Ebook

The Architect’s Guide to Reducing

Embodied Carbon through Life
Cycle Assessment
Strategies, Indicators and Circular
Economy Impacts
2 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

With the growing consciousness about

the environmental impact of the built
environment, there is an emerging
focus on Reducing Embodied Carbon
(REC). This serves as a crucial strategy
for architects aiming for sustainable
designs. In our quest to move towards
a more sustainable and circular
economy, understanding the life cycle
of architectural projects is now more
critical than ever. In this first section of
our eBook, let’s dive in to understand the
concept of Circularity Criteria and how
these contribute to an effective life cycle
strategy.

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3 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
Understanding Circularity
Criteria
Circularity Criteria, simply put, is a set of
guidelines or standards that attempts to
transform our linear economy (take-make-
waste) into a circular one where waste is
minimized and resources are continually re-
used. As an architect, it’s crucial that your
designs reflect these standards to align
with sustainable practices.
The criteria is built on three main levels:
Material Level, Product Level, and System
Level, each representing a stage in the
life cycle of an architecture project. They
provide a holistic approach for architects
to incorporate circularity in their designs,
thereby Reducing Embodied Carbon (REC).
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• Material Level: This level focuses on
the choice of materials. Sustainable By understanding and abiding by these
and recyclable materials should be the Circularity Criteria (Levels), architects
architect’s first choice. are able to add immense value to their
projects while significantly contributing to
• Product Level: Here, the strategy
a more circular economy. In the following
revolves around the design of
sections, we will explore how these
architectural components and how
criteria interact with the implementation
they can be efficiently assembled and
of RCE life cycle analysis and strategies
disassembled for reuse.
for reducing embodied carbon.
• System Level: This level emphasizes
integrating all components into a
circular system, considering both
the architectural project and the Source: Building Circularity Assessment in the Architecture,
surrounding environment. Engineering, and Construction Industry - Information Systems
in the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology.
4 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

The Importance of Reducing
Embodied Carbon
The sustainability of the architectural
sector is dependent not only on the
operational carbon emissions, but also on
the embodied carbon emissions associated
with the manufacturing, transportation,
construction, and disposal of building
materials. Reducing Embodied Carbon
(REC) is a revolutionary approach to
making architecture more sustainable. But
why is it so important?
Embodied carbon refers to the greenhouse
gas emissions that are generated
throughout the lifecycle of a building
material, from extraction, to manufacture,
to disposal. Because of how heavily the
construction industry relies on carbon-
intensive materials like steel and concrete,
REC has become a significant part of any
building’s carbon footprint.
Digging Deeper into Reducing
Embodied Carbon
Understanding the sources of embodied
carbon is the first step in reducing it.
This begins with understanding the life
cycle of building materials. Much of the
carbon emission is a product of energy-
intensive manufacturing processes. These
include the significant emissions from
extracting raw materials and converting
them into construction products. However,
transportation and construction stages
also contribute to a building’s embodied
carbon.
Apart from the manufacturing process,
the design choices architects make also
influence the amount of embodied carbon
in a building. For instance, overdesigning
can lead to unnecessary material usage
and subsequently, higher embodied
carbon emissions.
Lastly, the end-of-life stage of a material
adds another layer of complexity. When
a building is demolished, its materials
often end up in a landfill, where they
break down and generate emissions.
By considering the reuse or recycling of
materials at the design stage, architects
can significantly reduce the embodied
carbon emissions associated with the
end-of-life stage of a building.
Source: akila3d.com/

Consider this: even if you could design

a building to generate zero operational
emissions, it would still contribute a
significant amount of carbon to the
atmosphere due to the embodied carbon
of its construction materials. Therefore,
reducing embodied carbon in architecture
is crucial to achieving true carbon-neutral
buildings.

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5 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Case for Reducing Embodied Carbon

In the face of the ongoing climate crisis,

reducing embodied carbon isn’t just an
environmental imperative—it’s a financial
one as well. Regulations for carbon
emissions are growing stricter, and
architecture firms that fail to adapt risk
facing regulatory penalties.

