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ENGINEERING DRAWING DESIGN AND SAFETY

1 INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Before manufacturing any product, it goes through many stages like drawing, designing.
Thus, Engineering drawing is the graphical representation of the product to be manufactured
or designed. It must contain all the information required to understand its physical appearance.
To draw any of given dimension, some instruments are required. Drawing instruments are
those instruments which are used to prepare drawings easily and accurately. With good quality
of instruments, required accuracy can be achieved.
Thus
Below is the list of some drawing instruments
1. Drawing board
3. Set-squares — 45° and 30°- 60°
5. Scales
7. French curves
9. Drawing pencils
11. Drafting machine
2. T-square
4. Drawing instrument box
6. Protractor
8. Eraser (Rubber)
10. Drawing pins, clips or adhesive tapes
12. Roll-n-draw.
13. Divider
T-square - T-square is made up of hard-quality wood which is used for making horizontal lines
& Testing of the set squares.
It consists of two parts, the stock and the blade joined together at right angles to each other
as shown in figure.

Fig.1: T-Square

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SET-SQUARES - Set-square is a drawing instruments triangular in shape with one of the

angles as 90°.
Two most commonly used set squares are 30°-60° set-square & 45° set-square.
30°-60° set-square is used to draw lines at angle of 30° , 60° , 90° whereas 45° set squares
are used to draw lines at angle of 45° & 90°.

Fig.2: Set Square

Applications:
Since set squares are available in 30°, 60°, 45°, & 90° thus by using both the set square, we
can draw the lines at which are at angle of 15°.
A circle can be divided in six, eight, twelve and twenty-four equal parts by using set-squares
and T-square by marking the points at angle of 60°, 45°,30°, 15° respectively.
DRAWING INSTRUMENT BOX
The drawing instrument box contains the following
(1) Compass - The compass is used for drawing circles and arcs of circles.

Fig.3: Compass

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(2) Lengthening bar - Circles of more than 150 mm radius are drawn with the help of the
lengthening bar.
(3) Large-size divider – Dividers are used to divide curved or straight lines into desired
number of equal parts & to transfer dimensions from one part of the drawing to another part
(4) Small bow divider - The small bow divider is used to make small divisions.
(6) Small bow ink-pen
(7) Inking pen.
SCALE
Scale is a tool generally made up of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic or card board & used to
measure true or relative dimensions of an object to the drawing.
Scales may be flat or of triangular cross-section having dimensions 15 cm long and 2 cm wide
or 30 cm long and 3 cm wide.
Generally divisions in a scale are in centimetres, which are sub-divided into millimetres.

Fig.4: Scales
PROTRACTOR
Protractor is a drawing tool to measure the angles which can not be measured by set square.
They are flat and circular or semi-circular in shape & made of wood, tin or celluloid. Protractors
of transparent celluloid are in common use.
The most common type of protractor is semi-circular having 100 mm diameter having the least
count of 1°, is numbered at every 10° interval as shown in figure.
The diameter of the semi-circle (viz. straight line 0-1800) is called the base of the protractor.

Fig.5: Protractor

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Use - A circle can be divided into any number of equal parts by means of the protractor.

FRENCH CURVES

French curves are drafting instruments which are used for drawing smooth curves or to connect

the given points in smoothly.

Freehand curves are first drawn through the known points & longest possible curves exactly

coinciding with the freehand curve are then found out from the french curve. Finally, neat

continuous curve is drawn with the aid of the french curve.

Fig.6: French curve

DRAWING PAPERS

Good quality of paper with smooth surface and having uniform are considered as Drawing

Paper.

The standard sizes of drawing papers recommended by the Bureau of India Standards (B.I.S.).

are given in table

Area of A0 size is 1m 2. Successive format sizes (from A0 to A5) can obtained by multiplying

the size by 2.

