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Indigenous Building and the Third World - Architectural Design April 1975

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INDIGENOUSHOUSING
Direetory of Alternative Technology Part2
DESIGNVOI-UMFXLVAPRIL19756OP
ARCHITECTURAL
 IIIDIGE]IOUS
BUILDI]IG
ondthelhtudUUodd
In Third llorld countries, indigenous building processescould play a mofe central and
functional role in building rlevelopment than mere nostalgia. This would call for a deeper
understanding of the indigenous built form the traditional processesof construction,
and the environmentaland socialfunctions which it performs.
llith firsrhand experience in E4ypt, Oman, India, Iran and Sudan, ALLAN CAIN,
FARROUKH AFSI{AR and JOHN NORTON argue the feasibility of u policy of
indigenous building fctr non-industrial countries in general. They present six casestudies
from the Aralt country of Oman specific elernentsof the built enrlironment,such as
wind-catchersand water supply. Thesestudies are presented in boxes with grey borders.

Indigenoussystems them to local conditions:The

By 'indigenous systems' we
mean those systems that are
traditional to a country. A
'system' can be simply defined
as a 'set of related parts',
d e n o t i n g ' o r g a n i s a t i o n ' .M a n y
traditions, far from being back-
ward or illogical as often sup-
posed,do in fact havean under-
lying rationaleor'system'which
is closelyrelatedor'indigenous'
to their particularregion.
The potentials of indigenous
systemshave been neglectedin
most Third World countries.
Insteadthey havebeenreplaced
by Western methods often
inappropriateto localconditions
and needs- physical,economic,
sociai, cultural and aesthetic.
The visible material successof
the Westernindustrializedworld
has made it the obviousmodel
for Third World countries.The
very term 'developingcountries'
implies a correlative'developed'
world which would act as an
ideal.Over the years,the values,
objectivesand methods qf the
West have been adoptedby the
other countriesthrough a combi-
nation of imposition and emula-
tion. The British model of parlia-
'government
mintary has been
implanted intact into countries
with very different indigenous
political organisations.Western
medical methods have been
unquestioninglyapplied, often
to the complete neglect of
long-practicedlocal methods of
healing.
Today there is a growing
awareness that such literal
transfeS3nce of methods rarely
works'.{or is it adequ4teto start
with basicallyWesternobjectives
and msftrods and then modify
207 AD14tTs
Third World has very different
social, cultural and economic
bases (and in most cases,dif-
ferent physical environmentsas
well).
Furthermore, in the global
context of political economy,
the Third World is now in a very
different position from that in
which the Western World
developed,when it had the rest
of the world to draw its
resourcesfrom. Yet today the
Westernworld itself is beginning
to have grave doubts about the
validity of its own socio-
economic models. Profligato
consumption of energy and
resources has precipitated the
energy crisis and aggiavateda
major economic recession.
Over-specialisation and insti-
tutionalisation have taken con'
trol out of the hands of the
majority of the population and
left them alienated.Moreover,at
the time that the Westernworld
was developing, it w&s con-
currently shaping the socio-
economicsystemsof the rest of
the world, often to its own
advantageand to the detriment
of the country in which it was
acting. Much of what is con-
sidered 'modern' today in a
developingcountry wasfathered
by this shapingprocessand con-
tinues to work to the detriment
of the country. However,
amongstthe many inappropriate
imported models, those
Allan Cain (Canadian,born 1949), Farroukh Afshar(lranian,born 1947), indigenous systems that were
John Norton (English, born 1949), studied together at the Architectural
AssociationSchool of Architecture.Since 1971 they havebeencarryingout through neglectleastaffected.by
projectsand researchin Egypt, Oman, India, Iran and Sudan.In 1913 they this shaping process may now
were commissionedby the Governmentof Oman to carry out a study of paradoxically have the most to
traditional building in Oman.They are currently running a courseat the AA
on indigenousbuilding metlods in developingCountries and are working teachus. Many of the indigenous
collectivelyas the DevelopmentWorkshop.They hope to publishan extended systemsremain relevantto local
versionof their researches. needs. are based on low and
local use of energy and
resources,and work in harmony
with the natural envitonment.
For an example that illus-
trates the above points, let us
;onsider housing. An old Arab
'The
saying loosely translatesas
day you stop building your
house you will die'. This is not
some mystical quote but
factually reflects the indigenous
system of housing. In Salala,
Southern Oman, the occupant of
an old town house, whose family
had lived there for generations,
lescribed to us how his house
had been built. The house had
started as one room on the plot
ci land and had gradually been
added to as family size and
iortunes increased, until it
reached its present three-storey
:ourtyard shape. And today on
r08 AD/4/75
the top floor yet another room
had been built, and a second
room, still in timber and cor-
rugated iron, was soon to be
converted into more permanent
materials so as to house a new
arrival in the family. In the
recently allotted plots in the
town the same processcould be
observed. The new arrivals lived
in a tent whilst building their
first limestone room; the longer
established houseowners had
already inscribed a courtyard on
the ground floor and were
making further additions.
Thus, to paraphrase John
' two years formal schooling) to
Turner's words , the indigenous
system of housing is one in
which it is very much a process,
intimately related to the users'
needs and finances, and very
much in the users' control. The
idea of housing being the
production and distribution of a
number of units by the govern-
ment or a private institution to a
passive, recipient population is
one of the misleadingmodels set
up by Western countries. TodaY,
with chronic and increasing
housing shortages in the
wealthiest industrialized nations,
people like John Turner are
saying that the idea of housing
'product' is unworkable.
as a
Instead they are turning to the
'processes' found in
housing
the indigenous systems of the
Third World to draw lessons for
their own countries. Meanwhile
in developing countries housing
as a product continues to be sold
as the most modern idea, along
with a whole range of other
dubious ideas on design, con-
struction and building types.
Thus as Western architects begin
to realise the damaging social
costs of high-rise apartment
living, they become a major
feature in many Third World
countries.
The successful selling of
Western ideas depends on the
assumption fostered in people in
developing countries that
Western methods are superior to
their own Perhaps the most
insidious effect has been their
loss of self-respect and identity.
In Oman, when we asked a ten
year old school boy (with just
draw his own flat-roofed mud-
brick. courtvard house. he drew
us a pitched-rsq** Western
bungalow with a fron. garden.
He drew his family and himsdlf
 in shirts and trousers, although
in reality he was still dressedin
t h e t r a d i t i o n a lg a l a b e y a .
The situation, however, can
be reversed. Another owner-
occupation of a mud-brick and
palm-stem house in Oman told
us he *'ould like ro live in a
concrete house, indicating a
bunker-like room near him. But
after he had taken us through his
own house and explained the
rationale behind the use of the
different materials and rooms
and how they performed in his
environment, he changed his
mind about the concrete room.
He preferred his own house, but
asked if the permanence of the
materials could be improved.
It is often the educated
professionals and policy-makers
of Third World countries who
are the most convinced of the
superiority of models offered by
the Western countries. Their
training and education is too
frequently limited
Western models. Since the
majority of their people are still
operating within
systems,' it is the professionals
who are alienated in their out-
look and in what they can offer.
A re-evaluation of their own
countries' indigenouS systems
would not only help these
professionals regain their self-
respect and identity, but also
realign them with their own
people and equip them better to
be of service. In China, medical
professionals
re-evaluated the
indigenous system of
puncture, so that today it largely
replaces Western anaesthetics.
The Ujamaa village council of
Tanzania was derived from the
indigenous tribal organisation
and it now forms a basic
political unit of the country.
The indigenous built
environment
'the indigenousbuilt environ-
By
ment' we mean the built-environ-
ment of the rural areas,the older
traditional sections of the cities,
and to an extent the unofficial
settlements (such as squatter
settiements) of the
urbanising areas in the Third
World. It is in these areas that
the traditional methods of
buiiding and design are most
apparent. That they are often
a l s o t h e m o s t r u n - d o w n a r e a si s
more to do with wider economic
conditions such as overcrowding,
poverty and neglect than with
209AD14175
the traditional methods them-
selves.
Housing
In his ^book House, form and
culture", Amos Rappaport
writes:- a
All housingneedsto achievefour .--,=----__l
objectivesin order to be success- DarasltrutrTs
ful,
1. It needs to be sociallyand
culturally valid (here traditional
housingpossiblyworksbest).
2, It should be sufficiently
,.i;-
(- Frmy
economical to ensure that the
greatestnumber can afford it (in
primitivecontextsmost,if not all, Itono
peoplehavehouses). wilfe
3. It shouldensurethe mainten- l--'r.
ance of health of the occupants ,l
(in relationto climate.traditional
housingsucceeds; in relation to barasti
sanitationand parasites, it usually
fails).
4. Thereshouldbe a minimumof
maintenanceover the life of the
building.
Traditional housingmay, there-
fore, be much more acceptable -
if not. in fact. desirable- than
to these
has been assumed,and housing
indigenous
attitudes should be adjusted
accordingly. At the very leastthis
ground ptan
offersa fruitful lreldfor research. E a r l y s t a g ei n h o u s ec o n s t r u c t l o n .
ilI
a
Whether one agrees with
Rappaport's objectives or not,
they act as a useful set of criteria
against which one can assess
indigenous building. U nf or-
tunately indigenous building has
inspired formalistic mimicry b
more often than serious assess-
m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e ,i n S u d a n t h e
conically roofed, mud-and-
thatch family-house cluster is
seriously recreated in concrete and brick,
ancient with a back yard, and laid out in
acu- straight rows as a low-cost
housing scheme (see Pseudo
vernacular). The indigenous b a r a si t
social and cultural validity is lost
in the transition of form from
the family cluster to the rigid
layout. The change of materials
decreases the climatic per-
formance of the new house and
irrcreases its costs beyond the
r a n g e o f m o s t S u d a n e s e I. t a l s o
places the building of the house
out of the owners' control. On
the other hand, the materialsare
more permanent, require less latrtng
maintenance and harbour fewer
insects and parasites. However,
these latter improvements could
newly have been gained without losing
the more fundamental advan-
t a g e so f t h e t r a d i t i o n a le x a m p l e ,
if the approach had been to
work frorn a thorough under-
standing of the indigenous
system. (For problems of per- section
manence and insects, see Sun-
dried mud brick I & II and Palm
fronds asa building material. M u d o l a s t e ra n d ' b a r a s t i 'h o u s ew i t h I i m e s t o n ea d d i t i o n .

