LIPIDS

 Lipids are intermediate metabolites.

 These are esters of long chain fatty acids and alcohols, or of closely related derivatives.
 Example- Fixed oils, fats and waxes.
 The chief difference between these substances is the type of alcohols; in fixed oils and
fats, glycerol combines with the fatty acids; in waxes, the alcohol has a higher molecular
weight; e.g., cetyl alcohol.
 Importance:
1. The primary function is food (energy) storage.
2. The fixed oils and fats are important products used pharmaceutically, industrially,
and nutritionally.
 Fixed oils and fats differ only as to melting point; those that are liquids at normal
temperatures are known as fatty or fixed oils, whereas those that are semi-solid or solid at
ordinary temperatures are known as fats. Although most vegetables oils are liquids at
ordinary temperatures and most animal fats are solids, there are notable exceptions, such
as cocoa butter, which is a solid vegetable oil, and cod liver oil, which is a liquid animal
fat.
 Fatty acids are carbon chains with a methyl group at one end of the molecule (designated
as omega), and a carboxyl group at the other end. The carbon atom next to the carboxyl
group is called the alpha carbon, and the subsequent one the beta carbon. The letter n is
also often used instead of the Greek omega to indicate the position of the double bond
closest to the methyl end. The systematic nomenclature for fatty acids may also indicate
the location of double bonds with reference to the carboxyl group (delta).

 Essential fatty acids: Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are types of fats that are necessary for
human health but cannot be synthesized by the body, so they must be obtained from the
diet. The two primary types of EFAs are omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty
acids.Omega-3 fatty acids are found in foods like fatty fish (such as salmon, mackerel,
and sardines), flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and certain oils (like flaxseed oil and canola
oil). They are important for brain function, heart health, reducing inflammation, and
supporting overall well-being. Omega-6 fatty acids are found in vegetable oils (such as
 soybean oil, corn oil, and sunflower oil), nuts, seeds, and grains. They play a crucial role
in brain function, muscle growth, and hormone production. However, excessive intake of
omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3s may contribute to inflammation and various
health issues. Maintaining a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is
important for optimal health. The typical Western diet tends to be higher in omega-6 fatty
acids and lower in omega-3s, so incorporating more sources of omega-3s can be
beneficial for many people.

 Non-essential fatty acids: Non-essential fatty acids are types of fats that the body can
synthesize on its own, so they do not need to be obtained directly from the diet. These
fatty acids are produced through various metabolic processes within the body. One of the
most common non-essential fatty acids is oleic acid, which is a monounsaturated fat
found in olive oil, avocados, and certain nuts. Oleic acid is important for heart health and
has been associated with various benefits, including reducing inflammation and
improving cholesterol levels. Another example is palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid that
the body can synthesize from carbohydrates and other fats. Palmitic acid is involved in
various metabolic processes and is a major component of cell membranes.While non-
essential fatty acids can be synthesized by the body, it's still important to consume a
balanced diet that includes healthy fats to support overall health and well-being.
Including sources of both essential and non-essential fatty acids in the diet can help
maintain optimal health.

 Simple triacyl glycerol:- If R, R’ and R’’ are the same fatty acid radical, the compound is triolein
(i), tripalmitin(ii), tristearin (iii), and so forth.
 Mixed triacyl glycerol: - If R, R’ and R” are different fatty acids, a mixed glycerides results.
The composition of the glycerides in any fixed oil or fat is influenced by the amounts of
various fatty acids that are present during formation. Thus, the composition of fixed oils and
fats from any source can vary within certain limits.

 Saturated fatty acids: - Saturated fatty acids are ‘filled’ (saturated) with hydrogen.
Most of them are straight hydrocarbon chains with an even number of carbon atoms.
The most common fatty acids contain 12-22 carbon atoms.
 Unsaturated fatty acids: - MUFA have one carbon-carbon double bond, which can
occur in different positions. The most common one have a chain length of 16-22 and
a double bond with cis configuration. This means that the hydrogen atoms on either
side of the double bond are oriented in the same direction. The presence of a double
bond causes restriction in the mobility of the acyl chain at that point. The cis fatty
acids are thermodynamically less stable than the trans forms. The cis fatty acids are
having a lower melting points than the trans.
Nomenclature of fatty acids:-
Saponification:-

Saponification is a chemical reaction that occurs when a fat or oil reacts with a
strong alkali, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), to
produce soap and glycerol (glycerin). This process is commonly used in the
production of soap.

