TUGAS ENGLISH SEMANTICS

SEMESTER 4 TA. 2023/2024

Presented on the subject of English Semantics

Supervised by Waladdin Panggabean, S.S., M.Pd

Written By:
Ija Ainaya Amanda (221011437)

FACULTY OF CULTURAL SCIENCE

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT
BALIKPAPAN UNIVERSITY
2024
 Introduction to Semantics

Week 1 - 3

• Semantics

1. Usually defined as that part of Linguistics that deals with meaning

2. This lecture will try to outline: How to identify semantics and meaning?

• Parts of Linguistics

1. Phonetics

2. Phonology

3. Morphology

4. Syntax

5. Semantics

6. Pragmatics

7. Sociolinguistics

8. Psycholinguistics

9. Neurolinguistics

10. Historical Linguistics

11. .Computational Linguistics

12. Applied Linguistics

• Parts of A Phonetics

1. Articulatory Phonetics

2. Acoustic Phonetics

3. Auditory Phonetics

4. Experimental Phonetics

5. Clinical Phonetics
6. Applied Phonetics

7. Instrumental Phonetics

8. Comparative Phonetics

• COMPONENTS OR PHONOLOGY

1. Phonemes

2. Allophones

3. Phonological Rules

4. Phonotactics

5. Syllable Structure

6. Prosody

7. Morphophonology

8. Historical Phonology

9. Phonological Processes

10. Feature Theory

• Types of Semantics

1. Grammatical semantics

2. Lexical Semantics
 Types of Semantics

Grammatical semantics is the study of meaning in connection to language's grammatical

structure and order. This means understanding how words and phrases fit into sentences to
create their overall meaning as well as how grammatical structures impact interpretation.
(Verhaar, 1993: 132)

Lexical semantics is the study of word meanings and how specific words impact the overall
meaning of sentences and speech. (Verhaar, 1993: 132

GRAMMATICAL SEMANTICS

grammatical semantics is categorized as follows: 1) Noun Phrases (NPs) 2) Verb

Phrases (VPs) 3) Adjective Phrases (APs) 4) Adverbial Phrases (ADVPs) 5)

Prepositional Phrases (PPs) 6) Determiners 7) Conjunctions 8) Tense and Aspect 9) Mood 10)
Voice

LEXICAL SEMANTICS

LEXICAL semantics is categorized as follows:

1) Synonymy

2) Antonymy 3)

Hyponymy/Hypernymy

4) Polysemy

5) Homonymy

6) Ambiguity

7) Connotation and

Denotation 8)

Idioms 9) Collocation

10) Metaphor and Metonymy

1) Synonymy 2)

Antonymy 3)
Hyponymy/Hypernymy

4) Polysemy

5) Homonymy

6) Ambiguity 7)

Connotation and Denotation 8) Idioms

9) Collocation

10) Metaphor and Metonymy

Semantics LIN1180

Phonetics: The study of the physical sounds of human speech, including their production,
transmission, and reception.

Phonology: Concerned with the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds in language, such as
their patterns, rules, and structures.

Morphology: The study of the internal structure of words, including morphemes, which are
the smallest units of meaning.

Syntax: The study of the structure, formation, and order of words in phrases and sentences,
including

grammatical rules and principles. Semantics: Examines the meaning of words, phrases,
sentences, and larger units of discourse, as well as how meaning is constructed and
interpreted.

Pragmatics: Focuses on the context-dependent aspects of language use, including how

language is used in different social situations to convey meaning.

Sociolinguistics: Investigates how language varies and changes in different social and
cultural contexts, as well as the social factors influencing language use.

Psycholinguistics: Explores the psychological processes involved in language acquisition,

comprehension, production, and representation in the mind.

Neurolinguistics: Examines the neural basis of language processing in the brain, including
how language is represented and processed neurologically.