Euolution
ol
thecourtgord
house
ln many developing countries,
the basic social unit was tradi-
tionally, and still is, the ex-
tended family. The courtyard
house, a common house form,
which is particularly suited to
hot climatic regions, is a social
responseto the extended family
organisation. For example, in
Oman in the past,the extended
lamily unit also existed as an
c c o n o m i ce n t i t y , w i t h t h e e l d e r
member directing the family
enterprise (whether it be fishing
trading or herding), as well as
being the family head in social
matters. Junior members in the
extended family were economi-
cally dependant upon the family
head and lived together with him
in the family courtyard house.
As the family grew, more rooms
could be addedto accommodate
the extra members. The growth
of the house did not necessarily
reflect an actual increase in
family income, as each succeed-
ing generation needed only to
invest in building the same size
of increments as its predecessor
for the house to show continual
growth.
Today, with rapid change in
developing countries, traditional
economiesand social systemsare
under pressure. The patriarchal
economic structure of the ex-
tended family has been under-
mined by the weakening of the
traditional sources of income on
which it was based. Money in
the community is now often in
the hands of young workers,
juniors in the old family hier-
archy. These younger family,
s e ct i o n
N brother
I
members often choose to live
*Qt
independently. Alternatively,
they may still live in the family, S
but on a more equal basis.
Despite these changes, new
houses are being built similar to o n e - s t o r e y h o u s e o w n e d b y t h r e e b r o t h e r s , c o n s t r u c t i o n b a s i c a r l yr i m e s t o n e ,
the traditional pattern. A family, w i t h ' b a r a s t i ' a n d c o m p o s i t e r o o f i n g . E x t e n s i o n su n d e r w a v .
gaining a plot of land, builds on
it as needs dictate and financial
resources permit, but the house
shows signs of developing into
the courtyard form.
A famiiy with little wealth
would first establish a perimeter
wall and a temporary shelter
within. This may be built of
palm frond stems as a short term
measure, and later would be
plastered with mud for more
permanance. When more money
is available, this room would be
replacer,l, using a more per-
manar.t material such as lime-
stone, with a view to supporting
a second floor at some time in
the future.
Two-storey house in old town centre of Taqah. Limestoneconstruction wi
The growth of the house over v a ul t e d ' b a r a s t i 'r o o fi n g .
a period of time takes place in a
spiral manner. Once the ground
floor rooms are completed in
loadbearing materials round the
construction
courtyard, rooms are built
following the same pattern on
the first floor, and higher, until a
substantialhouse develops.
It is clear that even though
economic changes have affected
the family structure, both the
way in which the house grows
and its courtyard form rernain
socially and environmentally
reievant. The growth of a typical
house hoids to the Arab saying tectron soutl<-rnor
th
that 'When a man's house ceases Three-storey limestone house in old town centre of Salala.Sixtv to
to be built he dies.' y e a r so l d . E x t e n s i o n su n d e r w a y .
Rural development
The lessons that can be derived
from the indigenous built en-
vironment can be applied not
only to housing, but also to
more specialised buildings such
as schools, workshops, markets,
and public baths, and also to
infrastructural design, such as
layout, and access for people
and services.
Probably the clearestexample
of this potential remains Hassan
Fathy's Gourna village, which
was built in the late 40's.a
The village, near Luxor,
Egypt, is built entirely of sun-
dried mud brick. and the whole
design from housing to com-
munal buildings and layout is
based on traditional concepts.
Perhaps more importantly,
Professor Fathy worked <lut an
economic and organisational
base, so that the production in
the village derived from local
crafts and local organisational
patterns. The achievements and
failures of Gourna deserve a
thorough assessment.
A quarter century later,
Fathy's approach is of increasing
relevance as rural development
becomes more of a-priority. To
quote Barbara Ward' :
. section
If de-centralisedoperationsare to
be supported,as the Chineseltave
shown,then developmentmust be
concentratedon the village, the
rnarket centre and the inter-
mediate town. To preventpeople
from leavingthe villagesonly to
becomeunemployedin the big
cities, intermediate centres arc
needed,with local storageunits,
local banksand building, there would have been
and co-operatives,
light industry,local family clinics,
schoolsand health services.
Different versions of the develop-
ment outlined in the quote have
been put into operation in several
Third World_ gountries. An
example from a village settie-
ment in Oman servesto illustrate
the pitfalls found in a too-sim-
plistic approach. In this case
little attention was paid to
upgradihg existing buildings. The
new buildings - hospital, school, Koeningsberger and others that
and mayor's house were indigenous methods of building
located some distance away are of limited potential, since
from the traditional centre,
which they rivalled rather than
complemented. The new build-
'professiona- urban.6
ing reflected the
lism' of the city architects and
contractors, a foreign firm.
Neither in materials, layout nor
design were they appropriate to
the local environment - both
physically and socially. For
2rr AD14lTs
example, in the hospital the
patients complained about the
glare and heat in the rooms,
which was caused by the layout,
the huge windows (see
Openings) and the concrete
block walls (see mud bricks).
The heat gain was even beyond
the capacity of air-conditioning,
which was in any case an extra
expense. Furthermore,by repre-
senting progress, the new
buildings encouraged in the
minds of the local populace
ideas of what an appropriate
building should be, and by
implication denigrated the
indigenous buildings. The only
part the local population played
in the development was through
the few who gained temporary
unskilled employment during
the construction period. In the
years to come the net effect
couid be the creation of a new
settlement around the new
centre, physically apart from,
and alien in materials and form
to, the indigneous buildings,
life-style and culture of the
people and the physical envlron-
ment. The traditional settle-
ment, being officially ignored,
would be allowed to decay into
a slum while still housing a large
of the indigenous
population.
If, however, the indigenous
built environment had first been
understood, if local materials
and technologies had been used
to the maximum (improved
where necessary), and if local
b u i l d e r s( p e r h a p sa c o - o p e r a t i v e )
had been in control of the
a much greater and lasting
benefit to the community.
Government investment for the
project would have gone directly
into the community, and a local
building industry could have
been revived, capable of develop-
ing the local built environment
in a self-sufficient way.
The urban environment
It has been argued bY
they are mostiy found in rural
areas while the main problems
for Third World countries are
This is true to a Point, but
n o t t o t h e e x t e n t s o m e t i m e sP u t
forward. First, to refer back to
Barbara Ward's statement that
'development must be concen-
trated on the village . . . to stop
migration from the countryside
to the cities', increasingly rural
development is seen to be the
solution to urban Pressures.
Secondly, there
developing countries that do
have long urban traditions. ManY
old city centres, such as those in
Isfahan, Cairo and Delhi are
examples of indigenous urban
building methods. Up to now,
cultural pride and the tourist
industry have done more to
preserve such old citY centres
than any belief in their relevance
for today. Essential as preser-
vation is, it can imply a
museum-piece view, branding
such areas as fossilised relics of
the past. However, far from
being relics, these old quarters
should be studied from a
n u m b e r o f a s p e c t s ;i n a e s t h e t i c
terms: the sense of scale and
proportion, vistas, and the
juxtaposition of open and closed
s p a c e s i; n c l i m a t i c a l l yf u n c t i o n a l
terms: the shaded streets,
orientation according to the
sun's angle, and the beneficial
a i r - m o v e m e n t g e n e r a t e db y t h e
street layout. or more funda-
rnentally in terms of socio-
economic organisation: with
lively and sociable communities
operating with
efficiency.
The fact that many Third
World countries may not have an
u r b a n t r a d i t i o n d o e sn o t e x c l u d e
the possibility that lessonscould
be learned from a neighbouring
country with similar envlron-
mental, social or economlc con-
ditions, and which does have an
urban tradition. The urban
traditions of Egypt or Iran could
for instance be more relevant
than the garden-city concepts of
Britain to countries like Oman.
Finaily, even in an urban
envlronment,
indigenous systems of building,
sociai organisation and values in
general often seem to work. In
his recent study of a squatter
settlement in Lusaka, Zambta,
Richard Martin showed how the
indigenous rural methods of
building, social clustering, and
communal organisation are
adding up to more successful
settlements than those officially
laid out and.run by government
bureaucracies applying aiien
methods.s
Conclusions
