aasic ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING nits and UNIT - 1: D.C. Circuits Voltage and current sources, dependent and independent sources, Ur dimensions, Source Conversion --- Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's La theorem and their application for analysis lent voltage sources, ‘Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s 4 See se parallel resistive circuits excited by indepen (15 to 2g, Power & Energy in such circutt« - Mesh & nodal analysis, Star Delta transformation & circuits (29 to 43 it Gener c. definiti = ¢ sinusoidal A.C. voltage, definition of en fackor ar PS Of AC. quanlity «(43 to 53 1 3. Aephase AG Crete calue, form factor and peak Concept of phasor, Concer’ of power factor, Concept of impedance and admittance, Active, reactive ‘and apparent power. ‘Analysis of P-L, R-C, R-L-C series & parallel circuit S-phase AC. Circuits — it three phase systems, Meaning of phase Necessity and advantages of three | atoms, Meaning Of Drasn cscnce, balanced and unbalanced supply an glanced star and delta connections - three-phase system and their measurements (101 to 112 tions, magnetization characteristics (52 to 62 (62 to 87) line and phase values for bi Power in balanced & unbalanced UNIT -Ill : Magnetic Circuits - Basic defini of Ferromagnetic materials ~ Saif inductance and mutual inductance, energy in inear magnet connected in series A.C. excitation in magnetic circui ‘conductor, Force on a current carrying Induced voltage, laws of electromagnetic Induction, di Single Phase Transformer — General construction, ‘working principle, e.m.f. equation, equivalent circuits, phasor diagram ... Voltage regulation, losses and efficiency. open ci UNIT - IV : Electrical Machines Construction, Classification & Working Principle of DC machine, Construction, Classification & working principle of induction machine . Construction, classification & working principle of synchronous machine Working principle & EMF equation of 3-phase induction motor, Concept of slip in erigod Induction motor, explanation of torque-slip characteristics of 3-phase induction motor. .. Ts 5 of losses OccurTir in electrical machines, Ay ir TeRGion machine and synchronous miaenine epications ot Pema UNIT- V : Basic Electronics Number systems & Their conversion used in digital electronics, Demorgan’s theorem, Logic Gates. Half and full adder circuits, R-S flip flop, J-K flip flop Introduction to Semiconductors, Diodes, V-I characteristics . Bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and their working. Introduction to CC, CB & CE transistor ji i Int 40 C0, CB & CE trans configurations, different configurations (113 to 121, ic systems, coil RB & s g ircuit and short circuit test .. (203 to 216| D.C. CIRCUITS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SOURCES, DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT SOURCES, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS, SOURCE CONVERSION Q.1. What do you mean by D.C. circuit ? Ans, A closed path followed by direct current (D.C) is known as D.C. circuit. It contains a D.C. sour, a load, a switch, Battery (B) connecting leads and measuring instruments such as ammeter and Amncter voltmeter. Fig. 1.1 (a) (a) Simple D.C. Circuit shows a simple D.C. cireuit and fig. 1.1 (b) shows the simplified line diagram of the same D.C. circuit, The load resis- tors can be connected in Series, parallel or series- Ammeter Parallel combination as per (b) Line Diagram of D.C. Circuit the requirement. Fig. LI Q.2. Distinguish the voltage source and current source. (R.GPV., June 2013) Or Define voltage and current sources. (R.GPV,, June 2014) Ans, Ideal Voltage Source — A independent voltage source is a two terminal device whose voltage at-any instant of time is independent of the Current flow: ing through its terminals. It controls the magnitude and waveform4 Basic Eiectncal and Electronics Engineering of its terminal voltage. The equation of voltage source in v-i plane [fig. 1.2 (a)] is given by y= Constant The equation, v= V_sinat, represents a voltage source, where the voltage y ts varying with time. However the voltage is independent of the current i and, therefore is a constant as far as the v-i plane is concemed. V(t) =v o 1 i (a) Characteristics (6) Symbol (c) Symbol Fig. 1.2 Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Current Source - A current source is a two terminal device whose current at any instant of time is independent of voltage across its terminals. It controls the magnitude and waveform of its current. Mathematically, the equation of a current source in i-v plane [fig. 1.3 (a)] is given by i= Constant The equation i= J,,sinot, is the | equation of an ideal current source, 15(0 because the curent i is independent of the voltage in i-v plane. Characteristics ( and symbol of an ideal current source are shown in figs. 1.3 (a) and (b) respectively, (q) Characteristics (b) Symbol Fig. 1.3 Ideal Current Source 0.3. Define the practical voltage source with its characteristics. Ans. In this source, the voltage across the terminals cia of the source keep falling as + the current through it yy ni increases. This behaviour is obtained by putting a a resistance in series with an ideal voltage source as (a) Model (6) Characteristics shown in fig. 1.4 (a). Then pe ey e the terminal voltage v, is ‘ig. 1.4 Practical Voltage Source vy=v-i,R ‘The practical voltage source approaches the ideal voltage source in the limit R becoming zero.| D.C. Circuits 5 ~ Q.4. Define practical current source with its characteristics. Ans. In this source, the current through the source decreases as the voltage across it increases, This behaviour can be obtained by putting a resistance across the terminals of the source as shown in fig. 1.5 (a). J ‘Then the terminal current 5 Xi wy R 4% R ‘The practical current o % source approaches the ideal current source in the limit R becoming infinity. % (a) Model (0) Characteristics Fig. 1.5 Practical Current Source 0.5. What do you understand by dependent and independent sources ? Explain with neat sketches. (RGPY¥, Dec. 2011) ee rgpve lependent sources and independent sources. rar COM) GRY, June 2014) Ans. veges aie ~ Ina dependent source, the output voltage or current depends on another voltage or current. The relationship may be linear or non-linear, The dependent source is fundamentally a three terminal device. The three terminal are paired, with one common terminal and one pair is known as input while the other pair as the output. i=0 iy i iy +00 + + + ‘1 wy, yn0 wml) Y2 @ - (b) iy ip iy=0 b + + +o———o Nd “=o $ oo wed mY) ¥2 (© @ Fig. 1.6 Dependent Sources Dependent sources are of four types as follows — (i) Voltage dependent voltage source is shown in fig. 1.6 (a). (i) Current dependent voltage source is shown in fig, 1.6 (b).6 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering (i) Current dependent current source is shown in fig. 1.6 (¢). (iv) Voltage dependent current source is shown in fig. 1.6 (d). Independent Soarce - The independent source 1s not dependent on any other quantity in the circuit it has a constant value i.c., the strength of voltage or current is not changed by any variation in the connected network. The independent sources are of two types i.c., independent voltage source and independent current source. O46. Write the major difference between — (i) Ideal voltage source and practical voltage source (ii) Dependent and independent sources. (R.GP.Y., Dec. 2014) Ans, (ij Ident Voltage Source and Practical Voltage Source ~ Refer the ans. of Q.2 and Q3. (iy, Dependent and Independent Sources — Refer the ans. of 0.5. OL7. Write down the various types of units. Ass. The various types of anit are given below — G The French Sprtem or C.GS. System - Sn this system, the amits oflengtt_ mass and cme are centimetre, gramme and second respectively. ( The Bridal or FPS. System — In this system, the units of (Gi Mesre-Klagram-Second or MKS. Syitem — {n this system. heunte oflenus. muss and time are metre, kilogram and second respectively. Gey Imernatinmai Syutem of Unizs or SL. Sputem — \n French. St sands for