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DESIGN IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY

9 IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY

1. INTRODUCTION

Safety means protection from harm, danger, hazard, risk, accident, injury or damage. In an
industrial context, it means the minimization of contact between human and hazard and is
predominantly concerned with the prevention of physical harm (injury) to persons on and
property.
Industrial safety is that condition of enterprise operations in which, by controlling hazards and
risks, accident free production is achieved. Safety is defined as a positive, organized activity or
program based on knowledge of the reaction between man and his working environment, which
aids business enterprise by minimizing death, losses caused by injuries, health impairment,
fires, explosion and other occupational accidents.
Safety is opposite of danger. Freedom from hazards represents absolute safety, but this is an
ideal, which is seldom realized. Safety is rather a matter of protection from hazards. Safety is
a situation with acceptable risks. Thus, safety means to bring or keep the hazard level, below
permissible safe level.
1.2. Why safety is important?
The benefits of maintaining a safe work environment are many, but first and foremost,
"It's the right thing to do". Companies that employ workers must work towards keeping
the workplace safe. Job-related injuries are something that responsible employers avoid.
They take the time and use company resources to make sure that the people who come
to work each day are safe. When a workplace is safe, workers feel more comfortable and
confident when they are in that environment.
Also, productivity gets a boost, and profit margins follow suit. Absenteeism also drops
when employers take steps to implement an effective safety program. Investing in a good
safety program brings with it other benefits too. When employees feel safe in the
workplace, they can focus on serving the company's customers properly. Customers are
quite prepared to move on to another company they feel will be able to help them in a
timelier manner if they are not getting the level of attention that they deserve. Therefore,
a feeling of safety of employees has an indirect effect on company's profitability.
Companies have been bankrupted by legal claims when defending themselves against

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torts alleging wrongful injury or death; the legal fees, alone, can total more than a million
dollars. Workplace injuries and the resulting litigation and insurance cost increases are
often preventable, unnecessary expenses. They are terribly distracting and demoralizing
to a work force.
1.3. Workplace safety
• protects employees and the employer from death or injury.
• teaches workers how to work in a safe environment.
• helps everyone feel safe and happy.
• teaches the workers to pay attention to their surroundings.
The formal safety program is a set of written documents that describe a company's safety
policies, priorities, and responsibilities. The program is designed to bring structure and
consistency into a firm's accident prevention efforts.

2. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY(OHS)

Occupational health and safety are a discipline with a broad scope involving encompasses the
social, mental and physical well-being of workers. It includes the ergonomics, biological,
psychological, and social determinants of OHS.
Occupational health and safety are the discipline concerned with preserving and protecting
human resources in the workplace.
It has the following components:
• Promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being
of workers in all occupations.
• Prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions.
• Protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health.
• Placing and maintenance of a worker in an occupational environment adapted to his
physiological and psychological equipment.
2.1. Objectives of Occupational Health and Safety
Objectives of Occupational Health and Safety The prime objective of OHS at a global level
is to ensure that health and safety is accessible to every worker employed in any sector
across the economy. The World Health Organisation (WHO) since its inception has
included elements of occupational health in its policy. The need to protect the worker
from occupational health hazards and promote safety of all at the workplace has been
emphasized in key documents of WHO.
According to the document, Global Strategy on Occupational Health for all, the ten high
priority objectives proposed by the strategy are as follows:
• Strengthening of international and national policies for health at work and developing
the necessary policy tools.

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• Development of healthy work environment.

• Development of healthy work practices and promotion of health at work.
• Strengthening of OHS.
• Establishing of support services for occupational health.
• Development of occupational health standards based on scientific risk assessment.
• Development of human resources for occupational health.
• Establishment of registration and data systems, development of information services
for experts, effective transmission of data and raising of public awareness through public
information.
• Strengthening of research
• Development of collaboration in occupational health and with other activities and
services.
2.2. Occupational Hazards and Hygiene
2.2.1 Occupational Hazards: An occupational hazard can be defined as a condition that
may adversely affect the well-being or health of the exposed persons. Identification of
hazardous agents and groups of workers potentially exposed to these hazards are
essential to characterize a workplace involving any occupational activity.
Occupational hazards can be divided into two categories: Safety hazards that cause
accidents that physically injure workers, and health hazards that result in the developing
of a disease. It is important to note that a "hazard" only represents the potential to cause
harm. Whether it does harm will depend on circumstances, such as the number of workers
exposed and the degree and duration of exposure. The occurrence or seventy of
occupational disease is related to the exposure to factors on the job or in the water
environment
2.2.2 Occupational Hygiene: Occupational Hygiene can be donned as “the discipline of
anticipating, recognizing evaluation and controlling health hazards in the working
environment with the objective of protecting worker’s health and well-being and
safeguarding the community at large. So, it involves the practice of identifying the
hazardous agents (chemical, physical and biological) in the workplace that could cause
disease or discomfort, evaluating the extent of the risk due to exposure to these
hazardous agents, and the control of those risks to prevent ill-health in the long or short-
term.

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3. ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of

objects, systems and environment for human use. The aim is to ensure that the job must fit
the person in all respects and the work situation should not compromise human capabilities
and limitations. So, ergonomics comes into everything that involves people. Work systems,
sports and leisure, health and safety should all embody ergonomic principles, if well designed.
In broader terms, ergonomics seeks to improve the match between the job and the worker's
physical abilities, information handling and workload capacities. The subject is synonymous
with 'human factors engineering'. a term used in North America.
The objectives of workstation ergonomics are to:
• Fit the workstation to the employee.
• Reduce awkward positions.
• Encourage correct posture
• Identify hazards such as excess glare, noise etc.

