UNIVERSITY OF THE CORDILLERAS

GOV. PACK ROAD, BAGUIO CITY

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

ASSIGNMENT
TECHNIQUES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

NAME: Malidom, Kurt Derick T._______________________ DATE: 03-11-24___

SCHEDULE: TThS (7:30-8:50 am)_______________________

INSTRUCTION: RESEARCH THE FOLLOWING

GENETIC ENGINEERING
- Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses
laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism. This
may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA,
or adding a new segment of DNA. For example, genetic engineering may
involve adding a gene from one species to an organism from a different species
to produce a desired trait. Used in research and industry, genetic engineering
has been applied to the production of cancer therapies, brewing yeas ts,
genetically modified plants and livestock, and more. (Smith, Mike)

I. Artificial selection (early genetic engineering)

- National Geographic defines Artificial selection as the identification by humans
of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the steps taken to enhance and
perpetuate those traits in future generations. Artificial selection works the same
way as natural selection, except that with natural selection it is nature, not
human interference, that makes these decisions.

A. Selective breeding
- Britannica defines Selective breeding as the practice of mating individuals with
desired traits as a means of increasing the frequency of those traits in a
population

B. Hybridizations
- the technique of breeding two different individuals of the same or other species
to achieve the desired changes in the organisms. This technique can be used for
both plants and animals. Interspecific and intraspecific are the two types of
sexual hybridization techniques.

C. Inbreeding
- Inbreeding comes about when genetically related individuals mate. It occurs
when family members or related individuals within small groups are isolated from
outsiders and reproduce. Genetically, inbreeding results in homozygosity (having
two identical forms of a gene in an individual) of deleterious genes. (Richardson
& Smiseth, 2023)

1
II. Recombinant DNA technology

- involves using enzymes and various laboratory techniques to manipulate and

isolate DNA segments of interest. This method can be used to combine (or splice)
DNA from different species or to create genes with new functions. The resulting
copies are often referred to as recombinant DNA. Such work typically involves
propagating the recombinant DNA in a bacterial or yeast cell, whose cellular
machinery copies the engineered DNA along with its own. (Wetterstrand, Kris)

Applications of recombinant DNA technology

1. Scientific applications
- Scientific applications of recombinant DNA technology involve the manipulation
of DNA molecules to study gene function, regulation, and expression. This
technology allows scientists to create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for
research purposes, such as studying the role of specific genes in disease
development or understanding the mechanisms of genetic disorders.
Recombinant DNA techniques also enable the production of recombinant
proteins for various scientific studies, including drug development, protein
structure analysis, and biochemical research. (Zhang et al., 2023).

2. Diagnose genetic disease

- Recombinant DNA technology plays a crucial role in diagnosing genetic
diseases by enabling the detection of specific genetic mutations associated with
various disorders. Techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA
sequencing are used to analyze patient samples and identify genetic variations
that may contribute to disease development. This information is essential for
accurate diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized treatment strategies for
individuals with genetic conditions. (Vrettou et al., 2018).

3. Recombinant DNA techniques can be used for genetic fingerprinting identification.

- Genetic fingerprinting identification, also known as DNA profiling, utilizes
recombinant DNA technology to analyze specific regions of an individual's DNA
for unique genetic markers. This technique is widely used in forensic science to
identify individuals based on their DNA profiles, which are highly specific and can
distinguish between unrelated individuals. Genetic fingerprinting is also
employed in paternity testing, criminal investigations, and anthropological
studies to establish genetic relationships and trace ancestry. (Zhang et al., 2023).

4. Agricultural Applications
- In agricultural applications, recombinant DNA technology is utilized to develop
genetically modified crops with improved traits such as pest resistance, drought
tolerance, and increased nutritional content. By introducing foreign genes into
plant genomes, scientists can enhance crop productivity, reduce reliance on
chemical pesticides, and address food security challenges. Genetically modified
crops have been widely adopted in agriculture to increase yields, improve crop
quality, and promote sustainable farming practices. (Vrettou et al., 2018).