spsnitme internationcle 7 unites [t the moders form of metric system. GA. Explain ix brief SL. ami. Age, Tae SL spent 2 comprehemine. logical and cnferent system, fenigmest for ase mail Gracies of srienex, engmeering and techeology. Tre Eh ams ae acezptesd a6 the lege! em of omits for measeremest fp mes coummes am thee world. For example, the ame Sor length ws metre and fue sani iar are tue te gris of 2 lets by amcthaer length is (mene * oes) an mere ‘Te imemuninel somdarct of omits & based oe sever ets wh 2 yet comint assagred mo ca off Gem 20 pve me tate 11. Tatie 15 Base OyOG Gnaite 7 Second (v Electric current Amypete {i} ‘Temperature Kelvin (6 Luminous intensity Candela {6} Amount of substance | Mole [rol The plane angle and solid angle are known as supplementary unite, Table 1.2 shows two dimensionless supplementary units. Table 1.2 Supplementary Units Q,9, Discuss the concept of dimension. Ans. The length, mass and time are considered as the three base dimensions. ‘These are indicated by letters [L], [M] and [T] respectively. Dimension of physical quantity simply represents the physical quantities that appear in that quantity and gives absolutely no idea about the magnitude of the quantity, The quantity is said to be zero dimension when 2 quantity does not depend upon any of the base units. A quantity which is indicated as the product of two same dimensions will have two dimensions of that unit. For example, the dimension of area will be — [Area] = [Length] [Length] = (Lengih?] = (L?] A quantity which does not depend upon any one base units ts called zero dimension of the units upon which the quantity does not depend. For example, volume does not depend upon mass and time, therefore the mass and time dimension of volume will be zero. The following dimensional relationships for electrical or mechanical Quantities are obtained — =(LP =(2 = (LP “(ly Mass] /{Volume] = (MJ{LJ? = [ML] = (Length) /{Time] = [L] (Ty = [LT] [Acceleration] = [Length]/ (Time? = (L][Ty? = {LT 7] [Force] = [Mass] [Acceleration] = [M] (L] (Ty? = (MIT-7] (Work] = [Force] [Distance] = (MJ (LF (T}? = (MULT 7} Q.10. Write short note on derived units. Ans. All other quantities which can be expressed in terms of other quantities ate known as derived quantities and the units in which these quantities are sucasured are called derived units. Some of which have special names given in table 13,8 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Table 1.3 Some Special Derived Units Physical Quantity (S.. Unit Dimensions Frequency Hertz (Hz = es~!) (T] Force Newton (N = kems™) | [MLT-*] Power Watt (W = J/s) [ML2T3 Coulomb (C = As) {IT] Electric charge Work, energy, quantity of heat Electric resistance Electric potential Electric capacitance Electric conductance Joule (J = Nm) (ML2T2] Ohm (Q = V/A) [r?ML?T3} Volt (V = W/A) tr ML?T3] Farad (F = A/V) (PML? 14] Siemens or mho (S = A/V) (PM-'L73} Henry (H = Vs/A) (I?ML7T?] } Inductance Pressure Pascal (P, = N/m) Customary Temperature Degree celsius (°C) Magnetic flux Weber (Wb = Vs) Magnetic flux density Tesla (T = W/m?) QI. Explain source transformation. (R.GRV, Dec. 2006, Nov/Dec. 2007) [R.GP¥, Nov. 2018 (O)] cource with a series resistance can be converted rce with a parallel resistance. Conversely current source with a parallel resistance can be converted into a voltage source with a of fig. 1.7 (@) | i series resistance. Let, we want to convert the voltage source R P | Or Explain the source transformation technique. Ans. A given voltage 5 into an equivalent current soul into an equivalent current source. P 9g? Primarily we will + find the value of Vy current supplied by > the source when 4 short circuit-is put Q across its terminals @ P and Q as shown in fig. 1.7 (b). This current is |= V/R- ‘A current source supplying this current J and hi Reonnected in parallel with it represents the equival fig, 1.7 (©). Similarly a current source of I ‘and a parall Short Circuit © @ Fig. 1.7 same resistance aving the own in lent source. It is sh fel resistance R can be alD.C. Circuits 9 converted into a voltage source of voltage V = IR and a resistance R in series with it. It should be kept in mind that a voltage source-series resistance combination is equivalent to a current source-parallel resistance combination, if- (i) Respective open-circuit voltages are equal (ii) Respective short-circuit currents are equal, Q.12. Explain ideal voltage source and ideal current source with neat diagrams. How ideal voltage source can be converted into ideal current source ? (R.GPY, Dec. 2010) Ans. Ideal Voltage and Current Sources — Refer the ans. of Q.2. For transformation R=0 of ideal voltage source to an ideal current source, 4 the value of resistance in V, > fig. 1.8 (a) should be zero. ~ a to make it an ideal voltage source and the value of resistance in fig. 1.8 (b) (a) i) should be infinite to make Fig. 18 itan ideal current source, OHM'S LAW, KIRCHHOFF's LAW Q.13. State and explain Ohm's law, Ans. A definite relation exists among the three quantities namely applied voltage, current and resistance. This relation was expressed first of all by George Simon Ohm. This is called Ohm's law, It states that the current flowing between ek any two points of a conductor (or circuit) is * Y directly proportional to the potential difference across them, given physical conditions (i.e, v temperature etc.) do not change, é Mathematically, it is expressed as — ih = leV Battery Fig. 1.9 or = Constant or s 1 Yu Ty Constant10 Banic reotriaal and Electronics Bniineerinp This constant ix lonarwn as reistance (R) oF the conductor. tis me ‘aNtited in Ome: Vv 7 R o y=IRori= ~ R 0.14. Differentiate between the following « 4) Loop and mesh (R.GPM, June 2009, 2010) fi) Node and junction. (R.GRM, June 2009, 2010) (ait) Active and passive element (R.GPM, June 200% 2010) Ans. (i) Leap and Mesh ~ The close joop. The most elementary form of # Joop whic! known as mosh, (ii) Node and Junction onnee’ 4 path of a cireuil is known as +h cannot be further divided ix nt ina circuit where two or point ofa network it is a point where in ~ Node is a pou ed together. Junction is @ more circutt elements are 0 re joined. Infact, where three oF More circuit clements a current is div ides. (ui) Active and Passive Element ‘The elements which supply energy ed active elements, “The active elements may be constant source. The elements which receives enersy to the network are call passive elements may be resistor. voltage source OF constant current from the network iscalled passive clment, The inductor of capacitor. g.15, What do you Ans. A network whose proper called bilateral network.1o other words, fithe direclon of is same irreapective jscalled pilateral network. Network consisting onl of bilateral network Q,16. State and explain Kirchhoff’s current and (R.GPV, Feb. 2010, Or explain KCL and BVI (RGEM, June 2017) mean by bilateral network ? jes remains same ‘acireuil whose ch curren through vari ly resistanct in either directions is huracteristic, behaviour ‘ous elements of ily ics is good example vollage law. March/April 2010) ‘Sue and and explain with neat dagram Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical 0 Suate GP, Det. 2017) cireults. fe wand voltage tar. (RGPY, May 2018) Explain Bi inenhosfs current ta Or Write short note on Kirchhoff's law. (RGRY,, May 2019) peek eyAns, A) Klrchtoff's Current Lav (KCL) ~ Kircbboll's corsent law stan that the algebraic sum of all branch currents lew instants of time. It is based on the principle of conser charge which enters a node must leave that nod there. Since the algebraic sum of charge equals to zero. this summation must In fig. 1.10, the currents 1, be zero. ae Vay Nge Uy and J, is flow through the branches which are connected to a node (J). Currents 1), f, and | into the node while the currents 1p, ly and ly, leaving Kirchhoff’s current law the sum of the currents flowing towards the node must be equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of the node, With +Is= bly +I, or I)-h+l-+l,-1,=6 or Zl=0 th node. According to Fig. 1.10 Kirchhoff’s Current Law Fig. 1.11 