Conference Paper

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF
MIXING IN PROCESS
DEADLEGS IN ORDER TO
MODEL
MICROBIOLOGICALLY
INFLUENCED CORROSION
AND TUBERCULATION AT
THESE LOCATIONS
COMPANY WIDE
CW-71000-CONF-003
Revision 0

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2010/01/21 2010/01/21
UNRESTRICTED ILLIMITÉ

Atomic Energy of Énergie Atomique du

Canada Limited Canada Limitée
2251 Speakman Drive 2251 rue Speakman
Mississauga, Ontario Mississauga (Ontario)
Canada L5K 1B2 Canada L5K 1B2
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NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF MIXING IN PROCESS DEADLEGS IN ORDER TO MODEL

MICROBIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED CORROSION AND TUBERCULATION AT THESE
LOCATIONS
E.D. Beaton, M.L. Serran, L. Sun
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
Chalk River Laboratories
Chalk River, Ontario
Canada, K0J 1J0

ABSTRACT

Operating experience of carbon steel process water systems has demonstrated that corrosion and
tuberculation in process deadlegs can be more extensive than the corrosion and tuberculation in the flow
leg of the system. The reason why corrosion is seen at these locations is unknown since deadleg lines
are also considered to be stagnant. However, deadlegs can have two zones, a mixing zone and a
non-mixing or stagnant zone in the deadleg. The mixing zone is created by flow in the main pipe
separating at the deadleg opening and creating a vortex. The vortex created means that some mixing in
the deadleg is possible having a mixing depth and flow velocity profile dependent on the flow velocity
in the main pipe flow leg. This phenomenon, therefore, is referred to as turbulence penetration. The
resulting mixing length defines a region of the system having a variable length where microbiologically
influence corrosion (MIC) and tuberculation can occur even if the flow velocity in the main pipe flow
leg is high enough to prevent corrosion product accumulation.
An equation relating mixing length in a process deadleg to Reynolds number is available. It was hoped
this relationship may provide a means for modelling corrosion in the different mixing zones and provide
a rationale for inspection locations. Experimental tests on corrosion of carbon steel in process deadlegs,
however, revealed that corrosion was still seen at locations in the deadleg beyond the expected mixing
length that would be created by turbulence penetration alone. Modelling of deadlegs was therefore
reviewed and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations were then performed to better
understand the effects of turbulence penetration and the resulting mixing length on corrosion in process
deadlegs. Understanding gained from these calculations, therefore, also provide a rationale to explore
additional environmental conditions resulting in materials transfer into deadlegs that could explain
corrosion seen at locations where it would not be expected.

Keywords: deadleg, flow leg, computational fluid dynamics, microbiologically influenced corrosion,
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INTRODUCTION

