (encoder and tachometer) are
either incorporated within the servo motor or are remotely mounted, often on the load
itself. These provide the servo motor's position and velocity feedback that the
controller compares to its programmed motion profile and uses to alter its velocity
signal. Servo motors feature a motion profile, which is a set of instructions
programmed into the controller that defines the servo motor operation in terms of
time, position, and velocity.
19
The ability of the servo motor to adjust to differences between the motion profile and
feedback signals depends greatly upon the type of controls and servo motors used. See
the servo motors Control and Sensors Product section.
Three basic types of servo motors are used in modern servo systems: ac servo motors,
based on induction motor designs; dc servo motors, based on dc motor designs; and ac
brushless servo motors, based on synchronous motor designs.
Digital Servo
Controller Amplifier
Velocity
feedback
Servo
Load
Motor
Position Feedback
(Encoder or Resolver)
Fig. 18
Servomotors are used in many radio-controlled model airplanes, cars, boats, and
helicopters. Because of this large hobbyist market, servomotors are readily available
in a number of stock sizes. Servomotors are used in a few of our robots.
Primarily, servomotors are geared dc motors with a positional feedback control that
allows the rotor to be positioned accurately. The specifications state that the shaft can
be positioned through a minimum of 90° (±45°). In reality we can extend this range
closer to 180° (±90°) by adjusting the positional control signal.
There are three wire leads to a servomotor. Two leads are for power +5V and GND.
The third lead feeds a position control signal to the motor. The position control signal
is a single variable width pulse. The pulse can be varied from 1 to 2ms. The width of
the pulse controls the position of the servomotor shaft.
A 1-ms pulse rotates the shaft to the extreme counter clockwise (CCW) position (-
45°). A 1.5ms pulse places the shaft in a neutral midpoint position (0°). A 2-ms pulse
rotates the shaft to the extreme CW position (+45°).
The pulse width is sent to the servomotor approximately 50 times per second (50Hz).
Fig 1 illustrates the relationship of pulse width to servomotor position.
20
Pulse Width 1-2 ms
Period 18 ms
1 ms Pulse Train Servo
Motor Position Left
1.5 ms Pulse Train Servo
Motor Position Midrange
2 ms Pulse Train Servo
Motor Position Right
Fig. 19
Dc servo motors are normally used as prime movers in computers, numerically