Further, as clients and the public become

more informed about the environmental
impact of buildings, there is growing
demand for carbon-efficient designs. By
focusing on reducing embodied carbon,
architects can stand out in the market by
offering genuinely sustainable designs.

Reducing embodied carbon also presents

an opportunity to innovate and discover
new ways of doing things. For example,
exploring alternative, low-carbon materials
and construction methods can help in
creating a building that’s not just eco-
friendly, but also unique and aesthetically
pleasing.

So, as you can see, the drive towards

Reducing Embodied Carbon is not just
about protecting our planet, it’s also about
driving forward an industry and adapting
to the architectural needs of the future.
Source: MDPI

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6
What is Life Cycle
Assessment and Why is
it Crucial for Architects?
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic
approach that evaluates the environmental
aspects and potential impact associated
with a product, service or process. It does
so by analyzing the entire lifecycle from
raw material extraction through materials
processing, manufacturing, distribution,
usage, repair, maintenance, and disposal
or recycling. Often referred to as a
“cradle-to-grave” approach, LCA gives a
comprehensive view of the environmental
impacts resulting from all stages of a
product’s life cycle.
Note: As architects, understanding
LCA is just one tool in your sustainable
design toolkit. Remember that producing
environmentally friendly designs will take
a combination of many strategies, tools,
and approaches.
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So, why is this crucial to you as an
architect?
• Environmental Accountability: Architects
play a pivotal role in the building
industry, a sector which contributes
significantly to global carbon emissions.
Having a thorough understanding of
LCA allows you to take accountability
by designing structures that create less
environmental impact.
• Compliance and Recognition:
Legislation is evolving to recognize the
importance of sustainable building
practices. Utilizing LCA can aid in
achieving certifications such as LEED
and BREEAM, which offers greater
recognition and approval for your
projects.
• Client Appeal: Clients are increasingly
demanding eco-friendly buildings.
Being equipped with knowledge of LCA
allows architects to meet this demand
with accurate, quantifiable information
about the environmental impact of their
designs.
• Sustainable Materials: LCA helps in
the mindful selection and usage of
construction materials, catering to the
designing of a structure with a lower
carbon footprint.
7 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Mastering the LCA:

Getting Started
Starting with LCA may initially seem
complex, but breaking it down into stages
can simplify the process. The crucial stages
are:

1. Goal and Scope Definition - Identify and

define the purpose of the LCA.

2. Inventory Analysis - Catalog all relevant

inputs and outputs of the system.

3. Impact Assessment - Evaluate potential

environmental effects of the collected
data.

4. Interpretation - Evaluate, summarize, and

communicate the results.

By using LCA as a guide, you can pave the

path for sustainable architecture, bringing
about a positive change in the world while
achieving great strides in your architectural
Source: Browning Day
practice.

