Lecture 30

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

1 November 2022

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The Hall-Petch equation

Data for brass (Cu70Zn30 alloy).

𝒚 is the yield strength of a

polycrystalline metal (MN m−2).
𝒐 is the strength at “infinite” grain size,
i.e. single crystal! (MN m−2).
k is the Hall Petch constant. This
decides the magnitude of strengthening
in various materials. (MN m−3/2).
d is the average grain diameter (m).

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 Solid solution strengthening

• Solid solutions typically

contain solute atoms having
a different atomic radius
than the host atom.
• This can induce
• either tensile strains in the
lattice, for smaller solute
atoms.
Or
• Compressive strains in the
lattice, for larger solute
atoms.

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Interaction of solute atoms with dislocations

• For an edge dislocation,

lattice strain is compressive
adjacent to the dislocation
line and above the slip
plane.
• Lattice strain is tensile
below the slip plane.
• Hence, solute atoms diffuse
to and segregate around
dislocation lines in an effort
to minimise the total lattice
strain.

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Interaction of solute atoms with dislocations

Larger solute atoms will

Smaller solute atoms will
tend to segregate close to the tend to segregate close
dislocation, but above the slip to the dislocation, but
plane (opposing strains). below the slip plane
(opposing strains).

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So how does solid solution strengthening work?

• Solute atoms and dislocations are thus happily engaged so as

to reduce the total lattice strain.
• Any attempt to move the dislocation means an increase in the
total lattice strain.
• Also, the same solute atom-dislocation interactions hold good
even for a moving dislocation. That is, solute atoms tend to
segregate to moving dislocations.
• Hence more stress is needed to initiate and then sustain plastic
deformation.

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Data for Cu-Ni solid solution alloys

• Increasing solute
content increases
strength (yield as well
as UTS), but reduces
ductility. Naturally?
• Think how atomic
size would affect
these results.

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Effect of solute atom size

• For the same solute

content, a larger
mismatch between host
and solute atoms will
yield greater
strengthening.

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Strain hardening

• Why does the engineering D

stress increase beyond
the yield point?
• What happens if we stop
the test at pt. D, unload
the sample, and then re-
start the tensile test?
• Will the yield point remain
the same as the virgin
material, or will it
increase, or decrease?

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• A specimen that is
interrupted at pt. D
and retested shows
an increased yield
strength.
• This increase in
yield strength of the
deformed material
compared to the
undeformed alloy is
called strain
hardening, or work
hardening.

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And why is that?
• Plastic deformation increases the number of dislocations in a
material.
• The dislocation-dislocation interactions lead to more
impediments to their motion.
• This increases the stress required to cause deformation through
the motion of dislocations.
• The result is work hardening.

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The concept of dislocation density, ρ

Dislocation density = total length of dislocation lines/volume, m per m3

Also defined as the number of dislocation lines intersecting a surface per unit area (lines per m2)

Low dislocation density, ρ High dislocation density, ρ

Well annealed crystals: ρ = 108 to 1010 m−2

Work hardened crystals, ρ = 1010 to 1016 m−2
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The work hardening equation

where
= shear stress to move a dislocation in a matrix of dislocation
density ρ
= shear stress needed to move a dislocation in the absence of
other dislocations in the matrix.
A is a constant.

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Data showing work hardening

• Increasing degree of
cold work
(percentage strain)
increases yield
strength and UTS.
• But reduces ductility,
again emphasizing
the strength-ductility
trade-off in
engineering
materials.

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Practical examples

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