Continued Chapter 6

Fundamentals of Tool Design, Sixth Edition
Lecture Slides
Continued Chapter 6
Design of cutting tools

(single-point / multiple-
point) Dr. John G. Nee, CMfgE
© Copyright © 2010 Society of Manufacturing Engineers

Multiple-point Cutting tools
 Multiple-point cutting tools comprise a series of single-point

tools mounted in or integral with a holder or body and operated
in such a manner that all the teeth (tools) follow essentially the
same path across the workpiece. The cutting edges may be
straight or in the form of various contours to be reproduced on
the workpiece. Multiple-point tools may be either linear travel
or rotary.
2
 Figures 25 and 26 illustrate two types of milling cutters and

indicate the difference in nomenclature between their angles
and single-point tools. Figure 26 shows the peripheral cutting
edge angle as 0°, with positive and negative directions
indicated.
Figure 25. A solid plain milling cutter showing the

basic tooth angles and the tooth land. 3
Figure 26. A face milling cutter with inserted teeth.

All pertinent tooth angles are included. 4
Cutting processes
 Cutting processes for multiple-point tools are similar to those
for single-point tools. Linear travel tools produce a series of
chips similar to those produced by single-point tools on planing
cuts. Milling cutters produce chips that vary in thickness
because of the nature of the tooth path, as illustrated in Figure
27.
Figure 27. A comparison of

undeformed chip shapes. 5
Design Considerations
 The single most important factor affecting the performance of
any cutting tool is the attainment of a high degree of rigidity in
the entire machining system. This includes the cutting tool,
machine tool, fixture, and workpiece. A lack of rigidity in any
of the system’s elements can largely nullify the benefits of high
rigidity in other elements. This interrelationship is all too often
overlooked by fixture designers—workpieces are not
adequately supported at the point of cutting.
6
Operating Considerations
 In setting up the operating conditions for any multiple-point
cutting tool, there are three important variables that can be
adjusted:
1. feed per cutting edge,
2. cutting speed, and
3. cutting fluid.
 Of these, the feed per cutting edge is the most important and
should be established first.
7
Feed per cutting edge

 With some tools, such as taps and broaches, the feed per tooth
is determined by the design of the tool and can be changed only
by tool modification. With most other tools, the feed is
determined by selecting an appropriate machine setting. It has
long been demonstrated that it is more efficient to remove metal
in the form of thick chips rather than thin ones, so the
maximum possible feed per tooth should be used. However, the
maximum feed per tooth is limited by the following factors:
cutting-edge strength; rigidity, and allowable deflection; the
surface finish required; and tool chip space.
8
Cutting speed
 After the maximum allowable feed has been established, the
cutting speed should be considered.
 At a constant feed per tooth, there is relatively little change in
cutting forces as the cutting speed is increased.
 In the normal operating range, speed has relatively little effect
on surface finish, but sometimes a large increase of speed
(usually made possible by a change of tool material) will yield
an improvement in surface finish by increasing the temperature
to a point that the workpiece is softened, resulting in less
tearing.
9
Cutting speed
 The principal effect of increasing cutting speed is to produce
parts faster at a constant feed per tooth. This increase in
production normally justifies the tool-life reduction resulting
from operating at higher temperatures.
 The optimum cutting speed is what will permit parts production
at the lowest cost per piece. This requires analysis of all the
costs, including machining, tool changing, and cutting-tool
acquisition and maintenance costs.
10
Cutting fluids
 Use of the correct cutting fluid can substantially improve a
machining operation.
 The proper cutting fluid can permit higher feeds and increased
speeds, as well as contribute to attaining better surface finishes.
 Cutting fluids should be directed to the exact point where the
cutting is being done and be applied in a constant, even flow.
 No machining operation should be set up without some
consideration of cutting fluids.
11
Forces and power requirements

 Knowledge of cutting forces is essential to machine and fixture
design, and for the determination of power requirements.
 Force and power predictions for multiple-point tools are more
complex than those for a single-point tool.
 Varying numbers of teeth may be in contact with the work, chip
size can vary in different parts of the cut, and orientation of the
cutting teeth may not be constant with respect to the workpiece.
 The best methods to determine forces on such tools are by
actual measurement on the machine to be used or in a simulated
setup in a metal-cutting laboratory.
 Since such measurements are sometimes inconvenient or
impossible to make, methods for making reasonable force and
power estimates may be of value.
12

 One approach is to consider the multiple-point tool equivalent
as a series of single-point tools, then estimate the contribution
of each tool and sum these to arrive at the resultant forces. The
following methods of calculation are preferable.
 When it is not possible to estimate forces and power directly, a
fairly good estimate still can be made by considering the cutting
energy.
13