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) — Kirchhoft"s voltage law states that algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed loop of a network is zero at all instants of time. This law is based on the law of conservation of energy. KVL is valid fora circuit or at least for its mathematical model but it is fot. true fora general path ina region of space containing time varying magnetic fields, Fig. 1.11 having nodes @, @, @ and @. Let the unit charge placed at node (J) in the network. This charge is moved from node ) @, Q to Q,® t @ and finally, it moves fiom @ to Q. The decrease in energy in moving from ()) to @) is identified as voltage drop whereas the increase in energy in going from (@) to ()) is identified as voltage rise. If we assign a negative sign for a voltage rise and a positive sign for a voltage drop. Vi tV)+Vy-Vy=0 Vi tV,+Vy=V, or LV=012 Basic Electrical and Ek Heetronics Engineering bla elTEC Celis Prob.. Find the value of current i icf Fig. 1.12 (R.GPM, June 2016) Sol. Resistances 2 Q and 2 Q are in parallel (fig. 1.12), i.e. 2 2 1Q 29 t 10 1Q 2 +E +i] : DY t Ry Fig. 1.13 (a) Fig. 1.13 (6) ' =202 Resistances 1 © and 1.0 are in series [fig. 1.13 (a)], ie. = 1+! eae alo Resistances 2 Q and 2Q are in parallel (fig. 1.13 (b)], -¢ = 942 20 ia 19 +h oe nv Fig. 113 (c)DC. Circuits 13 Resistances 1 Q and | © are in series and parallel with 2. {fig 1.13 (c)] The simplified circuit is shown in fig. 1.13 (d) and fig. 1.13 (e). 29 10 30 10 10 10 19 +h +h +2 i ; i ll Tony ny Tony Fig. 1.13 (d) Fig. 1.13 (2) Fig. 1.13 The value of current I is given by l= iu 2 4A Al "a5 Ans. Prob.2. Reduce the network of fig. 1.14 to obtain the equivalent resistance as seen between nodes ad, 40 fae sae |. be be ee a Fig. 1.14 (R.GPY,, Dec. 2015) Sol. Resistances 4 and 2 ohms are in parallel (fig. 1.14), ie. w4x2_ 8 4g ao 442 6 3 a Fig. 1.15 (a) Fig. 1.15 (b) 4 Resistances at and 8 Q are in series [fig. 1.15 (a)], ie. aeeecct Bo 3 3 28 Resistances zx and 12 Q are in parallel [fig. 1.15 (b)], i.e.14 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering 2040. d Fig. 1.15 (c) 21 Resistances 49 and 7-0 are in series [fig. 1.15 (c)}, ic. go 2itl6 374 4 2 = + 4 37 Resistances 3. and Pia are in parallel [fig. 1.15 (d)J ie. 30 E3140 3x aT do = 4. 3x37 Mg Fig. 1.15 (d) 3432 12437 49 . 4 The equivalent resistance is, nua9.2 Wt sito. 6 si ag ED. hee: Fig. 1.15 (e) Prob.3. What is the value of unknown resistor R if the voltage drop across the 482 sesistor is 2V for the circuit shown in fig. 1.16. $n 12 Fig. 1.16 [RGR Nov, 2018(0)) Sol. The given fig. 1.16 can be redrawn as shown in fig. 1.17. By direct proportion, voltage drop on 1 22 resistance is 1 =2%— =O a 15 WOC, Circuits 15 Drop across CMD or CD = 24.0.5 Drop across 5 (2 resistance = 10 Fig. 1.17 se yeemmmmnsipmemmmey gS EES == IPERPOSITION THEOREM, THEVENIN’S THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATION FOR ANALYSIS OF SERIES AND RESISTIVE CIRCUITS EXCITED BY INDEPENDENT LTAGE SOURCES, POWER & ENERGY IN SUCH CIRCUIT Q.17. State and explain superposition theorem with the help of an example. (RGPY., June 2009, Dec. 2010, June 2011) Or Explain in brief superposition theorem. (RGBV., Dec. 2012) Or State and explain superposition theorem. (R.GPV., Dec. 2013) Or State and prove superposition theorem. May 2019) th Ans. Statement — Superposition theorem states that “in a linear ne’ containing a several independent sources, the overall response at a1 the network equal the sum of responses due to each independ: considered separately with all other independent sources made in An independent voltage source can be made” in operative by short circuit in the network. Similarly an independent current soce can be made inoperative by replacing it by an open circuit. Proof. Consider a network in which the number of loops are L. Let Vj- Vo, V5... Vp be the voltage sources acting in loops 1, 2, ... L and the loop currents are I), Ip... Jy. Thus, the loop equations by using KVL are Looph Zyl +Zp2I16 Basic Bectrical end Blectranics Engineering Equation (i) may be written in the form of matrix equation as = (v) a Zin 22 fu) vi] : 4 ra ,™e=|% Zuc Z2- Le Lye] The solution of equation (ii) may be obtained by using Cramer rule (ob, matrix inversion), ” Let, AZ = Determinant of {(Z] AZ,, = Co-factor of i row and j* column of [Z] y For L = 2, using Cramer rule, the current in the k'" loop is given by bray ke ale +AZ24 V2] ii) i ‘We assume that the source V, acting alone causes a current I to flow in | the k* loop then equation (iif) becomes | _ AZM i k= Az { Similarly the current in the k'" loop due to source V, acting alone, Ai) wl¥) If both the sources are acting simultancously, then the resultant current in the k"" loop will be - ' ley & hg = LAZY) + AZ, V- evi) a bho = lk V1 + AZ2k 2] i which is equal to |. Hence Proved | P| + Q.18. Give the various steps to find out the network using superpos: ition theorem. Aas. Various steps to find out the network using superposition theorem t f t i | are given as follows ~ i (i) Take only one independent source of voltage or current and E deactivate the other independent voltage or current sources. For voltage | sources, remove the source and short circuit the respective circuit terminals , | and for current sources, just remove the source keeping the respective circuit terminals open, Determine the branch currents. i (ii) Repeat the above step for each of the independent sources. (iii) To calculate the net branch current utilising superposition theorem, just add the currents obtained in step (i) and step (ii) for each branch. If the currents are in same direction, just add them. While, if the respective currents are directed opposite in each step, consider the direction of the x 4 'clockwise current tn be posi step from the original current. The net © 0.19. Write the limitations of superposition theorem. Ans. Limitations of superposition theorem are given belo (i) Superposition theorem cannot be app networks or systems (ii) During the application of superpo of currents calculated for each source should be taken ea 0.20, State and explain the Thevenin’s theorem and find the Vp, and Rory (R.GPV, Sune 2008, 2009, 2611) Or State Thevenin’s theorem giving an example. (R-GPV., Dec. 2012) Or State and explain Thevenin’s theorem applicable to electrical circuits. (R.GPV., June 2017) Or Write short note on Thevenin's theorem. (R.GPV., May 2018) Or State and explain Thevenin’s theorem. —__[R.GRV, Nov. 2018(0)] Ans, Statement —Thevenin’s theorem states that “any linear active network consisting of dependent or independent voltage and current source can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance, the voltage source being the open circuited voltage across the open circuited load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network” looking through the open circuited load terminals. Proof — Suppose that it is required to find out current flowing through load resistance R, as shown in fig, 1.18 (a). By Ry Ry cua cua cua n R ery D OB (a) Network of the (b) Network when Load —_(c) Network when the Thevenin’s Theorem Resistance, R, Removed _ Battery V Removed Fig. 1.18 First remove the load resistance R, from the network terminals A and B and then redraw the circuit as shown in fig. 1.18 (b). It is obvious that the terminalsibaa 18 Basic Electeica! ent Electronics Engineering have become open cireuited, Determine the open circuit voltage (V_, ) « Thevenin’s voltage ( Vy.) across the terminals A and B when the load resis R, is removed. The Thevenin’s voltage ( V,,) is obtained by the expression as Va? IR; (i ti) where, > Current when terminals A and B are open circuited r= Internal resistance of battery: ‘New imagine that the battery to be removed from the network and Ieaving its intemal resistance (r) then redraw the circuit as shown in fig. 1.18 (c}. Two paralie! paths are viewed from the terminals A and B one containing resistance Ry and the other contaming resistance (R, + 1). The Thevenin’s resistance of the network is determined from the terminals A and B are - Ry eR, [AR +2) tiv) A R3(R, +1) A eet ais ha Thevenin As a consequence shown from cource iy terminals A and B, the whole network = Vth can be reduced t0 2 single source such as Thevenin’s source whose EMF, : js to the Thevenin’s voltage (V,,) and i | — internal resistance pe 10 Ry as Fig. 1.19 Thevenin’s Equivalent shown in fig. 1.19. Circuit ‘The load resistance R, is now connected back across the terminals A and B from where it was previously removed, The current flowing through the Joad resistance R, is determined by Mp = ay), 1 Rg tRy 0.21. Explain Thevenin’s and superposition theorems giving an application example for each, (RGPV, June 2013) Ans. Refer the ans. of Q.20 and Q.17. 