WEEK 2: ACIDS

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
i. Explain what is meant by acids.
ii. Describe characteristics that are associated with acids.
iii. Explain the difference between strong acids and weak acids.
iv. Define the basicity of an acid.
v. Preparation of acid
vi. Demonstrate how to use litmus paper to test for an acid.

ACIDS
An acid is a substance which dissociate in water/solvent to give hydrogen ions as
the only positive ion.
Acids in solution: Water, which is a polar solvent, must be present in acid (or
base) in order to facilitate the dissociation of hydrogen ions (or the hydroxide ions
of a base), and thus ensure the acidity of an acid (or the basicity of a base) in
solutions.
When HCl gas is dissolved in water to give hydrochloric acid, the solution will
conduct current and also turn blue litmus paper to red because the molecules of
HCl gas dissociate into mobile ions in water which is a polar solvent. The mobile
ions will make the solution to conduct current while the H + will make it to turn
blue litmus paper to red.
In aqueous solution, the H+ formed during the ionization of acids combines with
the water molecules to form hydroxonium/oxonium/hydronium ion, H 3O+
H+(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq)
Therefore an acid can also be defined as a substance which in aqueous solution
produces hydroxonium ion as the only positive ion. E.g.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
During neutralization, an hydronium ion reacts with an hydroxide ion to produce
water.
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)

Classification of acids
A. Based on the source of acids
 1. Organic acids: These are naturally occurring acids. They occur as natural
products in plant (mostly in fruits) or animal materials. They are usually
weak acids. Examples include:

S/ Organic acids Source

No
1. Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) Vinegar
2. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) Orange
3. Ethanedioic acid (H2C2O4) Cocoyam
4. Tartaric acid Grapes and lemon
5. Methanoic acid (HCOOH) Ants
6. Fatty acids Fats
7. Citric acid (C5H7O4COOH) Citrus fruits
8. Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) Palm oil
9. Lactic acid (C2H5OCOOH) Sour milk
10. Amino acid Protein

2. Inorganic/mineral acids: These are acids that are

synthesized/manufactured in the laboratory. They are prepared from
mineral or inorganic matter. Examples are hydrochloric acid (HCl),
tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2SO4), trioxonitrate (V) acid (HNO3),
trioxosulphate (IV) acid (H2SO3), tetraoxophosphate (V) acid (H3PO4) etc.
B. Based on the strength of an acid: The strength of an acid depends on
the extent to which it ionizes in water, which in turn determines the
concentration of hydrogen ion in the solution.
1. Strong acids: These are acids that dissociate/ionize completely in
aqueous solution to give large number of ions. They are usually
strong electrolytes and have high electrical conductivity compared to
weak acids of the same molar concentration. Examples are H 2SO4,
HNO3 and HCl.
Strong acids are classified into:
i. Concentrated acids: These are strong acids that contain large
amount of acid and little or no water.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid, which has little or no water in it, will not
conduct current or turn blue litmus paper to red because the conc. acid exist
largely as molecules since there is no enough water to facilitate the dissociation
of the acid molecules into mobile ions.
ii. Dilute acids: These are strong acids that contain large amount of
water and little amount of acid.
2. Weak acids: These are acids that dissociate/ionize partially in
aqueous solution to give few numbers of mobile ions. They are
usually weak electrolytes and have low electrical conductivity.
Examples are organic acids, H2CO3, H3PO4, H2C2O4 and all other
mineral acid except H2SO4, HNO3 and HCl.
BASICITY OF AN ACID: This is the number of replaceable hydrogen atom in a
molecule of an acid. It is the maximum number of hydroxonium ion which one
molecule of the acid is capable of producing in aqueous solution.
1. Monobasic acids: These are acids that contain only one ionisable or
replaceable hydrogen atom in a molecule of the acids. E.g.
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Other examples include HNO3, HCOOH and HClO.
2. Dibasic acids: These are acids that contain two ionisable or replaceable
hydrogen atoms in a molecule of the acid. E.g.
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Other examples are H2C2O4, H2CO3, H2SO3 etc
3. Tribasic acids: These are acids that contain three ionisable/replaceable
hydrogen atoms per molecule of the acid. E.g.
H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
Characteristic properties of acids
Physical properties
1. Acids dissolve in water to give aqueous solution with pH less than 7.
2. Dilute acids have sour taste.
3. Concentrated forms of strong acids are corrosive.
4. Acids turn blue litmus paper to red.