2
5. Nanotechnology
- Nanotechnology involves the use of recombinant DNA technology to design
and construct nanoscale structures for various applications, including drug
delivery, biosensors, and nanomedicine. By engineering DNA molecules to self-
assemble into specific nanostructures, researchers can create nanoscale
devices with precise control over size, shape, and functionality. These DNA-
based nanotechnologies have the potential to revolutionize healthcare,
electronics, and materials science by enabling the development of novel
nanomaterials and nanodevices with unique properties.

6. Therapeutic Applications
- Therapeutic applications of recombinant DNA technology encompass the
production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, and personalized medicine
approaches for treating genetic disorders, cancer, and other diseases.
Recombinant DNA techniques are used to manufacture therapeutic proteins like
insulin, growth factors, and antibodies for medical use. Gene therapy involves
delivering therapeutic genes into patients' cells to correct genetic defects or
modulate gene expression, offering potential cures for genetic diseases.
Personalized medicine utilizes genetic information to tailor treatment strategies to
individual patients based on their genetic profiles, optimizing therapeutic
outcomes and minimizing adverse effects.

Safety Issues and Ethics of recombinant DNA technology

Safety Issues

● “Gene pollution” of the environment resulting in “superweeds,” antibiotic-

resistant microbes
● Health effects of foods from GMOs
● Allergenicity/adverse immune reactions/effectiveness of pharmaceutical
compounds produced using rDNA technology
● Risks in gene therapy
● Integration of foreign DNA into host genomes, potentially leading to unintended
genetic modifications

Ethics

● Potential for unintended consequences, such as creating harmful organisms or

triggering allergic reactions.
● Release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) into the environment and
their potential to disrupt ecosystems.
● Potential for misuse of genetic engineering techniques for the development of
biological weapons.
● Ethical implications of using genetic technologies to select desired traits in
humans, potentially leading to discrimination and inequality.
● Safeguarding individuals' genetic information and preventing its misuse or
unauthorized access.

III. Genetically modified organisms

3
 - National Geographic defines GMOs as a genetically modified organism that
contains DNA that has been altered using genetic engineering. Genetically
modified animals are mainly used for research purposes, while genetically
modified plants are common in today’s food supply.

A. Transgenic plants or crops and examples

- Transgenic plants are plants that have been genetically modified utilizing
recombinant DNA technology to express exogenous genes or modify
endogenous genes (Key et al., 2008).
- Examples: Golden Rice, Bt cotton, Flavr Savr

B. Transgenic animals and examples

- Transgenic animals are animals (most commonly mice) that have had a foreign
gene deliberately inserted into their genome. Such animals are most commonly
created by the microinjection of DNA into the pronuclei of a fertilised egg which
is subsequently implanted into the oviduct of a pseudopregnant surrogate
mother. (Moen, et al.)
- Examples: Dolly Sheep, Transgenic Mice

“Knock-out” Technology
- the use of genetic engineering to inactivate or remove one or more specific
genes from an organism. Scientists create knockout organisms to study the
impact of removing a gene from an organism, which often allows them to then
learn something about that gene's function. (Morris, Stephanie)

“xenotransplantation”
- when non-human cells, tissues, or organs are used to treat medical conditions in
humans
- Xenotransplantation is an experimental treatment. It is only allowed in extremely
rare and serious cases. The FDA has not yet allowed clinical trials to begin.

