The four most popular Silsilas were:
 Chistis
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Q1: Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices
or the outward structure of Hindu / Muslim societies to any appreciable extent. Comment
ANS: Sufis and medieval mystic saints did influence Islam and Hinduism by challenging orthodox
elements and superstitious. But their overall influence on Hindu/Muslim societies was limited
because of following factors:-
(1) Absence of any institutional structure formed by these groups limited the reach of their
messages through generations. The lineage of these saints could not continue due to lack of
any organization.
(2) The Sufi and Bhakti saints could not provide alternatives to the socio-religious customs that
they attacked.
(3) Most of the followers of these saints were from lower strata of the society who had little
control over the social, political and religious affairs of the society.
(4) The geographic reach of these saints was also limited.
(5) There existed factionalism among the Bhakti saints and Sufis order thereby limiting the
efficacy of their ideas.
These saints did bring about a positive change in India society by spreading ideas of
brotherhood and equality, but they failed to bring about radical modification in socio-religious
ideas and practices of Hindus and Muslims in India
SUPPLEMENTARY:
Q: What do you understand by Sufism. Explain how Sufism is relevant in the present times?
Sufism is the name given to mysticism in Islam, a school of practice that focuses on the spiritual
search for God and shuns materialism., and those who practice Sufism are called Sufis.
Sufism came to India in the 10-11th century and became popular in the 12th century. By the
12th century, the Sufis were organised in 12 orders or Silsilas. A Silsila was generally led by a
prominent mystic who lived in a Khanqah or hospice along with his disciples.
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 Suhrawardis
 Qadri-riyas and
 Naqshbandis.
 Salient Features of Sufism
Fundamental principle: God, man and the relation of love between God and man is
fundamental to Sufism.
Central Ideas: The idea of soul, divine proximity, divine love and self annihilation are central to
the theory of Sufism.
Love of humanity: According to Sufism, love of God meant love of humanity and thus, they
stressed that service to God is nothing but service of humanity.
Belief in Equality: Sufism transcends all religious and communal distinctions and treats all
human beings as equal.
Self discipline: Sufism also lays stress on self discipline and considers it essential to gain
knowledge of God.
Inner Purity: Unlike orthodox Muslim sects, who lay emphasis on external conduct. Sufism lays
stress on inner purity.
Relevance of Sufism in the present times
With growing intolerance and violence in society, Sufism has become all the more important in
present times.
Non Violence: Sufism believes in love and devotion to God. It has no place for violence in its
order. It is antithetical to the violent and radical form of Islam as followed by Taliban.
Equality of Beings: It does not believe in any societal classification such as religion, caste, class
or gender. With growing differences between people, Sufism gives the message of essential
equality of all human beings.
Social Welfare: It stresses on social welfare which has led to the establishment of works of
charitable nature, opening of orphanages and women service centres. Nizamuddin Auliya was
famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste. The
importance of social welfare work came to the fore during Covid-19 pandemic.
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Morality: At a time when struggle for power is the prevailing madness, Sufism reminds men of 4. Jagannath and Jainism
their moral obligations. In this world which is torn by strife and conflict, It gives the message of
- Concept of Kalpa tree in Jainism regarded as kalpavata in Jagannath temple .
peace and harmony.
5. Saiva- Tantric origin of Jagannath
Meditation: Another idea emphasized by Sufism is meditation. With growing stress in our body
and mind, meditation gives a sense of calm, peace and balance that can benefit both your - Similarity of Bhairava form of Shiva and Jagannath
emotional well-being and your overall health.
- presence of Shiva temple in Jagannath temple premises
Conclusion
- Sarala Das in his Odia Mahabharata represented Balabhadra as Shiva
Sufism has left a prevailing impact on religious, cultural, and social life in the world. Its
teachings of service to humanity and love for God still resonates with people today. Sufis were 6. Jagannath and Shaktism
firm in abstaining from religious and communal conflict and strived to be peaceful elements of
- Mahaprasad first offered to Goddess Vimala
civil society.In these tough and uncertain times, the teachings of Sufism can be a guiding light to
humanity the world over. - search of Daru on Navakalebara begins and alter worship of Goddess Mangala
at Kakatpur .

7. Jagannath and Sikhism

Q.2) Write a brief note on Jagannath Cult in Odisha.
- Mangu Math of Puri beans image of Guru Nanak
The origin of Jagannath Cult is shrouded in obscurity. However, Lord Jagannath has been
seen as identity of Odia people and culture, synthesis of all Hinduite faiths and finally, as the - Sikhs believe - Guru Nanak had visited Puri
God of the Universe
8. Jagannath and Vaishnavism
The cult of Jagannath embodies universal brotherhood, combining elements of
Hinduism, Buddhism Jainism, tribal religious practices and even Islam. - Purushottama Mahatmya project Jagannath as Narayan

THE JAGANNATH CULT - festivals of Krishna Cult similar to Jagannath

1. Tribal Origin of Jagannath 9. Jagannath and Islam

- Sarala Mahabharata - Krishna killed by arrow of Jada Savara, then worshipped by - Jagannath regarded as saved by Odia Muslims
him and later by Indradyumna king
- Yavana Salabega 's bhajan of Jagannath
- Skanda Purana - story of Nilamadhaba worship by Tribal chief Visvavasu..
CONCLUSIONS
2. Vedic Origin - verses o Rig Veda relating to daru (wood)
Thus, Jagannath cult is an amalgam of diverse religious cults. Everett Hindu Pantheon
3. Jagannath And Buddhism
saw its God in Him .
- Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha identified with theme images in temple of Jagannath

- similar tenets - no caste bar, Ratha Yatra

- Buddha image at Ellora called as Jagannath till today.