Chemical properties
 1. Dilute acids (dil. HCl and H2SO4) and conc. HCl gives effervescence and
liberate hydrogen gas from electropositive metals (metals above hydrogen
in the activity series). E.g.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + Fe(s) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Conc. H2SO4 and HNO3 or dilute HNO3 does not liberate hydrogen gas from
electropositive metals because these acids are powerful oxidizing agents and will
oxidize the hydrogen gas formed to water. However, magnesium and manganese
will liberate hydrogen gas from dilute HNO3.

2. Acids (both concentrated and dilute) give effervescence and liberate carbon
(IV) oxide gas from trioxocarbonate (IV) and hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV)
salts.
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
H2SO4(aq) + Fe(HCO3)2(s) FeSO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

3. Acids (both conc. and dilute) undergo neutralization reaction with alkalis
and insoluble bases to give salt and water only.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

General methods of preparing acids

1. By direct combination of the constituent elements
a. Burning hydrogen in chlorine in the presence of activated charcoal as
the catalyst yields hydrogen chloride gas which dissolves readily in
water to give hydrochloric acid.
Activated charcoal
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
b. Heating hydrogen gas and bromine vapour in the presence of
platinum
catalyst produces hydrogen bromide gas which dissolves readily in water to form
hydrobromic acid.
H2(g) + Br2(g) Platinum 2HBr(g)
2. By dissolving acid anhydrides (acidic oxides) in water
Acid anhydrides are oxides of non-metals which dissolve in water to produce
acids. E.g.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO4(aq)
3. By using a strong acid to displace a weak acid or a more volatile acid
from its salt
H2SO4(aq) + 2KCl(s) 2HCl(aq) + K2SO4(aq)
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) H2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaNO3 2HNO3(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)
Uses of acids
S/No Acids Uses
1. Hydrochloric acid In manufacture of chloroethene used in PVC
plastics
In manufacture of gelatine and glue from animal
tendon.
In manufacture of glucose from starch
Used to remove rust
In manufacture of textile and dyes
In removing oxides from metal during
electroplating.
2. Tetraoxosulphate (VI) In manufacture of fertilizer, pigment, cellulose
acid film, artificial silk, fabrics and plastics
As an electrolyte in car battery.
As drying and dehydrating agent.
3. Trioxonitrate (V) acid In the manufacture of fertilizer, explosives and
nitrocellulose which is used in making artificial
silk and as rocket fuel.
As an oxidizing and nitrating agent in the
laboratory.
In the production of polymers e.g. nylon
4. Boric acid Used as a mild antiseptic or germicide.
5. Tartaric acid For making baking soda, soft drinks and health
salts
6. Ethanoic acid (acetic Used in food preservation
acid) In dyeing silk and other textiles.
7. Citric acid Used in making fruit juice
8. Fatty acid (palmitic Used in the manufacture of soap.
acid and stearic acid)
 ASSIGNMENTS:
1. Describe acids stating 3 physical and 3 chemical properties of acid
2. Make a list of 10 household products. Identify an acid that was used to
make them and the function of the acid in the product.

WEEK 3: BASES AND ALKALI

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
i. Explain what is meant by bases.
ii. Describe characteristics that are associated with bases.
iii. Explain the difference between strong bases and weak bases.
iv. Demonstrate how to use litmus paper to test for a base.

A base is a substance which will neutralize an acid to yield salt and water only.
Base is any substance that produces hydroxyl ions in aqueous solution.
Oxides and hydroxides of metals that react with acids to give salt and water only
are bases, except ZnO, Zn(OH)2, Al2O3, Al(OH)3, SnO, Sn(OH)2, PbO and Pb(OH)2
which are amphoteric. Examples of bases are Na 2O, NaOH, K2O, KOH, CaO,
Ca(OH)2, MgO, Mg(OH)2, BeO, Be(OH)2, CuO, Cu(OH)2, Fe2O3, Fe(OH)3 and Fe(OH)2.
Some metallic oxides dissolve in water to form basic hydroxides, e.g.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq)
A hydroxide which is soluble in water is called ALKALI. An alkali is a basic
hydroxide which dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions which turn red litmus to
blue. E.g. NaOH, KOH and NH4OH. NaOH and KOH are strong alkalis while NH4OH
is a weak alkali (the only weak base that is soluble in water).
Strong alkalis ionize completely in aqueous solution to produce hydroxide ions
and metallic ions.
Weak alkalis only ionize slightly in aqueous solution.
Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are sparingly soluble in water to give alkaline solution.
NaOH Na+(aq) + OH(aq)-
NOTE: All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis because bases consist of
both soluble bases (alkalis) and insoluble (weak) bases.