Let us summarise why we
believe Third World countries
should thoroughly re-evaluate
their indigenous systems.
Firstly, while the policieq of
many Third World governmEnts
still emulate Western values and
techniques, the daily life of most
are many of their citizens still lie
predominately in indigenous
systems. Understanding and
expanding the potentials of
these systems to meet con-
temporary needs would enable
development to be more
appropriate and acceptable to
the majority of the people.
Secondly, most Third World
countries are also at a stage in
which their comparativelY
limited resources are being
exhausted by the many demands
placed on them. This is within
an international context, with
governments becoming
increasingly aware of the finite
nature of the world's resouces,
and in which the costs of
imported goods are rapidlY
rising. Indigenous systems repre-
sent hundreds of years of ac-
cumulated expertise on how to
employ what is locally available
to meet local needs economi-
cally - in monetary,,energy,and
resource terms. To realise this
potential would give Third
World countries greater self-
sufficiency. I n today's world
economrc s u c h a n a p p r o a c h t o p l a n n i n gi s
perhaps the rhost realistic.
rJ. Turner & R. lrichter: Frcedom to
brld (Macmillian, I 973).
2ln India lbr cxample, 89% of rural
and 44"/nof urban buildings are made
of mud, sun-dried bricks, stone,
bamboo, or reeds; 9% of rural and
52"/o of urban housing are made of
rural-based
fired bricks. Only 2% of rural and5%
of urban houses are made of
materials such as finishcd timber,
metal sheets, cement, ctc. (Setninar
Journal on Mass Housing - I 974)
3 A. Rappaport'. House, lorm and
culture (Prentice Hall, 1969).
+H. Irathy: Architecture for the poor
( C h i c a g oL r n i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1 9 7 3 ) .
sB. Ward: 'The triple crisesl in
RIBA Journal 12174.
6Koenigsberger,
lngersoll,. Mayhew,
Szokoley' Manual oJ trutpical housing
a n d b u i l d i n g ( L o n g r n a n s ,1 9 7 3 ) .
7R. [:onseca: 'Old Delhi' in Shelter
and societt'. ed. Paul Oliver
'Continuity
G. Blake & R. Lau4ess: &
change - Tlerncem' in AAQ vol.6,
74.
ER. Martin: 'The art and architecture
o f u n d e r d e v e l o p r n e n t 'i n A D I 0 1 7 4 .
 Sn-&iedmudbddr
I.Tlp motedol.
Soils, the basic ingredients of
mud bricks, vary in their suit-
ability for brick production. The
inorganic part of soil can be
graded as to its particle size,
ranging from gravel, through
,# sand and silt to the finest which
: ! D r u s t0 n t0 tr tro %rhr
is clay. Gravel must be removed
u t I I O S { ! ?0 10 0 ?.s.ii
from soils to be used for brick
Mud Erick +
:cmposrl on ol
making, just as the organic
Strength of mud brick in relation to
matter such as humus must be
,:s proportional composition of clay
excluded.
and sand.
In those soils used for brick-
making, the sand Provides
resistance to abrasion and water
damage, and the claY Provides
the structural strength. BY
mixing various ProPortions of
sand and clay, the brick can
actually be engineered to suit a
particular building or structural
requirement.l
Because the strength of mud
bricks is lower than that of some
other load bearing materialssuch
as concrete, mud walls are built
thicker. But since the material is
cheap and easy to obtain, the
cost of construction still remains
minimal.
Partly due to the thickness of
mud walls and partly becauseof
its low thermal conductivitv.
rooms built of mud are known
e-{.tfab concrete room.
. l e r i o r a i r t e m p e r a t u r o- - -
to be much cooler in hot areas
than those made of any other
material. Mud walls and roofs
effectively insulate room
interiors from the external ex-
tremes of heat and cold. Tests
were carried out by the authors
on indigenous mud-brick build-
ings in Egypt and Oman and
similar modern buildings in con-
crete in the locations. These
tests illustrate a basic climatic
response
rgsponsc to[o the
LIle environment
cnvlronlnenr of
or
indigenous buildings on the one
hand and recently introduced
built forms on the other.
Heat builds up on the ex-
terior walls and roofs of con-
crete buildings due to solar radi
ation. Surface temperatures
usually exceed even the air
temperatures. Concrete walls,
being relatively thin and having a
. : . : . : r t e r i o r a i r t e m p e r a t u r e- - - low resistance to heat, conduct
this heat quicklY into the in- make the brick stronger and
terior of the room; thus onlY an more resistpntto damage.
hour or so after the Peak heat Mud brick, either in its tradi-
outside the air temPerature tional form or upgraded and
inside is in excess of the outside stabilised.remainsa materialof
air temperature. In the same great potential for domesticas
way, if the nights are cold the well as public building.With the
temperature quicklY droPs inside priceof non-traditionalmaterials
concrete houses in the evening. escalating and the materials
themselvesbeing in short suPPIY
Mud walls during the daY in some developingcountries,
heat up to a lesser extent than traditionalbuildingmethodsand
concrete walls, since the light- materials may ag4in Prove in-
coloured surfaces reflect more
creasingly important.
solar radiation than do concrete
Even today mud or earth is
walls. The thick mud walls deter
probably the most widely used
the flow of peaks of heat or cold
building material in developing
experienced by the outer sur-
faces. Interior wall surfaces,as a
countries. Recent figures from
result, tend te remain constant
India show that about 60% of
at a temperature which aPProxi
buildingsin rural areasate in
mates the averageof the range of
brick. Although it is primarily a
the exterior wall temPeratures.
rural material, the same figures
During daytime the interior ah show almost a quarterof urban
temperatures are therefore building to be in mud. In many
below those outside, and at cities in Iran a very high level of
night time the interior tempera-
urban architecture has been
tures are above those outside.
achievedusingmud.
Mud building can be found in
Hence mud brick's capaclty
is ad- many forms ranging from
as a climatic regulator rammed earth (pise), Puddled
vantageous in hot, dry areas
earth & fine gravel (cob),
which have a large temperature
through to mud brick (see,4D
range between day and night' l/73). Similarly it is found in
Mud brick's greatest ad- many geographicaland climatic
vantage is its cheapness and regions, from cob houses in
availability. The cost of brick is Devon, England, through lhe
purely a product of the amount adobe pueblos of the floPi in
of labour put into its produc- America,to the imPressive exam'
tion. A team of three men can ples of mud brick building in the
made 2000 or 3000 bricks a day MiddleEastandNorth Africa.
using the traditional hand-frame In official architecture mud
mould. More mechanised forms brick has been replacedby new
of production though the materials such as concrete.
standardisation of quality and Along with most other indi-
brick size have rarely matched genousbuilding materials,mud
the traditional method in cheap- brick has been dismissedon the
nessand quantity produced. groundsthat it tendsto produce
Mud brick's real shortcoming environments which are physi-
ts need for periodic
is its mainten- ologically unhealthy and struc-
periodic mainten-
ance. If .*porid to weathering tures which are unsafe. Before
or rain. mud walls must be re- mud bripk or any other material
rendered every few years. is discounted, its properties
Experiments have been done and should be analysed and com-
new rendering materials pro- pared with properties known
duced which increase the walls' about other materialsso as to
life span by many years. The discoVerits merits and demerits
bricks themselves may be stabi- and appliqability particularly
lised using small quantities of since every material has its own
cement or bitumen, in order to valuein its proper context.
2r2
Sun-driedmudbdck
II.Uoultonddomeroofing.
The building of walls has never solution in many third world beyond the resources of the problems of population increase
presented a real problem to countries is not possible today. majority of the people, besides and lack of materials for flat-
builders. On the other hand, The use of steel and concrete in causing a balance of payments span type roofs. They were
roofing has always been demand- reinforced slabs is being sug- strain on those countries which forced to look to the materials
ing. One of the simplest solu- gested for roofing more and have to import the steel and at hand, and came up with a
tions to roofing is the use ot' more. This type of roofing has cement. Furthermore the cor- solution that was economical,
wooden beams to span between been attempted in low-cost regated-iron roof, which is simple, and climatically ideal.
two walls. But with populations housing projects in many adopted as a cheaper though The vault and the dome, made
increasing and local timber re- countries, but it has the effect of second-bestimported solution, is of the same materials as the
sources being depleted, even this increasine the unit cost well notorious for turning the inside walls, mud-brick, became the
of houses into ovens whenever standard roofing system in both
the sun shines. rurai and urban areasalike.
Centuries before the advent One of the earliest examples
of materials such as concrete, of this form of construction is
steel bars, and corregated tin, seen in Egypt near Luxor in the
countries like Egypt and Persia New Kingdom, Granary of
exoerienced some of the Rameses II, built almost 3500