controlled machinery, or other applications where starts and stops are made quickly
and accurately. Servo motors have lightweight, low-inertia armatures that respond
quickly to excitation-voltage changes. In addition, very low armature inductance in
these servo motors results in a low electrical time constant (typically 0.05 to 1.5 m
sec) that further sharpens servo motor response to command signals. Servo motors
include permanent-magnetic, printed-circuit, and moving-coil (or shell) dc servo
motors. The rotor of a shell dc servo motor consists of a cylindrical shell of copper or
aluminium wire coils which rotate in a magnetic field in the annular space between
magnetic pole pieces and a stationary iron core. The servo motor features a field,
which is provided by cast AlNiCo magnets whose magnetic axis is radial. Servo
motors usually have two, four, or six poles.
Dc servo motor characteristics include inertia, physical shape, costs, shaft resonance,
shaft configuration, speed, and weight. Although these dc servo motors have similar
torque ratings, their physical and electrical constants vary.
DC Servo Motor Selection The first selection approach is to choose a servo motor
large enough for a machine that has already been designed; the second is to select the
best available servo motor with a specific feature and then build the system around it;
and the third is to study servo motor performance and system requirements and mate
the two.
The final servo motor system design is usually the least sophisticated that meets the
performance specifications reliably. Servo motor requirements may include control of
acceleration, velocity, and position to very close tolerances. This says that the servo
designer must define the system carefully, establish the servo motor's performance
specifications, determine critical areas, and set up tolerances. Only then will the
designer be able to propose an adequate servo system and choose a servo motor type.
21
Servos -vs- Stepper - How are they different?
Stepper motors are permanent magnetic motors that 'step' one increment each time the
computer gives its control electronics one pulse. They don't require position feed back
if run within their limits. When stopped they inherently hold their position.
Servo motors are standard DC or brushless motors with an encoder feedback loop.
The computer reads the position of the motor and controls the power applied to the
motor.
Stepper motors generally are just as accurate as servos and are simpler and more
reliable and maintenance free in harsh dusty applications. The servomotor's encoder is
susceptible to dirt and vibration causing problems.
Servo's are faster moving point to point and are better at accelerating very heavy
machinery, but their higher maintenance should be a factor in deciding which to go
with. Our stepper motor system can be just as fast as or faster than many servo
systems because of the control's software's algorithms.
Many companies that sell servo controls try to run steppers down. They don't know
how good a properly made stepper motor system can be! Our stepper systems never
loose steps and can run for days with perfect repeatability. A servo system with dust
on the encoder will loose steps.
Motion
Servo Motors Stepper Motors
Characteristics
Continuous duty applications
High Torque, Can be considered if cost/
requiring high torque and low
Low Speed complexity is not an issue.
speed
Continuous duty applications
requiring high torque and high
speed. A DC servomotor can
deliver greater continuous shaft
If speeds are less than 2000
High Torque power at high speeds compared to
rpm stepper may be
and high speed steppers. High speed up to 12000
economical. Stepper becomes
(>2000 rpm) rpm is possible. AC servo motors
bulky at high torque.
can handle higher current surges
compared to DC servos. You can
get lot stronger AC servo compared
to either DC servo or DC stepper.
Short, Rapid Stepper will offer more
Use servo if you need high dynamic
Repetitive economic solution when
requirements.
Moves requirements are more modest.
Servo can handle effectively when
load is mostly inertia instead of
Use stepper motor if torque is
friction. The ability to overdrive
Positioning lower than 500 oz-in, less
servo motor in intermittent duty
Applications 2000 rpm, low to medium
allows a smaller motor to be used.
acceleration rates.
If positioning is critical in micron
level use servo
22
Applications in
Hazardous Use brushless servo motor Use step motor.
Environments
Low Speed,
High Use DC servo Use micro stepping
Smoothness
Control Preferred to be used in open
Closed loop
Method loop applications
23
STUDY OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Open and Closed Loop Systems:

The most fundamental concept for control systems engineering is the block diagram.
The simplest element of a block diagram looks like this:
In p u t O u tp u t
P la n t
Open loop control system.

Fig .20
This is also a complete system by itself. This system takes the input and generates
output through the action of the plant. The details of the internal workings of the plant
are unspecified, and to some extent irrelevant. All we are concerned with here is the
relationship between the input and output. A well-behaved system might have the
output proportional to the input, but it needn't be so. Your stove top burner is an
example. The input is the control knob. You turn it to one of its settings, somewhere
between off and fully on. The plant is the burner itself, which outputs heat. In this
case the amount of heat is proportional to the input.
A system which operates in this manner is known as an open-loop system. This

distinguishes it from another type known as closed-loop systems. These systems
utilize feedback, which is derived from the output. Here is a block diagram of a
closed-loop system.
Input E rror O utput

+
Plant
-
Feedback L oop
Closed loop control system.