10.22. Enlist she various stepsto find out the Thevenin’s equivalent network, Arss, Vancous steps to find out the Thevenin’s equivalent are given as follows — G) Disconnect the lond resistor and find the open circuit voltage weross the open circuited load terminals,18) Rema the volts # placed) and curren’ of the source, which resistance Gil) Hy placing Rin series with ¥, find the Thevenin's equivalent circuit (iv) Reconnect the load resintor (R; } across the load terminals as shown in fig. {29 Obviously I, (the load current) Vor Ray + Ry 0.23. State and explain Norton’s theorem. Ans. Statement ~ A linear active network co’ or dependent voltage and current sow and lear pilat can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consasting o parallel with a resistance, the current source being the shy across the load terminal and the resistance being the interna! source network looking through the open circuited load terminals of independent and al network chements urrent 50 Proof — Consider a network to prove the Norton's equivalent is shown i fig. 1.21 (a). The Thevenin’s equivalent form and Norton's equivalent form are shown in figs. 1.21 (b) and (c), respectively. Ric of Re ok rh RL (a) Network of the (b) Thevenin’s Equivalent (c) Norton's Equivalent Norton’s Theorem Form of the Given Network Form of the Given Network Fig. 121 The current through the load resistance R, into the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is determined by meee ~ Ry tRp On short circuiting terminals A and B then we obtain the short circuit current I, . as = Va! Rn ii) Ai)20 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering In the Norton's equivalent circuit, the current through the load resistance (Va /Ra Ry) My + Ryd Re, is given as (iit) r i. (iv o ly Ra + Ry WW) Therefore the value of the load current into the Norton's equival I, is equal to the Joad current which is measured from the Thevenin's circuit, equivalent circuit. 0.24. Write down the various steps to firad out the Norton's equivalent nenvork, Ans, Various steps to find out the Norton's equivalent are given as follows (i) Remove the load resistor and find the internal resistance of the source network by deactivating the constant sources, This procedure xacily same as described for Thevenin’s theorem. Assume that this resistance be Ripy (ii) Now, short the load terminals and find the short circuit current flowing through the shorted load terminals using conventional network analy’ Assume that this current be is. Equivalent Source Network (ii) Norton's equivalent circuitis { drawn by keeping Ryy in parallel 10 ice, a8 shown in fig. 1.22. } (iv) Reconnect the load resistor (R,) across the Joad terminals and the { current through it (1;,) is then defined as i iris — Rim Fig. 1.22 Norton's Equivalent Ring + Re Circuit 0.25. Differentiate between the series and parallel circuits. (R.GPV., June 2009) neh) Ry, Ans, \n a series circuit (fig. 1.23), the current being same through each of the impedances, the voltage phasors arc related to the current by the respective drops across cach impedance vectorially added together. ie, VEIL 4 1Z, +23 +4 Z, & Meg efi) where Leg = Equivalent impedance = Zy + Ly tol, N Fig, 1.23 Series A.C. Circuit Fig. 1.24 Parallel A.C. » CirenitD.O. Circuits On the other hand, ina parallel cireuit (fig. 1.24), the each element being same, the currents through each bran branch currents are to be vectorially added to give the total current v Vv i 10, 1 A VY) % VY) and so on, y, : iG, fel +L tnat Il, or WYqq" VY, + V5 Wy, +¥, + ie, Veg y+ Yat (ii) 0.26. Define the following terms - (i) Electrical energy (ii) Electrical power. Ans. (i) Electrical Energy —\f a potential difference V is applied across a circuit, a current [ flows through it for a particular period 1 (in see), a8 shown in fig, 1.25. A work is said to be done by moving stream ine er ng of electrons (or charge). This work is called FS electrical energy. Therefore, the total amount of work done in an electrical circuit is known as electrical energy and the unit of electrical energy is joule (W-sec), Work done Battery Q Fig. 1.25 Thus, work done or electrical energy is expressed as - = VQ [-. 1= Qa) = Vit [-. V = IR] IR. = PRt y? —t R (ii) Electrical Power = ‘The rate at which work is being done in an electrical circuit is known as electrical power. It is denoted by P and an unit of electrical power is watt. V= Work done in electrical cireuit ‘Therefore, Pe = Time22 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Prob.4. Using superposition theorem, determine the current in 5 ohm resistance. 22a sa Fig. 1.26 (R.GP¥, Dec. 2008, June 2017) Sol. Considering the voltage source 30 V alone and short circuiting the voltage source 25 V, the network reduces to form shown in fig. 1.27 (a). The total resistance of the network to the source 30 V is, 2+ [6 + 20) | 4] 25%4 =5450 ; \ ——— |=474A a) -4.74=O076A 22 7% «+49; 5a fF} {£+ Fig. 127 Now considering the voltage source 25 V alone and short circuiting St vonage source 30 V. the setwork seduces to form shown tm fig 1.27 (b). ‘Tonal semptance of the nonwork t0 sounve 25 V is B*2 og 25390 2542 R", =(@5|D+4=D.C. Circuits 23 Now 19 = 42nz( 5+20 |). 3964 low, - 2 —ennnees 1S aoe. : 245420) I", =) - Ty = 4.272 - 3.96 = 202 = 22) 2a Fig. 1.28 When both source voltages 30 V and 25 V are considered, then by superposition theorem. 1, =1)-T) =55-3.96=154A A6B A 1; =T; .76 + 0.312 = 1.072 A Ans. Where, I; is the current flowing through the resistance 5 Q. Prob.5. State superposition theorem. In the given network, making use of superposition theorem, determine the currents in resistors Ry, R, and R; and also the currents in voltage source E. 20 Fig. 1.29 (R.GPV, Dec. 2011) Sol Superposition Theorem — Refer the ans. of Q.17. Considering the voltage source E alone and open circuiting the current source I. the network reduces to that is shown in fig 1.30 (a).24 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Then « _ & volts fase) * 3ohms 6 volts fhe ——— = ee ” Gohms The current drawn from voltage source is, HT, +1, = +2)=3A Next considering the current source | alone and short circuiting the voltage source E, the network reduces to that is shown in fig. 1.30 (b). 4 _ 3x4 r, L_——— = =2A Then cusremt 1 Jan é | eee 442 6 Current through R, is zero since a short circuit has been placed across it Current through voltage source, I") = 2 A ‘When both the sources are considered, then by superposition theorem, 1, =8,-P,=(1-2)=-1A Ans. Hence | A current flows through R, from right to left, I,=1,+0=2A Ans. L=l+lye1+1=2A Ans. Current through voltage source is, Lef,-Pj-3-2-1A Ans. Hence current distribution in the network is shown in fig. 1.30 (c). 1A Ri sa ovr CP) ie3a Fig. 1.30 () Prob.6, Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between terminals A and B for the chreuit shown in fig. 1.31, uo 4, B an Fig. 131 (RGR, Dec. 2016)Sol. The given circuit is redrawn to find the Thever as shown in fig. 1.32 10%, Ve an Fig. 1.32 Let 1, and 1, be the mesh currents as shown in currents are — -6 and b= rg 703754 Writing KVL equation in the central loop, we obtain vy V,+51, +84 8 Vj, +5%0348%(-0375)= Vp Va-15 = Vg Therefore, Voe=Vap= ESV To find Ry,, we replace all the two sources by short circuits as shows in fig. 1.33. R, =e S*8 jas 4=7752 42 Wr saS B48 SP Eee “ 150 AB 8a Ry = 3402 sO Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34 ‘The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in fig. 1.34. Prob.7. State Thevenin’s theorem and explain procedure to apply Thevenin’s theorem, Using this theorem find the current in resistance Ry, shown in fig. 1.35. 