e x p e n s i v eo r u n a v a i l a b l e

.;f;, .;
]xre
ffi
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.s,,u;
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Reinforced concrete roofs are a solution, though very expensive. Egyptian: granary of Rameses

a{a
'$*

t .r[:rl

"d

I,
V a u l t a n d d o m e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n p r o v i d e i n e x p e n s i v er o o f i n g , lranian: vault and dome.
!'ears ago of only mud brick and System for building mud brick plete and dried. In countries
still standing today. The method vaults'and domes without where timber is short, this tYPe
of construction common in centering or shuttering of vaulting is hardly advan-
Pharonic times survived tageous. A system for building
through the centuries in the Traditionally the immediate vaults and domes, without this
domestic architecture of the problem experienced by framework. or shuttering,
Nubians, who lived along the European builders is that while evolved in countries like EgYPt
upper Nile south of Aswan. vaults and domes are self sup- and Iran.
Similarly in^Iran the history porting structural forms when Illustrated here is a house
of vault and dome building in completed, they have needed built recently, in EgYPt, bY a
mud brick goes back centuries. support and centering while group including the authors,
under construction. This usually which shows the princiPals of F o un d a t i o n s
In more recent times its use has
been neglected to domestic involves first building an identi one of the methods of mud
buitding. The fluid lines of the cal vault in wood over which the brick building without centertng
architecture of rural Iran are masonry vault rests, until com- or shuttering.
inherent' in the mud brick
material itself. The fact that the
mud brick itself was so cheap
and easily obtainable encouraged
the masons to experiment. The
lines and forms cleariy demon-
strate the major mechanical
forces in the structure. The con-
structional unit, the brick, being
small, and the fact that it can be
easily cut and trimmed allows
great flexibility so that adjust-
ments can easily be made during
the process of construction. It
remains an excellent material Walls built up to the level of the V a u l t b u i l d i n g w i t h c o u r s e sl e a n i n g Vault comDleted.
from which to learn the struc- spring points of the vaults. End wall towards end wall so that no form
built up for vault to leanon, Inverted w o r k o r s h u t t e r i n gi s n e e d e d ,
tural principals of building.
c a t e n a r yf o r m t r a c e d o n e n d w a l l .
Mud brick has strength only
in compression, it is brittle and
'ivill not stand up to
forces of
bending or tension. For this
reason the forms of the vault
and the dome, for which it is
noted. have evolved. A cross-
section through the vault
commonly built by Nubian
masons in Egypt shows a form
very close to an inverted
catenary. The catenary is the
form that a chain or string will
take when allowed to hang
freely, suspended between two
points, is in pure tension; an
inverted catenary experiences
only compressiveforces with no
bending or tension. A vault W i n d o w o p e n i n g sb u i l t u p w i t h d r y W a l l s b u i l t u p . A r c h e sb u i l t o v e r d r y S m a l l v a u l t b u i l t i n s a m ew a y a s l a r g e
brick - no mortar. brick in windows. ones. Loose bricks removed from
shape approximating this is ideal window openings.
for mud brick roofing. Unlike
other forms of masonry, such as
stone or red brick, the mud-
brick vault and dome resemble
'shell structures' in their struc-
tural analysis. Because the
mortar used is mud and is the
same material from which bricks
are made, when bricks bond
together their surfaces dissolve
and then fuse together on
drying.
41.
Hassan Fathy saw the ad- a:-
vantage in mud brick vaults and
domes in the late 40's when he
built his Gourna village. The
potentials for masshousing using
iocally available resources are C i r c u l a r a r c h e s b u i l t o v e r v a u l t s t o Pendentives comPleted, forming B r i c k c o u r s e s o f d o m e i n c l i n e t n -
apparent and deserve serious f o r m a b a s ef o r t h e d o m e , continuouscoursefrom which dome c r e a s i n g l yu n t i l d o m e i s f i n i s h e d .
consideration. canbe completed,

t4
 Oimoteand
iiiiii
iliiClirnala rnicro-climote.
ondrrrirrrl-dlanalo y*?#'Ti:?."ff:
"1::"1ii*,1
Yl::ll'ii:1'- i
:::j:i
;:::::;
;:':'dtT:T
?ff,111j',"
the effect of that environment
on the ways of living and ways
iii: of building of the inhabitants.
For hundreds of vcars the
i;'i; inhabitants of any particular
;::::::
.iii area have been building up a
'lii collective knowledge and way of
i:i:i:i dealing with their local condi-
::::::: tions. This knowledge and
:!:!:!: experienceis there for anyone to
i:l:!:i share and learn from- standins in
i;lgl;i the local -^;"':::;"
architecture and living
i:i:i:i -:;.::::' :::.;::,'*
i::::ii ijJ,Hl'rr.T'.;,X'j ,,:3J:',
;;?;; extrict the principars
or
i:::::i
I;*, -1;*'iaiTh''r'
,jli design, inherent in the verna-
i,iiiii
!ii:
i. 7-\,
*;')'. l L>-1 . rt -:

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" 1.1: iligifi::;.ijllj:'li,
i::::i: --- J *r( -r\ft$- l*&{ ; ., . inthiscountrv. y't, in this country.
1rt,, The advantagesof employing
this knowledge in modern
I ffi buildingareapparent.The added

rir: "/ **'"'(-:--

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_
:fr

Kffilqffi.E ff:',';'#'l.,T'lH"
,r\] ex pense in air
could be avoided or at least
conditioning

iiii:ii 6 ri3tffi .
-'-l { Eff{Hf stage sight orientation,
stage to sight orientation, the
the

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consideration of the sun path
' /
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rvi': . t ' ; .1 - - ,'-4-
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n d l large
i n a dexpanses
l r e c l i1:of11 "badly
,*,ti
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opening ,
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;
d e s i g n e dw i n d o w o p e n i n g sc a n
'!;l;!;

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"r'Ht *ir'r';L{1,.'ti)l'..''r-itf,u
&U="---r].;f,fi and thermal
comrortthe rocar
i:::iiiil "ii,]S.;:;;i:., i,, ...,"$, iii,"i,i,,, andwhen
aresuperior.
ii:i:ii
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ll
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oe
",';:.,.y,ir,:.,1i:.i
"'arG.:\:;::'.r- d\ , :"l{-,,, 'Ttt*;.:Tu Hfl".;F#]#f; i:J":i""'sthe
materia
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iii::i
iii::iil..;.iT'"*,';l;'.".*.i..',,",#',.f;'.'hji*"#il..'j:I"J
I:il
, i : i : ! t ll
!ii:

i:i:i::
ii:::ii
lt
ll
t,""
P l " " of
o f Sohar
.-
s o h a r area
a r e a showing
s h o w i n s test
t ";.
-" , r * t ! " j
a.
t e s t sites.
siles. structural performance of a local
rnatcrial meets the standards
iii:
:;13:;:
i:i:i:: ,=---
------ _---=\==-=---. rcquircd in the design and is
i:i:i:: 'rr
/t,..'
=.-.---=--t superlc climatically thcre is no
i,itl,l
i:.:.: / -=- ---------.-- question but that it should be
:i:i:i:
'!111i; / -....--------------.r.
'/ -*^r...,^j
emPloYed'
::::::: -.-----------..-
::i:i:i , By a thorough analysis of the
'i;i;!; 1 \ behaviour of certain tradi-
i!,iti,f t \ -^ -a \ tionallyusedbuildingmaterials

;>---ro.15"/ rf#,;i:jr,::';r:
ys of building, we hope tcr

I .!q
iiiiiii
::r:::
..;.:,
:l;l;i
1l;i;i :^r^^J
rntand
'r,
nrlm nrnvpr'
patm gioves: ' ')--r-r:,,FII!IlJlf:_
A _15-------=-
l\---.lffilllillll
_
c o o t -J 15 o
-_
-_-./
use.and of coursedt'velop ways
of services
improvingservices
ol improving and stan-
and stan-
. '--=-€sea-
::i:!: dards in new buildings using
-
iiiiii O"v time seabreeze, Dea cn
beach materials- thus evolving
these materials, evolvine a
modern architecture trulY in
harmony with the climate, the
-.- _____---_---- -
- local environment, the changing
::i:i:i coot2Jl ways of life embodied in
iii: --/
':'ii r'' i n r p r o v e ds t a n d a r d so f l i v i n g .
iii: ^I \--
,iii rJ w a r m2 8 0 Meteorological data can be
t:::::: ;rffi1l---:-:1--- obtained from Permanent
weather stations;and statistics.for
':';': i "" ';-:-:
temperature, relative humidity
Lvr'Yrrqlsrv'

i:;::: N;g61time - tandbreeze. and precipitation for general

areascan be obtained from such
L)laces as the Meteorological
office, HMSO, London. But and
understanding of the micro
;limate which affects individual
settlements and huildings can
only rarely be obtained from
such published material.
Proximity to
features such as.bodies of water,
hills or mountains or other built
forms, or the quantities and
kinds of vegetation, or the
altitude, all have their effects on
modifying the macro-climate or
the climate said to generallY
affect the region. In fact when
meterological observations are
made every attempt is rnade to
isolate the testing apparatus
from micro climatic localized
influences.
Mountains or hills have the
e f f e c t o f p h y s i c a l l ya l t e r i n gw i n d
patterns by simple deflection or
the channellingof winds down
valleys. Changcs in altitude
correspond to temperature
changes. The stratification of
layers of air of different tem-
peratures over a daily cycle
induce local winds in the slopes
and valleys.
The presence of a rnoist
s h a d e de n v i r o n m e n ti n v e g r t a t e d
rreas Ineans that the micro
climate within and around the
!,!'eenarea is quite different from
that outside.
The spacing between build-
ings within the settlement
affects wind flow within the
settlement and the shading of
r l r e € t S ,j u s t a s d o e s t h e o r g a n i z a -
tion of the spaceswithin the
house. Open spaces can be
o r g a n i z e di n s u c h a w a y a s t o
induceair movemcntwhen there
i s n o w i n d . M a t e r i a l su s e d i n t h e
construction of buildings affect
their internal thermal environ-
ment.
Particular features within
buildings such as wind catchers
t tradgir) and cleverly designed
!)penings, as well as orientation
on a site, all affect the micro
i[rnates within and around
l.uildings.
Because the nicro climate
rihieh affects the built environ-
r r r tn t i s d u e t o p a r t i c u l a r
:L>nditions which vary from
piace to place they can only be
Linderstoodthrough field testing,
rl.servation and local experi
As an illustralion of this, it is
\nown that bodies of water
:iiect the temperature of areas
: r c a r b y , b e c a u s ew a t e r h e a t s u p
:nd cools at a rate much slower
than land. The difference in condition above the comfort where the breezeoff the sea is
temperatures of the air over land level. unobstructed. The wind's
and water cause pressure Air movement thus becomes velocity is reduced through
differences which in turn induce the most important factor in the planting belt, but is still a
localized winds. This is known as attaining comfort conditions. factor in cooling. The effective
the onsh6re/offshore or land-sea With air so heavily laden with temperature or the apparent
breeze effect. water vapour it quickly becomes temperature felt on the skin's
Tests were carried out by the s a t u r a t e d ,a n d l i t t l e e v a p o r a t i v e surfaceafter evaporativecooling
authors to evaluatethe influence cooling on the skin's surface can aided by the air movement, is
physical
of the onshore and offshore take place unless air next to the within the comfort zone on the
winds on the minorclimate of a skin is continually replaced by beach front. For some hours of
settlement (Sohar) on the air movement. Air movement the day in the other two inland
P e r s i a nG u l f C o a s t . due to the onshore/offshore areasthe effective temperatures
Four stations were chosen - effect is quite strong during the still exceedthe comfort limits.
offshore in shallow water, on the daytime especially on the beach,
b e a c h ,i n t h e p l a n t e d b e l t a n d i n
t h e s e m i d e s e r ti s l a n d . 1 , 2 .
A seriesof climatic tests were
made in each area every two
hours over 24 hours. - [LIMATIC
MICRO COM AR
SON SOH
PARI
CH F R 0 t -r 0 E L-I l l t A l j 0
P L A i l l tE StPTtIEtR?2-?1,1973
When this information is
graphed one can see clearly f-
the daily pattern in the /
m i c r o - c l i m a t eo f e a c h a r e a . E e a c hF r o n l
T h e t e m p e r a t u r eo f t h e w a t e r -- -- B P l a n t e dB e l t
is clearly niore stable than the ' C I n l a nd
: w wat?r
land temperatures, fluctuating
o n l y a b o u t 4 " C b e t w e e nd a y a n d O
night while the land tempera-
tures fluctuate as ntuch as 9"C. U
It should also be noted that the
peak in water temperature lags
severalhours behind the peaks in U
i\
__i)
air temperalures.The sarne is =
ol cornlort
true for the coolest tempera-
UJ
tu res.
I t c a n b e s e e nt h a t d u r i n g t h e
daylight hours when the air
temperature is higher than the
w a t e r t e l n p e r a t u r e ,t h e r e t e n d s
l o b e a n o n s h o r e b r e e z e ;b u t a t
t h e t i m e t h a t t h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e ;-s
90
f a l l s b e l o w t h e s e a t e m p e r a t u r e >-
the offshore land breeze RO
influence begins to take over.
=
The prevailing wind in this. - /ll
seasonaids the daytirne onshote -
sea bteeze. u60
I'he tenlperatures on the 2 5 0
J
b e a c h( s t a t r o n A ) a r e m o d e r a t e d r
due to the proxirnity to the sea.
During the daytime while there
is a sea breeze the tenrperatures =
on the beach are one or two -*,/r/ | /
AA / \
degreeslower than at the interlor.
stations,but at night while the - = = R I
land breeze is predorninant the 4 ; <
temperatures of the three land = = = U
stations are much the same.The
relative humidity is about l0%
higher on the beach during the u
day than at the two stations E 27
further inland though they are < -
m u c h t h e s a m ea t n i g h t . U
26
c
The beach micro-climatic area =
U 25
wouid seem to be more comfort-
able than the other areassince it l!
2/.
>
has a somehwat lower daytirne =
O
temperature, but the fact that it llJ
LJ
r
also has a higher relative L
22
U
humidity tends to keep the
 5r0 20 30 t09 m rl
Dust Moist
ure
, - ^-3 p a r t t c t e,.s. / t t t Water vapou r pressure
rru ) U n i - d i r e c t i o n awl i n d c a t c h e r .K a M o h i b a l D i n . O l d C a i r o
mm_ Hg
Windcotchers.
The wind catcher or wind tower
as an element in the traditional
house form can be found in
settlements ranging from the
S i n d r e g i o n i n P a k i s t a n ,t h r o u g h
Iran and Arabia to Egypt and
North Africa. Its design form
varies from region to region
according to climatic conditions.
In general, their use proves
advantageous in hot regions
where air movement can provide
some degree of cooling, just as
air passingover the skin's surface
helps the body to iose heat
through evaporation.
As shown graphically, the
wind catcher, in having its intake
Windcatchers
as high above ground as possible,
obtains air which is cooler and
cieaner. This is even more
important in dense urban areas
where breezes are inhrbited at
ground level and the air is hot
and dusty. The wind tower must
be high enough above the roofs
to catch an unobstructed high
level air stream. It is usually
oriented so as to
favourable breezes.For example,
the E,gyptian wind
(Malkaf) has a scoop-like form
and those studied in the old
quarter of Cairo usually faced
north to intercept the breeze off
the Nile from the Mediterranean. encourages cooier air into the
The catch is one-directional, interior. The whole house
since winds blowing from other functions to control the micro-
directions are from the desert climate within, and responds to
and arehot and dusty. the climate in different ways at
lt became apparent in Cairo various times throughout the
after making tests on the wind day.
tower throughout a daily cyc1e, The design of the wind
that its function is not catcher itself is not the only
dependent purely on the wind's consideration. The air outlet is
ability to force its way into the just as important. While wind
house.In fact, during the heat of blowing from a single direction
the day, a breeze will tend not exerts a positive pressureon the
to enter the house, even if the front face of the building, it also
catcher is open, because the air creates a suction on roof and
inside the house is already cooler leeward wall. If exhaust
than outside, the temperature openings are located in these
inside being kept down by the areasr air wiil be sucked or
massive loadbearing walls which drawn through the building. The
retain much of the previous section of the Cairo house
night's coolness. The cooler illustrates how a raised section
interior air is dense and has a of the roof is employed as an air
higher pressure than the hot, exhaust. Its roof is of light con-
lighter, exterior air. The walls struction and heats up rapidly,
keep the inside temperature thus heating the air underneath
constant at about the daily it. This warm air rises and
average;so that in the afternoon escapes, leaving a low pressure
or evening, when the outside air area behind, which induces more
catch does fall below that average,the air movement upward and out-
exterior air's temperature and ward.
catcher pressure relative to that of the Thus this one example in Old
interior has reversed and air Cairo teaches us that the wind
flows freely into the house. Thus catcher design depended upon
the wind catcher only functions not only a consideration for the
when it is needed, and only prevailing wind, but also upon
 /-