Neutralization: This is the process in which one mole of hydrogen ion, H + from an
acid react with one mole of hydroxide ion, OH - from an alkali to form one mole of
water. A salt is formed at the same time. OR
Neutralization is a process in which an acid react completely with an appropriate
amount of an alkali (or other base) to produce a salt and water only.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Physical properties of bases/alkalis

1. Alkalis have bitter taste.
2. They are soapy to touch.
3. They turn red litmus paper to blue.
4. Concentrated form of strong alkalis is corrosive.
5. They have pH greater 7.

Chemical properties of bases/alkalis

1. Alkalis and insoluble bases react with acids to give salt and water only.
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O
2. Alkalis react with ammonium salts in the presence of heat to liberate
ammonia gas.
NaOH(aq) +NH4Cl(s) NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)
3. Alkalis such as NaOH and KOH solutions dissolves metals such as zinc, tin, or
aluminium (not lead) to give effervescence, producing hydrogen gas and a
colourless solution of the corresponding salt. E.g.
2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2NaAl(OH)4(aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (III)

Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 2H2O(l) Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium tetrahydroxozincate (II)

4. Alkalis such as NaOH and NH4OH solutions precipitate the cations of soluble
inorganic salts from their solutions. The precipitate may be soluble or
insoluble in excess of the alkaline solution. This is used to test for cations in
solution during qualitative analysis experiments. E.g.
Cu2+(aq) + NH3(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + NH4+(aq)
Blue precipitate

Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)

Deep blue precipitate

Preparation of bases and alkalis

1. By heating reactive metals in air. E.g.
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
2. By dissolving soluble oxides of metals in water. E.g.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
3. By reacting a reactive metal with water or steam. E.g.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g)
4. Thermal decomposition of metallic trioxocarbonates (IV), except Na 2CO3
and K2CO3, to produce the oxide of the metal and carbon (IV) oxide.
Heat
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Heat
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
5. By heating slaked lime with dilute Na2CO3 or K2CO3
Heat
Ca(OH)2(s) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaOH(aq)
Heat
Ca(OH)2(s) + K2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2KOH(aq)
6. Thermal decomposition
Heat
of metal hydroxides. E.g.
Ca(OH)2(s) Heat CaO(s) + H2O(l)
Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s) + H2O(l)

Uses of alkalis
S/No Alkali Uses
1. NaOH i. Used in the manufacture of soap, paper, sodium
salts, plastic, dyes and rayon from cellulose.
ii. Used in the manufacture of glass and in petrol
refining.
iii. Used to soften permanent hardness of water.
iv. It is used to absorb CO2 gas in the laboratory.
2. KOH i. Used in the manufacture of soft soaps, liquid soaps
and shaving creams.
ii. Used in dyeing and electroplating.
3. Ca(OH)2 i. Used in making mortar, plaster of paris, white-wash
and cement.
ii. it is used in sugar refining.
iii. It is used to neutralize the acidity of a soil.
4. Mg(OH)2 Used as antacid, in manufacturing toothpaste and
medically as a mild laxative.
5. NH4OH Used for bleaching cloth, as a detergent and solvent
 for grease.

ASSIGNMENT
I. State 3 physical and 3 chemical properties of bases
II. Explain 3 preparation of bases using chemical equations
III. Mention 5 household products that contain bases and their functions in the
products.

WEEK 4: pH and INDICATORS

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS
I. Definition of pH
II. pH scale
III. Calculations on pH
IV. Types of indicators
V. Importance of pH
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration; a measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution. Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less than seven
are acidic, while those with a pH greater than seven are basic or alkaline. A pH
level of is 7.0 at 25°C is defined as 'neutral' because the concentration of
H3O+ equals the concentration of OH− in pure water.
CALCULATIONS ON pH

pH= -log [H+]

pOH = -log[OH-]
[H+] [OH-] = 10-14
pH + pOH = 14.