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Q3: How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is
not at all noticeable in later times?
Gupta coins are among the most remarkably detailed coins from ancient India featuring
exquisite artistic details. They stand out from coins crafted during the reign of other dynasties
on following counts:
 Achievement of remarkable craftsmanship was evident by the finesse of the variety of
images carved on both faces of the coin and its smooth and even wedges.
 Detailed carvings ranged from Chandragupta riding a horse to Samudragupta playing a
Veena and the Goddess Lakshmi to a sacrificial horse for Ashvamedha ceremony and so
on.
 Apart from these detailed images, there were inscriptions as well, often adding details
of the image inscribed on the coin.
 Also, most of the important kings of Gupta dynasty are now believed to have had
multiple coin-types during the course of their reign, in which older designs were
dropped and newer motifs were adopted.
 Scholars have pointed out that such designs were made possible by use of clay-molds by
skilled mint-masters.
In the post-Gupta period, not only the quality of gold coins fell, but also the numbers of gold
coins being issued dropped drastically. Due to systemic economic distresses, town-based
artisans producing good quality coins were forced to migrate to the countryside causing a
decline of craft production and a decay of townships. Without urban centres and foreign trade,
and with increasing decentralisation of political power which had resulted from the urban to
rural migration of artisans, the excellence of Gupta numismatic art could not be sustained or
recreated in the times that followed.
Q4: Discuss about Ratha Yatra, Raja Festival & Nuakhai of odisha?
Ratha Yatra,
Ratha Yatra, also known as the "Festival of Chariots," is a major Hindu festival celebrated in
various parts of India, especially in the state of Odisha.
The main feature of Ratha Yatra is the procession of three large chariots, each carrying deities
from the Jagannath Temple in Puri to the Gundicha Temple, which is about 2.5 kilometers
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away. The three deities who are prominently featured in the procession are Lord Jagannath, his
elder brother Lord Balabhadra, and their sister Subhadra.
1. Nandighosa: The chariot for Lord Jagannath. It has 16 wheels and is approximately 45
feet high.
2. Taladhwaja: The chariot for Lord Balabhadra, with 14 wheels and a height of around 44
feet.
3. Darpadalan: The chariot for Subhadra, which has 12 wheels and stands at a height of
approximately 43 feet.
Ratha Yatra symbolizes Lord Jagannath's journey to visit his aunt's house at the Gundicha
Temple, and it is believed to represent unity and inclusivity. People of all backgrounds and
castes participate in this festival, and it is a time for communal harmony and devotion.
After a stay of about a week at the Gundicha Temple, the deities are brought back to the
Jagannath Temple in a similar procession, which is known as the Bahuda Yatra
Nuakhai of odisha
Nuakhai is a prominent agricultural festival celebrated in the Indian state of Odisha, primarily
by the people of Western Odisha, including regions like Sambalpur, Balangir, Bargarh, and
Kalahandi. It is a significant celebration in the region, and its primary purpose is to express
gratitude for a bountiful harvest and seek blessings for the upcoming agricultural season.
The word "Nuakhai" is derived from two words: "Nua," which means "new," and "Khai," which
means "food." The festival typically falls on the auspicious day of Panchami Tithi (the fifth day)
of the Bhadrab month of the Hindu calendar, which usually corresponds to August or
September in the Gregorian calendar.
The main rituals and customs associated with Nuakhai include:
1. Prayers: People offer their gratitude to the deities for a successful harvest by performing
rituals and prayers.
2. New Rice Consumption: One of the central customs of Nuakhai is the consumption of
newly harvested rice (Nabanna) after offering it to the deities. This rice is the first grain
of the season and is considered auspicious.
3. Offering to the Village Deity: In many villages, people offer the new rice to the village
deity or a sacred tree.
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 4. Community Feast: People come together to celebrate the festival by sharing a
communal feast, which includes a variety of dishes prepared from the new rice.
5. Decorations and Cultural Performances: Houses are cleaned and decorated for the
occasion, and cultural programs, dances, and music performances are organized.
6. Exchange of Well Wishes: During Nuakhai, people exchange good wishes and greetings
with one another. It is a time for communities to come together and strengthen social
bonds.
Nuakhai is an important festival for the people of Western Odisha, and it holds great cultural
and social significance. It is a time for expressing gratitude, fostering unity, and celebrating the
agricultural traditions of the region.
Raja Festival
The festival is an ode to womanhood and the Earth's fertility, celebrating the menstruation
cycle and the ability to bear children.
It is believed that during this time, the Mother Earth or Bhudevi undergoes menstruation, and
hence, plowing and other agricultural activities are traditionally not performed during these
three days to allow the Earth to rest.
Raja Parba, also known as Mithuna Sankranti, is a three-day festival that marks the onset of
the monsoon and the agricultural activities associated with it.
It is usually observed in the month of June, specifically during the first day of the lunar month
of Asadha.
Q5: Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss.
India having vast diversity and a long-lasting cultural heritage has multiple monuments
depicting our history being living remnants of our past. However, the recent submission of the
Ministry of Culture to the parliamentary committee highlighted that 50 centrally protected
monuments are missing thus calling for the safeguarding of our architectural heritage.
Reasons for safeguarding:
 Architecture helps demonstrate and understand history. For example ruins of Hazara
Rama and Vithal Swami temple depict the Vijayanagara empire’s magnificence.
 Architectural heritage is the pride of our country, boosting our soft power. For
example, the Taj Mahal is one of the seven wonders of the world.
 It ensures attachment and a feeling of oneness of people with our culture. Also helps
recognise unity in diversity due to the multiplicity of such structures.
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 It provides the potential for the tourism industry to provide employment to people
and boost revenues for the state as well.
 Flourishing tourism around monuments helps develop infrastructure in such areas as
road, rail and air connectivity to reach such monuments.
 India has a unique identity in the world for its art and culture which represents Indian
civilization on world platform and if it vanishes the uniqueness of India will get affected.
Multiple threats to our monuments:
 Threats to monuments by rising pollution such as the yellowing of the Taj Mahal by air
pollution due to nearby refineries were highlighted by the courts resulting in the
formation of the Taj Trapezium Zone.
 Rapid urbanization and thus illegal construction.
 Submergence by reservoirs and dams.
 Difficulties in tracing in remote locations.
 Dense forests and the non-availability of their proper locations etc,
 Unregulated tourist activities damage these constructions creating waste
management issues etc.
 Security issues such as in museums due to shortage of manpower for guarding them,
lack of proper surveillance technologies etc.
 Poor maintenance for example paintings in Ajanta which are getting worse due to
humidity, ASI’s capacity and expertise are also questioned in this regard.
Their restoration capacity is also criticised in this regard.
 Many Indian art forms are on the verge of extinction such as Manjusha painting of Bihar,
traditional art of Puppetry, Parsi embroidery, Naga craft, Dhokra handicraft, etc., which
need protection and preservation.
To preserve our architecture, the government is taking multiple steps -
 Amendment of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR)
Act-1958 in 2010 to add provisions of a prohibition area 100 metres around such
monuments with no construction being allowed in such areas.
 Recent attempts to bring flexibility and rationalise prohibition and regulated areas.
The ASI as an institution will also be provided further teeth to remove encroachments of
regulated zones ( 300 metres around the monument ).
 Private sector cooperation in restoration through schemes like Adopt a heritage scheme
for better expertise in protecting monuments.
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  To preserve the rich art heritage of the country, such as, Scheme for Conservation of
Wall Painting (1996-97), Ek Bharat Shresth Bharat programe, Tribal haats, GI tag to the
local products, e-haat, etc. Apart from strict implementation of such programmes,
Government should provide financial assistance to strengthen regional and local
museums, preserve art heritage through virtual media, and promote local paintings on
products like wallet, mobile cover, pillow cover, etc.
Further efforts are required such as involving the larger public in restoring historical sites in
form of festivals, utilising technology while increasing the capacity of ASI to do so, spreading
cultural awareness around the preservation of heritage by curriculum modification in schools
and institutes etc. Preserving our monuments is a fundamental duty of every citizen as per
Article 51(f) of the Constitution.
We should also link such preservation efforts with sustainable development to ensure future
generations can enjoy culture along with access to planetary resources.
Q6 : Trace briefly the history of Buddhism in Odisha.
Buddhism has a rich history in the Indian state of Odisha, also known as Kalinga in ancient
times. Here is a brief overview of the history of Buddhism in Odisha:
Early Period: Buddhism is believed to have arrived in Odisha during the reign of Emperor
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. The region played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism,