Sheet Designation Size of Sheet(mm)

A0 841 × 1189

A1 594 × 841

A2 420 × 594

A3 297 × 420

A4 210 × 297

A5 148 × 210

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Fig.7: Size of Sheet

DRAWING PENCILS
The pencils used for drawing is little bit different from the ordinary pencils. Depending upon
the shade and thickness of lines to be draw, pencils can be divide in number of category. The
grade of a pencil lead is usually shown by figures and letters marked at one of its ends.
The hardness is shown by H, its hardness can is described by putting some numeric values
depending upon the hardness viz. 2H, 3H, 4H etc.
Similarly, the grade becomes softer according to the figure placed in front of the letter B, viz.
2B, 38, 48 etc.
Letters HB denote the medium grade.
9H,8H,.......2H,H,F,HB,B,2B,.......9B
hardness ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → Softness
Beginning of a drawing should be made with H or 2H pencil using it very lightly, so that the
lines are faint, and unnecessary or extra lines can be easily erased. The final fair work may be
done with harder pencils, e.g. 3H and upwards.
Lines of uniform thickness and darkness can be more easily drawn with hard-grade pencils.
H and HB pencils are more suitable for lettering and dimensioning.
For freehand sketching, soft-grade pencils should be used.
Drawing Pins or Clips
These are used to fix the drawing paper on the drawing board. Clips or adhesive tapes are
often used instead of the pins.

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DRAFTING MACHINE or Drafter

It is an instrument which can fullfill all the task performed by using T-square, set-squares,
scales and the protractor.
It’s one end is clamped by means of a screw, to the distant longer edge of the drawing board
& at its other end, an adjustable head having protractor markings is fitted. Two blades of
transparent celluloid accurately set at right angles to each other are attached to the head.

Fig.8: Drafting Machine or Drafter

In some drafter, the blades are removable such that the variety of scales can be used.
The blades can be set at any angle with the help of the protractor head. Thus, by drafter
horizontal, vertical or inclined parallel lines of desired lengths can be drawn.
SHEET LAYOUT
(1) SHEET SIZES: The preferred sizes of the drawing sheets recommended by the Bureau of
Indian standards (B.I.S)are given below

Sheet designation Trimmed size (mm) Untrimmed size (mm)

A0 841 × 1189 880 × 1230

A1 594 × 841 625 × 880

A2 420 × 594 450 × 625

A3 297 × 420 330 × 450

A4 210 × 297 240 × 330

A5 148 × 210 165 × 240

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(2) Margin: Margin is provided in the drawing sheet by drawing margin lines.
(3) Border lines: Clear working space is obtained by drawing border lines as shown in.
(4) Borders and frames: SP : 46 (2003) recommends the borders of 20 mm width for the
sheet sizes A0 and A1, and 10 mm for the sizes A2, A3, A4 and A5.
LINES
Different lines are used in engineering drawing to define their application. The thicknesses of
lines are varied according to the drawing and are finalized either by ink or by pencil.
Some of them are given in tabular form.

S.No. Types of Lines Description Application

Visible outlines, visible edges;
Continuous thick or
A. Main representation in
continuous wide
diagrams & maps.
Imaginary, lines of
Continuous thin intersection; grid, dimensions,
B.
(narrow) projection, hatching, outlines
of revolved sections
Continuous thin free Limits of partial or interrupted
C.
hand views and sections
Continuous thin with
D. Long-break line
zigzags
Line showing permissible of
E. Dashed thin (wide)
surface treatment
Dashed thin
F. Hidden outlines; hidden edges
(narrow)
Chain thin long-
dashed dotted lines of symmetry; trajectories
(narrow)
Chain thin with thick
H. at the ends and at Cutting planes
changing of position
Chain thin double-
dashed or long-
K. Outlines of adjacent parts
dashed double-
dotted

TYPES OF LINES

(1) Outlines: Lines drawn to represent visible edges and surface boundaries of objects are

called as outlines. They are continuous thick or wide lines.

(2) Margin lines: They are continuous thick lines along which the sheets are trimmed.

(3) Dimension lines: They are terminated at the outer ends by pointed arrowheads touching

the outlines, extension lines or centre lines.