2 im R= 500 Vv, Dec. 2015)i | 26 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Sol. Refer the ans. of 0.20 and 0.22. ‘The given circuit can be redrawn as shown in fig. 1.36 with the 50¢ resistor removed from the terminals a and b to find out V,,.. oF Vin. For this purpose, we will go from point b to point a and find the algebra sum of the voltages met on the way. so any It is clear that with terminals a and b open, there is no voltage drop on the 5 Q resistance, Therefore the two resistances of 5 Q and 20 Q are connected in series across the 75 V battery. According to voltage divider formula, voltage drop on 20 2) resistance = xno oe 2 15228 = 609 20+ 25 Vin = Van = 60 — 30 = 30 volt We will find Ry, ic. Thevenin’s 5? , resistance of the network as looked back into the open circuited terminals a and b for this, 0 Rn we will replace voltage by short circuit as . shown in fig. 1,37. Fig, 137 5x20 100 pa; , = Fe 52 a5 HAF SHIN Hee Rav= 57907? 35 ; Now, we draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in fig. 1.38. Hence the current flowing 92 through the resistor 50 2 is given by Vy 30 Ry, =500 | = t= 1 Ry tRy 9450 =O0514 Ans. Fig. 1.38 Prob.8. Using Thevenin’s theorem find the 4n current flowing through 6 £2 resistor of the network shown in fig. 1.39. (R.GPV., Dec, 2012) Sol When 6 © resistor is removed, whole H) of 2A current flows along D.C. producing a drop of (2 *2)=4 V with the polarity as shown in fig. 1.40. Fig. 1.39Since we go along BCDA, the total voltage is Hence Vig = Vo BV For finding R,,, 12 V voltage source is replaced by a short circuit, and the 2 A current source by an open circuit. as shown in fig. 1.41. The two 4 Q resistors are in series and are thus equivalent to an 4 +4 = 8% resistor. Although, this 8 © resistor is in parallel with a short of 0 Q. As a result, them equivalent value is 0 Q. Now this 0 Q resistance is in series with the 2 © resistor. Then, we get Ry=2+0=20 Now, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit ¥ * is shown in fig. 1.42. 8v> - 62 Vie Py, Ae I . RytRp 2+6 Fig. 1.42 Prob.9. State Thevenin’s theorem. Determine the current through a 3Q resistor branch in the circuit using Thevenin’s theorem. 12 4 wv (4) ®) 3.0 Fig. 1.43 (RGPV., Dec. 2014) Sol. Thevenin’s Theorem — Refer to the ans. of Q.20. 20 19 The given circuit can be redrawn with the 3 Q resistor removed from terminals a and b. et The current source has been converted into its equivalent xt voltage source to findout Vo, OF Fig. 1.44 ‘Vi, a8 shown in fig. 1.44.22 Basic Dectical and Electonics Engineering The cicalating current I, can be calculated as 0+ gees) Now, Vac = Vig = + 20—-2(25)=20-5=15V ‘We will find Ry ie, equivalent resistance of the network as looked ito he open circuited terminals a and b. For this, we will replace sourve by short cacuit es shown in fig. 1.45 (a). 20 19 (a) Hee, = Now, we draw the Thevenin’s equivalent cireuit [fig 1.45 (b)]. ‘Hence, carent flowing through the resistor 3 2 is : Prob10. State the Norton's theorem. In the circuit below determine — o (i) The value of R so that the load of 20 ohm draws maximum powe (i) The value of maximum power drawn by the load. (RGPK., June 201) cI wav i [200 Fig. 146 Sol Norton's Theorem — Refer the ans. of Q.23. - ‘The load of 20 0 will draw maximum power when intemal resistance cf “2” network R.. when viewed from output terminals A and B is minimum and t * ‘will be minimum wheo R is 2270. @ SoR (©) Maximum power drawn ABS. 1620W Ams.Rg DC. Cio Prob.I1. In the cirewit of fig. 1.47, find the power in Ry, utilizing Thevenin’s theorem. Fig. 1.47 Sol. First calculate the open circuit voltage V,.. or Vy, across the open circuited X-Y terminals (in fig. 1.48) and R, be removed. Here, Vo. = Vin =WV-ER,=4-2%1=2V To find Ry, all the constant sources are removed (ie, V = 0, Ig = 0). Fig. 1.49 represents the required circuit. Clearly, Rg=R, -R)=2+1=30 Therefore, we have obtained the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit as shown in fig. 1.50. 0.27. Explain the mesh current or loop current method in brief. (R.GP¥., June 2007) Ans. In this method, a current is assigned to each window of the network such that the currents complete a closed loop. They are also known as loop currents. When a branch has two of the mesh currents, the actual current given30. Basic Electrical and Etectronics Engineering by their algebmic sum. The assigned mesh currents may have cither clockwise ‘or counter clockwise directions. Once the curren| Kirchhon's voltage law is written for each loop to obtain the necessary simultaneous equations, | Q.28, State and explain mesh analysis to solve a network. (R.GPK, Dec. 2008) Ans, Mesh analysis algorithm is given below and is explained through the simple circuit of fig. 1.51 I (i) Identify independent circuit meshes. There are two such meshes in I the circuit of fig. 1.51 (ii) Assign a circulating current to each mesh (Ij. Ip in fig. 1.51). As each mesh current enters as well as leaves the mesh elements, the mesh currents implicitly satisfy KCL. It is preferable to assign the same direction to the mesh i currents - usually clockwise. Write KVL equations for each mesh (as many as mesh currents). It is observed here that no circuit branch can carry more than two mesh currents. (iv) It is assumed that all circuit sources are voltage sources. Practical current sources, if any are first converted to equivalent voltage sources. Let us write KVL equations for the two meshes of fig. 1.51. Mesh 1: Ry], + Rg(ty - Ib) + Vp- Va = 0 Mesh 2 : Ry(lz -1)) + Raby + Ve— Vp = 0 These equations can be organized in the form below — Mesh 1 : (Ry +Ra)ly — Raby = Va - Vb alii) Mesh 2 :— R3ly + (Ry + Ral = Vp - Ve iV) Equations (iii) and (iv) can be written in the matrix form — (R\+R3) —-Rs [it] Ee eC - Hal | -Rz (Ra +R3) JLo} (Yb — Ve), cr RJM=(V] {R] = Mesh resistance matrix [1]= Mesh currents vector [V] = Vector of algebraic sum of voltages of all voltage sources round the loop. 0.29. Explain the node voltage method in brief. Ans. In this method, one of the principal nodes is selected as the reference and equations based on KCL are written at the other principal nodes. At each of these other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned where it is understood that this 45 4 voltage with respect to the reference node. These voltages are the unknowns and when determined by a suitable method, result in the network solution. Be hee aE Fig. 1.51 G (i) whereDC. Circuits 31 2.30. Explain node analysis method with the help of an example. Or Explain the nodal analysis with suitable example. IR.GRY:, Nov. 2018(0)] Ans, To determine the equilibrium equation on the node basis we make use of the Kirchhofl’s current law (KCL). Let us consider the simple resistive network to represent the procedure uscd in node analysis as shown in fig. 1,52. There: are four nodes, namely (1), (2), (3) and (4). For a convenience, the negative terminal of an active element is selected as the reference node, we select node (4) as the reference node and assume its potential to be zero. A potential difference between any two nodes in a network is called the node pair voltage. Thus Vj>, V3 V31» Vi4eV24 and V3q are the node pair voltages. However, the potential ofa particular node with respect to the reference node is termed the node voltage. Hence, V4, Vog and V3, are the node voltages. With reference to fig. 1.52, the node voltage V4 is known to be equal to the battery voltage. Having identified the unknown voltages, our next aim is to write network equations in terms of these unknown voltages. Let the node voltages of nodes (1), (2) and (3) be called V;, V> and V3 respectively. Fig. 1.52 Simple Resistive Applying KCL at node (2), we have Network for Node Analysis 1,-h-h=0 Gd) These branch currents are expressed in terms of node voltages by Ohm’s Jaw as — I 1 1,=—(%)-Vj) = — (Vy -V Aa 1 Ry -Vi) Ri. aN) (ii) | V2 -. I, = —(V, -0) = —= eis mR (V2 - 0) R (iti) -V5 and, 1,5 «(iv) Rg On substituting the values of l,, land I; from equations (ii), (ii) and (iv) into equation (i), we get or ai _"2_ 2,3 2932 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering My oN me Ry Ry (y) Now applying KCL at node (3) we have Iy=lq or 1-1-0 (i Va V,-0 Vy Since. 