particularly after the Kalinga War (also known as the Battle of Kalinga) in 261 BCE. It was
during this war that Ashoka experienced a transformation and embraced Buddhism, making
Kalinga an important center for the propagation of Buddhist teachings.
Buddhist Art and Architecture: Odisha is known for its contributions to Buddhist art and
architecture. Several ancient Buddhist sites and monasteries were built in the region, and many
of them displayed intricate Buddhist sculptures and rock-cut caves. Udayagiri and Khandagiri
near Bhubaneswar are famous for their Jain and Buddhist caves, featuring inscriptions and
carvings related to Buddhism.
Marichi Temple: One of the most significant Buddhist sites in Odisha is the Marichi temple,
located in Jajpur district. This temple is dedicated to the Buddhist goddess Marichi and is
considered an important pilgrimage site for Buddhists in the region.
Decline and Revival: Like many other parts of India, Buddhism declined in Odisha over the
centuries, primarily due to the resurgence of Hinduism and other factors. However, in recent
decades, there has been a revival of interest in Buddhism in the state. Many Buddhist
communities have rekindled their connection to their heritage, and there is a growing interest
in the teachings and practices of Buddhism among the people of Odisha.
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In summary, Buddhism has a deep historical connection to Odisha, with the state playing a
significant role in the spread and propagation of Buddhist teachings, especially during the reign
of Emperor Ashoka. While the influence of Buddhism waned over the centuries, there has been
a resurgence of interest in the religion in recent times, with a focus on preserving and
promoting the Buddhist heritage of Odisha.
Q7: Odisha has a rich cultural heritage. Justify
Odisha, located on the eastern coast of India, boasts a rich and diverse cultural heritage that is
a testament to its historical significance and the influence of various civilizations and traditions.
Several factors justify the assertion that Odisha has a rich cultural heritage:
1. Historical Significance: Odisha has a rich and ancient history that dates back to the time
of the Mauryan Empire, with evidence of early civilization and trade. The region has
witnessed the rise and fall of numerous dynasties, including the Mauryas, Guptas, and
the powerful Kalinga Empire.
2. Temple Architecture: Odisha is renowned for its exquisite temple architecture, with the
state being home to some of the most stunning and historically significant temples in
India. The Jagannath Temple in Puri, the Konark Sun Temple, and the Lingaraja Temple
in Bhubaneswar are prime examples. The intricate stone carvings and architecture of
these temples are a testament to the state's cultural and architectural prowess.
3. Art and Craft: Odisha is known for its traditional art and craft forms, including
Pattachitra (scroll painting), stone and wood carving, and the famous silver filigree work
of Cuttack. These crafts have been passed down through generations and continue to
thrive in the region.
4. Dance and Music: Odisha is the birthplace of classical dance forms such as Odissi, which
is one of the eight classical dance forms of India. Odissi dance is characterized by its
graceful movements, elaborate costumes, and themes inspired by Hindu mythology.
The state also has a rich tradition of classical and folk music.
5. Festivals: Odisha celebrates a multitude of festivals with great enthusiasm, showcasing
its cultural diversity and religious harmony. The Ratha Yatra in Puri, Durga Puja, and the
Konark Dance Festival are some of the most famous festivals celebrated in the state.
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 6. Language and Literature: Odia, the official language of the state, has a rich literary
tradition. It is known for its poetry, prose, and classical texts. Prominent Odia poets and
writers like Fakir Mohan Senapati and Gopabandhu Das have made significant
contributions to Indian literature.
7. Handicrafts: Odisha is known for its traditional handicrafts, including exquisite textiles,
palm-leaf paintings, and appliqué work. The state's craftsmanship has been recognized
and appreciated on both national and international levels.
8. Folk Traditions: Odisha is also home to a wide array of folk traditions, which vary from
region to region. These traditions include folk dances, music, and rituals, showcasing the
cultural diversity within the state.
9. Linguistic Diversity: Odisha is home to various indigenous communities, each with its
own unique cultural practices, languages, and traditions, further enriching the state's
cultural mosaic.
In conclusion, Odisha's rich cultural heritage is a result of its historical significance, artistic
achievements, religious diversity, and a vibrant blend of various cultural elements. The state's
commitment to preserving and promoting its cultural heritage makes it a significant contributor
to India's cultural tapestry.
Q8: Evaluate the role of Christian missionaries in Odisha
The role of Christian missionaries in Odisha, a state in eastern India, has been a topic of debate
and discussion for many years. It is essential to note that opinions on this matter vary
significantly, and the impact of Christian missionaries in Odisha can be evaluated from different
perspectives.
1. Education and Healthcare: Christian missionaries have historically played a crucial role
in providing education and healthcare services in Odisha. They established schools,
colleges, and hospitals, which have contributed to the welfare and development of the
region. Many people in Odisha, especially in tribal and marginalized communities, have
benefited from these services.
2. Cultural and Social Transformation: Christian missionaries have been involved in
promoting social reforms and fighting against social evils such as caste discrimination,
alcoholism, and child marriage. Their efforts have contributed to positive changes in the
social fabric of Odisha. They have also worked towards preserving indigenous languages
and cultures.
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3. Economic Development: Some Christian missionary organizations have initiated
economic development projects in rural areas of Odisha. These projects have aimed at
reducing poverty and improving the livelihoods of marginalized communities. This, in
turn, has had a positive impact on the state's overall development.
4. Crisis Response and Humanitarian Work: Christian missionaries have often been at the
forefront of providing relief and humanitarian assistance during natural disasters in
Odisha. Their quick response and resources have saved lives and provided essential
support during times of crisis.
5. Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: Christian missionaries have worked with
marginalized and vulnerable communities, including tribals and Dalits, to empower
them through education, skill development, and social programs. This has contributed
to the upliftment of these communities.
6. Religious Conversion: One of the contentious aspects of missionary activities is religious
conversion. Critics argue that some Christian missionaries have engaged in aggressive
conversion tactics, leading to tensions and conflicts in the region. However, proponents
argue that religious conversion is a personal choice, and missionaries provide spiritual
guidance to those who willingly embrace Christianity.
7. Political and Ethical Concerns: Some critics raise concerns about foreign funding and
the role of Christian missionaries in shaping local politics and governance. They argue
that these activities can lead to political and ethical challenges. Supporters contend that
missionary work aligns with principles of social justice and human rights.
In summary, the role of Christian missionaries in Odisha is multifaceted. While they have made
significant contributions to education, healthcare, and social development, there are also
concerns about religious conversion tactics and their influence on local politics. The impact of
Christian missionaries in Odisha is a subject of ongoing debate, reflecting the complex
relationship between missionary activities, social development, and cultural change in the
region. It's important to evaluate their role while considering both the positive and negative
aspects and the diversity of experiences within the state.
Q9: Describe the architecture of Mukteswar Temple of Bhubaneswar
mukteshvara Temple is also known as the "Gem of Odisha architecture" is due to its
architecture . Mukteswar Temple is a significant and well-preserved architectural masterpiece
located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. It is a prominent example of the Kalinga architectural
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style, which is known for its unique blend of indigenous and North Indian architectural
elements. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is famous for its intricate carvings and
beautiful sculptures. Here is an overview of its architectural features:
1. General Layout: The Mukteswar Temple is a compact structure with a square sanctum
and a porch (Jagamohana). It is a medium-sized temple and stands on a raised platform.
2. Tower (Shikara): The temple is most renowned for its beautifully ornamented tower or
Shikara. The Shikara is quite distinctive, featuring a beehive-like structure with multiple
layers of decorative elements. The topmost layer is a pyramid-shaped tower adorned
with an amalaka (a stone disk) and a kalasa (a pot-like finial). The tower is modest in
height compared to some other temples in the region.
3. Sculptures and Carvings: Mukteswar Temple is celebrated for its exquisite and intricate
carvings. The temple's exterior walls are covered with numerous sculptures, including
depictions of various Hindu deities, celestial beings, and scenes from Hindu mythology.
Notable sculptures include the beautiful figures of Lord Ganesha, various forms of Lord
Shiva, and dancing nymphs. The temple is also known for its numerous erotic carvings,
which are a common feature in Kalinga architecture.
4. Torana: The temple's entrance is adorned with a magnificent arched gateway or torana,
which is considered a masterpiece of Indian architectural art. The torana features
depictions of various Hindu deities and mythical creatures, creating a grand and