 The removal of 1 in.3 (164 mm3) of an alloy steel with a
hardness of about 200 Bhn at normal feeds requires the
expenditure of about 56,492 J (15.7 Wh) of energy. In terms of
engineering units, this can be stated as 1.25 hp/in.3/min.
 Thus, if the maximum rate of metal removal is computed in
terms of cubic inches per minute, this value can be multiplied
by 1.25 to give a reasonable estimate of the horsepower
required at the cutting tool.
14
15
 In the case of linear-travel tools, the force in the cutting

direction can be estimated from the following equation:
16
 Equations 3-21 and 3-22 must be applied with caution, since

they will be useful in estimating torque or cutting force only if
an accurate estimate of the maximum rate of metal removal is
made.
17
Linear-travel tools
 Tools traveling in straight-line motions are referred to as linear-

travel tools. These tools can be used in high-production
applications where close tolerance work is being performed.
They normally produce good surface finishes and are versatile
and economical.
18
Linear-travel tools
 The most common multiple-point, linear-travel tool is the

broach. Broaches are used for producing either external or
internal surfaces.
 The surfaces produced may be flat, circular, or of an intricate
profile, as viewed in a section normal to tool travel.
 A broach is essentially a series of single-point tools following
each other in the axial direction along a tool body or holder.
Successive teeth vary in size or shape in such a manner that
each following tooth will cut a chip of the proper thickness.
 The basic elements of broach construction are illustrated in
Figure 28.
19
Linear-travel tools
 Standard broaching nomenclature designates the rake angle as

the face angle and the relief clearance as the back-off angle.
Rake angles fall in the same range used for other tools, but
back-off angles normally are quite low, in the range of between
0.5° and 3.5°.
Figure 28. Basic elements of broach

construction. 20
Linear-travel tools
 Internal broaches (Figure 29) are either pulled or pushed

through the work. Strength considerations limit the design of
such broaches. Surface broaches (Figure 30) ordinarily are
carried on a large, guided ram; here, strength is not as critical
since the cutting tool can be transferred to the ram at many
points along the broach length.
21
Linear-travel tools
Figure 29. Typical broaches:

(a) special form broach;
(b) titanium slotting broach for
compressor disks;
(c) semifinish rock-gear form broach;
(d) round broach used for half-round
operation on connecting rods;
(e) Titanium dovetail roughing broach
for compressor disks;
(f) Inconel ® pine-tree finish broach for
turbine disks;
(g) Rebroach for hardened gears.
(Courtesy Marbaix Lapointe) 22
Linear-travel tools
Figure 30. Hole broach details. 23

Linear-travel tools
Standard Push Broaching (duMONT Company 2009)

 When broaching with keyway sets or individual keyway
broaches (see Figure 31a), bushings are required. Shims are
required with all but the smallest broaches, and are provided
with each individual keyway broach and broach set for cutting
to standard depth. The procedure for broaching with keyway
sets or individual keyway broaches is as follows:
1. Select the right bushing for the bore (sizes are plainly
marked) and insert in the bore of work.
2. Insert broach (which is also plainly marked for size) for the
desired width of the keyway into the bushing slot and check
alignment.
24
Linear-travel tools
Figure 31. (a) Broaching with keyway sets or individual keyway broaches 25
Linear-travel tools
3. Place this assembly in the press.

4. Lubricate.
5. Push broach through.
6. Clean broach.
7. Insert shims as required to obtain the exact keyway depth.
26
Linear-travel tools

 No shims are necessary when broaching with one-pass keyway
broaches (see Figure 31b), but bushings are required. The
procedure is:
1. Insert bushing in part.
2. Insert broach and check alignment.
3. Lubricate.
5. Clean broach.
27
Linear-travel tools
Figure 31. (b) broaching with production keyway broaches 28

Linear-travel tools

 When broaching with production keyway broaches, no shims or
bushings are required (see Figure 31c). The following
procedure should be followed:
1. Insert broach pilot into bore of part.
2. Lubricate.
4. Clean broach.
29
Linear-travel tools
Figure 31. (c) (c) broaching with internal hole broaches 30

Linear-travel tools
Gear-shaper Cutters
 A gear-shaper cutter is a tool that looks, to some extent, like a
gear, with the teeth relieved to provide cutting edges. Typical
gear-shaper cutters are illustrated in Figure 32.
Figure 32. Standard gear-shaper cutters. 31

Axial-feed rotary tools
 Tools that feed into a workpiece while either the tool or

workpiece is rotating are considered axial-feed rotary tools.
These tools are old but are still some of the most widely used in
machining processes.
32
Drills and related tools