Inner diameter corrosion allowances for service water carbon steel and cast iron piping in nuclear power
plant systems are based on a achieving an approximately 40 year design life and an extended 60 year
life at the anticipated temperature, flows and water chemistry. These allowances are based on a general
corrosion rate uniformly corroding the pipe and possibly resulting in the formation of a protective oxide
film. However, throughout the operating life of a length of pipe conditions of flow and water chemistry
can change resulting in unaccounted for localized forms of corrosion. The system design may also
mean some lengths of pipe experience continuous flow or intermittent flow while others would be
non-flowing such as lengths of pipe located between isolation valves. A further consideration is the
so-called deadleg, which is a term used to describe lengths of pipe connected to normally flowing pipe
but itself is normally either non-flowing or experiences flow only intermittently. Operating experience
has shown that corrosion in a deadleg can be more severe than the corrosion seen in the corresponding
flow leg1. The prediction and experimental emulation of corrosion in process deadlegs is the focus of
this paper.
To help understand the corrosion seen in deadlegs of service water systems at nuclear power plants, the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Service Water Guideline2 describes a role for flow on the
corrosion seen in flowing, intermittent flow and non-flowing sections of pipe, including deadlegs, of
service water systems. In the guideline, normally flowing lines are expected to form a uniform
corrosion product layer that protects the underlying metal from the corrosive water chemistry. In
non-flowing lines, dissolved oxygen in the bulk water is assumed to be consumed after which corrosion
due to dissolved oxygen ceases. With no means for ingress of additional corrosive compounds, the rate
and extent of corrosion is limited by the dissolved oxygen concentration and diffusion. In such lines
microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) would also become limited for the same reason as
corrosion induced by dissolved oxygen, i.e., due to the limited availability of electron donor and electron
acceptor compounds, thus, limiting microbial metabolism and its corresponding effect on metal
corrosion(1). The EPRI Service Water Guideline also notes that in non-flowing water bearing systems
the corrosion product layer that forms can to be loose and non-protective meaning changes in the local
environments, such as flow resulting in influx of fresh water, the subsequent corrosion could be severe
in comparison to the normally flowing system with the same chemistry.
In the EPRI guideline2, a deadleg is considered separate from the non-flowing criterion due to the
requirement to have a non-flowing or intermittently flowing line connected to a flowing line. This lack
of isolation means materials transfer from the main pipe flow leg provides a continuous supply of
dissolved oxygen, other compounds and microorganisms into the deadleg. The concentration of these
compounds in the deadleg would depend on the chemistry of the water flowing passed the deadleg inlet
and the mass transfer into the deadleg.
Mixing due to flow perturbations at the deadleg opening means that some mixing in the deadleg is
possible. Figure 1 schematically demonstrates the flow separation and vortex formation occurring inside
a deadleg. Also shown in Figure 1 are the experimental results obtained by Bloom3 on mixing length
development due to Reynolds number (Re) under isothermal conditions for two temperatures and a

1
A further consideration under low and no flow conditions is that microbial cells and other particulate in the water
can settle on pipe surfaces creating an environment for underdeposit corrosion.
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range of pipe diameters. These experiments were performed using a dye tracer and the mixing length
was measured 60 minutes after adding the dye. To confirm these experimental results computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations simulating the dye tracer test performed by Bloom3 were carried out
where the equilibration of a ‘tracer’ in the main pipe flow leg was calculated to determine the
distribution of the tracer due to the resulting mixing in the deadleg. CFD calculations were also
performed to obtain details on the flow velocity gradient established at a deadleg opening due solely to
flow under isothermal conditions. These calculations were performed to better understand the effects of
turbulence penetration on corrosion in process deadlegs and to define the resulting mixing length.
Findings from these calculations would also provide a rationale to explore additional environmental
conditions resulting in materials transfer into deadlegs that could explain the corrosion seen at locations
where it was not expected.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Thermal Hydraulic Calculations

For the thermal hydraulic calculations documented in this paper a commercial computer code(2) was
used. The models created for particular geometries and conditions based on the dimensions, layout and
operating details of the experimental loop were validated and an appropriate solver selected. Details of
the transport equations for realizable k-ε model are provided in the software program manual4. The
three-dimensional (3-D) geometry for the flow in the main pipe of the loop and the attached deadleg
was created(3)5 and the geometry then meshed for importing into the computer code. The boundary
conditions were set to replicate those under certain loop operating conditions. Because of the iterating
process of the calculations, computations were terminated when a stable solution measured by the error
residuals reached an acceptable level and the solution was not changing with more iterations. The
following assumptions were made:
• The flow is 3-D, both steady and unsteady states were considered
• The fluid is light water (single phase) and the materials properties are constant.
Fluent solves RANS equations (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations) for the turbulent flow.

The realizable k-ε model provided with the commercial software program was used in the calculation4.
This model is based on the classical k-ε model and has been improved to ensure only positive normal