Here's how saponification works:

1. Formation of Soap: The triglycerides (fats or oils) consist of three fatty acid
molecules attached to a glycerol molecule. In saponification, the strong alkali
breaks down the triglycerides into their component fatty acids and glycerol. The
alkali reacts with the fatty acids to form the sodium or potassium salts of these
fatty acids, which are the soap molecules. These soap molecules have a polar
(hydrophilic) end and a nonpolar (hydrophobic) end, making them effective at
removing dirt and grease from surfaces.

2. Formation of Glycerol: Simultaneously, the glycerol backbone of the

triglycerides is released. Glycerol is a colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid that has
various uses, including in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food products.

The overall chemical equation for the saponification reaction of a triglyceride with
sodium hydroxide can be represented as follows:

Triglyceride + 3NaOH  Glycerol+ 3Soap

Saponification is used not only in soap production but also in various industrial
processes, such as the production of biodiesel fuel, where it is used to convert
fats and oils into fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. In soap making,
different combinations of oils and alkalis can produce soaps with varying
properties, such as hardness, lather, and moisturizing ability.

Saponification value: - It indicates the number of milligrams of potassium

hydroxide required to neutralize the free acids and saponify the esters containing
in 1g of the substances;
Virgin oil:- Fixed oils and fats of vegetable origin are obtained by expression in hydraulic
presses. If the expression is carried out in the cold, the oil is known as a "virgin oil" or a "cold-
pressed oil".

Waxes:- Waxes are usually defined as esters resulting from the condensation of high-molecular-
weight, straight-chain acids and high-molecular-weight, primary, straightchain alcohols. Such esters, of
course, exist in waxes, hut, in reality, waxes are better defined as mixtures of different molecular weight
acids and alcohols. In addition, waxes may also contain paraffins. In plants, waxes are found in
connection. with the outer cell walls of epidermal tissue, particularly in fruits and leaves. The function of
wax appears to be protection against the penetration or loss of water. Insects also secrete waxes for
various purposes. Carnauba wax and bayberry wax are examples of vegetable waxes, and lac wax and
beeswax are examples of insect waxes. Waxes are employed in pharmaceuticals to 'harden" ointments
and cosmetic creams. They are also used in the preparation of cerates. In industry and the arts, waxes
are used for protective coatings.

Vegetable waxes:-
Carnauba Wax:- Carnauba wax is obtained from the leaves of Copernicia prunifera (Mueller) H.E. Moore
[C. cerifera (Arruda da Camara) Martius] (Fam. Palmac), a palm growing from northern Brazil to
Argentina. The wax consists of alkyl esters of wax acids (80%), chiefly myricyl cerotate; free monohydric
alcohols (10%); a lactone; resin; and other minor constituents. It is used in the manufacture of candles,
wax varnishes, leather and furniture polishes, and in place of beeswax.

Jojoba Oil : - Jojoba oil is a liquid wax expressed from seeds of Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Scheider
(Fam. Buxaceae). The plant is a bushy shrub native to the and regions of northern Mexico and to the
southwestern United States. Jojoba seeds contain 45 to 55% of an ester mixture (not triglycerides) that
is a liquid at ambient temperatures. The major components identified upon hydrolysis of the mixture are
35% of eicosenoic acid (a C20 unsaturated acid), 22% of eicosenol (a C20 unsaturated alcohol), and 21%
of docosenol (a C22 unsaturated alcohol). Hydrogenation of the oil yields a crystalline wax that has the
appearance and properties of spermaceti. Jojoba oil and its hydrogenated derivatives are useful
emollients and agents of pharmaceutic necessity.