Fig. 21
Continuing with the kitchen theme, your oven is a closed loop system. You input the
temperature you desire and the plant (oven) outputs heat. As the oven heats up, the
thermostat provides feedback to the oven, which in turn reduces the heat output.
Eventually, steady-state is reached at the desired temperature. Now, it is possible to
make this system work with an open-loop system, but the design engineer must have
near-perfect knowledge of how much heat output will sustain the desired operating
temperature. If he is inaccurate or something changes in the heat balance equation, the
oven will not operate at the desired temperature.
Here is a short comparison of the two fundamental types of control systems:
24
TABLE COMPARISON OF OPEN AND CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Open Loop Systems Closed Loop Systems

simple design more accurate
accuracy depends on calibration less sensitive to change in environment
unlikely to become unstable smooth response
wider bandwidth
can become unstable
A closed-loop control system is one in which an input forcing function is determined

in part by the system response. The measured response of a physical system is
compared with a desired response. The difference between these two responses
initiates actions that will result in the actual response of the system to approach the
desired response. This in turn drives the difference signal toward zero. Typically the
difference signal is processed by another physical system, which is called a
compensator, a controller, or a filter for real-time control system applications.
Closed-Loop Control:
• Shows a closed-loop action (closed control loop)
• Can counteract against disturbances (negative feedback)
• Can become unstable, i.e. the controlled variable does not fade away, but grows
(theoretically) to an infinite value.
Open-Loop Control:
• Shows an open-loop action (controlled chain);
• Can only counteract against disturbances, for which it has been designed; other
disturbances cannot be removed;
• Cannot become unstable - as long as the controlled object is stable.
Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the process input quantity are
called open-loop control systems.
Systems in which the output has an effect upon the process input quantity in such a
manner as to maintain the desired output value are called closed-loop control systems
Fig 8 shows basic elements of a feedback control system as represented by a block
diagram. The functional relationships between these elements are easily seen.
An important factor to remember is that the block diagram represents flow paths of
control signals, but does not represent flow of energy through the system or process
25
Actuating Manipulated Disturbance
Reference Signal Variable Controlled
Input Variable
(Setpoint) (Output)
+
Control Plant
+ Elements
Feedback Signal
Feedback
Elements
Fig. 22
The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is
controlled. This is also called the controlled system.
The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control
signal applied to the plant. These elements are also called the "controller."
The feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship
between the feedback signal and the controlled output.
The reference point is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control
system to cause the plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the
desired value of a controlled variable and is also called the "set point."
The controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled.
This signal represents the controlled variable.
The feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point
and algebraically added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.
The actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is equal to
the algebraic sum of the reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also called
the "error signal."
The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the
plant output (controlled variable) at the desired value.
The disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the value of the controlled
output of the plant.
26
Adaptive control involves modifying the control law used by a controller to cope with
the fact that the parameters of the system being controlled are slowly time-varying or
uncertain. For example, as an aircraft flies, its mass will slowly decrease as a result of
fuel consumption; we need a control law that adapts itself to such changing
conditions. Adaptive control is different from robust control in the sense that it does
not need a priori information about the bounds on these uncertain or time-varying
parameters; robust control guarantees that if the changes are within given bounds the
control law need not be changed, while adaptive control is precisely concerned with
control law changes.
An adaptive controller is a controller that can modify its behavior in response to

changes in the dynamics of the process and the disturbances. Adaptive control can be
considered as a special type of nonlinear feedback control in which the stages of the
process can be separated in to two categories, which can change at different rates. The
slowly changing states are viewed as parameters with a fast time scale for the ordinary
feed back and a slower one for updating regular parameters. One of the goals of
adaptive control is to compensate for parameter variations, which may occur due to
non linear actuators, changes in the operating conditions of the process, and non
stationary disturbances acting on the process.
Some of systems to be controlled have parameter uncertainty at the beginning of the

control operation for e.g. in robot manipulation the mass and tank lengths are the
uncertain parameters. Unless such parameter uncertainly is gradually reduced on line
by an adaption or estimation technique, it may cause inaccuracy or instability for the
control systems. In other systems like a pH control system, the system dynamics may
be well known at the beginning, but may experience unpredictable parameter
variations as the control operation goes on. Without continuous redesign of the
controller, the initial controller may not be able to control the changing plant well.
Thus the basic objective of adaptive controller is to maintain a consistent performance
of a system in the presence of uncertainty or unknown variation in the plant
parameters.
An adaptive controller is a controller with adjustable parameters and a mechanism for