Historical Linguistics: Studies how languages change over time, including the processes of
language evolution, divergence, and historical relationships between languages.
Computational Linguistics: Involves the application of computational methods and
algorithms to the analysis and processing of natural language, including tasks such as
machine translation and speech recognition.

Applied Linguistics: The application of linguistic theories and methods to practical issues,
such as language teaching and learning, language policy, and language planning.

Articulatory Phonetics: This branch of phonetics focuses on how speech sounds are produced
by the articulatory organs (such as the tongue, lips, and vocal cords) and the movements
involved in their production. It examines the physical processes and

mechanisms behind speech production.

Acoustic Phonetics: Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds as
they travel through the air and are detected by the human ear. It involves the study of sound
waves, frequencies, amplitudes, and spectrograms to analyze the

acoustic characteristics of speech sounds.

Auditory Phonetics: Auditory phonetics explores how speech sounds are perceived and
processed by the human auditory system. It

investigates factors such as hearing thresholds, perceptual abilities, and auditory processing
mechanisms involved in speech

perception.

Experimental Phonetics: Experimental phonetics involves conducting controlled experiments

to investigate various aspects of speech production, perception, and acoustic properties. It
employs techniques such as spectrographic analysis, electroglottography, and
electromyography to gather empirical data on speech sounds.

Clinical Phonetics: Clinical phonetics focuses on the assessment and treatment of speech
disorders and communication

impairments. It involves the diagnosis and management of speech sound disorders (such as
articulation disorders and phonological disorders) through techniques such as speech therapy
and intervention programs.

Applied Phonetics: Applied phonetics applies phonetic principles and methods to practical
domains such as language teaching,

speech technology, forensic linguistics, and dialectology. It involves using phonetic

knowledge to address real-world issues and

applications in various fields.

Instrumental Phonetics: Instrumental phonetics utilizes technological instruments and tools to

analyze and measure speech sounds
objectively. It includes the use of instruments such as spectrographs, waveform analyzers,
and computer software for acoustic

analysis and speech measurement

Comparative Phonetics: Comparative phonetics compares the phonetic features and sound
systems of different languages or dialects to identify similarities, differences, and patterns
across languages. It investigates cross-linguistic variations in speech sounds and phonological

The problem of knowledge (1)

Here's a perfectly ordinary English sentence:

• Arnold Schwarzenegger is better at lifting things than he was at governing states.

• Have you ever heard this sentence before?

• Even if you haven't you are still able to understand it.

Semantics as part of grammar

• Grammar (in the linguist's sense) is a characterisation of the knowledge of a

speaker/hearer (to produce and comprehend the language)

• Semantics is part of a speaker's (listener's) linguistic knowledge.

• Therefore, semantics is part of grammar.

• Speakers have some internalised knowledge such that:

1. They understand what other people mean

2. They are able to say what they mean

Compositionality

• The guiding principle to explaining the productivity of meaning is the Principle of

Compositionality

• The meaning of a sentence is a function of the meaning of its component words and
the way they're combined.
 Semantic Composition

• Remember, we don't just add up all the word meanings to get the meaning of the
whole. If semantics worked this way, we should expect the two sentences the cat
chased the dog and the dog chased the cat to mean exactly the same words or maybe
the chased dog cat

Semantic Triangle

Ogden & Richards (1923): Symbols and Semantic Triangle

 An example situation

A : So did you like the food?

B : You made great black coffee.

Requirements for our theory (1)

What kinds of knowledge do you need to understand a reply such as you made great black
coffee:

Word meaning:

black, coffee, great, make, you

(Compositionality):

Phrasal and sentence meaning black + coffee You, (great + black + coffee) + (make + PAST)

Sentence Meaning

The basic sentence type is declarative.

The main use of language is to describe states of affairs.

The meaning of sentences should be described in terms of truth and falsity

Sentence Meaning

The basic sentence type is declarative.

The main use of language is to describe states of affairs.