Fig. 1 Standing and sitting positions while working

4. FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

Fire is a complex chemical process, and fire investigators must understand the basic chemistry
and physics involved to enable them to formulate opinions based on these scientific principles.
The diffusion flame process (fire) consists of three basic elements: fuel, oxygen, and heat.
The six elements of the life cycle of fire as described by Dawson Powell are input heat, fuel,
oxygen, proportioning, mixing, and ignition continuity. All of these elements are essential for
both the initiation and continuation of the diffusion flame combustion process. The first three
elements--input heat, fuel, and oxygen-are represented by the fire triangle.

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I. Input Heat
Solid or liquid materials do not burn. For combustion to take place, these materials must be
heated sufficiently to produce vapours. It is these vapours which actually burn. The lowest
temperature at which a solid or liquid material produces sufficient vapours to burn under
laboratory conditions is known as the flashpoint. A few degrees above the flashpoint is the
flame point, the temperature at which the fuel will continue to produce sufficient vapours to
sustain a continuous flame. The temperature at which the vapours will ignite is the ignition
temperature, sometimes referred to as the auto ignition temperature. If the source of the heat
is an open flame or spark, it is referred to as piloted ignition.

Fig.2 Fire triangle

II. Fuel
Initially the fuel may be in the form of a gas, liquid, or solid at the ambient temperature. As
discussed previously, liquid and solid fuels must be heated sufficiently to produce vapours. In
general terms, combustible means capable of burning, generally in air under normal conditions
or ambient temperature and pressure, while flammable is defined as capable of burning with a
flame
III. Oxygen
Oxygen in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air contains approximately
79 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. OSHA describes a hazardous atmosphere as one
which is oxygen deficient because it has less than 19.5 percent oxygen, or oxygen enriched
because it has greater than 23.5 percent oxygen. Depending on the type of fuel involved, fires
can occur with much lower volume of oxygen present than needed to support human
respiration.
4.1. Classification of fires
The Bureau of India Standards has classified fires in the following categories according to
the nature of materials of fire:
• Class A fires: Fires involving solid combustible materials like word, paper, textile,
plastic rubber etc.
• Class B fires: Fires involving flammable liquids like oil, greases, petrol, paint, varnish,
thinner etc.
• Class C fires: Fires involving gaseous substances under pressure like liquified
petroleum gas.
• Class D fires: Fires involving metals like magnesium, aluminium, lithium, zinc, sodium,
potassium etc.
• Class E fires: Fires in electrical equipment like generators, transformers etc.

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5. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY IN INDIA

India is one of the world’s fastest growing economies, with estimated annual GDP growth of
7.8 driven by huge expansion in industries such as chemicals, manufacturing, and textiles.
However, while India has had legislation on occupational health and safety for many years,
large sections of the estimated 465 million-strong workforce are not covered by health and
safety law, and safety inspection and enforcement-remain small-scale and piecemeal. As a
result, work-related injury and ill health remain enormous problems eat For instance, in a 2008
report, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimated that in 2003, around 47,000
people were killed in workplace accidents in India and 356,000 others died as a result of
occupational illness.
The constitution of India contains specific provisions on the occupational health and safety of
workers, including a duty on the government to direct its policies towards ensuring "the health
and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children, are not abused".
However, despite this, health and safety laws currently only cover four industry sectors:
• factories,
• mines,
• ports and
• construction,
In many cases, these laws only apply to workplaces of a certain size.
The main health and safety legislation in India is the Factories Act 1948, which is closely
based on the principles and requirements of the UK's Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. In
essence, it places a general duty on factory owners to ensure, as far is reasonably practicable,
the health, safety and welfare of their staff, through steps such as the provision of safe plant
and systems of work, and suitable information, instruction, training and supervision. It also
contains specific duties on issues such as registering factories, maximum working hours,
working temperature, machinery guarding, fire safety and sanitation. In addition, the Act
prohibits the employment of children under 14 in any factory, requires factories employing
more than 1,000 people to appoint internal safety officers and requires factories with more
than 500 workers to appoint welfare officers.
The Act is enforced by local factory inspectorates in India's 28 states, who also have the power
to set their own additional rules under the legislation.
Other major health and safety legislation in India includes:
• The Dock Workers (Safety, Health & Welfare Act) 1986: It covers the health, safety
and welfare aspects of the loading and unloading of cargo, and is enforced by Inspectorates of
Docks Safety at India's 11 major ports
• The Mines Act 1952: It includes requirements for ensuring the health and safety and welfare
of workers in coal, metal and oil mines

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• The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986: It prohibits the employment
of children under 14 in certain specified hazardous processes, including construction work
• The Plantation Labour Act 1951: It requires the provision of welfare facilities and
arrangements on plantations of five hectares or more whore 15 people are employed, including
medical facilities, drinking water, sanitation, maximum working hours and rest periods.
In addition, the Indian construction industry is subject to certain health and safety rules. In
particular, the Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and
Conditions of Service) Act 1996 sets out health, safety and welfare requirements for
construction companies ("establishments") employing 10 or more workers on projects costing
more than Rs. 10 lakh. This includes a requirement to register the construction business with
the relevant authorities, to appoint a safety officer and establish a safety committee where 500
workers or more are employed. Breaches of the Act's health and safety provisions can result
in a fine, imprisonment of up to three months, or both.
Meanwhile, the Building and Other Construction Workers' Welfare Cess Act 1996 allows state
governments and Union Territories to impose a 1% levy (cess) on construction projects costing
more than Rs. 10 lakh to fund state welfare schemes providing financial assistance to workers
and their families in the event of accidents.
In terms of the overall strategy for occupational safety and health and its enforcement, a range
of bodies are involved, a fact which pressure groups say undermines the law's effectiveness
and makes it difficult to coordinate efforts in this area.
In particular, the central government and the Ministry of Labour oversee the formulation of
national policy and legislation, while the Labour Departments of India's 28 States and seven
Union Territories are responsible for implementing and enforcing the Factories Act through their
factory inspectorates.
Meanwhile, the Directorate General, Factory Advice Services and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI)
- an agency of the central government - advises on the formulation of national health and
safety policies for factories and docks and liaises with the state factory inspectorates on
implementation of the Factories Act. DGFASLI also enforces health and safety legislation in
India's 11 major ports, though its Inspectorates of Docks Safety.
Responsibility for health and safety in mines, meanwhile, rests with the Directorate General of
Mines Safety (DGMA), and state governments are responsible for enforcing the Plantation
Labour Act 1951.
5.1. Compensation for Injury and ill Health
India also has legislation allowing certain workers and their families to claim
compensation for work-related injury and ill health. In particular, under the Employees
Compensation Act 1923 (previously the Workmen's Compensation Act 1923), employers
in charge of factories, mines, plantations, construction work, "mechanically propelled