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8 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
Circular Economy and its
Impacts on Carbon Reduction:
A Comprehensive Overview
Every journey starts with a single step,
and in our quest to reduce embodied
carbon (REC), the Circular Economy
plays a frontline role. By rethinking our
approaches, adopting conscientious
practices, and reshaping the way we use
resources, the Circular Economy empowers
us to mitigate the environmental impacts
of our activities effectively.
At its core, the Circular Economy promotes
the reduction of waste and the continuous
use of resources. It strives to shift away
from the traditional linear model of
“take-make-waste”, and move towards
an innovative approach where resources
are not depleted but repeatedly used,
repaired, and recycled.
But why does this matter to architects?
Architecture has an undeniable impact on
our environment. Therefore, it is crucial for
architects to understand the principles of
the Circular Economy and how they can
design and build in a way that reduces
embodied carbon. This not only results in
environmentally friendly buildings, but can
also save costs and increase a building’s
value.
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How does a Circular Economy Impact
Carbon Reduction?
Let’s dive into some aspects of how the
Circular Economy helps bring REC into
practice:
Resource Efficiency: By optimizing the use
of resources, architects can significantly
minimize waste production, leading to a
substantial reduction in the embodied
carbon of the buildings.
Material Reutilization and Waste
Minimization: Adopting design strategies
that promote reusability and recyclability
of materials is another effective way to
aim for zero waste, ultimately reducing the
embodied carbon.
Longevity: An essential aspect of circular
construction is designing buildings for
longevity. This not only reduces the need
for new construction but also lessens
the carbon footprint as there will be less
demand for new raw materials, reducing
emissions.
Let’s illustrate this with an example.
Consider an office building. Under the
traditional linear model, resources are
extracted, a building is constructed,
used for several years, then demolished,
and new materials are extracted for
a new building. But, if the building’s
design takes into account the
principles of the Circular Economy, the
components of the old building could
be reused or refurbished in the new one,
reducing the need for new materials and
thus, the carbon footprint.
As architects and designers, it is our
shared duty to fulfill the potential of
REC in the architectural sector and
help pave the way for a circular future,
a future where buildings and cities are
carbon-neutral. Let’s work together to
build healthy, resilient societies, with the
Circular Economy leading the way.
9 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
Exploring RCE Life Cycle
Analysis: Techniques and
Benefits
When we talk about Reducing Embodied
Carbon (RCE), we refer to the systematic
effort to lessen the carbon output created
during the production of raw materials
and the construction process. A key tool
in any architect’s sustainable design
arsenal for achieving this is Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA), especially when it’s
applied with a focus on RCE. This provides
a comprehensive overview of the potential
environmental impacts associated with all
the stages of a product’s life, from sourcing
to disposal, also known as the ‘cradle to
grave’ approach.
Using LCA analysis in the context of
RCE helps architects understand and
tally the ‘carbon cost’ of their projects –
everything from the energy consumed by
manufacturing processes, to the impacts
of transportation and eventual waste.
By understanding this cumulative effect,
it is possible to make intelligent design
decisions that lessen the overall carbon
footprint.
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Now, let’s explore the primary techniques
involved in RCE life cycle analysis and their
subsequent benefits:
1. Materials Assessment: This involves
a comprehensive investigation of the
carbon footprints of different building
materials. Architects consider the
energy required to produce these
materials, transport them to the site,
sustain them during the building’s
lifetime, and decompose them post-
use.
2. Process Analysis: A thorough process
analysis evaluates all construction
activities for their carbon output. It
includes everything from the energy
consumption of construction machinery
to the fuel used by workers commuting
to the site.
3. Operation and Maintenance Evaluation:
This calculation assesses the carbon
produced during the life of the building.
It includes heating, cooling, lighting -
essentially everything that keeps the
building functional and comfortable for
its inhabitants.
4. End-of-Life Assessment: The final
stage concerns the building’s eventual
demise, a phase often ignored in
traditional architectural practices but
essential for a comprehensive RCE life
cycle analysis. It includes the carbon
produced during demolition and the
process of either disposing or recycling
the resulting materials.
The beauty of these techniques
lies in their detail and
comprehensiveness. They allow
architects to consider aspects
of building design that may have
otherwise been neglected.
10 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Furthermore, the benefits are plentiful and
accumulate over time:
• Better Decision Making: Understanding
the carbon impact of materials and
processes empowers architects to make
better, informed decisions.
In essence, integrating RCE life cycle as-
sessment into architectural processes not
only makes economic sense but also ensu-
res a sustainable future. Remember, every
decision counts when it’s about preserving
our planet!

• Long Term Cost Efficiency: Although

sustainable materials and practices
might seem more expensive initially, they
often result in long-term cost savings,
mainly through decreased energy and
resource demand.
Source: rmi.org

• Improved Reputation: As the world

becomes more environmentally
conscious, buildings with low embodied
carbon become more appealing to
clients and users, enhancing the
architect’s reputation and market value.

• Preservation of Natural Resources:

By choosing lower-carbon options,
architects are actively contributing to the
preservation of natural resources.

• Legislation Compliance: More and

more jurisdictions are implementing
regulations that mandate an extent of
RCE in new construction. Being versed
in RCE LCA can ensure compliance with
these regulations, avoiding potential
fines and delays.