welcoming entrance.
5. Jagamohana: The porch or Jagamohana of the temple is relatively simple in comparison
to the main sanctum, with fewer ornate carvings. The Jagamohana follows a square
layout and is a two-story structure with a flat roof.
6. Lingam: The sanctum houses a lingam, a symbol of Lord Shiva. The sanctum is small and
dark, with a limited passage for devotees to offer their prayers.
7. Decorative Motifs: The temple features a profusion of decorative motifs, such as the
chaitya arches, miniature temple-like projections, and bands of intricate carvings on the
walls.
8. Yoni-Pitha: The temple stands on a pitha, which is a square platform with a yoni (female
symbol) base. The yoni-pitha is a common feature in many Hindu temples.
9. Location: Mukteswar Temple is part of the Ekamra Kshetra or the old town of
Bhubaneswar, known for its numerous historic temples. The temple's location is
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strategically placed along the temple trail of Bhubaneswar, allowing devotees and
tourists to explore other temples nearby.
The Mukteswar Temple is not only an architectural marvel but also a significant cultural and
historical site that provides valuable insights into the architectural and artistic prowess of
ancient Odisha. It continues to attract scholars, historians, and tourists from around the world
who are interested in exploring the rich heritage of Indian architecture and sculpture.
Q10: Discuss the Mahima Dharma and Bhoodan movement of Odisha
Mahima Dharma, also known as Mahimaism, is a religious and philosophical movement that
originated in the Indian state of Odisha, particularly in the 19th century. It was founded by
Mahima Gosain, a religious leader and social reformer. This movement is centered around the
worship of the formless, attributeless, and omnipresent God, whom they refer to as "Alekh
Brahma."
Key aspects of Mahima Dharma include:
1. Simplicity and Asceticism: Mahima Dharma emphasizes a simple and austere way of
life. Followers are encouraged to lead a life of purity and simplicity, focusing on spiritual
growth and self-realization.
2. Universal Brotherhood: The movement promotes the idea of universal brotherhood
and equality, rejecting caste and class distinctions. All followers are considered equal in
the eyes of God.
3. Rejection of Idols and Rituals: Mahimaists reject the use of idols and elaborate rituals in
their worship. They believe in a direct connection with the formless God through
meditation and devotion.
4. Devotional Songs: Devotional songs and hymns, often referred to as "bhajans" or
"kirtans," play a significant role in Mahima Dharma. These songs are sung to express
devotion and praise for the divine.
5. Social Reforms: Mahimaism was a part of the broader social reform movements in 19th-
century India. It sought to eradicate social evils and promote education and social
upliftment.
6. Non-violence: Mahima Dharma emphasizes non-violence and encourages followers to
live a life free of harm to others.
Mahima Dharma has had a significant impact on the religious and cultural landscape of Odisha.
It continues to be practiced by a considerable number of followers in the region, and its
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principles align with broader themes of spiritual and social reform that were prevalent during
the 19th century in India.
Bhoodan movement of Odisha
 The Bhoodan movement, also known as the "Land Gift Movement," was a voluntary
land reform movement in India initiated by Vinoba Bhave in 1951.
 The movement aimed to persuade landowners to voluntarily donate a portion of their
land to landless laborers or those with very small landholdings. The term "Bhoodan"
means "land gift" in Hindi.
 In Odisha, as in other parts of India, the Bhoodan movement had a significant impact on
land redistribution and social justice.
 Vinoba Bhave traveled throughout the country, including Odisha, to persuade
landowners to give away some of their land voluntarily. The movement was based on
the principles of non-violence and voluntary action.
 In Odisha, the Bhoodan movement had a positive impact on landless laborers and poor
farmers, as it led to the redistribution of land and helped address issues of land
inequality and rural poverty.
 However, it's important to note that the success and impact of the movement varied
from region to region and depended on the willingness of landowners to participate.
Overall, the Bhoodan movement in Odisha, like in other parts of India, played a role in
promoting land reform and addressing social and economic disparities in rural areas. It was part
of a broader effort to bring about agrarian reforms in the country.
Q11: Discuss the various Folk Dances of Odisha ?
Odisha, a state in eastern India, has a rich cultural heritage, and its folk dances are a significant
part of its traditional art forms. These dances reflect the state's diverse culture and are often
performed during various festivals, ceremonies, and social gatherings. Here are some of the
prominent folk dances of Odisha:
1. Gotipua Dance: Gotipua is a traditional dance form of Odisha that features young boys
dressed as girls. These dancers perform acrobatic movements and intricate footwork.
The dance is characterized by its use of the traditional Odissi music and often narrates
mythological stories.
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2. Odissi Dance: While Odissi is more of a classical dance form, it has deep roots in
Odisha's culture. It's a devotional dance style with fluid movements, intricate hand
gestures, and expressions that depict stories from Hindu mythology. While not strictly a
folk dance, it's important to mention due to its historical and cultural significance.
3. Sambalpuri Dance: Sambalpur, a region in western Odisha, is known for its vibrant
Sambalpuri dance. Dancers wear colorful costumes and perform to the rhythmic beats
of folk music. The dance often narrates stories from rural life and mythology. Dalkhai,
Rasarkeli, and Karma are some variations of Sambalpuri dance.
4. Danda Nacha: Danda Nacha is a unique tribal dance form performed by the Kondh tribe
of Odisha. It involves dancers wielding sticks or dandas while performing intricate
footwork. This dance is often performed during festivals and cultural events.
5. Chhau Dance: Chhau is a traditional martial dance that originated in the Mayurbhanj
district of Odisha. It is characterized by the use of masks and elaborate costumes. The
dance portrays stories from Indian epics, and the performers use acrobatic movements
and combat techniques in their routines.
6. Ghumura Dance: Ghumura is a popular folk dance of the Kalahandi district in Odisha.
Dancers hold a large drum-like instrument called "ghumura" while performing
synchronized movements. The dance is known for its energetic and vibrant style and is
often performed during festivals and rituals.
7. Jodi Sankha Dance: This dance form is performed using two conch shells (sankha). It is a
traditional art of the coastal region of Odisha and is often associated with rituals and
festivals. The dancers create melodious tunes by blowing the conch shells.
8. Rasagolla Danda: Originating in the Puri district, Rasagolla Danda is a traditional folk
dance that is performed during the annual Rath Yatra festival. The dancers carry the
chariot of Lord Jagannath while dancing to the rhythm of drums and cymbals.
9. Karma Naach: The Karma dance is performed by the tribes of the southern and western
regions of Odisha. It is usually associated with the Karma festival and is a vibrant dance
with energetic movements. The dance is performed to seek blessings for a good harvest
and well-being.
10. Ranapa Dance: Ranapa is a traditional dance of the Kandha tribe in the Kandhamal
district of Odisha. It is performed by men and is characterized by the use of traditional
instruments like the dhol and flute. The dance depicts hunting and warrior-related
themes and is a significant part of tribal culture.
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 11. Dalkhai Dance: Dalkhai is a folk dance popular among the women of western Odisha,  The Lion shows the attainment of enlightenment.
particularly in the Sambalpur region. It is performed during festivals and celebrations
 Indus Valley Bronze Bull:
and involves rhythmic movements, often accompanied by songs. Dalkhai dance
celebrates the agricultural and rural life of the region.  The bronze bull of Indus Valley Civilisation signifies the presence of Bronze in the
These are just a few examples of the rich and diverse folk dance traditions in Odisha. Each Indus Valley Civilization i.e. Bronze Age Civilization.
dance form carries its unique cultural and historical significance, and they continue to be an  Bull in Tamil Nadu Rockart:
integral part of the state's cultural identity.
 Rock art discoveries in Tamil Nadu have depicted prehistoric men capturing bulls
Q12 : Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and and attempting to tame them.
architecture.
Architecture
Since the advent of humans, animals have also been a complimentary companion on earth. The
traces of human animal relationship traces back to the paintings of the upper paleolithic period,  Mauryan Pillar:
around 12,000 year ago.
 The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion,
Two amongst the important animals who have been a significant part of human life are “Lion” the elephant, etc.
& “Bull”. From the stone age period to Modern India, traces have been found of their presence
 The Mauryan symbolism of the lions indicate “the power of a universal emperor
in various aspects, which could be understood in an elaborate way, as stated below.
(chakravarti) who dedicated all his resources to the victory of dharma”.
Mythology
 Sanchi Stupa:
 Vehicle of Goddess Durga:
 Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
Lion is the 'vahana' or vehicle of Maa Durga. The animal also represents the power of Maa
 Rock engraving of Lion with wings and Bull has been found in the torana of the
Durga.
stupa.
 Nandi Bull of Shiva:
 From traces in ancient India to significance in the national symbol of the country,
Nandi, which means “giving delight” or “giving joy” is the sacred bull of the Hindu god Shiva. lion and bull have been a witness of the phases of development and changes of the
land of India.
Art