(2)
Fluent 6.3
(3)
Gambit 2.4
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stress. The turbulent viscosity is varying and is computed with the iterations. With these improvements,
the model is more accurate for flows with rotation, separation, and re-circulation.
Pipe walls significantly affect flow distribution in turbulent flows because of large velocity gradients
they generate in the close proximity of walls. Consequently, the near-wall regions must be treated
carefully to ensure an accurate model. Since the turbulence near walls changes significantly, adjustments
to the turbulence calculations near the wall must be made. Wall functions (high-Reynolds-number models)
and near-wall models (low-Reynolds-number models), are the two solutions provided typically by
computational fluid dynamics codes.
For the final calculations in this analysis, the standard wall function was used to bridge the gap between
the fully-turbulent zone and the viscosity-affect zone. In the present study using realizable k-ε model
with standard wall function, the total mesh size is 314 k cells. The boundaries of the computational
domain used here consisted of inlet, outlet boundary, and pipe and deadleg walls. Uniform velocity
profile was assumed at the inlet and, after a certain length, the flow in the pipe becomes fully developed
before it reaches the deadleg.
The boundaries of the computational domain used here consisted of inlet, outlet boundary, and pipe and
deadleg walls. Uniform velocity profile was assumed at the inlet and, after a certain length, the flow in
the pipe becomes fully developed before it reaches the deadleg. The pipe and dead-leg walls are
assumed hydraulically smooth.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Under low flow conditions, the rate of corrosion by dissolved oxygen and corrosion associated with
microbiological metabolism would likely be mass transfer limited. Knowing the mass transfer rates,
therefore, can provide an estimate of the corresponding corrosion rate by either mechanism. The flow
developed in deadlegs has a few distinct regions, these are:
• The fully developed, turbulent pipe flow developed in the main pipe of the loop,
• Expansion of the main flow into the deadleg that defines a region of intensive mixing in the
deadleg,
• A stagnant region in the deadleg where the flow/mixing velocity due to turbulence penetration
drops to almost zero.
Both turbulence penetration and diffusion are phenomena resulting in materials transfer into a deadleg
and could contribute to corrosion of the deadleg pipe. These phenomena are also independent of the
deadleg pipe geometry. Natural convection, on the other hand, could notably increase the penetration
depth of mixing and materials transfer, however, this phenomenon depends on deadleg pipe geometry
and its orientation since natural convection relies on differences in the buoyant density of the water
relative to gravity and the temperature difference.
In order to plan experiments accounting for these phenomena on corrosion of carbon steel in a deadleg,
CFD calculations were performed to evaluate the role of flow on mixing in a deadleg. Results from these
calculations were then compared to the experimental results of Bloom3, Asteriadou6, 7 for mixing length
and also to corrosion test results obtained using SRB and carbon steel in the experimental test loop
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previously described8. Some of the results from this loop are reproduced in Figure 2 for a deadleg
of 19 pipe diameters long in which the expected mixing length was estimated to be 7 pipe diameters
from the deadleg opening based on turbulence penetration as defined by Bloom3. Carbon steel corrosion
in the flow leg and the deadleg were monitored using multiple array corrosion probes that had been
either polished or pre-corroded prior to being exposed to SRB. These tests were expected to
demonstrate differences in corrosion experienced in the loop flow portion, the mixing length
portion (7 pipe diameters) and the stagnant portion (19 pipe diameters) resulting from either dissolved
oxygen or SRB. According to Fick’s second law of diffusion changes in the concentration field of a
dissolved compound with time would take months for material from the flow leg/mixing length to
diffuse the 19 pipe diameters to the corrosion probe surface. Instead the corrosion seen in the longer
deadleg was the same as the corrosion seen in the flow leg (Figure 2). Mixing in the deadleg beyond the
flow induced mixing zone was, therefore, occurring and the deadleg volume up to 19 pipe diameters
away from the opening was not stagnant, meaning, with the loop set up, the anticipated mixing length
was more than doubled. The reason for this is thought to be due to the additional influence of natural
convection currents established in the deadleg that extended the mixing length beyond what would be
predicted by turbulence penetration alone. The longer than expected mixing length was therefore
investigated by performing the CFD calculations using details relevant to the loop such as pipe diameter
and flow. The loop was also fitted with thermocouples and confirmed the solution in the deadleg in the
vicinity of the corrosion monitoring probe was consistently ~4°C cooler than the solution in the flow
leg. This temperature difference, the orientation of the deadleg and the inability for the loop to reach
thermal equilibrium was thought to sustain convection currents in the deadleg. Tests are continuing to
assess corrosion seen in the loop deadleg compared to the flow leg under isothermal and non-isothermal
conditions.
Figure 3 provides a comparison between the experimentally derived mixing lengths of Bloom2 and the
calculated mixing lengths using the computational software. The resulting calculated mixing lengths are
similar to the experimentally derived mixing lengths. Based on these findings, the resulting flow
velocity profile that develops inside a deadleg would be expected to depend on the flow velocity in the
main pipe flow leg.
An analysis of flow induced mixing in deadlegs is provided in Figure 4. The average flow velocity used
for the calculation was 1 m/s in the flow leg. This flow rate was chosen based on the flow rates used
when performing corrosion tests in the loop. Similar calculations using additional flow rates relevant to
those found in service water systems of nuclear power plants are planned. The resulting flow velocity
gradient and flow vectors shown in Figure 4 are expected to be constant over time. The mixing length
becomes an extension of the main pipe flow in terms of not only mixing but also bulk medium
composition where from the deadleg opening to the transition point between the mixing zone and the
stagnant zone, the medium composition equilibrates with the medium composition in the main pipe flow
leg. To demonstrate this, calculations were also performed to determine the mixing length based on the
concentration of a solute in the flowing solution. The results for these calculations over a 3 minute
timeframe are shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 using the average flow velocities of 1 and 2 m/s,
respectively; the corresponding mixing lengths were determined to be 6.3 and 8.1 pipe diameters,
respectively. These figures demonstrate that the calculated mixing length can be determined based on
both flow in the main pipe flow leg and on changes in the solute composition in the main pipe flow leg.
The solute concentration immediately beyond the end of the mixing length drops to zero at the interface
of the diffusion gradient and beyond. The chemical composition of the solution in the stagnant zone of
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the deadleg would therefore be different from the chemical composition of the solution in the main pipe
flow leg and mixing length in the deadleg. If the solute in question were dissolved oxygen, the variation
in mass transfer rates from the deadleg opening to the transition between the mixing zone and the
stagnant zone could allow concentration cells to develop, meaning the mixing gradient developed in a
deadleg is a region of the system where corrosion and tuberculation could occur even if the flow
velocity in the flow leg is high enough to prevent corrosion product accumulation.
Understanding mass transfer and mixing in process deadlegs such as turbulence penetration, natural
convection and diffusion can help to better understand the corrosion seen at these locations. Extending
the CFD calculation to include natural convection would involve including a wall boundary condition in
the deadleg for an average natural convection heat transfer coefficient to calculate the heat flux between
the wall and the external environment around the deadleg.