(4) Projection lines: These lines also are continuous thin lines. They extend by about 3 mm

beyond the dimension lines.

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(5) Hatching or section lines: These lines are drawn to make the section visible. They are
continuous thin lines and are drawn generally at an angle of 45° to the main outline of the
section. They are uniformly spaced about 1 mm to 2 mm apart.
(6) Border lines: Perfectly rectangular working space is determined by drawing the border
lines.
(7) Short-break lines: These lines are continuous, thin and wavy. They are drawn freehand
and are used to show a short break, or irregular boundaries.
(8) Long-break lines: These lines are thin ruled lines with short zigzags within them. They
are drawn to show long breaks.
(9) dotted lines: Interior or hidden edges and surfaces are shown by dotted lines. They are
made up of short dashes of approximately equal lengths of about 2 mm spaced at equal
distances of about 1 mm.
(10) Centre lines (G): Centre lines are drawn to indicate the axes of cylindrical, conical or
spherical objects or details, and also to show the centres of circles and arcs.
They are thin, long, chain lines composed of alternately long and dot spaced approximately 1
mm apart. Centre lines should extend for a short distance beyond the outlines to which they
refer.

Fig.9: various Lines

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LETTERING (IS 9609-2001)

Every drawing requires some description which includes writing of titles, dimensions, notes and
other important particulars is known as lettering.
It should be in plain and simple style so that it could be done freehand and speedily.
(1) Single-stroke letters: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS : 9609-2001) recommends
single-stroke lettering for use in engineering drawing.
Single Stroke means that the thickness of the line of the letter obtained in one stroke of the
pencil without redraw.
The horizontal lines of letters should be drawn from left to right and vertical or inclined lines,
from top to bottom.
Single-stroke letters are of two types:
(i) vertical and
(ii) inclined.
Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 75° with the horizontal.
The size of a letter is described by its height. According to the height of letters, they are
classified as:
(i) Lettering 'A'
(ii) Lettering 'B'

Fig.10: Single-stroke Vertical Capital letters

Fig.11: Single-stroke Vertical small letters

DIMENSIONING
In a Drawing, to give the information about the actual size & characteristics of the object, some
notations are used, which are known as dimensioning.
Every drawing, whether a scale drawing or actual size, its exact length, breadth, height, sizes
and various required information regarding the object must be given in the drawing itself.
Lines, figures, arcs, numerals, symbols, are used for the dimensioning.
Types of dimensions: Two types of dimensions needed on a drawing are:
(i) size or functional dimensions and

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(ii) location or datum dimensions (shown by letters F and L respectively).

The former indicates sizes, viz. length, breadth, height, depth, diameter etc. The latter show
locations or exact positions of various constructional details within the object. The letter F
represents functional dimensions, while NF represents non-functional dimensions.

Fig.12: Functional & Location Dimensions

DIMENSIONING TERMS AND NOTATIONS
(1) Dimension line: Dimension lines are thin continuous lines & it is drawn parallel to the
surface whose dimension is to shown. These lines are terminated by arrowheads.
(2) Extension line: Extension lines are thin & continuous line drawn in extension of an
outline. It extends by about 3 mm beyond the dimension line.
(3) Arrowhead: An arrowhead is placed at each end of a dimension line. Its pointed end
touches an outline, an extension line or a centre line. The size of an arrowhead should be
proportional to the thickness of the outlines.
The length of the arrowhead should be about three times its maximum width is drawn freehand
with two strokes made in the direction of its pointed end.

Fig.13: Different Types of Arrow head

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(4) Leader: A leader is a thin continuous line connecting a note or a dimension figure whose
parallel dimensioning is not possible. One end of the leader terminates either in an arrowhead
or a dot.
The arrowhead touches the outline, while the dot is placed within the outline of the object.
Leader is drawn at an of angle (>30°) to the line to which it touches.