adjusting the parameters. An adaptive control system can be thought of as having two
loops. One loop is normal feedback with a process, the process (plant) and controller.
The other loop is a parameter adjustment loop. A block diagram of adaptive control
system is shown in Fig The parameter adjustment loop is often slower than the normal
feedback loop.
27
EXPERIMENT 1
Objective:
To Study and Observe Voltage to Frequency Converter
Requirements
1. IT-4412 Trainer Board
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Refer to the following diagram to configure setup for the present experiment.
Fig 1.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Analog Source section TP5 output to the input of V/F converter
TP12.
2. Switch ON the trainer by Power switch.
3. Set the potentiometer in such a way that it gives 1V output and measure the
frequency at the output TP13 using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
4. Set the potentiometer in such a way that it gives 2.0V at the output and measure
the frequency at output using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
5. Now repeat the step 4 and 5 for 3V, 4V up to 10Vand measure the frequency at
the output using oscilloscope/ frequency counter.
6. Switch OFF the power switch.
7. Now make an observation table and plot a graph between voltage (Vin) and
frequency (Fout).
Table 1.1
Voltage (Vin) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency(Fout)
28
EXPERIMENT 2
Objective:
To Study and Observe Frequency to Voltage Converter
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 2.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Analog Source section TP5 output to the input of V/F converter
TP12.
2. Now connect the output of V/F converter TP13 to the input of F/V converter
TP32.
29
4. Now vary the input frequency by changing the input voltage through
potentiometer.
5. Observe the voltage at the output of F/V Converter TP33. By varying the
frequency the change in voltages can be observed at the output.
6. Switch off the power supply.
30
EXPERIMENT 3
Objective:
To Study and Implement Light Intensity Control Using PWM Method
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 3.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the output Analog Source Section TP5 to the input of PWM controller
TP35.
2. Observe the PWM output TP37 by using oscilloscope.
3. Change the input voltage of PWM controller and observe the corresponding
PWM output.
4. Now connect the output of PWM Controller TP37 to the Control input TP19 of
H-Bridge section as shown in Fig 3.1. Connect the Power Supply section to the
H-Bridge as shown.
5. Connect the outputs ‘W’ TP21 and ‘X’ TP22 of H-Bridge section to the +VE
and –VE inputs of Lamp 1 of Light Control section.
7. Slowly tune the potentiometer and observe the change in intensity of the Lamp-
1.
31
EXPERIMENT 4
Objective:
To Study and Observe Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR)
Theory:
Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carriers e.g.
electrons are available in the material when an electric field is applied. In certain
semiconductors photoconductive cell are elements whose conductivity is a function of
incident electromagnetic radiation. Since, resistance of these materials decrease with
increase in incident light, therefore these materials are also called Light Dependent
Resistor or LDR. Commercially available photoconductive cell materials are
cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenoid (CdSe) with band gap of 2.42 eV &
1.74 eV respectively. On account of the large energy bands, both the materials have a
very high resistivity at ambient temperature which gives a very high value of
resistance for practical purposes. The photoconductive cells use a special type of
construction which minimizes resistance while providing maximum surface.
Photoconductive cells are made by chemically sintering the required powder into
tablets of the protective envelope of glass or plastic. Electrons are deposited on the
tablet surface and are made of materials which give an ohmic contact but with low
resistance compared with that of the photoconductor.
The electrodes are usually in the form of interlocked fingers as shown.
Cadmium Sulphide Disk
Contact Contact
Gold Contact Fingers
Fig. 26
Photoconductive cell are made from cadmium sulphide doped with silver antimony or
indium chemically deposited on a substrate. Light falling on the sensitive area breaks
chemical bonds. The resulting electrons and holes become available to increase the
conductivity. These bonds are slow to re-form when light is removed and the response
time is sluggish.
The resistance of the ORP12 drops dramatically as the incident light increases. Its
characteristics are given in table given. The device requires a suitable load resistor to
provide a voltage output which then falls with increasing illumination. The
characteristics of a photoconductive cell vary considerably depending upon the type
of material used. When the cell is kept in darkness its resistance is called Dark
32
Resistance. The dark resistance may be as high as 1010Ω . If the cell is illuminated its
resistance decreases. The resistance depends on the physical character of