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11
Improving Strategies:
Architectural Approaches to
Reducing Embodied Carbon
As an architect, your role in reducing
embodied carbon cannot be overstated. By
adopting effective architectural strategies,
you have the power to drastically decrease
the environmental impact of your projects.
Before we dive into the exploration of
these strategies, let’s first reiterate why
this matters in today’s world.
Why the need to Reduce Embodied
Carbon (REC)?
Every action in the construction process
exhibits an environmental footprint.
From the extraction of raw materials,
transportation, and assembly of
building components, there’s always a
consequential carbon footprint. REC is
pertinent in the early stages of a project,
contributing hugely to global greenhouse
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The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
gas emissions. Therefore, its reduction is
crucial in our quest to decarbonize the built
environment.
Consideration of Materials
Everything begins with the material
selection. As an architect, it’s essential
to understand that every material has
its embodied carbon footprint. Prioritize
using low embodied carbon materials
like bamboo, timber, or recycled steel.
Where possible, reduce material usage by
exploring new architectural designs and
methods that require fewer resources.
Modular Construction
Designed off-site then transported for
on-site assembly, modular constructions
significantly reduce construction
waste, transport emissions, and energy
consumption compared to traditional
building methods. Plus, they speed up the
construction process, potentially saving
costs.
Design for Disassembly (DfD)
DfD is a design strategy that considers
the future adaptation or dismantling of
a building. This approach prolongs a
building’s life cycle and facilitates building
components’ reuse, hence lowering the
overall embodied carbon.
Use of Renewable Energy Sources
Diversifying the energy mix of a building
by incorporating renewable energy sources
like solar, wind, or geothermal energy
not only reduces operational carbon but
can indirectly reduce embodied carbon
within the power sector, making it another
fantastic strategy.
In conclusion, the strategies to reduce
embodied carbon are many and varied. The
call here is for architects to lead the charge
by transforming the way they approach
building design to incorporate these
strategies. After all, as architects, we shape
the buildings. Let’s also shape a better, less
carbon-intensive future.
12
Key Considerations for
Reducing Embodied Carbon
at Different Stages of the
Life Cycle
As an architect, it’s vital to recognize that
reducing embodied carbon is a holistic
process—it occurs at distinct phases of
a building’s life cycle. Let’s explore some
strategies for decreasing embodied carbon
at each stage:
• Planning and Design: This stage offers
the most leeway to influence embodied
carbon in a project. Thoughtful design
of the building’s form, orientation,
and material palette can significantly
reduce energy use and thus embodied
carbon. For instance, designing compact
forms reduces surface areas and,
consequently, heat loss and overall
embodied carbon. Additionally, choosing
carbon-sequestering materials or those
with lower embodied energy helps
curtail carbon emissions.
• Construction: By opting for lean
construction methods, like prefabrication
or off-site construction, you minimize
on-site wastage, thereby lowering
embodied carbon. Furthermore, using
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The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
equipment powered by renewable Each stage presents different challenges
energy instead of fossil fuels helps to and opportunities, but with informed
reduce the embodied carbon associated decisions and strategic approaches,
with the construction process. architects can significantly reduce the
embodied carbon throughout a building’s
• Operation: This stage is predominantly
life cycle. Remember, it’s not just about
about devising means to reduce
the initial construction but the entire life
operational energy, which in turn
of a building, from its birth to its eventual
affects embodied energy significantly.
deconstruction.
Implementing efficient building systems,
utilizing renewable energy, and ensuring
regular preventive maintenance can help
to control operational carbon over time.
• End of life: Here, the goal is to minimize
waste and maximize material recovery
to extend a product’s functional life.
Reusing, recycling, and adopting Design
for Disassembly (DfD) guidelines are
key approaches to lowering embodied
carbon at this stage. Where demolition
is inevitable, materials can be recovered
for reuse or recycling to keep them in
the circular economy and to prevent
unnecessary embodied carbon from
waste disposal.
13 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Source: cima.ca