M u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a lw i n d c a t c h e r , C o u r t y a r d t o w n h o u s e , D u b a a . C l o t h m u l t i - d i r e c t i o n a lw i n d c a t c h e r . B e a c h h o u s e , B a t i n a c o a s t , O m a n .

x
It
the micro.climate within the In rural areas, on the Batrna .IA - "" -f
building, influenced by the heat Coast of Oman, cloth sails like
.C*,;,..b.,_'l
capacity of the building wind catchers are used which
materials, as well as a concern have a similar X configuration to
for the effective escape of the those of the Arab Gulf. These
exhaust air. in some ways are more directly
the climate as thev
In lraq, an ingenious solution l::p"l-'il: l"
to the proble* or uuriuut**inJ il,t - 9tl:Ylt'blt and can be
directionis the incorpo*ti"n--oJ!,f1 down and storedin the
Itv:,
wlnter' - a -'
a sail or fin-like projection into a
p i v o t - m o u n t e ds c o o p , t-o k e- -e' p i t o o^ _
-^- S m^e .w. i.n: -dr c^ a^ trc^hLe^r-s^ a
^ r- e^ a^ bL l,e^
Cloth wind catcher
facing the wind at all times'
t. ;;;i tiri ui, before it enters
A simpler and more common the building. Air is often drawn
solution to shifting winds is the through a cool basement
multi-directionil wind catcher chamber, or across a bed of
('badgir' in Persian)found in the planting, before entering the
Arab Gulf region and lran. In living quarters. Evaporative
'"T-
urban areas, these towers are cooling can be incorporated into ij\ r.": d r
elaborately sculpted and the wind catcher in the form of
decordted. A horizontal section porous water-filled jars, or mats
through one of them would of wet grasses.Hassan Fathy, in
show an X configuration. the design of a wind catchet for
Winds from any direction are a school in his Gourna Village,
thus admitted into the house. used beds of wet charcoal for
This kind of tower is found the air to pass over before
usually on the coast where land- entering rooms, and claims to
sea breezesare in effect. During have measureda drop of lOoc in I
the day the wind catcher admits air temperature. r
cool air off the sea,while at night
breezes blow off the land. In With the costs of mechanicai r
cooler seasons, when air air conditioning remaining L l :,1'*i 'l
movementis not needed,traps prohibitivelyhigh,the useof the t'' .l :' t,
are shut and the wind catchers' wind catchercould proveadvan- ; ri i
*
 i:i:':,:t:':t:i:i:':i:i:i:':i:r:i:t:i:i:i:i:i':t:':i:i:i:::::i:::::
Polmlrondstems
oso buildingmoteriol.
.ii.i '* {
ii,i'i,
I
:;:;:;:
Sl
':.:.:
w
-- Palm trees occur in varying
;l;i;l
forms and densities throughout
the hot regions of the world, and
represent for the community a
valuable comnrodity, being used
for providing food
coconut), mat-making, boat
b u i l d i n g ,f i s h t r a p s ,a n d , o f p a r t i -
T h e p a l m t r e e p r o v i d e sa r e a d i l ya v a i l a b l eb u i l d i n gm a t e r i a l
cular relevance here, house
building materials.
The palm tree trunks are
often used for construction of
the basic frarnework of a house,
or as roof beams.But the palm
frond stems are also an impor-
tant building material, parti-
cularly in hot hurnid regions
(rnostly Coastalareas),where the
combination of high tempera-
ture and humidity make air
(Left) Boat made from palm frond stems. (Centre)Fish trap ( R i g h t )P a l m movement vital in achievine
frond stem house in relation to materialsource.
comfortable conditions.
The palm frond stems are
used non-structurally, in panel/
curtain-wall forrn, as light-weight
screens which allow a free
passage of air through them,
whiist providing shade from the
direct rays of the sun. As a
rnaterial the sterns are thus used
efficiently to respond to the
climate. Panels are also used as
window screens,for privacy and
controi of light.
The frond sterns cheapnessas
a material and ready availability
make it, for many people, the
only building material they can
use. The poorest people use
successivelayers of panels for
insulation againstwinter coid.
The stems can be used in a
number of ways, even in some
casessimply as a basefor plaster-
ing. Construction is essentially
very simple. A timber frame-
work of vertical posts and beams
is erected, tied together with
s t r i n g , ( o r w i t h l e a v e si n s o m e
countries). Houses ate flat
roofed or pitched. Pre-assembled
panels are tied onto the frame-
;:i H o u s e sb u i l t c o m p l e t e l y o u t o f p a l m s t e m s ,w i t h r o l l e d - u p p a n e l sf o r e x t r a u s e work to form the wall
:.:.:' when needed. or, where the stem is not strong
enough to support itself in a
pre-assembled panel, individual
palrn-frond stems are placed in a
lattice framework.
The panel types used varY
(dates/ according to room use, and
allow the owner/builder to have
a degree of control in response
to climatic changes.
By far the greatest drawback
to the use of palm fond stems is
the short life span of the
rnaterial. Tirnber or palm frond
stems have to be replaced every
3 to 5 years. The principle
reason for this rapid deteriora-
tion is termite attack. The
termite eats away the inside of
the materials, leaving a thin
film of bark to protect it from
the open air and rays of the sun.
tventually the strength of the
material is lost and it collapses.
By using anti-termite shields
(the insects are unable to negoti-
ate properly-designed inorganic
overhangs) and by isolating the
palm frond stems, and other
organic materials, from the
ground, the life span can be
increased up to I 5 or 20 years.
F i r e i s a l s o a p r o b l e m ,e s p e c i -
ally in cooking areas.Palm frond
stems burn easily, but the danger
can be reduced by using non-
combustible materialsin fire risk
areas. Fire retardent paints and
mud plaster both to varying
degrees protect the palm frond
stem from fire. Although
mud plaster is the most eificient
protection, it contradicts the
palm frond stem's values for
ventilation and light controi.
Various tests have been
carried out on the palm frond
stems to evaluate its physical
properties, leading to finding
ways of improving its use and
potential. There could, for
instance, be value in using it as
fabric, reinforcement in simple
elementssuch as lintols.
?,:Jge pole