photoconductive layer as well as on the dimensions of the cell and its geometric
configuration. The current depends upon the electricity voltage applied and it is of the
order of the mA. When using photoconductive cell for a particular application it is
important to select the proper dark resistance, as well as suitable sensitivity. The
sensitivity is defined as:
S= ∆ R Ω /Wm-2
∆ H
Where,
∆R = Change in resistance; Ω
∆H = Change in irradiation; W/m-2
The spectral response of the sensor must match that of the light source. A Photo
conductor has a relatively large sensitive area. A small change in light intensity causes
a large change in resistance. The relationship between irradiance and resistance is,
however not linear. It is closely an exponential relationship. The spectral response of
cadmium sulphide cell closely matches that of the human eye and the cell is often
used in application where human vision is a factor, much as street light control or
automatic iris controls for cameras, to alter the bias of transistor or change the gain of
an amplifier. Such circuits are used in automatic brightness composition of TV
receivers. Photoconductive cells are also used in bridge circuit applications, and for
measurement of attenuation of light etc.
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
33
Fig 4.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the output Analog Source Section TP5 to the input of PWM controller
TP35.
3. Change the input voltage of PWM controller and observe the corresponding PWM
output.
4. Now connect the output of PWM Controller TP37 to the Control input TP19 of H-
Bridge section as shown in Fig 3.1. Connect the Power Supply section to the H-
Bridge as shown.
5. Connect the outputs ‘W’ TP21 and ‘X’ TP22 of H-Bridge section to the +VE and
–VE inputs of Lamp 1 of Light Control section.
7. Slowly tune the potentiometer and observe the change in intensity of the Lamp-1.
8. Connect the voltmeter to the Sensor output TP9 and observe the change in
voltages with respect to the change in the intensity of light.
9. Now set the voltage of Analog Source Section to 1V and observe the voltage at
the sensor output and note the reading. Similarly note down the different values of
sensor at different voltage (Vin).
Table 4.1
Voltage (Vin) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sensor O/P
34
EXPERIMENT 5
Objective:
To Study and Implement Motor Control Using PWM Method
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 5.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the output of Analog Source Section TP5 to the input of PWM controller
TP35.
3. Change the input voltage of PWM controller and observe the corresponding PWM
output.
4. Now connect the output of PWM Controller TP37 to the Control input TP19 of H-
Bridge section as shown in Fig 5.1. Connect the Power Supply section to the H-
Bridge as shown.
–VE inputs of DC motor of DC Motor Control section.
6. Switch ON the trainer Power supply.
7. On slowly varying the POT in CCW (counter clock wise) direction, increases the
motor speed and CW (clock wise), decrease the motor speed.
35
EXPERIMENT 6
Objective:
To Study and Implement Characteristics of DC Motor (Speed / Vin).
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
4. Voltmeter
Experimental Setup:
Fig 6.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the output of Analog Source Section TP5 to the input of PWM
controller TP35.
3. Change the input voltage of PWM controller and observe the corresponding
PWM output.
4. Now connect the output of PWM Controller TP37 to the Control input TP19 of
H-Bridge section as shown in Fig 6.1. Connect the Power Supply section to the
H-Bridge as shown.
and –VE inputs of DC motor of DC Motor Control section.
6. Switch ON the trainer Power supply.
7. Now connect the IR output TP70 to the input of F/V Converter TP32.
36
9. Turn the Analog Source voltage POT fully CW (clock wise) so that there should
be 10v at the output TP5. Now turn voltage POT slowly until the motor begins
to rotate.
10. Observe the TTL wave at the output of IR TP70 by using oscilloscope.
11. Decrease the input voltage by slowly turning the Reference voltage POT. For
every one volt decrement of the reference voltage (10v, 9v, 8v……….), record
the corresponding change in voltage with the help of Digital Voltmeter.
12. Note down all the readings in table given below
13. Switch OFF the power switch.
14. Plot a graph on PWM input voltage Vs Motor speed (in volts).
Note: when the motor is saturated, decrease the input (reference) voltage will not
increase motor speed, Avoid saturation in this Experiment.
Summary: The motor speed is proportional to the input voltage (). And the motor
current is not linearly proportional to the input voltage. At saturation, the motor input
current is no longer increases even if the input voltage is increased. And there exist a
“dead band” input voltage range in a motor, below which a motor can’t start. Motor
input voltage is required to be greater then the largest value of the dead band to
initiate motion. The dead band is caused by various mechanical frictions in the
system.
Motor Speed:
Table 6.1
Sr. Input Voltage of