Sculpture:

 National Emblem of India:

 It is an adoption of Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka.

Q13 : Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian heritage and
 There are four lions, standing back to back, an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and
culture.
a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus.
The Golden Period in Indian history, was established by Chandragupta I as the Gupta Dynasty in
 The Bull depicts the Zodiac sign of Taurus.
the 3rd Century AD.

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Chola dynasty was established as one of the longest ruling dynasties in the southern regions of  Nashik
India by Vijayalaya in 9th century. Caves: Primarily Hinyana Bud
dhist caves and Buddha is
Both Gupta and Chola Rulers have contributed to Indian Culture & Heritage in the following
shown in form of symbols,
ways:
there are 23 such caves and
Category Gupta Period (300-600 AD) Chola Period (900-1300 AD) are termed as ‘Pandav Leni’.

Temple  Brick temples were started to
be made during the Gupta
period.
 Dashavatara temple in
Deogarh has the presence of
a curvilinear tall rekha-deol
(or rekha-prasada) type
shikhara (Nagara Style).
 Square temples emerged in
Gupta Period such as Vishnu
and Varaha temples at Eran in
Vidisha.
Sculpture  A new school
called Sarnath School
emerged. Cream colored
sandstone was used in it.
 Chola rulers continued temple  Ajanta Cave: These are 29
construction on the lines of Rock-cut cave belonging to
Pallava architecture with Hinayana and Mahayana
variations, which came to be period.
known as Dravidian architecture.  Other examples: Udaigiri
 Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur Caves, Bagh Caves, Ellora
in Tamil Nadu Caves etc.
and Gangaikondacholapuram te
Paintings  Ajanta Paintings: It  Brihadeshwara temple houses
mple are such examples.
depicts events from Buddha’s paintings of Hindu deities that
life in the form of Jataka tales. were made during Chola period.
 They are drawn in  The paintings
continuity show narrations and aspects
 Bronze Nataraja of Chola period without using separate related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in
indicates sound of creation, frames and they are Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka
destruction, benediction and essentially two etc.
path of salvation etc. dimensional.

o At Sarnath, Buddha is  Sculpture of Sembiyan  Dying Princess is one

shown standing, Mahadevi, a 10th century AD the most prominent
seated and in other chola queen was found. examples.
positions as well.  Ellora Cave Paintings: It
 9th century
 Goddess Ganga from AD Kalyanasundara murti has influences from three
Besnagar and Apsaras from represents the Panigrahana religions – Jaina, Buddhism
Gwalior were also found. (ceremony of marriage). and Hinduism.