, erl rcal raftef

Barastr
da'am
I e n tr a l nn cl

*cr zonlal
'after
Roofng f

l -,,^-
i v g 5
h ^a-
u s ar r l
Palm leaf
maltrng
Jorner post Barastrstem
g rr d
C:hla onr'i nrrrJ

Baraslrda'am
eost sel HorzontaL
Dracng
FRAN/E C O N S T R UOCNI ,
":,::,
, li"
,$irl
S a r a s l o a a r r-

H o u s ec o n s t r u c t i o n P A L MF R O N D S T E M{ B a r a s t)
C O NS TR U CTI O N

Termites

P a l m f rond stems. Stem when attacked by dry wood termites {top)

or bv subterranean termites (bottom).
n
1 r l
*r:

J&\*..
I

,-*
a. |
-*-+- II

(top)andcompressed
to halrits il
parm
{rondstems materiar.
asa buirdihs Beins rorrire.
tested Hftrfil$.l:Tir;:L#11?:Jil,to"},J?3.0'"n
 0p"nings
'iiiiii ilT,'ffiL"1iii acomrortab
achieving
l:::::i :lli:?11'
,i!iii:tn g.n"tal the functions of a the window opening. at a bright exterior particularly At the other end of the scale,
,i:i:i:window are firstly to permit These requirernents in a hot from a subdued interior causes when the exterior is not very
,i1i;!1figirt to penetrate the interior of country are commonly met by psychological and physical dis- bright the contrast will be
lj:i:i:a truilding in such quantity and the use of screen walls which comfort. Under ,those condi- reduced and the eye is
:ii!i!idistribution that a satisfactorY provide a latticed baffle to the tions, with a large window increasingly able to focus upon
l:!:!:!interior illumination results, and exterior. The screen functions opening presenting' an un- objects beyond the screen,
,i!i!i:seconOty to provide a view of by niaking use of the contrast obstructed view, there wouid be ignoring, on account of the
:i:iiii tire exterior. However, in the between brightness and dark- such contrast that it would be a diminished contrast, the visual
;:i:j:icase of hot countries in general, ness. In conditions where the strain to look out of it. Screens banner it previously afforded. It
:ilj:;:ventilation
- and the control of intensity and brightness of the made up in a lattice form can be seen that at times when
:il'i ^r^-^ +L^+ -^-,,t+. f.^- rthe
ha provide ia hbuffl. between fthe conditions are vvisually
,ititi,gi.r. ifr"t iesults from sun are great, +the
L^ .,,-t-^-
surface fthat
L-+ n r^\'idp qffle h cfween he o wforinr
exterior n nnrJifinnc erc iqrrellw

;:j:iiiUrigtrtness of the exterior light, the suns light falls upon will interior and the exterior, so the unpleasant, the screen protects
provision ot brightness outside is broken up the eye from them, but with
;iji!i: together with the frequently become unpleasentto
tiili:i privacy, are all equally impor- look at, a condition known as by the areas presented by the comfortable exterior light, it
glare;whereto look
in designing discomfort
,r", considerations lattice in silhouette, which .tt1i[lil
,l::::: ittiil:.J,H", qual*ies

::ri
'*"'-"1'
,:i::!i *tilr#-''f
*'*''",,-'""'",'i:illi'1,
i:::i:'
i:'iii-''--.*'
:::::r
'i':: "- i,
rrrrmrrri
"''"r'-'llilllllln :1;i;
i*fi,;,:W
i:i:i:]-.l||l|||||||n$.:1'.iii{illiilii||ffi,'ffi;ffi,"':j:l";'l':
illlllllllllll!, ;rlilllllllllffl#,{{ffd1
flrylffi,' " - .l*illtthl l{ffi
"'",,',,'n"oi ,osimp
surricien,
ili.:il';'.ii:',''.'..,li'i'l.llfii:Wl'':.3#'+$'i'.':":
iiilii e"terior view of palm frond stem screen.The interior Interior view of palm frond stem screen,which filters between light and dark must be
(Oman). (Oman).
externalbrightness. softened so that the eye can
!;ij!i roor"rr to be totallydark.

t:t:t ll,;,l;?.'#*:Ji

results in alternating striPs of

solid and void. The high
humidity in many areas where
' m u s h r a b e y a 's c r e e n .( C a i ro ) . 'mushrabeya' palm frond stems are used, has
Exterior view of I n t eerriioorrvviieeww ooft ' m u s h r a b e y a s c r eeeenn..( (Cuaai rr o
r o) 'l '
the effect that the sky is as

* __:&* **ffi tiil.,*i.fi,,k

n.i,
greater opening can be made
where the view is onto a darker
object, and therefore not
unpleasantto look at.
The craft made mushrabeya
of Egypt functions in the same

7}r -*i- t^ r^nk et \r'n:rsr rnF or^rrnrr rs

- f -

Palm frond stem screendetail. A smooth transition

ffi Detail
J*
ofl 'mushrabeya'screen.
Detail o
** ;::,:i'?liJ::#:i:f
at the bottom, but get more
b€tweenlightand darkareasis achieved
by vu'
ut vsv section
curved Jev('v'r
open at the top, allowing a view
of the mat.riat,

22r ADl4l'l
 iti:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i
,i'i'!,i'iti'i'i'iri'i'i :a:::i
l;i;l;
:: the sections of the exterior
* hich are comfortable. The hot air escap ing i::;::
:::ushrabeyais made up of tinY
;ieces of lathed wood, Pieced
:,rgether to form an intricate
sireen. Both types of screen are
r,m /