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vehicles" and certain other hazardous occupations must pay compensation to employees
and their dependents in the case of work- related fatalities and serious injuries and certain
occupational accidents. The maximum amount that can be paid under the Act is currently
10.97 Iakh. Meanwhile, the Employees State Insurance Act 1948 (ESI) is a social security
scheme that provides health care and cash benefit payments in the event of employment
injury (including certain occupational diseases), sickness and maternity to employees
working in "non-seasonal" factories that use power and employ 100( more employees.
Funded by contributions from employers and employers, the ESI scheme provides
medical care for injured workers and pensions to the dependents of those who die of
work-related injury and ill health. In March 2011, 15 million people were insured under
the scheme (the highest figure recorded), a further 60 million were beneficiaries and a
total of 440,000 factories and other "establishments" fell within its scope.
5.2. The Factories Act-1948
It extends to the whole of India and came into force on April 1949.
As per Section 2 (m) of the Act a 'Factory' means any premises including precincts there
of
(i) Whereon ten or more workers are working or were working on any day of the preceding
in any part of which a manufacturing process is being carried cm with the aid of power or
is ordinarily so carried on, or twelve months,
(ii) Whereon twenty or more workers are working, or wore working on any day of which
a manufacturing process is being carried on without the aid of power or is ordinarily so
carried on.
In the aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy in December 1984, a now chapter (Chapter-
IV-A) on "provisions relating to hazardous processes" was included in the Act in 1987.
The added provisions deal with constitution of Site-Appraisal Committees, responsibility
of the Occupier in relation to hazardous processes, emergency standards and permissible
limits of exposure of chemicals and toxic substances. It also provides for workers
participation in Safety Management. Some of the important sections of the chapter
'Health' and 'Safety' of the Factories Act are discussed herewith.
5.2.1 Health Section
Section-11: Cleanliness
• Every factory shall be kept clean and free from effluvial arising from any drain, privy or
other nuisance particularly accumulation of dirt,
Section-12: Disposal of Wastes and Effluents
• Effective arrangements shall be made in every factory for the treatment of wastes and
effluents due to the manufacturing process carried on therein, so as to render them
innocuous, and for their disposal.

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Section-13: Ventilation and Temperature

• Effective and suitable provisions shall be made in every workroom of the factory for
securing and maintaining adequate ventilation by the circulation of fresh air and
maintaining a temperature which will provide reasonable conditions of comfort to the
workers and prevent injury to health.
Section-14: Dust and Fume
• In every factory in which, by reason of the manufacturing processes carried on, if there
is any dust or fume or other impurity of such a nature and extent with likelihood to cause
injury to the workers, effective measures shall be taken to prevent its inhalation and
accumulation in any workroom.
Section-15: Artificial Humidification
• In respect of factories in which the humidity of the air is artificially increased, the State
Government may make rules, prescribing standards of humidification, regulating the
methods used for artificially increasing the humidity of the air; directing prescribed tests
for determining the humidity of the air to be correctly carried out and recorded,
prescribing methods to be adopted for securing adequate ventilation and cooling of the
air in the workrooms.
• In any factory in which the humidity of the air is artificially increased, the water used
for the purpose shall be taken from a public supply, or other source of drinking water, or
shall be effectively purified before it is so used.
Section-16: Overcrowding
• No room in any factory shall be overcrowded to an extent injurious to the health of the
workers employed therein.
Section-17: Lighting
• in very part of a factory, where workers are working or passing, there shall be provided
and maintained with sufficient and suitable lighting, natural or artificial, or both.]
Section-18: Drinking Water
• In every factory. effective arrangements shall be made to provide and maintain
sufficient supply of wholesome drinking water at suitable points conveniently situated for
all workers employed therein.
Section-19: Latrines and Urinals
• In every factory, sufficient latrine and urinal accommodation of prescribed types shall
be provided at convenient and accessible locations to the workers at all times while they
are at the factory.
Section-20: Spittoons
• Every factory shall be provided with a sufficient number of spittoons in convenient
places and they shall be maintained in a clean and hygienic condition.