INSECT WAXES:-
Beeswax:- Yellow wax or beeswax is the purified wax from the honeycomb of the bee, Apis mellifera
(Fain. Apidac). Wax is secreted in cells on the ventral surface of the last 4 segments of the abdomen of
the worker bees. The wax excretes through pores in the chitinous plates and is employed by the young
worker bees in the construction of the comb. The honeycomb, after separation from the honey, is
melted in water, then cooled and re-melted, and finally strained and allowed to harden in molds.
Beeswax is a solid varying in color from yellow to grayish brown. It has an agreeable, honey-like odor
and a faint, characteristic taste. When cold, beeswax is somewhat brittle and exhibits a dull, granular,
noncrystalline fracture. The wax consists principally of alkyl esters of fatty and wax acids (about 72%),
chiefly myricyl palmitate; free wax acids (about 14%), especially cerotic acid and its homologs;
hydrocarbons (12%); and other minor constituents, including moisture, pollen, and propolis (bee glue).
The latter 2 materials are responsible for most of the color of the wax.

USES. Yellow wax is a stiffening agent and is an ingredient in yellow ointment. It is also used as a base
for cerates and plasters. Commercially, it is contained in a number of polishes. White wax is bleached,
purified wax from the honeycomb of the bee (Fam. Apidac). The bleaching process is accomplished by
allowing the melted wax to flow slowly over revolving wetted cylinders, upon which it hardens in thin,
ribbon-like layers. These layers are removed and exposed to sunlight and air until they are bleached.
(The process usually is repeated.) The bleached wax is finally melted and cast into cakes of various
shapes. White wax is sometimes referred to as bleached beeswax. A rapid, reliable, and inexpensive
method of detecting the presence of certain adulterants of natural beeswax is known as the
saponification cloud test USES. White wax is employed pharmaceutically in ointments and in cold
creams.

PYQ:-
2023:-
7. Define MUFA and PUFA with suitable examples from plant. (2)

Ans. MUFA stands for Monounsaturated fatty acids, while PUFA stands for
Polyunsaturated fatty acids. Both are types of unsaturated fats, which are
considered healthier than saturated fats when consumed in moderation.

1. MUFA (Monounsaturated Fatty Acids):

- Definition: These are fatty acids that have one double bond in their carbon
chain. This structure allows them to remain liquid at room temperature but to
solidify when chilled. They are considered healthy fats and can be beneficial for
heart health when consumed in moderation.

- Example from Plants: Olive oil is a rich source of MUFA. It contains

predominantly oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid. Avocado is another
example; it contains mostly oleic acid and is well-known for its health benefits.

2. PUFA (Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids):

- Definition: These are fatty acids that have more than one double bond in their
carbon chain. Like MUFAs, they remain liquid at room temperature and are
considered beneficial for health, particularly for heart health and reducing
inflammation.

- Example from Plants: Sunflower oil is a good source of PUFA, containing

primarily linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid. Another example is flaxseed oil,
which is rich in alpha-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid. These fatty acids are
essential as the body cannot produce them and must be obtained from the diet.

Q. What are EFAs? (1)

Ans. EFA stands for Essential Fatty Acids. These are fatty acids that are essential
for the human body but cannot be synthesized by the body itself, so they must be
obtained from the diet. There are two main types of essential fatty acids:

1. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: These are a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with a
double bond located three carbon atoms away from the methyl end of the chain.
Omega-3 fatty acids play crucial roles in brain function, reducing inflammation,
and supporting heart health. They are found in various plant-based sources such
as flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and certain types of algae, as well as in fatty fish
like salmon, mackerel, and sardines.

2. Omega-6 Fatty Acids: These are another type of polyunsaturated fatty acid with
a double bond located six carbon atoms away from the methyl end of the chain.
Omega-6 fatty acids are important for growth and development, as well as for
maintaining healthy skin and hair. They are abundant in plant-based oils like
soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, and safflower oil.

Both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are essential for overall health, but the key
is to maintain a balance between the two. In Western diets, there is often an
imbalance with an excess of omega-6 fatty acids compared to omega-3 fatty acids,
which may contribute to inflammation and various health issues. Therefore, it's
recommended to consume sources of both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids as
part of a balanced diet.

Q.