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14 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
Exploring the Nexus of Cost
and Carbon Reduction in
Architectural Projects
Embodied Carbon reduction undeniably
plays a crucial role in creating a sustainable
future, and architects wield a significant
level of control over this metric within the
built environment. However, architects
also must navigate the financial
realities of construction projects. Thus,
understanding the relationship between
cost and embodied carbon reduction is
fundamentally essential for architects to
balance both effectively.
COST
Materials and technologies
impacting initial investments
Maintenance costs over the
building’s lifecycle
Savings from reduced energy
consumption
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In light of this, it becomes clear that
decisions made to reduce embodied
carbon can often lead to significant
cost savings over the building’s lifespan.
Referred to as “life cycle costing,”
this approach considers not only the
initial expenses related to design and
construction but also the long-term
operating, maintenance, and eventual
disposal costs. Considering these costs
from the outset of project planning can
result in substantial reductions of both
cost and carbon.
EMBODIED CARBON REDUCTION
Choice of low carbon materials
and energy-efficient technologies
Enhancement of durability, adaptability
by designing for a longer lifespan
Efficient use of resources and application
of renewable energy solutions
15 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Cost-Effective Strategies for

Reducing Embodied Carbon
Here, we present several strategies honed
to offer the best of both worlds - cost
efficiency and embodied carbon reduction.

• Material Selection: Selection of low

embodied carbon materials can also
provide cost savings, as they often are
resource efficient, requiring fewer raw
materials, and promote longer life spans
or even the potential for reuse.

• Design Optimization: Efficient design

can save substantial costs, especially
when reducing, reusing, and recycling
building components are part of design
strategies.

• Energy Efficiency: Investing in energy-

efficient designs can lead to savings in
operational costs, providing a return on Adopting a long-term perspective to
investment that offsets any related initial cost and embodied carbon can harness
costs. these principles to achieve a win-
win situation for architects, project
• Asset Recycling: Reusing existing stakeholders, and the environment.
building structures can save on both Remember, a project viewed as costly
construction costs and carbon compared today due to its embodied carbon
to building new. reduction strategies may very well
prove to be a cost-efficient investment
in the long run.

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16
Closing Thoughts: Embracing
a Sustainable Future with Life
Cycle Assessment and Circular
Economy
Adapting our architectural practices to
incorporate the principles of Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) and the circular
economy is not merely a trend, but a
necessity. Sustainability isn’t just a
fashionable buzzword; it’s intrinsic to the
future of architecture and the livelihood of
our planet. As architects, the decisions we
make now will shape our world for decades
to come. Therefore, it’s our duty to make
informed decisions that reduce embodied
carbon and support circularity.
While this guidance covers a wide range
of information, it’s not all-encompassing.
Every building project is unique and will
face its individual challenges. However,
by understanding the principles of LCA,
the circular economy, and embarking on
the journey towards reducing embodied
carbon (REC), we can begin to design
and construct buildings that are not
only beautiful but also environmentally
responsible.
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The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment
Reducing Embodied Carbon (REC)
is central to a project’s sustainability
impact, not just for today, but for future
generations. This shift requires a new
approach to the way we plan, design, build,
and maintain our structures. As architects,
we are in a unique position to influence
and drive this change. By being aware of
the implications of our decisions, and by
employing more sustainable materials
and practices, we contribute to the overall
societal goal of reducing carbon emissions.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), an analytical
method used to evaluate and decrease the
environmental impact of structures over
their entire life cycle, provides insight that
can significantly help alleviate the carbon
footprint of our works. Using this data-
driven approach gives us a realistic picture
of what the total environmental impact of
our building is, beyond the energy it uses
or the waste it produces.
Implementing the principles of a Circular
Economy in architecture further boosts
our endeavors to reduce embodied
carbon. A shift from a linear (“take-make-
dispose”) model to a circular one can
drastically enhance resource efficiency and
minimize environmental impact. A circular
economy approach in architecture means
designing buildings in a way they can be
deconstructed and recycled, minimizing
waste and continually reusing resources.
Will it be easy? Probably not. Will it
be worth it? Absolutely. Each step we
take towards a more sustainable future
counts, and it’s within our grasp to shape
a future where architecture is not just
visually appealing but also respectful of
Mother Earth. We have the knowledge,
tools, and incentive to reduce embodied
carbon in our architecture - all we need
is the commitment. So, architects, let’s
collectively take the leap.
17
Reducing Embodied Carbon
through Life Cycle Assessment:
3 real-world examples
One of the best ways to truly grasp the
concept of Reducing Embodied Carbon
(REC) through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
is by considering real-world examples. This
section will highlight three architectural
projects that have successfully integrated
REC principles, giving you tangible
evidence of how REC can positively impact
the architectural industry.
Example 1: Bullitt Center - Seattle, USA
Recognized as one of the greenest
commercial buildings in the world, the
Bullitt Center aimed to have as minimal
an environmental impact as possible.
Considerations were made at all stages
of the LCA, including material sourcing,
construction phase, operational phase, and
ultimate deconstruction.
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• Material Sourcing: Sought locally
sourced materials, reducing
carbon emissions associated with
transportation.
• Construction: Applied green
construction methods, reducing on-site
emissions.
• Operational Phase: Designed for
net-zero energy usage; incorporated
renewable energy systems, including a
244 kW solar array.
• Deconstruction: Planned for
deconstruction from the onset, allowing
materials to be reused or recycled,
further reducing embodied carbon.
Source: Bullitt Center
18 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Example 2: Powerhouse Brattørkaia -