 The production, enlargement, or recontouring of a hole takes
place in drilling and its related processes. Either a rotating
cutter and fixed workpiece, or a rotating workpiece and fixed
cutter, can be used to produce a chip that is formed and
removed from the workpiece.
33
 Twist Drills
 In its most basic form, a twist drill (Figure 33) is made from a
round bar of tool material.
Figure 33. Nomenclature for twist drills. 34

 Twist Drills
 The chisel edge of an ordinary drill indents as it is forced into
the metal and, as it turns, it partially cuts like a cutting tool with
a large negative rake angle as depicted in Figure 34.
35
Figure 34. Sketches made from photomicrographs of chip formation at

the two cutting zones of a twist drill. 36
 The cutting edges illustrated in Figure 34 correspond to the

cutting edges of a single-point tool. An average value for the
helix angle is 30°, but angles from about 18° for hard materials
to 45° for soft materials are used. The effective rake angle at the
edge is larger at the periphery than toward the center of the
drill. Some users grind drills at the end of the flutes to create a
uniform rake angle along the edges.
37
 Standard drills are available in a wide variety of designs; a few

are shown in Figure 35, which may be used for various
materials and services. The most common variations are the
helix angle and web thickness. Tough materials usually require
the use of rigid drills with heavy webs and reduced helix angles.
Free-machining materials can be cut with drills having higher
helix angles and lighter webs, which provide more efficient
cutting and better chip ejection.
38
Figure 35. Conventional and special-purpose drills. 39

Reamers and Core Drills

 Solid, HSS construction of reamers is most common, but
carbide-tipped and solid carbide reamers are available in certain
sizes and styles. Figure 36 shows various commercial types of
reamers.
40
Figure 36. Commercial types of reamers. 41

Counterbores and Countersinks

 Counterbores and countersinks are tools for modifying the ends
of holes. They are often provided with pilots that engage the
existing hole to improve alignment, and are commonly used to
provide a seat in a plane normal to the hole axis. When the
seating surface is flat and relatively shallow, tools called spot-
facers are often used. Deeper seats, such as those used for
recessing the heads of socket-head cap screws, are called
counterbores. Figure 37 illustrates various counterbores and
spot-facers.
42
Figure 37. Types of counterbores and spot-facers. 43

Power Requirements for Drilling and Reaming

 For rotary axial-feed tools, such as twist drills, core drills, and
reamers, reasonably accurate estimates of forces and power can
be made through the use of tried-and-true formulae developed
 some time ago (Shaw and Oxford 1957). The torque and thrust
for a twist drill operating in an alloy steel with a hardness of
200 Bhn can be represented by the following formulae:
44
45
 K is a material constant
(23,300 for an alloy steel with
a hardness of 200 Bhn). For
other materials, the values of
K are given in Table 9.
Table 9. Work material factor, K, for drilling

with a sharp drill (Oberg et al. 2008) 46
 For drills of regular proportions, the ratio c/d can be set equal to
.18, and for split-point drills .03. For drills of regular
proportions, drilling in 200 Bhn alloy steel, Equations 3-23 and
3-24 simplify to:
47
 For reamers or core drills, which are used for enlarging existing
holes, the effects of the chiseledge region can be eliminated and
the equations reduced to:
Table 10. 48
Table 10. Values of k for different numbers of flutes* 49

 Whereas the thrust forces can be substantial and thus can have a
large influence on the required strength and rigidity, the power
required in feeding the tool axially is very small (less than 2%
of the total power requirements) and can usually be disregarded.
The cutting power is a function of the torque and rotational
speed and can be computed by:
50
Taps
 A tap essentially is a screw fluted to form cutting edges
 The most common type of tap is the straight fluted hand tap
(Figure 38). This tap has a straight shank with a driving square
at the shank end.
51
Figure 38. Tap nomenclature. 52

Milling Cutters
 Milling cutters are cylindrical cutting tools with cutting teeth
spaced around the periphery (see Figure 39).
Figure 39. Common types of milling cutters. 53




 There are two modes of operation for milling cutters. In

conventional (up) milling, the workpiece motion opposes the
rotation of the cutter (Figure 40a), while in climb (down)
milling, the rotational and feed motions are in the same
direction (Figure 40b).
Figure 40. (a) “Out-cut,” “conventional,” or “up” milling; also called “feeding
against the cutter.” (b) “In-cut,” “climb,” or “down” milling; also called “feeding
with the cutter.” 57
Number of Teeth in a Milling Cutter

 The relationship between the number of teeth and the feed and
speed may be expressed as (Drozda and Wick 1983):
58
 Equation 3-29 has been found satisfactory for HSS cutters such
as plain, side, and end mills for both production and general-
purpose use:
59
 Equation 3-30 was developed for calculating the number of

teeth (n) when using carbidetipped cutters (Cincinnati Milling
Machine Co. 1951). Since it involves power available at the
cutter, it is helpful in permitting full utilization of available
power without overloading the motor (U.S. customary units
only).
60
61
Power requirements for milling