CONCLUSIONS

The computational fluid dynamics calculations described and results shown demonstrate the different
flow induced regions that develop in a deadleg; these are:
• Fully developed, turbulent pipe flow in the main pipe of the loop.
• Flow into the deadleg defining a region of intensive mixing in the deadleg.
• A stagnant region in the deadleg where the velocity drops to almost zero.
Turbulence penetration resulting in flow and mixing into deadlegs can be numerically modeled. The
calculations performed corroborate the experimental findings of Bloom3 for water carrying lines with
respect to the resulting mixing depth under isothermal conditions. Based this comparison, the
penetration depth will vary with flow, but since flow is the driving force for mixing in the deadleg the
resulting mixing length would be independent of deadleg geometry and orientation.
The bulk solution composition inside the deadleg mixing zone can be also be modeled. The
composition of the bulk water chemistry in the flow induced deadleg mixing zone reaches equilibrium
with the composition of the flow leg within a few minutes. Using dissolved oxygen as an example, the
resulting differential concentration cell generated by the combination of bulk water chemistry and the
mixing gradient in the deadleg provides a rationale for explaining why tuberculation is seen at these
locations. The lower flow in the deadleg compared to the flow leg also allows for microbial settling and
attachment. The existing flow, therefore, will also provide a means for continued microbial growth in
the deadleg by providing electron donor and acceptor compounds from the bulk water in the main flow
leg. By modeling these flows in deadlegs, it may be possible to also model MIC at these locations.
Finally, because heat transfer between the deadleg pipe wall and the surrounding environment can result
in temperature differences between solution in a flow leg and solution in the deadleg, a second
mechanism for mixing in the deadleg is possible that, depending on the orientation of this temperature
difference with respect to gravity, can lead to additional mixing in the deadleg due to natural convection.
Results from the experimental test loop suggest additional mixing due to natural convection increases
mixing length beyond what is predicted by modeling turbulence penetration.
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The capability to model flow and mixing in a deadleg implies that under mass transfer limited conditions
corrosion of carbon steel due to dissolved oxygen and microorganisms in the deadleg could be estimated
based on the modeled mass transfer rate. This also implies that the extent of tuberculation in a deadleg
could also be predicted, providing a rationale for inspection location and inspection frequency.