The meaning of sentences should be described in terms of truth and falsity

Context

The phrase you made great black coffee seems to acquire new shades of meaning in different
contexts: You're a hopeless cook, but at least, the coffee was OK... You completely failed to
impress me...
 What is meaning?

Conceptual meaning and contextual meaning

1: conceptual meaning: basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the
literal use of a word.

2: contextual meaning: also called associative meaning or connotative meaning. Meaning

conveyed in a specific context.

NOTE: semantics focuses its attention without considering the specific situation in which the
word is used or the sentence is spoken.

Semantics vs. pragmatics

Literal/conventionalised meaning "core meaning", independent of context This belongs to

semantics proper Speaker meaning & context What a speaker means when they say
something, over and above the literal meaning. This and other "contextual" effects belong to
pragmatics

Summary

Semantics is part of linguistic and encyclopaedic knowledge

This is productive and systematic Compositionality of meaning helps us to explain how

people can interpret a potentially infinite number of sentences

Theories of linguistic meaning must account for distinctions between:

Linguistic knowledge and world knowledge Literal meaning vs contextualised or non- literal
meaning

SEMANTICS

Speech Acts

WEEEK 4

Speech Acts

Language is not just about conveying information; it's a tool for action.

Speech acts theory explores how words are used to perform actions and achieve goals in
communication.
 What are Speech Acts?

Definition: Utterances that not only convey information but also perform actions.

Example: "I promise to be there by 9" not only communicates intent but also commits the
speaker to an action.

Components of Speech Acts

1. Locutionary Act: Literal meaning of the utterance.

2. Illocutionary Act: Intended meaning or action performed by the utterance.

3. Perlocutionary Act: Effect or response generated by the utterance.

Types of Speech Acts

4. Assertive: Statements that convey beliefs or facts (e.g., stating, informing).

5. Directive: Attempts to get the listener to do something (e.g., requesting, ordering).

6. Commissive: Committing the speaker to future actions (e.g., promising, volunteering).

7. Expressive: Expressing attitudes or emotions (e.g., apologizing, congratulating).

8. Declarative: Changes the external state of affairs (e.g., pronouncing, christening).

Examples of Speech Acts

1. Assertive: "The meeting starts at 10."

2. Directive: "Please pass the salt."

3. Commissive: "I'll help you with your project."

4. Expressive: "I'm sorry for your loss."

5. Declarative: "I now pronounce you, husband and wife."

Speech Acts in Everyday Life

• Social interactions heavily rely on speech acts.

• Understanding speech acts enhances communication effectiveness.

• Misinterpretation of speech acts can lead to misunderstandings.

 Cultural Variations in Speech Acts

Different cultures may have different conventions and interpretations of speech acts.

Direct vs. indirect communication styles vary across cultures.

Awareness of cultural difference is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication.

Importance of Pragmatics

Pragmatics studies how context influences the interpretation of language.

Speech acts are a fundamental aspect of pragmatics.

Pragmatic competence is essential for communicative success.

Challenges and Criticisms

1. Context Dependency: Interpretation relies heavily on context, which can be ambiguous.

2. Searle's Classification: Critics argue Searle's taxonomy of speech acts is oversimplified.

3. Cultural Bias: The theory may not fully account for cultural variations in speech acts.

Future Directions

Incorporating computational models for analyzing speech acts.

Exploring speech acts in digital communication (e.g., social media).

Integrating insights from cognitive science and neuroscience for a deeper understanding

ENGLISH SEMANTICS What do experts SEMANTICS

Week 5

1. Semantics is the study of meaning (Lyons, 1977).

2. Semantic is the technical term that refers to the study of meaning since meaning is a
part of language (Palmer, 1981, p.1).

3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language (Hurford & Heasley, 1983).

4. Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language (Saeed, 1997).

5. Semantics is the part of linguistics that is concerned with meaning (Sebastian, 2002).
 6. Linguistic semantics is the study of literal, decontextualized, grammatical meaning
(Frawley, 1992).