 Using the power equations given earlier, the total horsepower
required at the cutter (Pc) can be calculated. For example, an
alloy steel having a hardness of 250 Bhn is to be machined in a
milling machine. The depth of cut is to be .250 in. (6.35 mm),
the feed is .005 in. (0.13 mm) per tooth, and the cutting speed is
300 ft/min (91.4 m/min). The milling cutter has 12 teeth and is
10 in. (254 mm) in diameter. The width of the cut is 5 in. (127
mm). The specific power consumption is .70 hp/in.3/min.
62
63
64
 The total horsepower required at the cutter (Pc) also is given by

the equation,
65
 To make available a quick approximation of the total power

requirements, a milling-machine selector table has been devised
(Table 11), which estimates the metal removed for the rated
power of various machines under constant load conditions.
66
Table 11. Milling-machine selector 67

 The metal removal rates in Table 11 may be considered

products of the K factor (see Table 12). All K constants given
are for dull cutters; hence no allowance for increase in power
due to dulling needs to be made.
68
Table 12. Value of K factor for various

materials (U.S. customary units)
69
End mills
 End mills are shank-type milling cutters usually designed with
some form of relieved end teeth (see Figure 41). This
construction enables them to do some end cutting, but the
majority of the cutting takes place on the periphery.
Figure 41. End mills. 70

Hobs
 A hob is a generating, rotary cutting tool with its teeth arranged
along a helical thread (see Figure 42). The hob and workpiece
are rotated in timed relationship to each other, while the hob is
fed axially or tangentially across or radially into the workpiece
(Figure 43).
71
Figure 42. Nomenclature of hobs. 72

Figure 43. (a) Setup for gang-hobbing four helical gears on a hobbing machine.
(b) Hob cutting the teeth on a set of four helical gears. (Courtesy Bourn & Koch
Machine Tool Company) 73

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Fundamentals of Tool Design, Sixth Edition

Design of cutting tools

© Copyright © 2010 Society of Manufacturing Engineers

 Multiple-point cutting tools comprise a series of single-point

 Figures 25 and 26 illustrate two types of milling cutters and

Figure 25. A solid plain milling cutter showing the

Figure 26. A face milling cutter with inserted teeth.

Figure 27. A comparison of

Feed per cutting edge

Forces and power requirements

Forces and power requirements

Forces and power requirements

 In the case of linear-travel tools, the force in the cutting

 Equations 3-21 and 3-22 must be applied with caution, since

 Tools traveling in straight-line motions are referred to as linear-

 The most common multiple-point, linear-travel tool is the

 Standard broaching nomenclature designates the rake angle as

Figure 28. Basic elements of broach

 Internal broaches (Figure 29) are either pulled or pushed

Figure 29. Typical broaches:

Figure 30. Hole broach details. 23

Standard Push Broaching (duMONT Company 2009)

3. Place this assembly in the press.

Standard Push Broaching (duMONT Company 2009)

Figure 31. (b) broaching with production keyway broaches 28

Standard Push Broaching (duMONT Company 2009)

Figure 31. (c) (c) broaching with internal hole broaches 30

Figure 32. Standard gear-shaper cutters. 31

 Tools that feed into a workpiece while either the tool or

Drills and related tools

Figure 33. Nomenclature for twist drills. 34

Figure 34. Sketches made from photomicrographs of chip formation at

 The cutting edges illustrated in Figure 34 correspond to the

 Standard drills are available in a wide variety of designs; a few

Figure 35. Conventional and special-purpose drills. 39

Reamers and Core Drills

Figure 36. Commercial types of reamers. 41

Counterbores and Countersinks

Figure 37. Types of counterbores and spot-facers. 43

Power Requirements for Drilling and Reaming

Table 9. Work material factor, K, for drilling

Table 10. Values of k for different numbers of flutes* 49

Figure 38. Tap nomenclature. 52

Figure 39. Common types of milling cutters. 53

Figure 39. Common types of milling cutters. 54

Figure 39. Common types of milling cutters. 55

Figure 39. Common types of milling cutters. 56

 There are two modes of operation for milling cutters. In

Number of Teeth in a Milling Cutter

 Equation 3-30 was developed for calculating the number of

Power requirements for milling

 The total horsepower required at the cutter (Pc) also is given by

 To make available a quick approximation of the total power

Table 11. Milling-machine selector 67

 The metal removal rates in Table 11 may be considered

Table 12. Value of K factor for various

Figure 41. End mills. 70

Figure 42. Nomenclature of hobs. 72

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