The significant contribution by both of the dynasties have shaped India’s culture and heritage
Cave  Junagrah caves: They have a No significant cave development took
into a rich and prosperous shape with Gupta’s cave being in a good shape even after 1500 years
Architecture citadel called ‘uparakot’ apart place during chola’s rule.
and Nataraja sculpture by Chola’s being worshiped at various temples of modern India.
from a lower prayer hall.

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Q14: Bhakti Movement in Odisha and its impact on the Society of Odisha
he Bhakti Movement in Odisha, like in many other parts of India, was a socio-religious
movement that emerged around the 7th to 8th centuries and continued to gain prominence
over the centuries. This movement emphasized devotion (bhakti) to a personal god or goddess,
often in a more accessible and emotional manner, in contrast to the strict rituals and
hierarchies of traditional Hinduism. The Bhakti Movement in Odisha played a significant role in
the cultural and religious history of the region.
Key features of the Bhakti Movement in Odisha:
1. Jagannath Cult: The most prominent deity in the Bhakti Movement in Odisha is Lord
Jagannath, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. The Jagannath Temple in Puri is a central
pilgrimage site and is known for its inclusive nature, as people of all castes and religions
are allowed inside. The devotion to Lord Jagannath epitomizes the bhakti spirit of the
movement.
2. Great Bhakti Saints: Odisha produced several notable saints and poets who played a
crucial role in spreading the message of devotion and inclusiveness. Some of the
prominent saints include Jayadeva, Sarala Das, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
 Jayadeva: He is best known for composing the Gita Govinda, a lyrical poem
celebrating the love of Radha and Krishna. It is a significant text in the Bhakti
tradition.
 Sarala Das: A 15th-century Odia poet, he is known for his poetic adaptation of
the Mahabharata in the Odia language.
 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Though born in Bengal, Chaitanya's influence extended
to Odisha. He is considered an incarnation of Lord Krishna and played a
significant role in the spread of the Krishna bhakti movement.
3. Simplicity and Inclusivity: The Bhakti Movement in Odisha emphasized simplicity and
inclusivity. It transcended caste and religious boundaries, making spirituality and divine
love accessible to all, regardless of their social status.
4. Devotional Practices: Bhakti saints promoted various devotional practices such as kirtan
(devotional singing), seva (service), and congregational worship. These practices were
designed to create a direct and personal connection between the devotee and the
divine.
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5. Impact on Culture and Art: The Bhakti Movement in Odisha had a profound impact on
the region's art, literature, and culture. It influenced Odissi classical dance, which often
portrays stories of divine love and devotion. The poetry and literature produced during
this time were also infused with bhakti themes.
6. Tolerance and Syncretism: The movement contributed to religious tolerance and
syncretism in the region, fostering an atmosphere where people from different religious
backgrounds could coexist peacefully.
Overall, the Bhakti Movement in Odisha played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and
religious fabric of the region. It promoted love and devotion to deities like Lord Jagannath and
contributed to the inclusive and syncretic nature of Odishan society.
1. Impact on Society:
 Social Inclusivity: The Bhakti Movement promoted the idea that devotion to a
personal deity was open to all, irrespective of caste, creed, or social status. This
led to increased social inclusivity and a sense of unity among the people of
Odisha.
 Cultural Enrichment: Bhakti poets and saints contributed significantly to Odia
literature and culture. They composed devotional songs, which are still an
integral part of Odia religious and cultural practices.
 Religious Syncretism: The Bhakti Movement facilitated the blending of various
religious traditions in Odisha, including the fusion of tribal, Buddhist, and
Shaivite influences with Vaishnavism.
 Empowerment of Women: Bhakti saints encouraged the participation of women
in religious and devotional activities, offering them a more prominent role in the
society. This contributed to women's empowerment.
2. Spread of Devotional Practices:
 The Bhakti Movement popularized the worship of Lord Jagannatha, a significant
deity in Odisha. It led to the proliferation of Jagannatha temples and rituals.
 The movement also influenced the spread of devotional practices, including
congregational singing and reading of religious texts.
3. Continuation of Tradition:
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  The Bhakti Movement in Odisha did not fade away with time. It continues to be a
vital part of the cultural and religious fabric of the state. Devotees in Odisha still
engage in devotional singing and other practices promoted by the Bhakti
Movement.
In summary, the Bhakti Movement in Odisha had a profound impact on the society of the
region. It promoted social inclusivity, cultural enrichment, and religious syncretism while
contributing to the empowerment of women and the continued tradition of devotion to Lord
Jagannatha and other deities.
Q15: Explain the Evolution and Growth of Odia Language and Literature and development of
Odia Literature
The Odia language, also known as Oriya, is a classical language spoken primarily in the Indian
state of Odisha and parts of neighboring states
evolution and growth of the Odia language:
1. Early Origins: The Odia language has ancient roots, dating back to the 7th century CE.
Early Odia literature can be traced to inscriptions and texts like the "Hati Gumpha"
inscriptions in Khandagiri, which are considered some of the earliest examples of Odia
writing.
2. Sarala Das: A major figure in Odia literature, Sarala Das, in the 15th century, composed
the Mahabharata in Odia, known as the "Sarala Mahabharata." This monumental work
helped establish Odia as a literary language.
3. Influence of Sanskrit: Over the centuries, Odia borrowed heavily from Sanskrit, leading
to the development of a rich vocabulary and a complex literary tradition. Sanskrit played
a significant role in shaping Odia's grammar, structure, and script.
4. Growth during the Gajapati Rule: The Gajapati dynasty in Odisha, during the 15th and
16th centuries, patronized the development of Odia literature and language. Many
historical texts, poems, and manuscripts were written during this period.
5. British Colonial Era: During British rule, Odia language and literature faced challenges,
but it also saw some positive developments. The British recognized Odia as a regional
language and established schools, which contributed to the spread of education in Odia.
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6. Post-Independence Period: After India gained independence in 1947, Odia was
officially recognized as the state language of Odisha. This status led to the promotion
of Odia language and culture.
7. Odia Language Movement: In the 1950s, there was a movement to promote the Odia
language and protect it from Sanskritization and other linguistic influences. This
movement led to the formation of the Utkala Sahitya Samaj, an organization dedicated
to the promotion of Odia literature.
DEVELOPMENT OF ODIA LITERATURE
Odia literature is the body of work created by writers in the Odia language, which is primarily
spoken in the Indian state of Odisha. The development of Odia literature can be divided into
several key phases:
1. Ancient Period (Up to 10th Century):
 The earliest known work of Odia literature is the "Charyapada," a collection of
mystical poems and songs composed by Buddhist and Jain scholars.
 This period also saw the development of prose in the form of religious texts,
including the "Bauddha Gana" and "Jaina Gana."
2. Sarala Das and the Mahabharata (15th Century):
 Sarala Das, a prominent Odia poet, is known for his adaptation of the
Mahabharata into Odia, titled "Sarala Mahabharata." It remains a significant
literary work in the Odia language.