7. Linguistic semantics is the study of how languages organize and express meanings
(Kreidler, 1998).

9. Semantics is the study of meaning in language (Geeraerts, 2010).

Observing the Definition, Types, and Examples of Semantics in English

Week 6

Semantics is a branch of language or linguistics that discusses meaning. If you want to

deepen your understanding of English, you need to study semantics. So, to deepen your
understanding of this branch of science, there's no harm in learning more about semantics
itself. The following is a complete explanation of the definition, types and examples of
semantics in English:

As previously mentioned, semantics is a branch of linguistics that discusses meaning. This is

a sign, when studying semantics, we also learn about the relationship between words and the
meaning of these words. Usually, the use of semantics will be very helpful in unraveling
problems related to understanding a word or the connotation of that word. The reason is,
often the same set of words can be interpreted differently by each person.

When you want to carry out a semantics analysis of a language, you must realize that
language has unique properties and is closely related to the culture of the people who use it.
Therefore, semantics analysis of that language only applies to that language and cannot be
applied to analyzing other languages.

To understand more about semantics, see the following explanation of the types..

Types of semantics

To analyze further, semantics is divided into several types, namely:

Formal semantics

This type of semantics uses mathematical, philosophical and logical techniques to analyze the
relationship between language, reality, truth and opportunity, on a broader basis. This type
can usually help you dissect sentences and find various information to find out the true
meaning of the sentence.

Lexical semantics

Meanwhile, this type of semantics dissects words and phrases in a text to understand the
context of the entire text. This includes understanding verbs, nouns, adjectives, prefixes,
suffixes, or idioms.
Conceptual semantics This type of semantics is usually related to the basic concept of
forming a word before it is given meaning or context. For more details, you can understand it
through examples. For example, basically, the word cougar in English means a large wild cat.
However, the word can also be used to describe a woman who dates younger men. Therefore,
the existence of context is very important to understand the overall meaning.Semantics
example

So that you better understand what is meant by semantics, of course it will be easier to study
examples. So, here are some examples of semantics that you can find in everyday life.

A water pill. If you read it without context, you might interpret the phrase as a pill containing
water. However, the phrase is usually used to describe diuretic drugs that can cause a person
to lose body fluids.

Human. In English, the word means "human". However, you have to understand the context
to better understand whether the person referred to is a man, woman, child, or perhaps an
elderly person.

Move. This verb has various meanings, including moving, pushing, pulling, or arousing
feelings. To know the intended meaning, you must understand the context first. Basically,
there are so many examples of semantics that you can find in everyday life. Have a good
study!

Week 7

Semantic structure is a network of semantic units and the relations between these units
(Larson, p. 26) Waladdin P.

Slide 2: Introduction]

•Definition: Semantic structure refers to the organization of meaning in language.

•Larson (p. 26) posits that it is comprised of semantic units and their interrelations.

•In this presentation, we delve into this concept and its implications.

[Slide 3: Semantic Units]

•Explanation: Semantic units are the building blocks of meaning.

•Examples: Words, phrases, concepts. Each unit carries its own semantic content.

Slide 4: Relations Between Units]

•Explanation: Units are interconnected through relations.

•Examples: Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy.

•These relations create a network of meaning.

[Slide 5: Semantic Network]

•Visualization: Imagine a web of interconnected nodes.

•Each node represents a semantic unit.

•Arrows indicate relations between units.

[Slide 6: Importance]

•Facilitates Understanding: Helps comprehend how meanings are structured.

•Aids Communication: Enhances clarity and precision in language use.

•Cognitive Aspect: Reflects how humans organize and process information.

[Slide 7: Application]

•Natural Language Processing: Semantic networks assist in machine understanding of

language.

•Information Retrieval: Used in search algorithms to enhance relevance.

•Cognitive Science: Studying semantic structure sheds light on human cognition

Slide 8: Challenges]

•Ambiguity: Some words or concepts may have multiple meanings or interpretations.