Worked examples
1. Find the hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations in
(a) 0.01moldm-3 tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid solution.
(b) 0.001moldm-3 potassium hydroxide solution.

Solution
(a). H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

From the equation, 1 moldm-3 H2SO4 ionizes to give 2moldm-3 H+

Therefore, 0.01moldm-3 H2SO4 would ionize to give (2x0.01) moldm-3 H+
[H+] = 2x10-2moldm-3
[H+] [OH-] = 10-14
(2x10-2) [OH-] = 10-14
[OH-] = 10-14
2x 10-2
[OH-] = 0.5x (10-14- -2)
[OH-] =0.5 x10-14+2
[OH-] =0.5x10-12moldm-3.
(b). KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
From the equation,
1moldm-3 of KOH ionizes to give 1moldm-3 of OH-
10-3moldm-3 of KOH would ionize to give 10-3moldm-3 of OH-
[OH-]=10-3moldm-3.
[H+] [OH-]=10-14
[H+] (10-3) = 10-14.
[H+] = 10-14
10-3
[H+] = 10-14+3
[H+] = 10-11moldm-3

2. A glass cup of orange juice is found to have a POH of 11.40. Calculate the
concentration of the hydrogen ions in the juice.
Solution
pH + pOH = 14.
pH = 14 – 11.4.
pH = 2.6.
pH = -log [H+]
2.6 =-log [H+].
[H+] = Antilog (-2.6)
[H+] = 0.0025moldm-3
[H+] = 2.5x10-3moldm-3
The pH scale
This is a scale of numbers from 0 to 14. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic
a substance is.
The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten
times more acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more
acidic than pH 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same
holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline
(another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value. For example, pH 10 is
ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10) more alkaline than
pH 8.
Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can
become either acidic or basic.
The pH of an aqueous solution of a salt such as sodium chloride is slightly
different from that of pure water, even though the salt is neither acidic nor basic.
This is because the hydrogen and hydroxide ions' activity is dependent on ionic
strength, so Kw varies with ionic strength.
The pH of pure water decreases with increasing temperatures. For example, the
pH of pure water at 50 °C is 6.55. Note, however, that water that has been
exposed to air is mildly acidic. This is because water absorbs carbon dioxide from
the air, which is then slowly converted into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions:
CO2 + H2O HCO3− + H+

Measurement of pH
pH can be measured using:
1. Acid-base indicators:
2. Universal indicators:
3. pH meters

Indicators
These are weak organic compounds (acids or bases) which change colour in
accordance with the pH of the solution. They dissociate slightly in solutions
producing ions and undissociated molecules. The colour of the ions produced
is dependent on the hydrogen ion concentration or pH of the medium.
Indicators are used in titration solutions to signal the completion of the acid-
base reaction.
1. Acid-base indicators are chemical substances which change colour with
pH. They are usually weak acids or bases which when dissolved in water
dissociate slightly and form ions.
Colour changes of common acid-base indicators
Indicator Colour change
Neutral Acidic Alkaline
Litmus Purple Red Blue
 Methyl orange Orange Pink Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
(acidic)
Phenolphthalein Pink Colourless Pink
(alkaline)

2. Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators which give a gradual change

in colour over a wide pH range. The colour is used to indicate pH directly.
They are mixtures of organic dyes.
Colour chart of universal indicator
Colour Acidity/alkalinity pH range
Red Strongly acidic 0–2
Orange Weakly acidic 3 – 5.5
Pale orange Slightly acidic 5.5 – 7.0
Green Neutral 7.0 -8.0
Blue Slightly alkaline 8.0 – 10.5
Pale blue Weakly alkaline 10.5 – 12
Purple Strongly alkaline 12 – 14

The easiest universal indicator to prepare is red cabbage juice. Stew red
cabbage in water and pour off the water for use as an indicator solution. This
juice contain a pigment called anthocyanin, which changes colour from red
in acidic solution to purplish to green in mildly alkaline solution to yellow in
very alkaline solution. Another universal indicator is the classic ‘chemical
stoplight’.
NOTE: While acid-base indicators indicate whether a solution is acidic or
alkaline, universal indicators indicate the strength or pH range of the
solution.

pH meters: These are electronic devices that are used to measure the pH of
solutions. They measure to a great degree of accuracy and can measure the
pH of turbid or coloured solutions.