1,= and ly = = ince: 3 : and ly Ry Ry Substituting the values of 1; and 1, into equation (vi), we have Ma (a tle R3 R3 Rg (vii) To obtain the values of V2 and V3, solved the equations (v) and (vii) simultaneously. Thus, it is clear that the positive direction of the branch currenis may be assumed at each node independent of their previous designations, There are two options as follaws — (i) Assume positive directions for branch current once for all (ii) Assume new positive directions at each node. Q.31. State and explain Kirchhoff’s law with suitable example. (R.GRK, June 2016) Ans. Refer the ans. of Q.16, Q.28 and Q.30. Q.32. What.do you mean by delta and star connections ? Ans. When three resistances R,, R, and Rj are connected together to forma closed mesh as shown in fig. 1.53, this type of connection of resistances is called delta connection. P Pr Ry, R; R, Ry R; Q Q Ry R R Fig. 1.53 Deita Connection Fig. 1.54 Star Connection If three resistances Rj, R and R, are connected as per fig. 1.54, the connection of resistance is called star connection. Q.33. Derive the necessary equations for converting a delta network into equivalent star network. (R.GPV, July 2008, Feb. 2010)Ans, Wo assumosthe terminals P,Q and Po—__ in fig. 1.55 7 With the terminal QO open, series combination of resistances Ry and Ry is in parallel with Ry 7 Rpg (when terminal Q is open) is given by Ry (Ry +Rz) Fig. 1.55 Delta ty Sta > Star Ry, +Ry+Ry ransformation Resistances between terminals P and R with © terra; with star connection. Ror th Ry . R For these two networks to be electrically equivalent, R, +R, = Aa (Rit Red ; Ry +R2+R; () RAR, R,+Ry = (Ro +R) R, +R2+R3 (it) R2 (Ry +R a Ry+R,= Ra (Ri +R3) Ri +R2+R3 (iii) By solving the equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get R RyR3 R= —FPik2 aaK RR; ek u * Ri +R2+R3 Ri +Rz +R; © R)+R2+R3 Q.34. Deduce the relation for conversion from star to delta circuit, (RGPY, Dec. 2006, April 2009) Ans. Star connected network as shown in fig. 1.56 will be Teplaced by equivalent delta connected network. The basic equations guiding this conversion are — Ra (Ri +Ra) Rat RE BR: +Rs Ry, (R2 +R. Rt R= ne 2+R3) 1+Ro+R3 fod RL, eRe REE RD bee” R) +Ro +R3 Fig. 1.56 Star to Delta By solving the equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get Transformation RyRy Re a a” RFRa4Ry lly) deefiance Becta sad Ciectines Fnyienon 5 BR: Re Ry, R, +R, +R me pet R, oR R, Agen, deviding equation {vi} by (4). we get ei SEM wt,» Sere, R, Ry Ry oloeticating the vetlees of R, wad R, im equation (i), we get Rok,» Be IR, ® Rk 2 5 Ri RR HR. Spemeiety Bye My sRe so and Ry Ry +Re+ 2 Ry @-58. Derive the relation for conversion for star and delta connection. (R.GPYV., Dec. 2014, Or isplain dcita/aer and sar/deita transformations, (R.GP.¥., Dec. 2016) or rine short note on stercdelts transformations. (R.GPV,, May 2016, 2019) ows, Rect Tove ts. oof 1) 93 and Q.34. atte me Te a) Prob tt. Colewlate cattent through 3 olin resistance using laop analysisDee, 20 Fig. 1.58 Writing loop equations for the crcust Loop 3 10+1, +201; 3, 10 Loop 2 2 (hh -1,) +2 + 50, -1)=0 -2 51, =0 Loop 3 - 5 (I, - 1p) + 2, =~ 2 51, + 71, =-20 After solving equations (i), (1) and (im 1,= 2.09, 1,=- 1864.1 4.186 A Hence, current through 5 © resistance = h-h = - 1.86 + 4.186 = 23264 Ans. Prob.13. Determine the current drawn from the 5 volt bamery im she network shown — sv 30 Fig. 1.59 (RGB, Jume 2012)eb 9 Basic Electncal and Electronica Engineering Sol. Assign a circulating current to cach loop (1), 1 and 1, 48 shown fig. 1.60) ; ig ) Var 5 2n Ci 20 fe of G, Mea Gy, We Fig. 1.60 Writing loop equations for the circuits of fig. 1.60. Loop I $= 2, ~ Ly) + 21, ~ 1) + 34, Tl, - 21, ~ 2h = 5 wedi) Loop 2- O- 14h + 3(I, - 15) + 20, - 1) “Al, + Oh, ~ 3,=0 wl) Loop 3 - 0=3(l, ~ 1) +4) + 205-1) -2, - 3h, + 91, =0 weeAili) After solving equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get ie Pah -2a, ls =3A Hence, the current drawn from the 5 V battery is 5 Ans. J==A Loa Prob.14. Determine the current’s in all branches of the network shown in fig. 1.61, wa 62 0n Fig. 161 (R.GPM, Dec, 2017, May 2018) Sol. The given figure can be redrawn for nodal analysis as shown in fig. 1.02,and 4 wo v4 Oo y Fig. 1.62 Applying KCL at node a, we obtain Vy 20 , Ve, Yep _ ; 0 “Wi” 3V, - 60+ 6V, +4, —4Yp 26 60 = After rearranging equation (i), we get 13V,-4¥, = 60 ‘Applying KCL at node b, we obtain My-10 , Mb, Mb- Vag 1 10 15 3Vp ~3043Vp + 2Vp-2Va _ 30 After rearranging equation (iii), we get -2V, + 8V,=30 After solving equations (ii) and (iv), we get V, = 6.25 V and V, = 5.3125 V Thus the currents in all branches are given as — 139 5 =0.625 Amp. 10 10 p= MaxMe a 15 p= Loa Me = 10753125 _ 9.46875 Amp. a 10 10 Vp _ 5.3125 = Jb 2S 953125 Amp. Ie {0.4 sao 20=N4 nee = 0.6875 Amp. 6.25 -5:3125 _ 9.9695 Amp. {is} Aili) Liv)38 Bast Giscttva! and Blectronics Engineering Yy Prok IS. Find carrent I using nodal analysis, Sab 0 F; (RGPY., Dee. 2046 oasider the voltages at nodes (J) and @ be V, and V,. The 6) cuouit is redrawn in fig. 1.64. Nodal equations at nodes (D and @) Bey are as 3V, -54+ 3, +2V,-2¥2= 18 BV, -2V,=18+54= 72 li) For node @)- WoW, 0, eae eo 9 6 6 QV, -2V, +32 +3V2 36 __) 18 ; -2V, + 8V, =-18 + 36= 18 i) Afier solving equations (@ and (ii), We obtain v= 3 =102Vand Vo = -4svDC. Cirents 39 The current through 6 Q resistor = Ans. Current through 9 Q resistor = Current through 6 © resistor ‘Kes Current through 6 2 resistor Ans: 48-12 Current through 6 © resistor 6 3 =-12A Ans, Prob.16. In the circuit of fig. 1.65 find the voltage V', across the 6 2 resistance using nodal method of circuit analysis. 8Q 4a Fig, 1.65 (R.GRK, Dec. 2015) Sol. The given circuit is redrawn as shown in fig. 1.66. Let node voltages of nodes @) and so © 42 @ @ be called V and V, respectively. Applying KCL at node @, we have j-16 V-30 V cae 3(V —16) + 4(V -30) + (V- Vj) 24 3V—48 + 4V — 120 + 6V -6V, i 13V—6v, = 168 (i) Now applying KCL at node @, we have Mev, Miro 4 6 6V, -6V+4V, =0 , -6V +10V, =0 wii) After solving equations (i) and (ii), we get V=17.87V, V, = 10.72 V The voltage across the 6 Q resistance is 10.72 V Ans. 16V =0l. "40 Basic Electrical end Electronics Engineering Prob.17. For the circuit shown in fig. 1.67, determine the curtent | through the 10 Qresistance by - () KCL (ii) KVL (iii) Superposition theorem. (R.GPK, Now. 2018) Fig. 1.67 Sol. (i) The given figure can be redrawn as shown in fig. 1.68. ‘As shown in the figure node (2) has been taken as the reference node, Now find the value of node voltage V,, sa @ 15a 1a 1 100 50 pf pg + “575 i) is 5 SOV 0.3667 V, = 16.667 / 16.667 _ @ bo. o YF O3667 =4545V Fig. 1.68 ! The current I through the 10 Q resistance is Vi-0 45.45 Ans. = = = 4.5454 i i 10 ie @) i Fig. 1.69 Let us consider mesh currents are I, and I, in two meshes. Apply the KVL in mesh 1, we get 51, + 100, -J,) = 50 51, + 101, — 101, = 50 @ y 15], - 10h, = 50 : Apply the KVL in mesh 2, we get 15], + 10(1, ~ 1,) = - 100 ' 151, + 101, ~ 101, = - 100 ~ 101, + 251 = ~ 100 7 or 101, ~ 251, = 100 li)D.C. Circuits 44 After solving equations (i) and (ii), we obtain 1, = 0,909 A and I, The current E through the 10 © resistance is T= 1) ~ 1) = 0,909 + 3.636 ~ 4.545 4 ae (iii) The simplified circuit sty t 188 diagram is shown in 1.70. According to superposition theorem, considering the voltage 50¥ source 50V alone and short circuiting the voltage source 100, as shown in Fig. 1.70 fig. 1.71 (@). Total resistance across SOV source is = 5, 10x15 o546=110 10+15 3.636 A Current supplied by the source, a i= 7p = 45a5a 10 Ip = 4.545 =1818A 2 “o+15 ih = 4545x135 =2.727 25 y 52 1sQ y + 4 sv wa Fig. 1.71 (a) Fig. 1.71 (b) ‘Now considering the voltage source 100V alone and short circuiting the voltage source 50V, as shown in fig. 1.71 (b). The total resistance across 100V source is 5x10 10 | = 15+— = 1833.0 5+10 a 2 Current supplied by the source, fe nee 2 ig ee 5 I's = 5.455x 10+5 The current I through