•Complexity: Semantic networks can become intricate,

especially in rich languages.

•Cultural Variations: Meanings can vary across cultures, complicating semantic analysis

Week 8

Definitions of semantics by various experts

Definition 1: Charles W. Morris (1938)

Semantics is concerned with the relation between signs and what they refer to, their denotata.
Example: The word "dog" refers to a domesticated carnivorous mammal.
Definition 2: John Lyons (1977)

Semantics is the study of meaning, not only in language but also in non-linguistic systems of
communication. Example: The color red can symbolize danger or stop in traffic signs.

Definition 3: Geoffrey Leech (1981)

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, focusing on the meanings of words, phrases,
and sentences. Example: The word "book" can refer to both physical objects made of paper
and digital content accessed online.

Definition 4: Ray Jackendoff (1983)

Semantics involves the study of meaning in natural language, exploring how words and
phrases combine to convey meaning. Example: The phrase "big green apple" conveys the size
and color of the apple.

Definition 5: George Lakoff (1987)

Semantics studies how language structures concepts, how they are expressed, and how they
relate to real-world phenomena. Example: The metaphor "Time is money" implies that time is
a valuable resource.

Definition 6: Ronald Langacker (1987)

Semantics explores the relationship between linguistic expressions and the conceptual
structures they represent. Example: The sentence "The cat is on the mat" represents a spatial
relationship between objects.

Definition 7: Noam Chomsky (1995):

Semantics is the study of the interpretation of linguistic expressions, focusing on how

meaning is derived from syntax. Example: In the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep
furiously," the words have individual meanings, but the sentence as a whole is nonsensical.

Definition 8: Barbara Partee (2004)

Semantics is the study of how meaning is structured and interpreted in natural language.
Example: The sentence "She gave him the book" can imply different meanings depending on
the context and the interpretation of the pronouns.

Definition 9: Stephen C. Levinson (2014)

: Semantics involves the systematic study of meaning in language and its relation to linguistic
and non-linguistic

contexts. Example: The word "run" can have different meanings depending on whether it's
used in the context of sports, machinery, or social interactions.
Definition 10: Keith Allan (2016)

Semantics examines how meaning is conveyed through language, including lexical meaning,
sentence meaning, and discourse meaning. Example: The word "bank" can refer to a financial
institution, the edge of a river, or a verb meaning to tilt to one side.

Definition 11: semantics (Verhaar, 1993)

Semantics is divided by two types. They are grammatical semantics and lexical semantics.
Grammatical Semantics is the study of meaning in connection to language's grammatical
structure and order. This means understanding how words and phrases fit into sentences to
create their overall meaning as well as how grammatical structures impact interpretation.
Lexical semantics is the study of word meanings and how specific words impact the overall
meaning of sentences and speech

Week 9

Synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metonymy

1. Synonymy:

Definition: Synonymy refers to words or phrases that have similar meanings.

Example: In PowerPoint, "slide" and "page" can be considered synonyms. They both refer to
the individual screens within a presentation.

2. Antonymy:

Definition: Antonymy involves words that have opposite meanings.

Example: "Visible" and "invisible" are antonyms in PowerPoint. When a slide is hidden, it's
"invisible"; when it's shown, it's "visible

3. Hyponymy:

Definition: Hyponymy is a relationship where one

term (the hyponym) is a type of another term (the

hypernym). Example: "Pie chart" is a hyponym of "chart" in PowerPoint. A pie chart is a
specific type of chart. 2.

4. Metonymy:

Definition: Metonymy involves using a word or phrase to stand in for another word or phrase
it's closely associated with.
Example: "the White House" can be a metonym for the U.S. presidency or government. So, if
you're discussing a presentation about government policies, you might refer to "the White
House's stance" instead of explicitly saying "the U.S. government's stance."

Week 10 Prepositions

Definition

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other
words in a sentence. They indicate location, direction, time, manner, or degree.