3. Bhakti Movement (16th-17th Century):
 The Bhakti movement brought a surge in devotional poetry. Notable poets like
Balaram Das, Jagannatha Das, and Achyutananda wrote devotional songs and
poems.
 Jagannatha Das's "Bhagabata" and Balaram Das's "Jagamohana Ramayana" are
prominent works from this period.
4. Panchasakha Poetry (17th-18th Century):
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  Five major poets, known as the Panchasakhas, played a vital role in the
development of Odia literature. They are Baladeva Rath, Atibadi Jagannath Das,
Achyutananda Das, Yasovanta, and Ananta Das.
 Their poetry covered a wide range of topics, including devotion, love, and social
issues.
5. Era of Royal Patronage (18th-19th Century):
 Kings and royalty in Odisha played a significant role in the promotion of Odia
literature. Notable poets like Radhanath Ray and Madhusudan Rao emerged
during this period.
 Radhanath Ray's "Kavyanjali" and Madhusudan Rao's "Kavyanuraga" are
celebrated works of this time.
6. Modern Period (Late 19th Century - 20th Century):
 The modern period saw the influence of Western literature on Odia literature.
Fakir Mohan Senapati is considered the father of modern Odia prose for his
pioneering work in short stories and novels.
 Other influential writers in this period include Gopabandhu Das, Gangadhar
Meher, and Sachidananda Routray.
7. Post-Independence Period (20th Century - Present):
 Odia literature continued to evolve with the works of writers like Manoj Das,
Gopinath Mohanty, and Sitakant Mahapatra, who gained national and
international recognition.
 The themes explored in this period include social issues, cultural identity, and
human emotions.
Odia literature has a rich tradition that encompasses various forms of poetry, prose, drama, and
essays. It has made a significant contribution to the cultural heritage of India and continues to
flourish with the works of contemporary authors. The Odia language and literature have played
a crucial role in preserving and promoting the cultural identity of the people of Odisha
Q16:Explain the main features of Kalinga Style of temple architecture with example?
The Indian temples are broadly divided into Nagara, Vesara, Dravida and Gadag styles of
architecture. However, the temple architecture of Odisha corresponds to altogether a different
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category for their unique representations called Kalinga style of temple architecture. This style
broadly comes under the Nagara style.
In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a tower and a hall. The
tower is called deul and the hall is called jagmohan.
The walls of both the deul and the jagmohan are lavishly sculpted with architectural
motifs and a profusion of figures.
The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest
times, starting with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas.
It is the deul or deula which makes three distinct types of temples in Kalinga
Architecture.
The Deul or Deula
*. In Odia language a shrine is called Deula. Accordingly, the temples in Odisha are three types
of Deula viz. Rekha Deula, Pidha / Bhadra Deula and Khakra Deula.
Rekha Deula
* Rekha Deula is a tall building with a sikhara. The most distinct example of Rekha Deula is the
Lingraj Temple of Bhubneshwar. The Rekha Deula means a shrine with different parts in a line.
The Lingraj Temple has a vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly
hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings), each increasing in the
height to its predecessor.
* Pidha Deula
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 Pidha Deula refers to the square building with a pyramid-shaped roof, like the vimanas.
The assembly hall of the Konark Sun Temple is an example.
* Khakhara Deula
The Khakhara Deula is altogether a different style of architecture closely appearing
similar to the Dravidian Gopuran design. The word is derived from Khakharu (Pumpkin, gourd)
as the crown looks like a barrel- vaulted elongated roof. It is a rectangular building with a
truncated pyramid-shaped roof, like the gopuras. The temples of the feminine deities as Shakti
are temple of that type. One example is the Baitala Deula of Bhubneshwar, dedicated to
Chamunda. The Sakta temples are generally of Khakhara order. Brahmi temple of Chaurasi in
Puri and Gouri temple of Bhubaneswar are two other glaring examples of Khakhara temple.
KALINGA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE EXAMPLE
 LINGARAJA TEMPLE, BBSR
 BAITALA DEULA OF CHANMUNDA, BBSR
 RAJARANI TEMPLE, BBSR
 KICHAKESWARI TEMPLE
 KONARK SUN TEMPLE AT FRONT
 structure.
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Q17: To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization
provided inputs to the present day urbanization? Discuss.
Indus valley is the source of innumerable elements that enrich the modern day civilisation.
Systematic town planning
The scientific construction of building using baked brick in indus valley is an ingredient to
modern day urbanization planning. EX: SMART CITY MISSION,
Drainage system
The sewage water system of this civilisation is mind-blowing. The drains connected with
bathroom is an aspect of modern day sewage system. EX: SWACHHA SERVEKHAN AWARD FOR
CLEANEST CITY
Sanity and cleanliness
The style of bathroom of harappan civilisation with standing bath system is similar to modern
day urbanization sanitary system. EX: SWACHHA BHARAT MISSION, ODF FREE STATE
Sanity and cleanliness
The large brick slabs that covered the sewers of indus valley drainage gives inputs to modern
day urbanization.
Commerce
The trade of lapis lazuli; cotton and other export and import commodities with mesopotemia;
sumeriyan is origin of modern day commerce. EX: FREE TRADE AGREEMENT, formation of
manufacturing cities, SEZ.
Clustered buildings
The workers building of harappa resembles to coolie lines of modern day tea estates in
Importance of water and sanctity
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The strong belief of sanctity of water by harappans resembles to the belief of south indians who Human values refers to moral spiritual and ethical values while helm means oneness .
keep water tank in temples is a cultural input to modern day civilisation as south indian temples
BASIC VALUES OF INDIAN CULTURE
are centre of urbanized process. EX: HAR GHAR JAL YOJANA, AMRIT SAROVAR
The Indian culture contains many important values that are ever relevant and unchanging
Use of Carpentry;pottery;seal;stone
following which the world could become a better place
The use of all these three elements in harappan civilisation gives similarity to modern day use
1. Ahimsa - non violence has ancient roots in India Two of India's great religions Buddhism and
of decoration; amulet etc. EX: MAKE IN INDIA, VOCAL FOR LOCAL
Jainism profess non-violence
Use of citadel
- Gandhi's ahimsa for Swaraj
The citadel of harappan provides ingredients to to the modern day social structure. public 2. Unity in Diversity - extremely diverse in terms of language, races, Religions, food etc.
places such as parks, religious centres. Great bath is assumed for some special rituals. It can be
seen even today that before any religious events people used to take a dip in holy lakes or - Sardar Patel 's feat of uniting 500 princely states in 1947 .
rivers Like Ganga.
3. Yoga, Ayurveda and Vegetarian Diet - art of healthy living since ancient times
USE OF GRANARIES- granaries was prevalent during IVC. it wass used as stock in FCI 4. Vasudhaiva Kodambakkam - the whole world is a family.
Today government used it in modifief form to feed the deficit area through programmes(PDS) 5. Atithi devo bhava- Guest is God
run by them.
6. Parliamentary Democracy
Planned town: Division of settlement into two section: Lower part & citadels, fixed area for the
- Dates back to Licchavi Republic in ancient Eastern India.
settlement, rectangular plots, courtyards in the center of the house & presence of
administrative building & ritual bath outside the residential area. We can see this kind of - system of Sabha and Samiti to discuss public issues
planned settlement in today's architecture also. For example, Chandigarh, pondichery and
many other urban cities of the country. - After 1947, democracy in India has taken deep roots