Importance of pH in our everyday life

1. In medicine: Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living
organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change.
2. Environmental protection
 Regulation of pH is important in sewage treatment, treatment of industrial
wastes and environmental protection of rivers.
3. Agriculture
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. Most crops grow
well in soils with pH of between 7 and 8, while some e.g. oil palm grow well
on slightly acidic soils.
4. pH in our digestive system
It is very interesting to note that our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It
helps in the digestion of food without harming the stomach. During
indigestion the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain and
irritation. To get rid of this pain, Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia), a
mild base, is often used for this purpose.
4. pH change as the cause of tooth decay
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Tooth
enamel, made up of calcium phosphate is the hardest substance in the body.
It does not dissolve in water, but is corroded when the pH in the mouth is
below 5.5.
5. Self defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare
Bee-sting leaves an acid which causes pain and irritation. Use of a mild base
like baking soda on the stung area gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves
inject methanoic acid causing burning pain.
6. Water treatment
It helps water chemists in the control of the pH of public water supply to
avoid poisoning from lead pipes which occurs if water becomes too acidic or
alkaline.

ASSIGNMENT:
Outline 10 importance of pH

WEEK 5: SALTS
ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS:
i. Define salts.
ii. List the types of salt.
iii. Name two methods for preparing each of soluble and insoluble salts.
iv. Name three normal salts that will dissolve in water to form an alkaline
solution
 v. With the aid of equations, define efflorescence, deliquescence and
hygroscopy.
vi. Explain the difference between hygroscopy and deliquescence.
vii. With the aid of equations and examples, differentiate between drying and
dehydration.

A salt is the substance formed when all or part of the replaceable hydrogen
atom/ion of an acid are replaced by a metallic or ammonium ion of a base during
neutralization reaction.
Types of salts
1. Normal salts: These are salts that are formed when all the replaceable
hydrogen ions/atoms of an acid are completely replaced by a metallic or an
ammonium ion of a base. A normal salt does not contain hydrogen atom in its
molecule. Examples are: NaCl, NH4Cl, Na2CO3, CH3COOK, KNO3, Na2SO4,
Bi(NO3)3, ZnCl2, Na3PO4, etc.
H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Normal salts are neutral to litmus. Some of them will however undergo hydrolysis
in water to give either an acidic or an alkaline solution.
Hydrolysis of some normal salts
 Normal salts that are formed from the reaction between a strong acid and a
strong base do not undergo hydrolysis and they give neutral solutions with pH
= 7. Examples of such salts are NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, NaNO3 and KNO3.
 Salts that are formed from reactions between a strong base and a weak acid
dissolve and react with water to give excess hydroxyl ions (OH -) which makes
the solution basic/alkaline. This phenomenon is known as hydrolysis. Such salt
solutions will turn red litmus paper blue. Examples are Na 2CO3, K2CO3,
CH3COONa, CH3COOK, Na2SO3, K2SO3, NaNO2, KNO2 and Na2C2O4.
 Salts that are formed from reactions between a strong acid and a weak base
undergoes hydrolysis in water to give excess hydrogen ions (H +) which makes
the solution acidic. Such salt solutions will turn blue litmus paper red. Examples
are Fe(NO3)2, Fe(NO3)3, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4)3, FeCl2, FeCl3, ZnCl2, ZnSO4, Zn(NO3)2,
AlCl3, Al2(SO4)3, Al(NO3)3, CuCl2, CuSO4, Cu(NO3)2, NH4Cl, (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3,
MgCl2, MgSO4, Mg(NO3)2, CaCl2, CaSO4 and Ca(NO3)2.
2. Acid salts: These are salts that are formed when part of the replaceable
hydrogen ions/atoms of an acid is replaced by a metallic ion of a base to give a
salt containing hydrogen atom in its molecule. E.g. KHSO 4, NaHSO4, NaHCO3,
NaH2PO4, Na2HPO4, etc.
 H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Solutions of acid salts contain hydrogen ions and are therefore acidic solutions
and will turn blue litmus paper to red. However, solution of NaHCO 3, which is
an acid salt, is alkaline to litmus paper and methyl orange indicator solution.
So, aqueous solutions of NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 which are basic cannot be
distinguished using litmus paper or methyl orange.
3. Basic salts: These are salts that are formed when part of the hydroxyl ions of a
base is replaced by hydrogen ion of an acid. This happens when there is
insufficient supply of acid needed for the complete neutralization of the base.
E.g. Zn(OH)Cl, Ca(OH)NO3, Bi(OH)2NO3, etc.
HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(OH)NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
They have the properties of a base, thus they react with excess acid to form a
normal salt and water.
Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O
4. Double salts: These are salts which ionize to produce two positively charged
metallic or ammonium ions and a negatively charged ion. Examples are
KAl(SO4)2.12H2O, (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2.6H2O, KFe(SO4)2.12H2O, KCr(SO4).12H2O etc.
5. Complex salts: These are salts that contain complex ions (ions that consist of
charged group of atoms). Examples are K 4Fe(CN)6, Na2Zn(OH)4, K3Fe(CN)6,
NaAl(OH)4, etc.
Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) 2Na+(aq) + [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
K4Fe(CN)6(aq) 4K+(aq) + [Fe(CN)6]4-(aq)
The complex ions formed do not exhibit the properties of any of their
constituent ions, because the ions are not free but bound up the complex.