Kinds of Prepositions:

1. Simple Prepositions: These are single-word prepositions.

Example: in, on, at, by, with, from, to, for, of, about, etc.

In:

• She is studying in the library.

• On:

• The book is on the table.

• At: We will meet at the restaurant at 7 PM.

• By:

• The project needs to be completed by Friday.

• With:

• She painted the picture with watercolors.

• From:

• I received a gift from my friend.

• To:

• He walked from his house to the store.

• For:

• I bought a present for my sister's birthday.

• Of
 • The cupcake is made of chocolate.

• About:

• They had a discussion about the environment.

Kinds of Prepositions:

2. Compound Prepositions: These are formed by combining two or more words.

Example: in front of, because of, out of, on top of, etc.

• In front of:

• The car was parked in front of the house.

• Because of:

• He missed the meeting because of traffic.

• Out of:

• She made the decision out of fear.

• On top of:

• The keys were on top of the table.

Kinds of Prepositions:

3. Participle Prepositions: These are formed from verbs ending in "-ing" or "-ed".

Example: during, concerning, following, including, according to, etc.

• During: The students remained quiet during the exam.

• Concerning: She had many questions concerning the new project.

• Following: The following day, the storm was bright and sunny.

• Including: The package contains various items, including a book, a pen, and a
notebook.

• According to: According to the weather forecast, it will rain tomorrow.

4. Double Prepositions: These are composed of two simple prepositions used together.

Kinds of Prepositions:
Example: into, onto, upon, within, without, etc.

Into:

• She walked into the room and found it beautifully decorated.

• The bird flew into the cage and perched on a branch.

• Onto:

• He climbed onto the roof to fix the leak.

• The cat jumped onto the table to catch the mouse.

• Upon:

• Upon arriving at the airport, they were greeted by their relatives.

• The sun set upon the horizon, painting the sky with vibrant colors.

• Within:

• The keys are within the drawer on the left.

• He found peace within himself after years of struggle.

• Without:

• He managed to escape the city without being noticed.

• She couldn't live without her morning coffee.

Week 12

Polysemy in Language

Definition of Polysemy

Polysemy is the phenomenon where a single word has

multiple related meanings. These meanings can develop over time and be related in a
conceptual or metaphorical way. Polysemy is a key aspect of language development and
communication.

Recognizing polysemy helps in understanding context and meaning in language.

Understanding Polysemy
• Polysemy occurs when a word has several meanings that are conceptually linked.

• It is different from homonymy, where words have the same spelling or pronunciation but
different meanings and origins.

Example 1 - "Bank"

Bank:

1. Financial Institution

1. "I need to go to the bank to withdraw money."

2.Side of a River

1. "We had a picnic on the bank of the river."

Example 2 - "Book"

Book:

1.Noun (Reading Material)

1. "She is reading a fascinating book."

2. Verb (To Reserve)

1. "We need to book a table for dinner."

Example 3 - "Light"

Light:

1.Noun (Illumination)

1. "The light in the room is too dim."

2. Adjective (Not Heavy)

1. "This suitcase is very light compared to the others."

Example 4- "Head"

Head:

1. Part of the Body

1. "He has a headache."

2. Leader or Chief
1. "She is the head of the department."

8: Example 5-"Play"

Play:

1. Verb (To Engage in Activity) "Children love to play in the park."

1.

2. Noun (Theatrical Performance) "We are going to watch a play tonight." 1

Week 13

Referring Expressions in Linguistics

What is the definition Referring Expressions?

Definition of Referring Expressions

• Referring expressions are words or phrases used in language to identify or denote entities,
whether they are people, objects, places, or abstract concepts.

What is the Purpose Referring Expressions?

Purpose Referring Expressions

Referring Expressions help speakers and listeners to identify which specific entity is being
talked about in a given context.

What are the Key Characteristics of Referring Expressions?

The Key Characteristics of Referring Expressions are:

• Reference: Points to specific entities in the world or in the discourse context.