Trondheim, Norway
This office building in Norway stands as
a monument to scaled energy-positive
construction. It demonstrates that REC
isn’t just limited to small projects. The
building generates more energy than it
consumes, making it a standout case for
reducing embodied carbon.

• Material Sourcing: Considered materials

in terms of their sources and embodied
carbon contents. The structure primarily
uses low carbon concrete.

• Construction: Waste was sorted and

recycled on site to minimize CO2-
intensive transportation.

• Operational Phase: It’s covered in solar

panels that supply the grid with extra
energy. The building’s energy use is also
minimized through effective insulation
and heat recovery systems.

• End-of-Life phase: A long building

lifespan was targeted through high-
quality construction and a design
that allows for easy maintenance and
refurbishment.

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Source: snohetta
19 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Example 3: Morris & Co - London, United

Kingdom
This firm leads by example with their own head
office in London, a prime example of renovation
over demolition. The project is a powerful case
for how interventions in existing buildings can
substantially reduce embodied carbon levels.

• Material Sourcing: Instead of sourcing new

materials for construction, the project focused
on rehabilitating existing materials within the
structure.

• Construction: Minimized construction waste by

careful planning and retaining a majority of the
building’s structure.

• Operational Phase: Retrofitted the building with

energy-efficient systems to reduce operational
emissions.

• End-of-Life phase: The old structural elements

retrofitted have an extended lifespan due to
reuse, delaying their entrance into the waste
stream.

Each of these embodiments brings to light the

power of reducing embodied carbon through
thoughtful application of LCA. Despite their
differences, the common thread running through
them is a commitment to minimizing environmental
impact at every stage of the building’s lifecycle.
They stand as inspiring examples of how REC
principles can be utilized, regardless of project
scale or location.

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Source: archdaily
20 The Architect’s Guide to Reducing Embodied Carbon through Life Cycle Assessment

Sources
• Architecture 2030. (2019). The 2050
Imperative. Architecture2030.org

• NBS. (2020). How to Reduce Embodied

Carbon. Thenbs.com

• United Nations. (2020). Circular Economy

Strategies Would Tip Balance in Battle
Against Dangerous Climate Change.
Unenvironment.org

• World Green Building Council. (2019).

Bringing Embodied Carbon Upfront.
Worldgbc.org

• LCA Commons. (2020). Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA). Lifecycleinitiative.org

• McLennan, J.F. (2012). The Philosophy

of Sustainable Design: The Future of
Architecture. Ecosmartworld.com

• European Commission. (2020). A New

Circular Economy Action Plan. Ec.europa.
eu

• BREEAM. (2020). Understanding Life

Cycle Assessment. Breeam.com

• The Living Building Challenge. (2013).

Reducing Embodied Carbon in Buildings.
Living-future.org

• PCA. (2020). The Role of Concrete in

Global Carbon Reduction. Cement.org

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Postgraduate Programme
in Sustainable Architecture
and Construction

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