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5.2.2 Safety
Section-21: Fencing of Machinery
• The moving parts of the prime mover, flywheel, any part of the stock bar which project
beyond the head stock of a lathe, every part of an electric generator, transmission
machinery and every dangerous part of machinery shall be securely fenced by suitable
guards of sturdy construction.
Section-22: Working on or Near Machinery in Motion
• If in any factory, it is necessary to examine or carry out any adjustment or to lubricate
or shift the belt of any parts of machinery in motion, such examination or operation shall
be carried out only by a specially trained adult male worker by wearing tight fitting
clothes. Secured foothold and handhold shall be provided for the operator.
Section-23: Employment of Young Persons on Dangerous Machines
• No young person shall work on machines unless he has received sufficient training in
work at the machine or he is under adequate supervision of a person who has thorough
knowledge and experience of the machine.
Section-26: Casing of New Machinery
• Every setscrew, bolt or key on any revolving shaft, spindle wheel or pinion shall be
effectively guarded. Similarly, all spur, worm and other gears which do not require
frequent adjustment shall be completely encased or covered.
Section-28: Hoists and Lifts
• Every hoist and lift shall be of good mechanical construction and shall be thoroughly
examined by a competent person at least once in six months and a register shall be kept
containing the particulars of every examination. The maximum safe working load shall be
plainly marked on every hoist and lift and no load greater than such load shall be carried.
Section-29: Lifting Machines Chains, Ropes and Lifting Tackles
•All parts of the lifting machines and every chain, rope or lifting tackles shall be of good
construction. They shall be properly maintained and thoroughly examined by a competent
person at least once n twelve months and a register shall be kept containing particulars
of every examination.
Section-31: Pressure Plant
• If in any factory any part of the plant or machinery used in manufacturing process is
operated at a pressure factory, above any atmospheric pressure, effective measures shall
be taken to ensure that the safe working pressure of such part is not exceeded.
Section-32: Floors, Stairs and Means of Access
• All floors, steps, stairs, passages shall be of sound construction and kept free from
obstructions/and where it is necessary to ensure safety, steps, stairs, passages and
gangways shall be provided with handrails.

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Section-33: Pits, Sumps and Openings in Floors

• All pits, sumps and openings in the floors shall be securely covered or fenced.
Section-34: Excessive Weights
• No persons shall be employed in the factory to carry lift or move excess load which may
cause any injury to him.
Section-35: Protection of Eyes
• Effective screens or suitable goggles shall be provided for protection of eyes of the
person who is involved in a process or in the immediate vicinity of the process which
involves:
(a) Risk of injury to the eyes from particles or fragments thrown off in the course of
process, or
(b) Risk to the eyes by reason of exposure to excessive light.
Section-36: Precautions against Dangerous Fumes
• No person shall enter any tank, vessel, pipe or any confined space in a factory where
dangerous fumes are likely to be present unless that tank and vessels provided with the
manholes of adequate size or other effective means of egress. Similarly, the workers shall
wear suitable breathing apparatus and a belt securely attached to a rope, the free end of
which is held by a person outside the confined space.
Section-36A: Precautions regarding the use of Portable Electric Light
• No portable electric light or other appliance of voltage exceeding 24 V shall be permitted
to be used inside any chamber, tank, pipe or other confined space.
Section-40-B: Safety Officers
• In every factory (a) where in one thousand or more workers are ordinarily employed,
or (b) wherein, any manufacturing process or operation is carried out which involves any
risk of bodily injury, poisoning or disease or any other hazard to health, to the persons
employed in the factory, then such number of Safety Officers shall be employed as
prescribed.
Section-87: Dangerous Operations
• Where any process or operation carried on in a factory exposes persons employed in it
to a serious risk of bodily injury, poisoning or disease, then rules providing precautions
to be observed during process or operation shall be made.
Section-88: Notice of Certain Accidents
• Where in any factory an accident occurs which causes death or any bodily injury by
reason of which the person injured is prevented from working for a period of forty eight
hours or more immediately following the accident, the factory manager shall send notice
to the authorities, in such form and within such as prescribed by State Government.

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Section-88A: Notice of Certain Dangerous Occurrences

• In any factory. if there is any dangerous occurrence causing any bodily injury or
disability or not, the factory manager shall send notice to the authorities. Works at height
and entries into confiner areas have been restricted through work permits and detailed
procedures.

6. SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION

The construction industry stands second in terms of its contribution India’s economy, only after
agriculture. It is highly labour-intensive industry and provides employed to a large rural
population. At the same time, it is also one of the most hazardous industries and is generally
known for a relatively high number of work-related accidents. Deadly construction accidents
are quite common in India where the rules and procedures are often disregarded. Statistical
data related to occupational injuries and fatalities are not available for because the industry is
widely disorganized. There is neither a dependable system available nor any organisation to
monitor the accident rates. The workers in this industry are comprised mostly of illiterate people
who do not understand the risks to which they are exposed, and also, they are uniformed about
their rights. This makes it expedient for contractors to exploit these workers to improve
profitability.
Due to globalisation, there have been an increased number of international companies taking
up infrastructure’s projects in India. Construction is a high hazard industry that comprises a
wide range of activities involving construction, alteration, and/or repair. Examples include
residential construction, bridge erection, roadway paving, excavations, demolitions, and large-
scale painting jobs. Construction workers engage in many activities that may expose them to
serious hazards, such as falling from rooftops. unguarded machinery, being struck by heavy
construction equipment, electrocutions, silica dust, and asbestos.
The loading safety hazards on construction sites include falls, caught between objects,
electrocutions, and struck by objects. All four of those hazards have caused injuries and deaths
throughout the world of construction sites. Failures in hazard identification are often due to
limited or improper training and supervision of the construction site workers. Failure in any of
these areas can result in an increased risk in exposing workers to harm in the construction
environment. Most accidents stem from a combination of:
(i) Management's failure to implement adequate safety measures to protect workers against
(ii) Potential hazards in the working environment and (iii) The many unsafe acts committed by
workers themselves. Construction-project features, such as the project nature, method

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6.1. Major Hazards and Risks