Advantages/Benefits of GMO

1. Crops
- Genetically modified crops offer several advantages, including increased yields,
reduced need for chemical pesticides, improved resistance to diseases, pests,
and drought, enhanced nutritional value, and lower environmental impact due
to decreased tractor fuel usage and machinery handling of pesticides. These
benefits contribute to sustainable agriculture practices and food security (Sun et
al., 2013)

2. Animals
- improved quality and quantity of feed resulting from GMO crops can indirectly
benefit livestock by providing better nutrition and potentially reducing the
environmental impact of animal agriculture.
3. Environment

4
 - GMOs can have positive environmental impacts by reducing the need for
chemical pesticides, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving
biodiversity, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Additionally,
GMOs can increase crop productivity without expanding the cultivated land
area, thus reducing the agricultural land footprint Doxzen & Henderson (2020).
4. Society
- GMOs offer societal benefits such as increased food production to meet growing
global demand, improved food security, reduced use of chemical pesticides
benefiting human health, and potential cost reductions for consumers.
Moreover, GMO technology has the potential to address malnutrition by
enhancing the nutritional content of crops, contributing to public health
improvements (Doxzen & Henderson, 2020)

Controversies on GMO
1. Safety
- Safety concerns regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) revolve
around potential risks to human and animal health, as well as the environment.
Studies have evaluated the toxicity and allergenicity of GMOs, with some
indicating the need for further research to fully understand the long-term effects
of GMO consumption on health. (Domingo, 2007).

2. Access and Intellectual Property

- Access and intellectual property issues in GMOs pertain to the control of
patented GMO technologies by biotechnology companies, limiting access for
small-scale farmers and researchers. This has raised debates on the equitable
distribution of benefits from GMOs and the impact of intellectual property rights
on agricultural innovation and food security (Mahaffey et al., 2016).

3. Ethics
- Ethical considerations surrounding GMOs encompass a range of concerns,
including animal welfare, environmental sustainability, and social justice. The
ethical dimensions of GMOs are particularly significant in regions where religious
beliefs influence attitudes toward biotechnology and agriculture (Omar et al.,
2022).
4. Labeling
- Labeling of GMO products has been a contentious issue, with calls for
mandatory labeling to inform consumers about the presence of GMO
ingredients in food products. This debate reflects concerns about transparency,
consumer choice, and the right to know what is in the food they consume
(Zhang et al., 2015).
5. Society
- Societal implications of GMOs involve public perceptions, trust in regulatory
systems, and cultural attitudes towards biotechnology. Public debates on GMOs
often center around safety, environmental impact, and ethical considerations,
shaping consumer preferences and influencing policy decisions (Russo et al.,
2020).
6. Environmental Risk
- Environmental risks associated with GMOs include concerns about the
development of resistance in target pests, unintended effects on non-target
organisms, and potential ecological imbalances. The release of GMOs into the

5
 environment raises questions about the long-term consequences on biodiversity
and ecosystem stability (Mathipa & Thantsha, 2017).

7. Threat to biodiversity
- The threat to biodiversity from GMOs stems from the potential for gene flow from
genetically engineered crops to wild relatives, leading to genetic contamination
and loss of genetic diversity. This poses risks to natural ecosystems, native species,
and the resilience of agricultural systems (Mathipa & Thantsha, 2017).

IV. Cloning
- the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or
organism. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the
original, is referred to as a clone.

Applications of Cloning

1. Proteins, vaccines, and antibiotics are all produced by the process of cloning.
2. In agriculture, cloning is employed to create pest-resistant plants.
3. Cloning is utilized to create transgenic animals and for gene therapy.
4. Cloning livestock is a way to duplicate a desirable combination of features, like
as rapid development and abundant milk production, without the genetic
"lottery" and mixing that takes place during sexual reproduction.
5. It enables faster reproduction of an animal with a particular genetic change
than does normal mating, such as the capacity to generate a medicine in milk.

3 Types of Cloning

1. DNA (gene) cloning

- involves the creation of exact copies of a particular gene or DNA sequence. This
process allows researchers to isolate specific genes of interest and replicate
them in a controlled manner. By using vectors, which are carriers of DNA
fragments, scientists can insert the gene of interest into these vectors and then
introduce them into host organisms for replication

2. Therapeutic (stem cell) cloning

- uses enucleated human eggs and somatic cell nuclear transfer technology to
create a human embryo that is a genetic clone of the patient. The embryo is
destroyed to obtain embryonic stem cells that have the same genotype as the
patient. These cells can be cultured indefinitely, and hormonally induced to form
new tissues and organs that will not be rejected by the patient’s immune system.