Conclusion 7. Care for environment

Urban planning in the modern era is inferred to share many characteristics with that of the - Plants and animals treated as sacred by Associating them with deities
civilizations of the Indus valley. Town planning at the time was done efficiently and in a - Cow as Kamadhenu , Swan – Saraswati owl – Laxmi etc
futuristic manner using new methods.
8. Dharma / Righteousness

- essential for happiness and harmony

- forms Cost of Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayan etc.

Q.18) Write a brief note on basic value of Indian Culture
Othervalues
INTRODUCTION
 Spiritual path
India is a diverse country with incredibly High Culture and heritage. The two most
important tenets of Indian culture are human values and holism .  Respect for elders

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  Satya - truth
 Nishtha - Dedication
 Dana - Liberate giving
 Tyaga-renunciation
CONCLUSION
put into practice, the core values in Indian culture can guide humanity on the path of peace and
prosperity in the new millennium.
Q19: Evaluate the nature of Bhakti Literature and its contribution to Indian culture.
Originally began in South India in the 9th century with Shankaracharya, the Bhakti Literature
spread over all parts of India and by the 16th century and became a great spiritual force to
reckon with, especially after the great wave made by Kabir, Nanak and Shri Chaitanya.
Nature of Bhakti Literature:
 Bhakti and Sufi supported each other. Various recitation of sufi saints found place in
Sikhs’ religious canons.
 Spread of Bhakti cult due to adoption of vernacular languages which was easy to be
understood by masses.
 It preached for removal of sectarianism and casteism. The Bhakti literature called for
inclusion of castes and out-castes.
Contribution of Bhakti Literature:
 The Bhakti literature promoted the growth of vernacular language in different parts of
the country.
o Bengali was used by Chaitanya and by the poet Chandidas, who wrote
extensively on the theme of the love of Radha and Krishna.
o Shankaradeva popularised the use of the Assamese in the Brahmaputra valley in
the 15th He used an entirely new medium to spread his ideas.
o Marathi reached its apogee at the hands of saints like Eknath and Tukaram.
o Other prominent saints like Kabir, Nanak, and Tulsidas contributed enormously
to regional literature and language with their captivating verses and spiritual
exposition.
 Emergence of a new cultural tradition with the influence of Bhakti and sufism. Also
emergence of new sects like Sikhism, Kabir panth etc.
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 Post-Vedanta ideas were explored by Madhvacharya through his Dvaitadvaita, by
Ramanujacharya in his Vishishta Advaita etc.
 As a literary movement, it liberated poetry from singing the praises of kings and
introduced spiritual themes. From a style point of view, it introduced simple and
accessible styles like vachanas (in Kannada), saakhis, dohas and other forms in various
languages and ended the hegemony of Sanskrit metrical forms.
The ideas of Bhakti Movement continued to permeate the cultural ethos of the society through
the enormous body of literature left by them. The congruence in their ideas not only saved us
from the likely internecine conflicts but also built the spirit of tolerance.
Q20: What are the main features of Vedic society and religion? Do you think some of the
features are still prevailing in Indian society?
The Vedic Civilisation, also known as the Vedic culture or the Vedic period, was a complex and
varied civilisation that arose in ancient India between 1500 and 600 BCE. It was distinguished by
the practice of Vedic religion and the composition of the Vedas, a collection of sacred texts that
serve as the foundation of Hinduism.
Main Features of Vedic Society
● Family: The family was the basic unit of the Rigvedic society. It was patriarchal in nature. The
family structure was too large to be called a joint family.
● Varna System: Towards the end of Vedic civilisation, Vedic society was divided into four
varnas, i.e., Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
● Marriage: Monogamous marriages were preferred in the Vedic Society.
● Language: Sanskrit was mainly used in Vedic Society.
● Importance of the Vedas: Vedic Society gave a large importance to Vedic literature.
● Nature: Vedic society was pastoral in nature, which later on transformed into agriculturists.
● Property Rights: Vedic Society did not believe in private property but in community
ownership.
● Occupa on: The division of social groups was based on occupation alone and one’s
occupation did not depend on birth.
Main features of Vedic Religion
KALINGA IAS ACADEMY, CRP SQUARE BHUBANESWAR, CONTACT :0674-7969183
● Source of religious practices: Vedas were the primary source of religious practices.

● Naturalistic polytheism: Vedic Society believed in naturalistic gods. Thus, there were as many
gods as natural phenomena.

 For example, Indra was the god of rain and thunder. There arose a number of Rigvedic
Gods like Rudra, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu etc.

● Rituals and sacrifices: Sacrifices were an important part of rituals.

o For the sacrifices, Yajnas were performed for which hymns and prayers were recited.

o Yajnas were typically performed by priests.

o Important yajnas included ashvamedha, vajapeya, and rajasuya

Vedic features which still prevail in Indian society

● Patriarchy: Though Indian society is marching towards modernisation, the patriarchy

still persists, especially in religious and cultural matters.

● Polytheism: Vedic society believed in a number of Gods like Indra, Rudra, Varuna,
Soma and Vishnu. The belief in these Gods is still prevalent in modern Indian society.

● Agriculture: A large portion of Indian society is still agriculturist similar to the Vedic
people.

● Family: Indian society still follows the joint family structure.

● Marriage: Like Vedic Society monogamous marriages are still prevalent in Indian
society.

As Vedic society and religion still hold importance in modern Indian society, some ideal
features of the Vedic society like no to idol worship, respectable position of women etc. should
be adopted while shedding the negative features of it.

KALINGA IAS ACADEMY, CRP SQUARE BHUBANESWAR, CONTACT :0674-7969183