The main hazards and risks of accidents in the construction sector can be categorized and
described in the following way:
• Slips, Trips and Falls.
• Risks in trenching and excavations.
• Risks related to construction machinery.
• Electric shock and arc flash/arc blast.
• Failure to use proper personal protective equipment
• Repetitive motion injuries.
6.2. Risks Related to Construction Machinery
Risks from construction machinery depend upon the type of equipment under
consideration (e.g. earthmoving equipment, lifting equipment, etc.) and the work
activities.
Risks related to earthmoving equipment (backhoes, loader shovel excavators, etc.,
including their accessories) may include: roll-over of the equipment, objects falling onto
the equipment, and from malfunctioning safety and other warning devices, etc.
The risks related to lifting equipment (e.g. tower cranes, mobile cranes, etc., including
accessories such as slings) may include: workers falling from height during the
installation, operation and dismantling of the equipment, collapse of the equipment during
use due to overloading or during erection and dismantling, and failures due to poor
slinging techniques, etc.
Demonstrable operator competence following training specific to the machinery, proper
planning and supervision of the work, and effective inspection, maintenance and repair
arrangements are some of the measures that can be taken to reduce the likelihood of
accidents.
A. Cranes
Hazard: Significant and serious injuries may occur if cranes are not inspected before use
and if they are not used properly. Often these injuries occur when a worker is struck by
an overhead load or caught within the crane’s swing radius. Many crane fatalities occur
when the boom of a crane or its load line contact and overhead power line.
Guidelines:
• Check all crane controls lo insure proper operation before use.
• Raise the load a few inches to verify balance and the effectiveness of the brake system.
• Check all rigging prior to use; do not wrap hoist ropes or chains around the load.
• Fully extend outriggers,
• Do not move a load over workers.
• Barricade accessible areas within the crane's swing radius.

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• Watch for overhead electrical distribution and transmission lines and maintain a safe
working clearer of at least '10 feet from energized electrical lines.
• The upper rotating structure supporting the boom and materials being handled is
provided with an electrical ground while working near energized transmitter towers.
• Rated load capacities, operating speed and instructions are posted and visible to the
operator.
• Cranes are equipped with a load chart.
• The operator can determine the angle and length of the crane boom at all times.
• Crane machinery and other rigging equipment is inspected daily prior to use to make
sure that it is good condition.
• Tag lines are used to prevent dangerous swing or spin of materials when raised or
lowered by a crane or derrick.
• Illustrations of hand signals to crane and derrick operators are posted on the job site.
• The signal person uses correct signals for the crane operator to follow.
• Crane platforms and walkways have antiskid surfaces. Broken, worn or damaged wire
rope is removed from service.
• Guardrails, hand holds and steps are provided for safe and easy access to and from all
areas of the crane.
• Only properly trained and qualified operators are allowed to work with hoisting and
rigging equipment.
B. Forklifts
• Forklift truck operators are competent to operate these vehicles safely as demonstrated
by their successful completion of training and evaluation.
• No employee under 18 years old is allowed to operate a forklift,
• Forklifts are inspected daily for proper condition of brakes, horns, steering, forks and
tires.
• Written approval from the truck manufacturer is obtained for any modification or
additions which affect capacity and safe operation of the vehicle.
• Precautions are taken to prevent open flames, sparks or electric arcs in battery charging
areas.
• Refresher training is provided and an evaluation is conducted whenever a forklift
operator has been observed operating the vehicle in an unsafe manner and when an
operator is assigned to drive a different type of truck.
• Load and forks are fully lowered, controls neutralized, power shut off and brakes set
when a powered industrial truck is left unattended.
• There is sufficient headroom for the forklift and operator under overhead installations,
sprinkler systems, etc.

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• Overhead guards are in place to protect the operator against falling objects.
• Train and certify all operators to ensure that they operate forklifts safely.
• Properly maintain haulage equipment, including tires.
• Examine forklift truck for defects before using.
• Follow safe operating procedures for picking up, moving, putting down and stacking
loads.
• Drive safely—never exceed 5 mph and slow-down in congested or slippery surface
areas.
• Prohibit stunt driving and horseplay.
• Do not handle loads that are heavier than the capacity of the industrial truck.
• Remove unsafe or defective forklift trucks from service. Operators shall always wear
seatbelts.
• Avoid traveling with elevated loads.
• Assure that rollover protective structure is in place.
• Make certain that the reverse signal alarm is operational and audible above the
surrounding noise level.
6.3. Risks Related to Electricity
The major risks related to electricity are electrocutions and burns. Many deaths and
injuries arise from:
• use of poorly maintained electrical equipment
• work near overhead power lines
• contact with underground power cables during excavation work or horizontal boring or
drilling
• mains electricity supplies
• use of unsuitable electrical equipment in explosive areas
• fires started by poor electrical installations and faulty electrical appliances
• untested worksite distribution boards and defective residual-current-operated
protective devices.
Working near high voltage power lines (including systems in buildings, overhead power
lines or underground cables) can cause serious and fatal injuries due to direct contact
with live lines or arcing from those lines to nearby equipment. A wide range of voltages
can cause electrical injuries, but the risk of injury is generally greater with higher
voltages. Alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) electrical supplies can cause a
range of injuries including electric shock, electrical burns, loss of muscle control, thermal
burns, etc.

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6.4. Trenching and Excavations

Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations. OSHA
defines an excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's
surface formed by earth removal. A trench is defined as a narrow underground excavation
that is deeper than it is wide, and is no wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters). Trench collapses
cause dozens of fatalities and hundreds of injuries each year. Cave-ins pose the greatest
risk and are much more likely than other excavation related accidents to result in worker
fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and
incidents involving mobile equipment. Trench collapses cause dozens of fatalities and
hundreds of injuries each year.
Guidelines:
• Never enter an unprotected trench.
• Always use a protective system for trenches 5 feet deep or greater.
• Employ a registered professional engineer to design a protective system for trenches
20 feet deep. greater.
6.5. Ladders and Stairways
Ladders and stairways are another source of injuries and fatalities among construction.
Slips, trips and falls on stairways are a major source of injuries and fatalities among
construction workers.
Guidelines for using Ladders and stairways:
• Use the correct ladder for the task.
• Have a competent person visually inspect a ladder before use for any defects such as:
• Structural damage, split/bent side rails, broken or missing rungs/steps/cleats and
missing or damaged safety devices;
• Grease, dirt or other contaminants that could cause slips or falls:
• Paint or stickers (except warning labels) that could hide possible defects
• Make sure that ladders are long enough to safely reach the work area
• Mark or tag ("Do Not Use") damaged or defective ladders for repair or replacement, or
destroy them immediately.
• Never load ladders beyond the maximum intended load or beyond the manufacturer's
rated capacity.
• Be sure the load rating can support the weight of the user, including materials and
tools.
• Avoid using ladders with metallic components near electrical work and overhead power
lines.
• Stairway treads and walkways must be free of dangerous objects, debris and materials.
• Slippery conditions on stairways and walkways must be corrected immediately.
• Make sure that treads cover the entire step and landing.
• Stairways having four or more risers or rising more than 30 inches must have at least
one handrail.