3. Reproductive (organism) cloning

- Reproductive cloning involves the replication of entire organisms, aiming at the
birth of a living being. This process typically utilizes somatic cell nuclear transfer
(SCNT) technology, where the nucleus of a somatic cell is transferred into an
enucleated egg, leading to the development of an embryo that is genetically
identical to the donor organism. Reproductive cloning has the potential to

6
 create enhanced organisms capable of adapting to various environmental
conditions. (Keefer, 2015)

Two techniques:
a. Embryo splitting
- involves separating the blastomeres of an early embryo to create two or more
smaller embryos. This technique has been used to produce identical offspring
and has paved the way for advancements in cloning by nuclear transfer in
mammals. The process of embryo splitting is considered an effective method for
increasing the number of offspring from a single embryo, akin to the natural
occurrence of identical twins. (Moore & Hasler, 2017)

b. Somatic cell Nuclear transfer (SCNT)

- Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a technique used in reproductive cloning
to create genetically identical organisms. This process involves transferring the
nucleus of a somatic cell, which is any cell in the body except for sperm and egg
cells, into an enucleated oocyte. The enucleated oocyte is an egg cell that has
had its nucleus removed. Once the somatic cell nucleus is inserted into the
enucleated oocyte, the cell is stimulated to start dividing and developing into an
embryo. (Inoue et al., 2010).

V. Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine

Two types of stem cells

1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC): received from:

- are derived from the inner cell mass (ICM) of the developing blastocyst stage
embryos five to eight days after fertilization. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are
found in the inner cell mass of the human blastocyst, an early stage of the
developing embryo lasting from the 4th to 7th day after fertilization. In normal
embryonic development, they disappear after the 7th day and begin to form
the three embryonic tissue layers. ESCs extracted from the inner cell mass during
the blastocyst stage, however, can be cultured in the laboratory and under the
right conditions will increase indefinitely. ESCs growing in this undifferentiated
state retain the potential to differentiate into cells of all three embryonic tissue
layers. Research involving human ESCs is at the center of the ethical debate
about stem cell use and its potential in regenerative medicine. Embryos from
which ESCs are extracted are destroyed in the process.

2. Adult Stem Cells (ASC): can be received from:

- They can be derived from different tissues of the body including bone marrow,
blood, fat, dental pulp, placenta, liver, and brain. ASCs are undifferentiated cells
found living within specific differentiated tissues in our bodies that can renew
themselves or generate new cells that can replenish dead or damaged tissue.
You may also see the term “somatic stem cell” used to refer to adult stem cells.

7
 The term “somatic” refers to non-reproductive cells in the body (eggs or sperm).
ASCs are typically scarce in native tissues which has rendered them difficult to
study and extract for research purposes.

Potential of Stem Cells

1. Totipotent (total):
- have the highest differentiation potential, being able to give rise to all cell types
in an organism, including both embryonic and extraembryonic tissues

2. Pluripotent (plural):
- can differentiate into cell types from all three germ layers but not
extraembryonic tissues

3. Multipotent (multiple):
- have a more limited differentiation capacity, being able to differentiate into a
range of cell types within a particular germ layer or tissue type

4. Oligopotent
- can differentiate into a few closely related cell types

5. Unipotent
- have the most restricted differentiation potential, being able to differentiate into
only one cell type

VI. The Human Genome Project

- The Human Genome Project (HGP) is one of the greatest scientific feats in history.