Preparation of salts
The method chosen for preparing a particular salt depend largely on:
i. Its solubility in water, and
ii. Its stability to heat (thermal stability).
Preparation of soluble salts
The salts formed by the various methods are in aqueous solution, so they
must be recovered from the solutions by evaporation or crystallization.
1. By action of dilute acids on metals
A metal that is more reactive than hydrogen (e.g. Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe etc.) is used
to displace hydrogen from a dilute acid. E.g.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
H2SO4(aq) + Fe(s) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2. By neutralization reaction between an acid and an alkali/insoluble base
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
3. By action of dilute acids on trioxocarbonate (iv) and hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (iv) salts.
H2SO4(aq) + CuCO3(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NOTE: This method is not used if the salt formed will precipitate on the
unchanged trioxocarbonate (iv) and stop the reaction.
Recovering soluble salts from solution
1. Heating to dryness: A solution of soluble salt that can withstand dry heating is
heated slowly in an evaporating dish to produce the salt in the crystalline
form. This method is used for most chlorides except ZnCl2 and FeCl3.
2. Crystallization: For salts that are decomposed/destroyed by dry heating (e.g.
trioxonitrate (v) salts and tetraoxosulphate (vi) salts), their solution is first
boiled to drive away some of the water. On cooling the concentrated solution,
crystals of the salt will begin to appear in the solution. Sometimes a speck of
the salt is added to the solution as a seed to induce crystallization or a glass
rod is used to scratch the inside of the container.
The crystals of the salt obtained are washed with distilled water and dried
between filter paper.
Preparation of insoluble salts
1. Direct combination of constituent elements
This is used to prepare binary insoluble metallic chloride and sulphide salts
2Ag(s) + Cl2(g) 2AgCl(s)
Pb(s) + Cl2(g) PbCl2(s)
2. Double decomposition reaction
This involves the reaction of two soluble salts to give one soluble salt and one
insoluble salt. E.g.
Na2CO3(aq) + ZnCl2(aq) ZnCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
3. Precipitation reaction
HCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
2HCl(g) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
NOTE: The white precipitate of PbCl2 disappears on heating and reappears on
cooling.
Chemical reactions of salts
1. Solubility
2. Action of heat on salts (thermal decomposition)
3. Reactions of dilute acids with salts
4. Reactions of salt solution with metals and non-metals.

1. Solubility of salts
Some salts are soluble while some are insoluble.
a. Soluble salts
i. All salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium are soluble in water.
ii. All trioxonitrate (v) salts are soluble in water.
iii. All hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts are soluble.
iv. All tetraoxophosphate (v) salts are soluble.
v. All chloride salts except AgCl, Hg2Cl2 and PbCl2.
vi. All tetraoxosulphate (vi) salts except PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 which is
sparingly soluble in water.
b. Insoluble salts
i. AgCl, Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, CaSO4, PbSO4 and BaSO4 are all insoluble.
ii. All trioxocarbonate (iv) salts except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3.
iii. All sulphide salts except Na2S, K2S and (NH4)2S.
iv. All trioxosulphate (iv) salts except Na2SO3, K2SO3 and (NH4)2SO3.