Motor speed in
No. PWM
Volt
1 1V
2 2V
3 3V
4 4V
5 5V
6 6V
7 7V
8 8V
9 9V
10 10V
37
SOFTWARE & HARDWARE INSTALLATION
• Connect the main cord to the trainer and turn ON the power.
• Now connect the trainer with the PC through the USB cable provided.
• Now run the setup file and install the Control Application (Motor Control)
software provided in the cd.
• Desktop icon will be created after installation.
• Run the software and the following window appears.
• The green signal on the top right shows that the connection between the
controller and the software is ok.
• Press the “Start” button and select the experiment you want to perform.
38
EXPERIMENT 7
Objective:
To Study and Observe Position Control of DC Servo Motor
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
4. Computer with Motor Control installed software.
Experimental Setup:
Fig 7.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the USB cable between the module and the computer.
2. Connect the Servo output from PC Interface Section to the input of Servo
Motor.
3. Switch ON the trainer power supply.
4. Start the software on your computer.
5. Now you are ready to “Run” the software given with the trainer.
39
Fig 7.2
6. Now, single left click on the “Servo Motor” command button. A screen will
appear as shown in Fig.8.3
40
Fig 7.3
7. By changing the cursor position of scroll bar you can change the position of the
servo motor according to your requirement.
8. On connecting oscilloscope to servo output you will observe the change in pulse
width (ON time) with the change in angle.
9. Make an observation table to record the readings between ON time and angle
position.
41
EXPERIMENT 8
Objective:
To Study and Implement DC Motor Control Open-Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 8.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Analog output A-OUT TP53 of PC Interface to the input of PWM
controller TP35.
2. Now connect the output of PWM Controller to the Control input 1 TP19 of the
H-Bridge section as shown in Fig 8.1.
3. Connect the Q0 TP45 and Q1 TP46 of the PC Interface to the ‘A’ TP15 and
‘B’ TP16 of the H Bridge section as shown in Fig.
42
5. Now connect the IR Out TP70 to the input of PC Interface at IR In TP54.
6. Now, you are ready to “Run” the software given with the trainer.
7. Single left click on the “DC Motor Control” and a screen will appear on the
window as shown in Fig.8.2
8. Choose “Open Loop Control” option and click “Run” button.
9. Now move the cursor position in order to reach the set-point value until the
value of speed block matches or nearly equal to the set-point.
10. This method also called as Manual mode of controlling the system.
11. The direction of the motor can be reversed by using the Direction button given
in the software.
12. After completion of the experiment single click on “STOP” button.
Fig 8.2
43
EXPERIMENT 9
Objective:
To Study and Observe DC Motor Control-Close Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 9.1
Procedure:
controller TP35.
2. Now connect the output of PWM Controller to the Control input 1 TP19 of the
H-Bridge section as shown in Fig 9.1.
3. Connect the Q0 TP45 and Q1 TP46 of the PC Interface to the ‘A’ TP15 and
‘B’ TP16 of the H Bridge section as shown in Fig.
44
7. Single left click on the “DC Motor Control” and a screen will appear on the
window as shown in Fig.9.2
8. Choose “Close Loop Control” option and click on “Run” button.
9. Set the set-point value in set-point block by clicking the up & down arrow as
shown in Fig 9.2.
10. Now observe the change in the speed of DC motor with respect to the set-point
value in the Real – Time graph screen.
11. You will observe that the speed will change in accordance with the error (Err)
generated between the set-point (S.P.) and the feed-back (F.B.) value i.e., (Err
= SP-FB).
12. In some cases the error will not be reduced to zero exactly because here we are
not using any controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of
close loop. Here we can study the effect of feedback on a system.
13. This method also called as Automatic mode of controlling the system.
14. After the completion of an experiment double click on “STOP” button given.
Fig 9.2
45
EXPERIMENT 10
Objective:
To Study and Implement Temperature Control Open Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
Experimental Setup:
Fig 10.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Heater output of PC Interface TP55 to the relay input as shown in
Fig 10.1.
2. Provide +12V supply to the common point of Relay. Connect ‘NC’ of relay to
the input of Fan TP39 of Temperature Control section.
3. Now connect the ‘NO’ of the relay to the input of Heater TP40 of Temperature
Control section.
46