Fig.14: Dimensioning Terms & Notations

PLACING OF DIMENSIONS
The two systems of placing dimensions are:
(1) Aligned system and
(2) Unidirectional system.
(1) Aligned system: In the aligned system, the dimension of any size is placed perpendicular
to the dimensioning line in such a way that it may be read from the bottom edge or the right-
hand edge of the drawing sheet.
The dimensions should be placed in the middle and above of the arrow.

Fig.15: Aligned system

(2) Unidirectional system: In unidirectional system all dimensions can be read from the
bottom edge of the drawing sheet (horizontally placed). The dimension lines are cut from the
center & dimensions are placed in that place.

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Fig.16: Unidirectional system

GENERAL RULES FOR DIMENSIONING
(1) Dimensioning of all the required length should be done so that assumption or measurement
of any dimension is not required.
(2) Dimensioning of any part should not be repeated.
(3) A dimension should be placed on the view where its use is shown more clearly.
(4) Dimensions should be placed outside the views, unless they are clearer and more easily
read inside.
(5) Crossing of dimension lines and dimensioning between hidden lines should be avoided.
(6) Dimension lines should not cross any other line of the drawing.
(7) An outline or a centre line should never be used as a dimension line.
SCALES
Drawings of some objects can be made by considering their actual dimension whereas when
the size of object is very small or very large then drawing the objects of actual dimension is
not possible.
In that case, all the dimension of the drawing is reduced or enlarged by some amount (Times).
This process is known as scaling.
Thus, “A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of element of the object as
represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions of the same element of the object itself”.
Linear dim ension in drawing
Scale =
Actual dim ension of object
Depending upon this, scale can be of 3 types.
(1) Drawings whose dimension is same as that of the objects, are known as full-size
drawings.
For full scale drawing, Scale is 1:1.
(2) Drawings Whose dimensions are smaller than the actual size of the objects then scale used
is called as Reducing Scale.
The actual objects in this case is very large.

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For Reducing Scale drawing, Scale < 1.

(3) Drawings Whose dimensions are larger than the actual size of the objects then scale used
is called as Enlarging Scale.
For Enlarging Scale drawing, Scale > 1.
(3) Representative fraction: The ratio of the length of the object represented on drawing to
the actual length of the object represented is called the Representative Fraction (i.e. R.F.).
Length of the drawing
R.F. =
Actual length of object

It is an unitless quantity.
NOTE – While calculating RF, units of dimension in numerator and denominator must be same.
When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1 metre length of the object, the R.F. is equal
to
1cm 1cm 1
RF = = =
1m 1  100cm 100
1
Thus, the scale of the drawing will be 1 : 100 or full size.
100
SCALES ON DRAWINGS
When an unusual scale is used, it is constructed on the drawing sheet.
To construct a scale the following information is required,
(1) The R.F. of the scale.
(2) The units which it must represent, for example, millimetres and centimetres, or feet and
inches etc.
(3) The maximum length which it can show.
The length of the scale is determined by the formula:
Length of the scale = R.F. × maximum length required to be measured
TYPES OF SCALES
To measure any dimension of an object, various scales can be used. The scales used in practice
are classified as under:
(1) Plain scales
(2) Diagonal scales
(3) Comparative scales
(4) Vernier scales
(5) Scale of chords.
(1) Plain scales: A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal parts or
units, and it is further sub-divided into smaller parts.
Plain scales represent either two units or a unit and its sub-division.
In every engineering scale,

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(i) The zero should be placed at the end of the first main division, and the first main division is
further subdivided into small parts.
(ii) From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and its sub-divisions to the
left.
1
Example - Construct a scale of R.F. = to read kilometer into meters and measure a
60000
length of 2.5km when the maximum length that can be measured is 6km.
Sol.
Given,
1
R.F. = , maximum length = 6km = 6000m
60000
Length to be measure = 2.5km
As we know,
Length of the scale = R.F. × max. length
1
Length of the scale = =  6000 = 0.10m = 10cm
60000
Since length is to be measured is 2.5km = (2+ 0.5)km
So main division can be made by 1 (6 division) or 2km (3 division)
& subdivision can be made by 0.1 (10 division) or 0.5(2 division)
Considering 6 main division and 10 sub division.