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7. SAFETY CHECKLISTS

The following checklists may help you take steps to avoid hazards that cause injuries, illnesses
and fatalities. As always, be cautious and seek help if you are concerned about a potential
hazard.
7.1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Eye and Face Protection

Fig.3 Face and Eye covering equipment

• Safety glasses or face shields are worn anytime work operations can cause foreign
objects getting into the eye such as during welding, cutting, grinding, nailing (or when
working with concrete and/or harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles).
• Eye and face protectors are selected based on anticipated hazards.
• Safety glasses or face shields are worn when exposed to any electrical hazards including
work on energized electrical systems.
Foot Protection
• Construction workers should wear work shoes or boots with slip-resistant and puncture-
resistant soles.

• Safety-toed footwear is worn to prevent crushed toes when working around heavy
equipment or falling objects.
Hand Protection
• Gloves should fit snugly.

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• Workers wear the right gloves for the job (for example, heavy-duty rubber gloves for
concrete work, welding gloves for welding, insulated gloves and sleeves when exposed to
electrical hazards).
Head Protection
A head injury can impair an employee for life or it can be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet
or hard hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee’s head from injury. Hard
hats can protect employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from
electrical shock and burn hazards. Employers must ensure that their employees wear
head protection if any of the following apply:
• Object might fall from above and strike them on the head;
• They might fall from above and strike them on the head;
• There is a possibility of accidental head contact with electrical hazards
Construction is worldwide one of the most hazardous industries. And even though in many
countersuing efforts have been done to improve safety performance, the construction
sector continuous to lag behind most other industries. Construction should be stimulated
to benchmark its safety practices and performances against other industries, and greater
opportunity should be taken to learn from failure. With implementation of accident
investigation procedures in order to reveal contributing factors earlier in the causal cain.
As the world has become smaller through technology and through cooperative, border-
crossing arrangements, construction worker safety has become a concern that is shared
worldwide. Because construction safety problems are very similar from country to
country, they can be addressed and solved on a global scale solutions to safety problems
in one country can, in this regard, readily be adopted in other countries to generate
further improvements.

8. SAFETY IN DEMOLITION

Safety and health officers often face a sombre task as they identify and document the violation
of safety and health standards which load up to the latest worker tragedy. However, the
hazards of demolition work can be controlled and eliminated with the proper planning, the right
personal protective equipment, necessary training, and compliance with OSHA standards.
Demolition is the dismantling, razing, destroying or wrecking of any building or structure or
any part thereof. Demolition work involves additional hazards due to unknown factors, which
makes demolition work particularly dangerous.
These may include:
• Changes from the structure's design introduced during construction.
• Approved or unapproved modifications that altered the original design.

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• Materials hidden within structural members, such as lead, asbestos, silica, and heavy metals
requiring special material handling.
• Unknown strengths or weaknesses of construction materials, such as post-tensioned
concrete.
• Hazards created by the demolition methods used, To combat these, everyone at a demolition
worksite must be fully aware of the hazards they may encounter and the safety precautions
they must take to protect themselves and their employees. Demolition hazards are addressed
in specific standards for the construction industry.
8.1. Hazards in Demolition
Proper planning is essential to ensure a demolition operation is conducted with no
accidents or injuries. This includes, but is not limited to:
• An engineering survey completed by a competent person before any demolition work
takes place. This should include the condition of the structure and the possibility of an
unplanned collapse,
• Locating, securing, and/or relocating any nearby utilities. • Fire prevention and
evacuation plan. • First Aid and Emergency Medical Services. • An assessment of health
hazards completed before any demolition work takes place.
The employer must determine what personal protective equipment (PPE) will be:
• Eye, face, head, hand, foot protection
• Respiratory protection
• Hearing protection personal Fall Arrest Systems (PEAS)
• Other protective clothing (for example, cutting or welding operations)
It is not enough to provide PPE. Employees must be trained on the selection, use, fitting,
inspection, maintenance, and storage of PPE. Demolition work involves many of the same
hazards that arise during other construction activities. However, demolition also involves
additional hazards due to a variety of other factors. Some of these include: lead-based
paint, sharp or protruding objects and asbestos-containing material.
8.2. Demolition Safety
• Brace or shore up the walls and floors of structures which have been damaged and
which employees must enter.
• Inspect personal protective equipment (PPE) before use.
• Select, wear and use appropriate PPE for the task.
• Inspect all stairs, passageways, and ladders; illuminate all stairways.
• Shut off or cap all electric, gas, water, steam, sewer, and other service lines; notify
appropriate utility companies.
• Guard wall openings to a height of 42 inches; cover and secure floor openings with
material able to withstand the loads likely to be imposed.

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• Floor openings used for material disposal must not be more than 25% of the total floor
area.
• Use enclosed chutes with gates on the discharge end to drop demolition material to the
ground or into debris containers.
• Demolition of exterior walls and floors must begin at the top of the structure and
proceed downward.
• Structural or load-supporting members on any floor must not be cut or removed until
all stories above that floor have been removed.
• All roof cornices or other ornamental stonework must be removed prior to pulling walls
down.
• Employees must not be permitted to work where structural collapse hazards exist until
they are corrected by shoring, bracing, or other effective means.

9. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Hazardous-waste management: The collection, treatment, and disposal of waste material that,
when improperly handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the
environment. Hazardous wastes can take the form of solids, liquids, sludge, or contained gases,
and they are generated primarily due to chemical production, manufacturing, and other
industrial activities. They may cause damage during inadequate storage, transportation,
treatment, or disposal operations. Improper hazardous-waste storage or disposal frequently
contaminates surface and groundwater supplies. People living in homes built near old and
abandoned waste disposal sites may be in a particularly vulnerable position. In an effort to
remedy existing problems and to prevent future harm from hazardous wastes, governments
closely regulate the practice of hazardous-waste management.
9.1. Hazardous-Waste Characteristics
Hazardous wastes are classified on the basis of their biological, chemical, and physical
pro properties. These generate materials that are either toxic, reactive, ignitable,
corrosive, infectious, or radioactive
• Toxic wastes are poisons, even in very small or trace amounts. They may have acute
effects causing death or violent illness, or they may have chronic effects, slowly causing
irreparable harm, some are carcinogenic, causing cancer after many years of exposure.
Others are mutagenic. causing major biological changes in the offspring of exposed
humans and wildlife.
• Reactive wastes are chemically unstable and react violently with air or water. They
cause explosions or form toxic vapours.
• Ignitable wastes burn at relatively low temperatures and may cause an immediate
fire hazard.

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• Corrosive wastes include strong acidic or alkaline substances. They destroy solid
material and living tissue upon contact, by chemical reaction.
• Infectious wastes include used bandages, hypodermic needles, and other materials
from hospitals or biological research facilities.
• Radioactive wastes emit ionizing energy that can harm living organisms. Because
some radioactive materials can persist in the environment for many thousands of years
before fully decaying, there is much concern over the control of these wastes. However,
the handling and disposal of radioactive material is not a responsibility of local municipal
government. Because of the scope and complexity of the problem, the management of
radioactive waste-particularly nuclear fission waste-is usually considered an engineering
task separate from other forms of hazardous-waste management.
9.2. Transport of Hazardous Waste
Hazardous waste generated at a particular site often requires transport to an approved
treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential threats to public
safety and the environment, transport is given special attention by governmental
agencies. In addition to the occasional accidental spill, hazardous waste has, in the past,
been intentionally spilled or abandoned at random locations in a practice known as
"midnight dumping". This practice has been greatly curtailed by the enactment of laws
that require proper labelling, transport, and tracking of all hazardous wastes.
Hazardous waste is generally transported by truck over public highways. Only a very
small amount is transported by rail, and almost none is moved by air or inland waterway.
Highway shipment is the most common because road vehicles can gain access to most
industrial sites and approved TSDFs. Railroad trains require expensive siding facilities and
are suitable only for very large waste shipments.
9.2.1 The Manifest System
In the United States a key feature of regulations pertaining to waste transport is the
"cradle-to-grave' manifest system, which monitors the journey of hazardous waste from
its point of origin to the point of final disposal. The manifest system helps to eliminate
the problem of midnight dumping. It also provides a means for determining the type and
quantity of hazardous waste being generated, as well as the recommended emergency
procedures in case of an accidental spill. A manifest is a record-keeping document that
must be prepared by the generator of the hazardous waste, such as a chemical
manufacturer: The generator has primary responsibility for the ultimate disposal of the
waste and must give the manifest, along with the waste itself, to a licensed waste
transporter. A copy of the manifest must be delivered by the sporter to the recipient of
the waste at an authorized TSDF. Each time the waste changes hands, a copy of the
manifest must be signed. Copies of the manifest are kept by each party involved, and
additional copies are sent to appropriate environmental agencies.

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In the event of a leak or accidental spill of hazardous waste during its transport, the
transporter must take mediate and appropriate actions, including notifying local
authorities of the discharge. An area may have to be diked to contain the wastes, and
efforts must be undertaken to remove the wastes and reduce environmental or public
health hazards.
9.3. Treatment, Storage and Disposal
Several options are available for hazardous-waste management. The most desirable is to
reduce the Quantity of waste at its source or to recycle the materials for some other
productive use. Nevertheless, while reduction and recycling are desirable options, they
are not regarded as the final remedy to the problem of hazardous-waste disposal. There
will always be a need for treatment and for storage or disposal of some amount of
hazardous waste.
9.3.1 Treatment
Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical methods.
Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and
neutralization. Thermal method is high-temperature incineration, which not only can
detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them. Special types of thermal
equipment are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid, or sludge form. These include
the fluidized-bed incinerator, multiple-hearth furnace, rotary kiln, and liquid-injection
incinerator. One problem posed by hazardous-waste incineration is the potential for air
pollution.
Biological treatment of certain organic wastes, such as those from the petroleum
industry, is also an option. One method used to treat hazardous waste biologically is
called landfarming. In this technique, the waste is carefully mixed with surface soil on a
suitable tract of land. Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with
nutrients. In some cases, a genetically engineered species of bacteria is used. Food or
forage crops are not grown on the same site. Microbes can also be used for stabilizing
hazardous wastes on previously contaminated sites; in that case the process is called
bioremediation.
Physical treatment concentrates, solidifies, or reduces the volume of the waste.
Physical processes include evaporation, sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet
another process is solidification, which is achieved by encapsulating the waste in concrete,
asphalt, or plastic. Encapsulation produces a solid mass of material that is resistant to
leaching. Waste can also be mixed with lime, fly ash, and water to form a solid, cement
like product.