REFERENCES

1. P. Angell, C. Schefski, R. Richard, G. Mills and S. Pestonji, ‘Controlling Microbially Influenced

Corrosion through Piping Geometry’, 15th Service Water System Reliability Improvement
(SWSRI) Seminar, August 2-3, 2004, in Montréal, Québec, Canada.
2. G. Licina, EPRI Service Water Guideline, TR-1010059, 2004.
3. G.R. Bloom, ‘Turbulent Hydraulic Penetration from Turbulent Pipe Flow to Stagnant Columns’,
PhD. Thesis, College of Engineering, Washington State University, 1978.
4. Fluent 6.3 Documentation, ANSYS/Fluent Inc., 2006
5. GAMBIT 2.4 Documentation, ANSYS/Fluent Inc., 2007
6. K. Asteriadou, A.P.M. Hastings, M.R. Bird, L. Melrose, ‘Computational Fluid Dynamics for the
Prediction of Temperature Profiles and Hygienic Design in the Food Industry’, Transactions of
the Institute of Chemical Engineers, Food and Bioproducts Processing, 84, 2006, 157-163
7. K. Asteriadou, A.P.M. Hastings, M.R. Bird, L. Melrose, ‘Exploring CFD Solutions for
Coexisting Flow Regimes in a Piece’, Chemical Engineering Technology, 32, 2009, 948-955.
8. E.D. Beaton, ‘Understanding MIC in Process Water Systems: Recent Findings on its Control’,
Paper No. 07526, MIC Symposium, Corrosion, 2007, Nashville, TN.
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16

14

12

10

Mixing Length
8

0
104 105
Re•ν
Reν 1.2 1.2

Figure 1–Separation of flow and vortex formation defining a mixing length inside a deadleg (From
reference 3, Re: Reynold’s number, ν: kinematic viscosity)
10 6
1.E-02

10 5
1.E-03
Corrosivity of the Environment

Pre-corroded probes Deadleg

10 4
1.E-04

Flow pipe
10 3
1.E-05

Polished probes Deadleg

1.E-06
2
10

1.E-07
1
10 Flow pipe

10 0
1.E-08
0:00:00 24:00:00 48:00:00
Loop Operation Time (hrs)

Figure 2–Comparison between carbon steel corrosion seen in flow and deadleg regions of the
experimental loop under two conditions of iron content in the medium (From reference 6).
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The term “corrosivity of the environment” refers to the standard deviation of the currents
obtained from sixteen individual electrodes in the corrosion monitoring probe.

Mixing Length

24
Bloom-T30 Fluent-V-T30
22 Bloom-T80 Fluent-V-T80
20 Bloom(Asteriadou) Fluent(Asteriadou)
F luent-M-T30 Bloom-High-Re
18
16
14
ML=L/D

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06
Re

Figure 3–Comparison of calculated mixing length with the experimentally derived mixing lengths
of Bloom 3
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Figure 4–Velocity vectors in the deadleg due to flow at 1.2 m/s in the flow leg

10 s 20 s 30 s

L=6.3D

60 s 120 s 180 s
Flow = 1 m/s, with tracer dye @ 100% to < 5%

ML = 6.3 D

Figure 5–Solute concentration development in the deadleg due to flow at 1 m/s in the flow leg
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10 s 30 s 60 s

L=8.1D

120 s 180 s

Flow = 2 m/s, with dye tracer @ 100% to <5%

ML = 8.1 D

Figure 6–Solute concentration development in the deadleg due to flow at 2 m/s in the flow leg