The project was a voyage of biological discovery led by an international group

of researchers looking to comprehensively study all of the DNA (known as a

genome) of a select set of organisms. Launched in October 1990 and

completed in April 2003, the Human Genome Project’s signature

accomplishment – generating the first sequence of the human genome –

provided fundamental information about the human blueprint, which has since

accelerated the study of human biology and improved the practice of

medicine. (National Human Genome Research Institute)

-
-

Aims:

● identify all the approximately 20,500 genes in human DNA,

8
 ● determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up
human DNA,
● store this information in databases,
● improve tools for data analysis,
● transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
● address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.

What we have learned from HGP

- According to the Australian Academy of Science we learned:

1. The surprising revelation that humans have a relatively small number of genes
compared to other organisms like roundworms and water crustaceans,
indicating that genetic complexity is not solely determined by gene count.
2. The complexity of gene expression, with many genes having multiple functions
and producing different versions active in various tissues.
3. The significance of non-coding DNA in genome size and complexity, exemplified
by the puffer fish having more genes but a smaller genome due to less non-
coding DNA.
4. The completion of the Human Genome Project in April 2003, providing a
comprehensive map of the human genome using DNA from diverse donors.
5. The decreasing cost of genome sequencing, enabling widespread use in
medical practice.
6. The potential for personalized medicine, where treatment is tailored to individual
genetic profiles, improving efficacy and reducing side effects.
7. The ability to predict disease predispositions and apply preventive measures
based on an individual's genome, potentially revolutionizing healthcare.

Summary of findings of the Human Genome Project

- The Project was able to successfully sequence 99% of the gene-containing

regions of the human genome with a remarkable accuracy rate of 99.99%.
Beyond its initial objective, the HGP also provided valuable supplementary
outcomes including a comprehensive draft of the mouse genome, an initial draft
of the rat genome, the identification of 3 million human genetic variations (SNPs),
and more complete complementary DNAs for more than 70% of both humans
and mouse genes. These advancements have shed light and propelled
genomic research, offering intricate insights into the intricate nature of the
human genetic blueprint. (Bio Med Central)

REFERENCES:
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Engineering

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/artificial-selection/

9
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/
inbreeding#:~:text=Inbreeding%20comes%20about%20when%20genetically,an
%20individual)%20of%20deleterious%20genes.

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Recombinant-DNA-Technology

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04056-7

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/
recombinant-dna-technology#:~:text=Safety%20issues%20in%20recombinant%20DNA
%20technology%20include%3A&text=%E2%80%9CGene%20pollution%E2%80%9D%20of
%20the%20environment,superweeds%2C%E2%80%9D%20antibiotic%2Dresistant
%20microbes&text=Health%20effects%20of%20foods%20from
%20GMOs&text=Allergenicity%2Fadverse%20immune%20reactions
%2Feffectiveness,compounds%20produced%20using%20rDNA%20technology

https://ivypanda.com/essays/moral-and-ethical-issues-of-recombinant-dna-
technology/

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/genetically-modified-organisms/

https://byjus.com/biology/transgenic-plants/

https://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/index.php/science/summary/transgenic/
transgenic-animals-have-genes-from-other-species-inserted#:~:text=Transgenic
%20animals%20are%20animals%20(most,of%20a%20pseudopregnant%20surrogate
%20mother.

https://byjus.com/biology/transgenic-animals/

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Knockout#:~:text=A%20knockout%2C
%20as%20related%20to,something%20about%20that%20gene%27s%20function.

https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/xenotransplantation

https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2020.1811451

https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2013.46a001

https://doi.org/10.1080/10408390601177670

https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2016.711127

https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarems/v11-i3/15263

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-015-0244-1

https://byjus.com/question-answer/what-is-the-application-of-cloning/#

10
https://bioprinciples.biosci.gatech.edu/module-5-integrative-health/02-cloning-and-
stem-cells/

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501718112

https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13138

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1194174

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223690/

https://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/index.shtml

https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project

https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/human-genome-project

https://genomemedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gm483

11