• Clarity: Aims to make communication clear and unambiguous.

• Variety: Can take many forms, including proper nouns, pronouns, definite
descriptions, and

• more.

What are examples of Referring Expressions?

Examples of Referring Expressions:

1. Proper Nouns:

Example: "Barack Obama was the 44th President of the United States."

Refers to a specific person.

2. Pronouns:

Example: "She gave her book to him."

Refers to specific people understood from the context.

3. Definite Descriptions:

Example: "The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris."

Refers to a unique entity with a known characteristic.

4. Indefinite Descriptions:

Example: "A student came to see me yesterday."

Refers to an unspecified member of a class.

What are the referring expressions in Different Contexts?

The referring expressions in Different Contexts:

1. Linguistic Context:

Example: "John said he would come." (The pronoun 'he' refers to John within the sentence)

2. Situational Context:

1. Example: "Pass me the salt, please." (Assumes the presence of a specific salt container in
the situation)

3. Textual Context:

Example: "The cat was hungry. It meowed loudly." (The pronoun 'it' refers to 'the cat'
mentioned earlier in the text)

What are the importance of referring expressions in Communication?

The importance of referring expressions in communication:

•Disambiguation: Helps avoid confusion by clearly identifying which entities are being
discussed.

•Coherence: Contributes to the coherence and flow of conversation or text.

•Efficiency: Allows speakers to convey meaning without repeatedly describing the same
entities.

What are the ambiguity in referring expressions?

The ambiguity in referring expressions:

•Ambiguous Pronouns:

Example: "When Jane met Sarah, she was very happy." (Who is 'she'?)

•Context-Dependent References:

Example: "Take it to the manager." (What is 'it' and who is 'the manager'?)

What is resolving ambiguity?

The resolving ambiguity:

•Contextual Clues: Use surrounding text or situational context.

•Clarification: Ask for clarification if the reference is unclear.

•Rephrasing: Use more specific language to reduce ambiguity.

Week 14
Universe of Discourse in Linguistics

Definition of Universe of Discourse

•Universe of Discourse: The set of all entities

and contexts relevant to a specific discussion or
analysis in linguistics.

•Purpose: Provides a boundary for the context in

which linguistic statements are made, ensuring
clarity and relevance.

•Example: In a discussion about English pronouns,

the universe of discourse is the set of all English
pronouns.

Slide 3: Example 1 - Sentence Structure

Title: Example 1 - Sentence Structure

•Context: Analyzing a simple sentence

•Universe of Discourse: All words in the

Sentence

•Example Statement: "Every noun in the

sentence is followed by a verb."

•Explanation: The universe is the set of words in

the sentence being analyzed.

Example 2 - Parts of Speech

Content:

•Context: Identifying parts of speech in a

Paragraph

•Universe of Discourse: All words in the English

Language

•Example Statement: "Adjectives typically

precede nouns in English."

•Explanation: The set includes all English words,

focusing on their grammatical roles.

Slide 5: Example 3 – Phonetics

Title: Example 3 - Phonetics

Content:

•Context: Studying phonetic sounds

•Universe of Discourse: All phonemes in a

specific language

•Example Statement: "Vowels are more sonorous

than consonants."

•Explanation: The universe comprises all

phonemes of the language under study.

Slide 6: Example 4 – Semantics

Title: Example 4 – Semantics

•Context: Analyzing word meanings

•Universe of Discourse: All possible meanings of

a word in a given language
•Example Statement: "The word 'bank' can mean
a financial institution or the side of a river."

•Explanation: The universe is the set of all

meanings associated with the word 'bank'.

Slide 7: Example 5 – Pragmatics

•Context: Studying language use in context

•Universe of Discourse: All contextual factors

affecting language use

•Example Statement: "Politeness strategies vary

depending on social context."

•Explanation: The universe includes all factors

influencing language use, such as social norms and
speaker relationships.