2. Action of heat on salts

Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts, hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts and
trioxonitrate (v) salts decompose on heating.
I. Action of heat on trioxocarbonate (iv) salts
All trioxocarbonate (iv) salts are decomposed on heating to give colourless,
odourless carbon (iv) oxide gas and an oxide of the corresponding metal as
residue. Na2CO3 and K2CO3 do not decompose on heating. Examples are:
CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3(s) PbO(s) + CO2(g)
AgCO3 and Hg2CO3 decompose to give CO2 and oxygen gases, depositing the
metal as residue while (NH4)2CO3 leaves no residue on heating.
2AgCO3(s) 4Ag(s) + CO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg2CO3(s) 4Hg(s) + CO2(g) + O2(g)
(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
II. Action of heat on hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts
All hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts are decomposed on heating to give the
trioxocarbonate (iv) of the corresponding metal as residue, carbon (iv) oxide
and water. E.g.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
III. Action of heat on trioxonitrate (v) salts
a. Trioxonitrate (v) salts of sodium and potassium decompose on heating to give
colourless, odourless oxygen gas and a pale yellow residue of the dioxonitrate
(iii) of the corresponding metal is deposited. E.g.
2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
2KNO3(s) 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
b. Trioxonitrate (v) salts of Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu decomposes on
heating to give brown fume of NO 2 gas, oxygen gas and the oxide of the
corresponding metal as residue.
2Zn(NO3)2(s) 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
c. Ammonium trioxonitrate (v) leaves no residue but gives off colourless
nitrogen (i) oxide and form water vapour.
NH4NO3(s) 2H2O(g) + N2O(g)
d. Trioxonitrate (v) salts of Ag and Hg gives brown fume of NO 2 gas along with O2
gas and the metal is deposited as residue.
2AgNO3(s) 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2HgNO3(s) 2Hg(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)

3. Action of dilute acids on salts

Trioxocarbonate (iv) salts, hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) salts, trioxosulphate (iv)
salts and sulphides dissolves in dilute HCl and H 2SO4 acids with effervescence,
giving off a gas and a corresponding salt solution of the metal. However, dry
soluble chloride salts (e.g. NaCl and CaCl 2) gives effervescence/colourless HCl gas
with conc. H2SO4 acid.
Apart from FeCO3 and Fe(HCO3)2 which dissolves to give green solution and CuCO 3
and Cu(HCO3)2 which give blue solution, other CO 32- and HCO3- salts give colourless
solution of their salts.
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2-
All SO3 salts give off colourless SO2 gas with characteristic irritating smell,
forming a solution of the salt of the corresponding metal.
FeSO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
All sulphides dissolve with effervescence and give off a colourless H 2S gas with
characteristic rotten egg smell.
Na2S(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
NOTE: All lead (ii) salts e.g. PbCO3, PbSO3 and PbS will form white precipitate of
insoluble PbSO4 or PbCl2 salts with dilute HCl/H2SO4 instead of aqueous solution of
their salts.
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

4. Reaction of salt solutions with metals and non-metals

a. With metals: A more reactive metal will displace ion of a less reactive metal
from its salt solution to give the corresponding salt solution of the reactive
metal and the metal residue of the less reactive metal. The more reactive
metal is oxidized to its ions while the less reactive metal ion is reduced to
its metal. E.g.
Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s)
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Ag(s) + CuSO4(aq) No reaction
b. Reaction with non-metal: A more reactive non-metal will displace ion of a
less reactive non-metal from its salt solution to give the corresponding salt
solution of the reactive non-metal and the residue of the less reactive non-
metal ion. The more reactive non-metal is reduced to its ions while the less
reactive non-metal ion is oxidized to its non-metal. E.g.
Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(g)