4. Connect the Sensor output TP41 to the A-IN TP52 of the PC Interface section.
6. Single left click on the “Temperature control” from the main menu then a
screen will appear on the window as shown in Fig. 10.2.
7. Choose “Open Loop Control” option.
8. To ON the heater click on the “check box” and to make OFF the heater
“uncheck” it. To reach the desired set point you have to ON and OFF the
heater as per requirement and the corresponding graph will be displayed on the
Real-Time graph screen is shown in the right side of Fig.10.2.
10. After the completion of an experiment double click on “STOP” button given.
Fig 10.2
47
EXPERIMENT 11
Objective:
To Study and Observe Temperature Control Close Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
Experimental Setup:
Fig 11.1
Procedure:
1. Connect the Heater output of PC Interface TP55 to the relay input as shown in Fig
11.1.
2. Provide +12V supply to the common point of Relay. Connect ‘NC’ of relay to the
input of Fan TP39 of Temperature Control section.
3. Now connect the ‘NO’ of the relay to the input of Heater TP40 of Temperature
Control section.
48
4. Connect the Sensor output TP41 to the A-IN TP52 of the PC Interface section.
6. Single left click on the “Temperature control” from the main menu then a screen
will appear on the window as shown in Fig. 11.2.
7. Choose “Close Loop Control” option and click “Run” button.
8. You will observe that the heater will switch ON/OFF in accordance with the error
generated between the set-point and the feed-back value and the corresponding
graph will be displayed on the Real-Time graph screen as shown in the right side
of Fig. 11.2.
9. The error will not going to be zero exactly because here we are not using any
controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of close loop. Here
we can study the effect of feedback on a system
11. After the completion of an experiment double click on “Stop” button given.
Fig 11.2
49
EXPERIMENT 12
Objective:
To Study and Observe Working of Stepper Motor
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
Experimental Setup:
Fig 12.1
Procedure:
1. Connect all the connections of H-Bridge and Stepper Motor as shown in Fig 12.1.
2. Connect the USB cable to PC and run the software. As shown in Fig 12.2.
50
Fig 12.2
3. First press the Reset button to bring the Stepper at home position.
4. Different speeds can be obtained by scrolling speed options.
51
EXPERIMENT 13
Objective:
To Study and Implement Light Intensity Control Open Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 13.1
Procedure:
controller TP35.
52
2. Now connect the output of PWM Controller to the Control input 1 TP19 of the H-
Bridge section as shown in Fig 13.1.
3. Connect the Q0 TP45 and Q1 TP46 of the PC Interface to the ‘A’ TP15 and ‘B’
TP16 of the H Bridge section as shown in Fig.
7. Single left click on the “Light Control” from the main menu then a screen will
appear on the window as shown in Fig. 13.2.
8. Choose “Open Loop Control” option.
9. Now by scrolling the cursor position you can change the intensity of lamp-1 and
reach near to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will be
displayed on the Real-Time graph screen on the right side of Fig.49.
11. After the completion of an experiment click on “STOP” button given.
Fig 13.2
53
EXPERIMENT 14
Objective:
To Study and Observe Light Intensity Control Close Loop
Requirements
2. 2mm Patch Cords
3. CRO
Experimental Setup:
Fig 14.1
Procedure:
controller TP35.
54
2. Now connect the output of PWM Controller to the Control input 1 TP19 of the H-
Bridge section as shown in Fig 14.1.
3. Connect the Q0 TP45 and Q1 TP46 of the PC Interface to the ‘A’ TP15 and ‘B’
TP16 of the H Bridge section as shown in Fig.
7. Single left click on the “Light Control” from the main menu then a screen will
appear on the window as shown in Fig. 14.2.
8. Choose “Close Loop Control” option.
9. Now by scrolling the cursor position you can change the intensity of lamp-1 and
reach near to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will be
displayed on the Real-Time graph screen on the right side of Fig.14.2.
10. Now you will observe that the intensity of the Lamp-1 will change automatically
with respect to the set-point value and the corresponding change in graph will be
displayed on the Real-time graph screen as shown on the right side of Fig. 14.2.
11. In some cases the error will not be reduced to zero exactly because here we are not
using any controller (like PID). This experiment is to study the concept of close
loop. Here we can study the effect of feedback on a system.
13. After the completion of an experiment click on “STOP” button.
Fig 14.2
55
LIST OF ACCESSORIES
1. Patch Cord
2. USB Cable
3. Software CD
4. Main Cord.
5. Operational Manual
56