(2) Diagonal scales: Whenever to show any distance, 3 divisions are required then plain scale
will not be able to show them accurately then a new scale is introduced is known as diagonal
scale which can be measure very minute distance.
In this scale measurements are required in three units; for example, dm, cm and mm, or km 2,
m2, cm2.
Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as explained
below.

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Principle of diagonal scale: To obtain divisions of a given short line AB in 1 multiples of
10
its length, e.g. 0.1 AB, 0.2 AB, 0.3 AB etc. (fig. 4-6).
(i) At one end, say B, draw a line perpendicular to AB and along it, step-off ten equal divisions
of any length, starting from B and ending at C.
(ii) Number the division-points, 9, 8, 7,…….. 1 as shown.
(iii) Join A with C.
(iv) Through the points 1, 2 etc. draw lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1', 2' etc. It is
evident that triangles 1'1C , 2'2C ... ABC are similar.
Since C5 = 0.5BC, thus line 5'5 = 0.5AB .
Similarly, 1'1 = 0.1AB, 2'2 = 0.2AB etc.
1
Thus, each horizontal line below AB becomes progressively shorter in length by AB giving
10
lengths in multiples of 0.1AB.

Fig.17: Diagonal scale

Example- The area of a field is 50,000m 2. The length and the breadth of the field, on the map
is 10 cm and 8 cm respectively. Construct a diagonal scale which can read upto one metre.
Mark the length of 235 metre on the scale. What is the R.F. of the scale?

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The area of the field – 50,000 sq m.

The area of the field on the map = 10 cm × 8 cm = 80 cm2.
50000
∴ 1sq. cm = = 625sq. m.
80
∴ 1cm = 25 m.
1cm 1
Now representative fraction = =
25m 2500
1 500  100 50000
Length of the scale =  = = 20 cm
2500 1 2500
So, the actual length is = 10×25 = 250m
So, the actual breadth is = 8×25 = 200m
(3) Comparative scales: Scales having same representative fraction but graduated to read
different units are called comparative scales.
A drawing drawn with a scale reading inch unit can be read in metric units by means of a metric
comparative scale, constructed with the same representative fraction.
(4) Vernier scales: Vernier scales, like diagonal scales, are used to read to a very small unit
with great accuracy.
A Vernier scale consists of two parts, a primary scale and a Vernier scale.
The primary scale is a plain scale fully divided into minor divisions & since it will be very difficult
to sub-divide the plane scale in to further divisions in ordinary way. Thus it is done by the
vernier scale.
(a) Principle of Vernier: Figure shows a part of a plain scale in which the length AO
represents 10 cm. If we divide AO into ten equal parts, each part will represent 1 cm. It would
not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten equal divisions to get measurements in
millimetres.
Now, if we take a length 80 equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such equal parts, thus representing 11 cm,

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and divide it into ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will represent = 1.1 cm or 11
10
mm. 10
The difference between one part of AO and one division of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm
or 1 mm.
Similarly, the difference between two parts of each will be 0.2 cm or 2 mm.
The upper scale BO is the Vernier. The combination of the plain scale and the Vernier is the
Vernier scale.

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if a line representing n units is divided into n equal parts, each part will represent 1unit. But,
if a line equal to n + 1 of these units is taken and then divided into “n” equal parts, each of
n +1 1
these parts will be equal to = 1 + units.
n n
n +1 n 1
The difference between one such part and one former part will be equal to = = unit.
n n n
2
Similarly, the difference between two parts from each will be unit.
n
(b) Least count of a vernier: It is the difference of 1 primary scale division and 1 vernier
scale division.
Least count = 1 primary scale division – 1 vernier scale division.
(5) Scale of chords: The scale of chords is used to set or measure angles when a protractor
is not available.
NOTE – To divide quarter circle into 3 equal parts, take radius of circle as length & draw an
arc from both the end points.

Fig. 18: Scale of chords

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