Uses of some salts

Most people probably think of salt as simply a white granular food
seasoning. In fact, only 6% of all salt manufactured goes into food.
Apparently we use salt in more than 14,000 different ways from the making
of products as varied as plastic, paper, glass, polyester, rubber and fertilisers
to household bleach, soaps, detergents and dyes.
Everyone uses salt, directly or indirectly.
Salts Uses
CaSO4 For casting plaster of Paris
CuSO4 Used as algaecide for removal of algae from swimming
pools
 Used in dyeing and in calico printing
MgSO4 Used as a laxative (in health salts)
CaCO3 Used in extraction of iron to remove earthy impurities
In manufacture of cement, quicklime (CaO) and lime
water Ca(OH)2(aq)
In Solvay process for the manufacture of Na2CO3
NaHCO3 In making baking powder
As antacid
NaCl As preservative and food seasoning
In commercial production of chlorine
In glazing pottery (it is used to form the very smooth
glaze on clay tiles or pottery ware)
NaClO As an antiseptic
NaNO3, KNO3 and In the manufacture of fertilizer
NH4NO3
NH4Cl As electrolyte in dry cells
For making fertilizer
Used in washing powder
Fused CaCl2 Used as a drying agent
KNO3 Used for making gunpowder and matches
CaCl2 Used as an antifreeze
ZnCl2 Used in petroleum refining

Water of crystallization
This is the amount/number of water molecules that is chemically bonded to a
molecule of some substances when they crystallize out of their aqueous solution.
Substances that contain water of crystallization in their molecules are called
hydrated substances. Examples are H2C2O4.H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O, CuSO4.5H2O etc.
These water molecules are loosely bound to the salt molecules and are easily
dissociated from the salts by heating, leaving behind an anhydrous salt which is
amorphous. This is because loss of water of crystallization simultaneously leads to
the loss of crystalline form.
Hydrates can be crystallized out of solutions by cooling the saturated solution of
their salts. Some salts however crystallize out without any water of hydration.
Thus, all hydrated salts are crystalline, but not all crystalline salts are hydrated.

Behaviour of some substances when exposed to atmosphere

1. Efflorescence: This is a phenomenon whereby some hydrated substances lose
part or all their water of crystallization when exposed to atmosphere. This result
in decrease in mass of the substance. The substance is called efflorescent.
Examples of efflorescent substances are H2C2O4.H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O, CuSO4.5H2O,
Na2SO4.10H2O, ZnSO4.7H2O etc.
Exposure to air
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4
Blue crystals White anhydrous powder

2. Deliquescence: This is a phenomenon whereby some substances absorb

moisture/water when exposed to the atmosphere and then dissolve in the water
to form solution.
This process results in increase in the mass of the substances. The substances are
called deliquescent. Examples of deliquescent substances are NaOH, KOH, CaCl 2,
MgCl2, NaNO3, FeCl3 etc.
NaOH(s) Exposure to air NaOH(aq)
2NaOH(aq) +CO2(g) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l)
FeCl3(s) Exposure to air FeCl3(aq)
3. Hygroscopy: This is a phenomenon whereby some substances absorb moisture
when they are exposed to the atmosphere and if solid, becomes wet and sticky,
and if liquid, becomes more diluted but do not form solution.
This results in increase in the mass of the substances. The substances are called
hygroscopic. Examples of hygroscopic substances are CuO, CaO, P 2O5, Al2O3, silica
gel and conc H2SO4.
H2SO4(l) Exposure to air H2SO4(aq)
Hygroscopic substances are more efficient as drying agents than deliquescent
substances and are often used as drying agents in the laboratory because they do
not form solution as deliquescent substances. Conc H 2SO4 is used in the
laboratory both as a drying agent and as a dehydrating agent.
Drying agents: These are substances that have strong affinity for water/moisture.
They remove associated water in form of moisture from a substance without
affecting the chemical composition of the substance. They may be either
hygroscopic or deliquescent compounds and are usually used to dry gases in the
laboratory. A drying agent cannot be used if it can react with the substance to be
dried. E.g.
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
So conc H2SO4 is not a suitable drying agent for ammonia.

Drying agents Gases

 Conc H2SO4 All gases except NH3 and H2S
Fused CaCl2 All gases except ammonia
CaO (quicklime) Ammonia in particular
Phosphorus (v) oxide All gases except NH3
Silica gel All gases

Dehydrating agents: These are substances that remove element of water

molecules from the structure of a substance and this result in change in chemical
composition of the substance. E.g.
Conc. H SO
C6H12O6 -6H O 6C
2 4

ASSIGNMENT: Questions 7, 9 and 10 on pages 87 and 88 of Essential Chemistry

for Senior Secondary School by I.A. Odesina.