'
l r o mh i g h iiti'
v e n t a t a t iooDn e n i n q
i4..'..
:i:!:
;l;i;!
'*e1l suited to the climate theY f - L a t i c ew o r k :i:i:i
:re in. | {ln gypsum) ;!;i;l
A development of the ,) r e d u c e sl i o h t ;i'!;!
\\'indow as a ventilating screen intensity.;lare'i,i:i
, whitst still letting ln iight) is the a n d a l l o w st h e i:i:i:
multi-level openings, in this p a s s a goef a i r . ::::::
rase as found in Muscat Oman.
The function of these windows
-\rrn <hrde
:::i::
iii
rs not clearly seen without an I
understanding of the climatic / .:.:.:
( !;:;l;
performance of the whole house. \\
\\'here the walls of the house are \
\ l;l;l;
sufficiently thick and have a
good thermal caPacitY, the
temperatures of the walls
-il-
/
n \\
\_
r:i:
.ii:
rnternal surfaces remain :.::::
;i;!;!
relatively constant throughout 1l1i;l
the day. S e ab r e a z ea i d s :i:!:i
r9 nv vn! l| i' |nYnu v | |dl lr :ri ri ii n n l;l;i;
The outdoor temperature
iluctuates throughout the daY the daytime :i:!:j
rnd for some times it will exceed l;l3l;
*'all temperatures, and others it .=---;l;i;! i:i:j:
u'ill be lower. In the hot season :i:i:i
it is therefore advantageousto
i;!31;
isolate the dwellings interior
f rom outside air temperatures I'i':t
when the wall temperatures are
below air temperature by closing
Et e v a t i o n s e ct r o n f,i,i,
t h e w i n d o w s h u t t e r s .W h e n . w a l l iii
temperatures exceed air tem- , u t r a hb a y f r o n t . M u l t i -el v e l o p e n i n g s ,s h o w i n g f u n c t i o n o f l a t t i c e
W i n d o wd e t a i l sf r o m N a j w a nhi o u s eM ;i;!;l
w o r ka n dv e n t i l a t i osny s t e m .
peratures window shutters are -'::::::
opened to equalise indoor and
outdoor air temperatures. On
the other hand, during the hot
seasonwhen the air is humid, air
Hh
rll
=--1 lltrllf--------r
r-1 Il--rl-
tEIIE:EIIIE
llEEllli,i'i'
I
|
i:i:i:
::::::
| !;r;r;

ffi
movement must be encouraged rrrrrr. rrrrr | :i:i:i
F'.gll-llH | '.14

to aid the bodys cooling system. r-llrrtlf-r

Windows must be designedso as n-| lrl r--
to allow the passageof air into rr-rflli- I .:.:.:
rr-IllIl-I .:.i:
the building when it is advan- 1-tllrllfr .:.i:
tageous, but to exclude solar rrrllrll11, .:.i:
lrllnllt;
radiation which would raise the
indoor temperature. Shading |r:rrl
rE-t ilt:ilt::::i'
fil lr-rr lfi
clevices such as the wooden
'awning' type are also used.
As with the two tYPes of
Itffitt rJll-rlll-r
r-llrll-
---.-:__.__..-iii
p r e c e se a c n n a v r n ga s q u a r e . i i :
t .'.'.'

screen already described, the c e n t ' e 'M l d e o f ,..11 t ..d*

!;l;l;
multi-level opening also incor- s e c t i o nf ,i x e db y p e gc o n n e c t i o n s .
porates lattice screens,usually at
-
:,:'i
the top of the opening to shield
the brightness of the sky. Small ik:::*& ':,:''
openings near the ceiling also
W:::i::
l

allow the rising warm air to

+-\
ffi-iiiiii
e s c a p eo u t o f t h e r o o m .
Some windows also -:=---r
incorporate an elaborate cooling
system, where a porous water jar
l.L.,e:
:a l'. .

-'-==i+*---
i

l
::=\.

==1
E=7==!

\:j:l

rs placed in the opening so that

.rir entering the room passesover
it. Water seeps through the
surface of the jar, and in the
: , 2 : :,2, . ' .
. S 1 ? ? : a : . t : ? a
L
ff'r-
I
W :!f,
ir
.ii:
.ii:
t- ?EF!{ilil ir
;rrocess of evaporation causes iilt*ie1i iii
i
the jar and its contents to be
cooled. This cool area conse-
se::::- %::!:i:
mw'l ::':
quently reduces the tempera ure d - :i:!:j
of the air that passesover it. B a i t M u g h u b ,M u s c a t .W i n d o w d e t a i l i n c o r p o r a t i n ge v a p o r a t i v e
c o o rI n g s y s t e m
 Wotqsupplg

-.1
--..- - l L,\DIRGR0UNL
tun,"ut . CHAiNEL
r r r r g d t r o no f - , c 0| e c t t o n
< pornt
p a n t e d a r e a s < v e h r cl €
e
!ashr nq

-,J
V

[ .;;;"* l
"=- -w
6 cook I nq

F a l a jw a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n .

FLOW<--

Falal LeveL PLan

i
Ground Level Plan

Falal Sectron A A
Falaj. Note that drinking water is Domestic bathingarea. Falaj- water purif icationand bathingareaimprovements.
supplied in jars to protect people
f r o m c o n t a m i n a t e dw a t e r .

zzteotq
n sii:::i:i:i:::::::::i:i:::i:i:::::::i:i:i:i:::::i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:::i:i:i:i:i:
Availability of water is a prime In town centres it is not
determining factor for settle- always possible to have direct
ment since agriculture and access to a water source, so
humans require sufficient drinking water is sometimes
supplies of fresh water. In areas distributed by tanker. Water is
where average annual rainfall is also obtained from wells, but
regularly less than 100mm, because the water table is
water must be obtained from usually at great depth, a great
below the surface of the ground. deal of energy is expended in
One method of obtaining raising the water (by hand or
water has been developed in animal power). To facilitate this
wells are
various Middle Eastern and initial excavation,
often built in a seriesof steps of
countries, the Falaj (Oman),
(Iran). system decreasing diameter for people
or Qanat l'he
involves the tapping of the to descendthe shaft.
Domestic indoor washing
aquiter or water table in high
areas should be designedin such
ground or hillsides, and bringing
a way as to conserve water.
the water down through man-
Indigenous examples demon-
made underground channeis to
strate the concern to cut down
the cuitivated areas in the valleys
wastage. The example here
and plains. Vertical ,shafts are
shows an integrated drinking,
dug to allow access to the
cooking, bathing and washing \ n,
channel, used in the original
area. The water runoff from lr\h- / A"'"n*rP'(r
excavation and for maintenance
washing is used to irrigate a fruit
of the horizontal channel. By
tree.
using a horizontal channel, the
This example illustrates how
water is easily brought to the
washing areas and water use in
areas of settlement and agricul-
general can be designed to
ture. The underground channels
harmonise with traditional
are noted for their reliability.
customs, and yet be acceptable
The actual distribution of in health terms and inexpensive
Falaj water is organisedin such a and simple to construct for the
way as to minimise the chance averagehouse owner.
of contamination. A definite
linear utilization is held to, as
the water flows through the
settlement, ensuring clean water
for drinking before con-
tamination by washing and
animals,
It can be seen that drinking
water is always taken from the
'Falaj' at the point that it
emerges from the ground.
Water is often collected from
this point and deposited in pots
further down channel, for
public drinking,. Some houses
of richer families (in the best
positions) have private wash
S t e p p e dw e l l .
areas built over the channel.
but washing for the poorer
members of the community is
done in public wash houses.
Water is also distributed to
private plots of land in return
for a proportionate tax, the - ^,
money from this being used for !1
".//
\-1
,\-/ .-
\, ^
such things as educating the 7, // balllt,fig
children. Improvements in the \-- \, -/ \
,/ *Aref,r_
hierarchy of water use and the Y.. _ -
I
design of facilities, is often \/
\ ,'\r/

necessary, and an outline \ warqf ll

suggestioriis shown here. Sand
filters and disinfectant tanks can
be introduced for purification,
and the organised sequence of P[ a n
use (such as the designof public )-4'-
bathing facilities) can be refined oiia6-,{',
ln conjunction with education in
health and hygiene. W a s h i n ga r e a f o r N i z w a s u m m e r h o u s e .

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