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9.3.2 Surface Storage and Land Disposal

Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration or other chemical processes
need to be disposed off properly. For most such wastes, land disposal is the ultimate
destination, although it is not an attractive practice, because of the inherent
environmental risks involved. Two basic methods of land disposal include landfilling and
underground injection. Prior to land disposal, surface storage or containment systems are
often employed as a temporary method.
A common type of temporary storage impoundment for hazardous liquid waste is an open
pit or holding pond, called a lagoon. New lagoons must be lined with impervious clay soils
and flexible membrane liners
in order to protect groundwater. Leachate collection systems must be installed between
the linear, and groundwater monitoring wells are required. Except for some
sedimentation, evaporation of volatile organics. and possibly some surface aeration. open
lagoons provide no treatment of the waste. Accumulated sludge must be removed
periodically and subjected to further handling as a hazardous waste.
Many older, unlined waste piles and lagoons are located above aquifers used for public
water supply, thus posing significant risks to public health and environmental quality. A
large number of these old sites have been identified and scheduled for clean-up, or
remediation.
9.3.3 Remedial Action
Disposal of hazardous waste in unlined pits, ponds, or lagoons poses a threat to human
health and environmental quality. Many such uncontrolled disposal sites were used in the
past and have been abandoned. Depending on a determination of the level of risk, it may
be necessary to remediate those sites. In some cases, the risk may require emergency
action. In other instances, engineering studies may be required to assess the situation
thoroughly before remedial action is undertaken.
One option for remediation is to completely remove all the waste material from the site
and transport it to another location for treatment and proper disposal. This so-called off-
site solution is usually the most expensive option. An alternative is on-site remediation,
which reduces the production of leachate and lessens the chance of groundwater
contamination. On-site remediation may include temporary removal of the hazardous
waste, construction of a secure landfill on the same site, and proper replacement of the
waste. It may also include treatment of any contaminated soil or groundwater. Treated
soil may be replaced on-site and treated groundwater returned to the aquifer by deep-
well injection.

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A less costly alternative is full containment of the waste. This is done by placing an
impermeable cover over the hazardous-waste site and by blocking the lateral flow of
groundwater with subsurface cut off-walls. It is possible to use cut-off walls for this
purpose when there is a natural layer of impervious soil or rock below the site. The walls
are constructed around the perimeter of the site, deep enough to penetrate to the
impervious layer. They can be excavated as trenches around the site without moving or
disturbing the waste material. The trenches are filled with a bentonite clay slurry to
prevent their collapse during construction. and they are backfilled with a mixture of soil
and cement that solidifies to form an impermeable barrier.
Cut-off walls thus serve as vertical barriers to the flow of water, and the impervious layer
serves as a barrier at the bottom.

10. ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Places of work generally have power nominally supplied at 230 volt (single phase) and 400
volts (3 phase) although some larger workplaces will receive electricity at a higher supply
voltage. The information below relates to workplaces using 230 and 400 volts supplies. The
main hazards with electricity are:
• contact with live parts causing shock and burns
• faults which could cause fires.
• fire or explosion where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially flammable
or explosive atmosphere, e.g. in a spray paint booth.
• The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used and there is
greater risk in wet and/or damp conditions.
10.1. Basics of Contact with Electricity
It is the level of voltage the body is exposed to and the resistance to flow of electrical
current offered by the body that determines the impact of exposure to electricity. The
following factors determine the severity of the effect electric shock has on the body:
• The level of voltage
• The amount of body resistance you have to the current flow
• The path the current takes through your body
• The length of time the current flows through your body
If a worker has come into contact with electricity the worker may not be able to remove
themselves from the electrical source. The human body is a good conductor of
electricity. If you touch a person while they are in contact with the electrical source, the
electricity will flow through your body causing electrical shock. Firstly, attempt should
be made to turn off the source of the electricity (disconnect). If the electrical source
cannot readily and safely be turned off, use a nonconducting object, such as a fibreglass
object or a wooden pole, to remove the person from the electrical source.

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It is an Employers' responsibility to ensure:

Extension cables and other flexible leads which are particularly prone to damage to
plugs and sockets and to their connections are visually checked, maintained and where
necessary replaced before using portable equipment. The ends of flexible cables should
always have the outer sheath of the cable firmly clamped to stop the wires (particularly
the earth) pulling out of the terminals
• Use the correct cable connectors or couplers to join lengths of cables together and do
not allow taped joints.
• Electrical installations are installed and maintained by a competent person and
checked regularly
• Socket Outlets are not overloaded by the use of adaptors
• Electrically powered equipment provided is suitable for use
• Fixed electrical equipment should have a clearly identified switch to cut off power in
an emergency
• Portable equipment labelled as being double insulated has had the live and neutral
connected properly to the plug by a competent person unless the plug is of a moulded
type If there is potential for an explosive atmosphere then specialist electrical equipment
is required.
10.2. Controlling the Risk
• Reduce the Voltage of portable equipment is available that is powered from a 110
volt supply through a single transformer and these are often centre lapped to earth
so that the maximum voltage between a live conductor and earth (the most common
cause of electric shocks from equipment) is limited to 55V.
• Battery operated tools such as drills, screwdrivers etc. can replace mains powered
equipment
• Temporary and hand hold lighting can be provided 12, 25, 50 or 110 volts.
10.3. Carry Out Preventive Maintenance
All electrical equipment and installations should be maintained to prevent danger.
• This should include an appropriate system of visual inspection and, where necessary,
testing. By concentrating on a simple, inexpensive system of looking for visible signs of
damage or faults, most of the electrical risks can be controlled.
• It is recommended that fixed installations are inspected and tested periodically by a
competent person. The frequency of inspections and any necessary testing will depend
on the type of installation, how often it is used, and the environment in which it is used.
• Users can help by reporting any damage or defects they find.
• Ensure that people who are working with electricity are competent to do the job. Even
simple tasks such as wiring a plug can lead to danger - ensure that people know what
they are doing before they start.

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