the 10 © resistance is T= 1g = 15 +13 =2.727+ 1818 =4.5454 Ans. =1818A42 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Prob.28. Determine the value of current in 10 ohm resistor in the network shown aheed using star-delta transformations, 40 MQ 309 is0V Fig. 1.72 (R.GPK, June 2009) Sol. Given circuit can be simplified as shown in fig.1.73. Equivalent resistance of circuit Ra = (48/24) +4 +10 F = 24x48 14 = 16+ 14=300 } 24448 Total current drawn from source is I= =—=6 — 34Q 102 102 10.2 +h 180V 482 180 ¥ Fig. 1.73 Current flows through 10 © resistance can be calculated by using current dividing rule— 4a ann) x6A=4A Ans, eeUNIT 9 1-PHASE AND P| 3-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS | 1-PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS — GENERATION OF SINUSOIDAL A.C. | VOLTAGE, DEFINITION OF AVERAGE VALUE, R.M.S. VALUE, 5 FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR OF A.C. QUANTITY Q.1. Define the following — WAC. circuit (ii) A.C. voltage. Ans. (i) A.C. Circuit - The path for the flow of alternating current (A.C.) is known as A.C. circuits. In A.C. circuits, the opposition to the flow of current is due to resistance (R), inductance reactance X; and capacitance reactance X¢ of the circuit. In D.C. circuits, the opposition to the flow of current is only resistance of the circuit. Frequency is very important in A, c circuits. The currents and voltages are indicated with magnitude (ampliny, de) and direction (phasors) in these circuits. (ii) A.C. Voltage - A voltage that changes its polarity and magnitude at regular time intervals is known as A.C. voltage. 0.2. What is sinusoidal e.mf. ? How is it generated in a coil 2 Ans, When e.m.f, is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown in fig, 2.1 is obtained, This curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. Which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f- An alternating e.m.f, may be generated by rotating @ coil ina magn... be Z a stationary coil. Neti field or by rotating a magnetic field within Total e.m.f. generated in coil at time t= 2NBWv sinat, where B is the magnetic flux density (in Wb/m?), / isthe length of the coil side parallel to the axis (in metres), v is the linear velocity, c is the angular velocity of the coil, and N is the number of conductors. Fig. 2.1 Sinusoidal mf. Waves, ————— ee44 Basic Blectrical and Electronics Engineering Q.3. Explain the generation of sinusoidal A.C. voltage. Write its equation, Ans, Lot us assume a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform in the anti-clockwise The coil mov of a (in rad/sec). magnetic field as shown in fig. direction at constant angular veloc cee foe en Fig, 2.2 If the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero since the plane of the coil is paralle] to the direction of the magnetic field. Therefore at this position, an e.m-f. induced in the coil is zero. When the coil rotates by some angle in the anti-clockwise direction, there is a rate of change of flux linking the coil and therefore an e.m.f. is induced in the coil according to Faraday’s law. The flux linking the coil is maximum when the coil reaches the horizontal position and therefore an e.m.f. induced is also maximum. If the coil further rotates in the anti-clockwise direction, an e.m.f. induced in the coil decreases. Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, an e.m.f. induced becomes zero. After that the same cycle is repeated and an e.m.f. induced in the opposite direction. One cycle of A.C. voltage is generated, when the coil completes one complete revolution. Equation of Sinusoidal A.C. Voltage — Let us assume a rectangular coil of N tums placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown in fig. 2.3. Fig. 2.3 shows the maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction, This flux is divided into two components, one component acting along the plane of coil ¢,, sin wt and second component o acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ¢,, cos at. ‘The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. 4 Only the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil i.e. 4,, cos wt induces an e.m.f. in the coil. According to Faraday's law Fig. 23 ie it = $m cos wot] ...(j) d = oye qh coset] ——ae ee ee ee 1-phase and 3-phase A.C. Circuits 45 Nom(-sin cota) Non © sin ont Eqn Sin oot [ ‘Thus the e.m.f, induced in the coil is a sinusoidal ¢.m.f. As a results, a sinusoidal current in the circuit is given by the equation i= Im sin cot el ii) where, i= Instantaneous value of current in ampere Im = Maximum value of current in ampere c= Angular velocity in rad/sec, Q.4. Define the following terms ~ (i) Average value (R.GPY¥., June 2012, Dec. 2013) (ii) RMS. value (R.GRM, June 2012, Dec. 2013) (iii) Instantaneous value. Ans. (i) Average Value — The average value of an alternating current is expressed by that steady current, which transfers equal charge across a given circuit in equal amount of time as transferred by alternating current. Average value of current or voltage = 2x (Maximum value of current or voltage) Tt = 0.637 Im (ii) R.M.S. (Root Mean Square) Value — The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is defined by that steady (D.C.) current, which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current, when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. R.MLS, value of alternating current or voltage, _ Maximum value of alternating current or voltage v2 se = 0.707 In (iii) Instantaneous Value — The value of an alternating quantity at the time of consideration, which may have any value between zero to maximum depends on position of wave shape and phase angle. 0.5. What is difference between D.C. and A.C. ? Draw A.C. sine wave and define instantaneous value, average value and R.M.S. value of this A.C. sine wave. (R.GPK, May 2018) Ans, The difference between A.C. and D.C. are as follows —jucary of AC is 50 Hz Ter Gangeroes than | DC at same voltage ratings €@) | Diecion of current is not adicued m AC symbol. DC. is less ¢ voltage rating of Direction of current is indicates. D.C. symbol. er (current flows from -ve to +, It flows in one direction only, no phase change in D.C. D.C. transmission is costly. Alse refer the ans. of Q.2 and Q4. D4. Define the following terms — o Gude (RGPY, June 2) (ity Time period (RGPY,, June 0) (ix) Frequency. (R.GPM., June 27) Avs. Gy Ampliande Tae Tn poste egies wave of x siteramtine patty is incer 2s ampitade ‘| jie (@ Cycle ~ One Amplitede dt complete set of positive and Vines the Wave Star negative valnes of altercaing 4 quastzy & keown as exele. Fig. welt A cycle my aio be sometimes specified in terms of angular Mer” thet case one complete cycle is said to be spread over 360° or 25 (i Time Period — Tae taken complete one cycle by ah on quantity is kzsorwen as its time period (T), 20d is equal to inverse of frequ™ He 1 oars (=) Frequency - Nexshex of cycles per second is called the, which is Geen by fregnensy r= FN 1g where, f> Frequency, P= Nember of poles, N = Speed in rp. |e aC Crumts 7 tprase ond append ROE ' " a AL. wave ~ Q.7. Explain the following terms pertaining 10 47 (i) Time period (iy MLS, value i (iii) Average value fix) Form factor. (BGP Dee. 2017) (iti) Average Value — Refer the 2n (iv) Form Factor ~ Form factor of 2! satio of its r-m.s. value to average value of cul Fom f: RMS. value of current se ” ‘Average value of caren? For sine wave, ' RMS. value of current, |, «= 0-107 L, Average value of current, I, = 9.637 L, : 0707 I = 4,1). ‘Thus, form factor for sine wave = 0637 lg | 0.8. What do you understand by average value, nae mae om | factor and peak factor in A.C. circuit ? (RGPS., Nov. ; iy Ans. Average and RMS, Values ~ Refer the ans. of Q.4 (1) and (i) Form Factor — Refer the ans. of Q.7. Peak Factor - The ratio of maximum value to r.m.s. value of alternating current is known as peak factor. Maximum value of current R.M.S. value of current Peak factor is also known as crest factor ot amplitude factor. Peak factor = For a sine wave, peak factor = tee = 7 = 1414 Iq ¥2 In dielectric insulation testing. knowledge of crest factor is important because the dielectric stress to which the insulation is subjected, is proportional to the maximum or peak value of the applied voltage. When measuring iron losses knowledge of crest factor is also necessary because the iron loss depends on the value of maximum flux. 9. Define the following - (i) RMS. value (ii) Form factor (ili) Peak factor (iv) Time period (v) Frequency. [R.GPV., Nov. 2018(0)]a 48. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering | Ans, (i) RMS. Value — Refer the ans. of Q.4 (ii). (ii) Form Factor — Refer the ans. of Q.7 (iv). | (iii) Peak Factor ~ Refer the ans. of Q.8. 1 (iv) Time Period — Refer the ans. of Q.6 (iii). (vy) Frequency — Refer the ans. of Q.6 (iv). Q.10. What do you mean by phase difference ? Ans, Consider two sinusoidal waveforms, one voltage and one current V= Vin cos (ot + a) (i) I=], cos (wt + B) (il) where V,, and Ip are maximum or peak values of voltage and current respectively. These waveforms are sketched in fig. 2.5 with the assumption p 2 Ans. ly 25 and Peak factor = —™ Ans. rms. Prob.3. Calculate the average and effective values of the waveform shown in fig. 2.8. Hence find the form factor. 5 (in sec) Fig. 2.8 [R.GPV., Nov. 2018(0)]Gat He, T° d ee ; vo! [eave sofa } Eo Po cmao * anil 0-002) | = ={50- 5] « 7" 1-0 tn AALS. value gre by I tlete Ps ent Va Vins “jib a+ (-St) a ; jesm-0e2s2-1 abe . a " 1300 =50V Ans, Viet 5) Form fans = = Ans, A)nd pprane AC t phan anit Fe Draw 9 line OA of length equal t |. ‘This fine GA rotates in the anti-clock derovtion at a constant angular veloc (in rad/ve¢.) and follows the circular - trajectory shown in fig. 2.10. At any instant tL J the projection of OA on the y-axit is giver state by OB = OA cin 0 = |, sin wt. Therefore. the line OA is the phasor representation of Fig. 2.10 Phase Representation the sinusoidal current 0.13. Discuss mathematical representation of, phasors Ans. The mathematical representation of phasor of three form (i) Rectangular Form ~ Rectans ethod 8 ai calle notation, In this method, the phasor is resolved into horizontal vertical component. Phasor can be expressed in the complex form Vextisy Magnitude of phasor, v Its angle with OX-axis, tan“! (y/x) ‘When angle 0 is negative, then Vrx-iy «fii) Trigonometrical Form — \n this method, the horizontal component and vertical component of the phasor can be expressed in the trigonomnetncal form. For example, horizontal and vertical components are given below ~ x= Vos 0 and y=Vsin® * Vy =xtjy=V cos 0+jV sin ® = V(cos 0 + j sin 8) When angle 0 is negative, then V =V (cos 0 —j sin 8) (iii) Polar Form — A polar form is a short form of trigonometrical Tepresentation of a phasor. It is given by Vv = vce ‘When angle 0 is negative, then V=vz-0 “Hence, one form is converted into the other form rapidly as per the Seqatement to speed up the calculations.“a 54 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Q.14. Explain the concept of phasor and vector. Ans, Vector is a multidimensional quantity it contains both magni, direction, Phasoris a two dimensional vector and it is used in electrical techy" that relates to voltage and current. The sinusoidal currents and voltages can) represented by phasors. A phasor is a vector rotating at 4 COnstANL ayy velocity. In this case, the constant angular velocity is @ and itis also knoyq, the frequency of sinusoid. Consider a voltage wave in the form — 4 v= Vpqcos (wt +0) of v= ¥2Vcos (ot + 8) 4 um) value and V is root mean square (r.m.s,) val of the voltage. The voltage, V can be represented as the real part of a comple function that is we can write the expression in the form — v= Rd Vie! int) ‘a v- re (ve (VF e*)] wi ‘The complex function in equation (iv) broken up into two parts such asi first part V 6!9is a complex constant and the second part /2 oil implies rotatio: at angular velocity, «. This second part is the same for all sinusoid voltages an currents in a particular problem and need not be written. This is not require becauseall voltages and currents ina particular problem are to the same frequenc, The phasor V,, js rotating at angular velocity w and its horizontal projection is V,, Cos («wt + 6). Itis observed that the vertical projection of the phasor is V,, sin (ot +6+1/2) which is equal to horizontal projection of V,,cos (wt + 0) atall instants of time thatisa, =ap. Note thatthecosine variationistheprojection Fig. 2.11 Projections of Phase ofaradial line of length V,,, on the X-axis Vin oJ ¢+ O on X-axis and as seen in fig, 2.11. Vey eliettO+n/2) oy Y-axis where, Vi, is peak (maxim Therefore, we can write the functi i jnews HOLE; ft nction as a sinewave or a cosine" eve ae being the phase difference of x/2, For a sinusoid 7 ela luc the most important value it is used in all phasor diag a he een wo positions of phasor is the phase difference bel™, peas pein on the cosine function. If a voltage or curre” ‘ ‘ine and it will be ir g omits ill be changed to a cosine by subtracting1-phase and 3-phase A.C. Circuits 55 0.15. Write down the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of phasor quantities. Ans Addition - For addition and subtraction, the rectangular form is the pest suited. Hence, if the phasor quantities are given in polar form, they are first converted into rectangular form and then added or subtracted. Let us assume two voltage phasors are given below — YWaxntiy od) and Vp =%2-J¥2 (ii) For this case, horizontal components and vertical components are added " separately as given below — V=Vi+V> =x +jyitx2-jy2 = (x, + x2) +j (¥) — Ya) Resultant magnitude is, V= V(x x2)? + (91-2)? = tan7!| 41-¥2) (x1 +X2) and angle 6 is, Subtraction — Subtraction is similar to addition. Let us consider phasor V, is subtracted from phasor Vj. v=V¥-\ =x ti Xt) y2= 01 -%) F451 + ¥2) Resultant magnitude is, V= x, -x3)? #01 #92 e= wor 1] (xy — x2) Multiplication — For multiplication and division, the polar form is the best suited, Therefore, if the phasor quantities are given in rectangular form, ‘hey are first converted into polar form. Let us assume two voltage phasors are given below — and angle 6 is, Vax tin=Vi 28 | Vy =m iy 2% iv) From equations (iii) and (iv), multiply their magnitudes and add their angles, Vy x Vg = Vp 28) * Vz Z- 02 = ViV2 28) - 02)56 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering Division — From equations (iii) and (iv), divide their magnitudes ay subtract their angles. ; < vi vi IA 1 yo, -(-0))= = 2(0) +0, % % he = Z(0) +03) 2 0.16. Define the power factor. (R.G PV, June 2011, Dec. 2012, 2013, Or Define and explain power factor. Ans. Power factor is the cosine of the angle between the applied voltag. and resultant current flowing through the circuit, where waveform of vollag and current follow sine wave shape. Power factor of the circuit can be calculated as — (i) Cosine of the angle of lead or lag. Gi) From ratio of resistance and impedance. (ii) From ratio of active power and apparent power. “The power factor for an inductive circuit is always lagging is always leading for a capacitive circuit”. Q.17. Explain the meaning and significance of the power: factor oft (R.GBV, Dec. 2015 (RGPV, June 201%, whereas it circuit. ‘Ans. Meaning — Refer the ans. of Q.16. ee : ‘Significance of the Power Factor ~ The power factor of an AG, circui plays an important role in the power system. Hence power of an A.C. circuit can be expressed as - P= Vi cos > P oF Veosd au From equation (i), it should be noted that for a fixed power at constant voltage, the current represented by the circuit rises with reduce in power factor. Therefore, at low power factor, A.C. circuits draw much more current from their mains. The main disadvantages of low power factor are — () Poor Efficiency - The conductors have to carry higher current that increases copper losses at Jow power factors. As a result, efficiency is poor. (ii) Higher Conductor Size - Conductors are to carry large curren! for same power at low power factors. Thus they need higher cross-section area. (iii) Larger kVA Rating of Equipment — At lower pf, the kVA rating XM of equipment and electrical machines connected in the power system like | ee Ee ed