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CONTROL APPLICATION TRAINING

• Servo motor control

Study of Basic electrical concepts:

The development of an EMF in a conductor moving in a magnetic field is the

Application of Faraday’s Law:

90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

90° 180° 270° 0° 90°

A motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

Where KØ = magnetic line of force of the permanent magnet.

Ei = electromotive force in volts.

In industries motor is used to provide constant speed regardless of the change in

Speed and Error

Speed Deviation Magnitude of Deviation

Mechnical Load Mechnical Load

( A ) Loaded Open Loop System ( B ) Loaded Feedback System

Vref E EA=KE Motor

EA is responsible for the speed of the motor hence:

Error voltage is equal to:

We know Vt is equal to:

From equation No (6)

By solving this equation we get:

Ø = Vref * K / (1+K* KT) (9)

From equation No (8) & (6) we get

E = Vref – K* KT*E (11)

By solving this equation:

E = Vref / (1 + K* KT) (12)

1.50 ms: Neutral

1.25 ms: 0 Degrees

1.75 ms: 180 Degrees

Dc servo motors are normally used as prime movers in computers, numerically

Open and Closed Loop Systems:

Open loop control system.

A system which operates in this manner is known as an open-loop system. This

Input E rror O utput

Closed loop control system.

Here is a short comparison of the two fundamental types of control systems:

Open Loop Systems Closed Loop Systems

A closed-loop control system is one in which an input forcing function is determined

An adaptive controller is a controller that can modify its behavior in response to

Some of systems to be controlled have parameter uncertainty at the beginning of the

An adaptive controller is a controller with adjustable parameters and a mechanism for

The electrodes are usually in the form of interlocked fingers as shown.

Cadmium Sulphide Disk

Gold Contact Fingers

Sr. Input Voltage of

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