UNIT- IV- PLANARITY AND COLOURING

planar graph:
A graph G is called a planar graph if G can be drawn in the plane so that no two of its edges
cross each other.
plane graph: A planar graph embedded in the plane is called a plane graph.

Non-Planar: A graph that is not planar is called nonplanar.

Region: A plane graph divides the plane into connected pieces called regions.

Note: In every plane graph, there is always one region that is unbounded. This is the exterior
region.
1. (The Euler Identity) If G is a connected plane graph of order n, size m and having
r regions, then n − m + r = 2.
First, if G is a tree of order n, then m = n − 1 and r = 1; so n − m + r = 2.

Therefore, we need only be concerned with connected graphs that are not trees.

Assume, to the contrary, that the theorem does not hold.

Then there exists a connected plane graph G of smallest size for which the Euler Identity
does not hold. Suppose that G has order n, size m and r regions.

So n − m + r ≠ 2. Since G is not a tree, there is an edge e that is not a bridge.

Thus G − e is a connected plane graph of order n and size m − 1 having r − 1 regions.

Because the size of G − e is less than m, the Euler Identity holds for G − e.

So n − (m − 1) + (r − 1) = 2 but then n − m + r = 2, which is a contradiction.

1 (Aliter) For a connected plane graph G, n-m+f=2, where n; m; and f denote the
number of vertices, edges, and faces of G; respectively

We apply induction on f.

If f=1, then G is a tree and m= n - 1: Hence, n-m+f=2.

Now assume that the result is true for all plane graphs with f- 1 faces, and suppose that G
has f faces. Since f>=2, G is not a tree, and hence contains a cycle C:

Let e be an edge of C: Then e belongs to exactly two faces, say f1 and f2; of G and the
deletion of e from G results in the formation of a single face from f1 and f2 .

Also, since e is not a cut edge of G; G - e is connected. Further, the number of faces of G- e
is f-1: So applying induction to G - e;

we get n - (.m 1) + (f-1)=2 and this implies that n-m+f=2 This completes the proof of the
theorem.

2.
3. If G is a simple planar graph with at least three vertices, then � ≤ 3n-6.

Given that G is connected and planar graph.

Therefore Draw G as a plane graph, where G has r regions denoted by R1 , R2 , …, Rr . The

boundary of each region contains at least three edges. So if mi is the number of edges on the
boundary of Ri (1 ≤ i ≤ r), then mi ≥ 3.

Let the number M counts an edge once if the edge is a bridge and counts it twice if the edge is
not a bridge. So M ≤ 2m.

Therefore, 3r ≤ M ≤ 2m and so 3r ≤ 2m. Applying the Euler Identity to G, m ≤ 3n − 6.

If G is disconnected, then edges can be added to G to produce a connected plane graph of

order n and size m′, where m′ > m. From what we have just shown, m′ ≤ 3n − 6 and so m < 3n
− 6.

4.

5. Prove that K5 is non planar.

First proof. This proof uses the Jordan curve theorem. Assume the contrary, namely, K5 is
planar. Let v1; v2; v3; v4; and v5 be the vertices of K5 in a plane representation of K5: The
cycle C D v1v2v3v4v1 (as a closed Jordan curve) divides the plane into two faces, namely,
the interior and the exterior of C: The vertex v5 must belong either to int C or to ext C:
Suppose that v5 belongs to int C (a similar proof holds if v5 belongs to ext C). Draw the
edges v5v1; v5v2; v5v3; and v5v4 in int C: Now there remain two more edges v1v3 and v2v4
to be drawn. None of these can be drawn in int C;since it is assumed that K5 is planar. Thus,
v1v3 lies in ext C: Then one of v2 and v4 belongs to the interior of the closed Jordan curve
C1 = v1v5v3v1 and the other to its exterior (see Fig). Hence, v2v4 cannot be drawn without
violating planarity.
6.
 There exists a graph of order n ≥ 3 and size m > 3n − 6 that contains neither K5 nor K3,3 as a
subgraph.

Consider the graph G of order n = 7 and size m = 16 shown in . Since m = 16 > 15 = 3n − 6, it follows
that G is nonplanar. In fact, G − uv is a maximal planar graph.

Assume, to the contrary, that G contains a subgraph F such that F = K5 or F = K3,3.

Necessarily, F must contain the edge uv, for otherwise, F is a subgraph of G − uv, which is
impossible. If F = K5 , then u, v V(F) and the remaining three vertices of F must be adjacent
to both u and v. However,only s and t are adjacent to both u and v. Thus F ≠ K5 and so we
must have F = K3,3. Let U and W be the two partite sets of F. Since uv E(F), one of u and v
belongs to U and the other belongs to W, say u U and v W. Since the remaining two vertices
of W are adjacent to every vertex in U, either W = {v, s, t} or W = {v, s, x}. If W = {v, s, t},
then only u and z are adjacent to all three vertices of W, which is impossible. If W = {v, s, x},
then only u and t are adjacent to all three vertices of W, again which is impossible. Thus F ≠
K3,3, which produces a contradiction.

* A graph G′ is called a subdivision of a graph G if G′ = G or one or more vertices of degree

2 are inserted into one or more edges of G.

Consequently, all of G, G1 , G2 and G3 are subdivisions of G. In fact, G2 is a subdivision of

G1 as well
Theorem 9.7 (Kuratowski’s Theorem) A graph G is planar if and only if G does not
contain a subdivision of K5 or K3,3 as a subgraph.

* Determine whether the graph G of Figure is planar.

Solution. Certainly as drawn, G is not a plane graph. Of course, this neither proves nor disproves

that G is nonplanar (although one may be suspicious that this is the case).

The graph G has order n

= 10 and size m = 17. Since m = 17 ≤ 3n − 6 = 24, we cannot use Theorem( If G is a planar graph of
order n ≥ 3 and size m, then m<=3n-6) to show that G is nonplanar.

On the other hand, just because m ≤ 3n − 6, this certainly does not imply that G is planar either.

Next, let’s see if we can find a subgraph of G that is either a subdivision of K5 or a subdivision of

K3,3. Actually, G resembles K5 as it is drawn. However, only four vertices of G have degree 4 or

more. Therefore, it is impossible that G contains a subdivision of K5 as a subgraph.

On the other hand, the graph F shown in

Figure

is a subgraph of G. Since F is a subdivision of K3,3, it follows by Kuratowski’s theorem that G is

indeed non-planar.
 Vertex Coloring:

By a proper coloring (or, more simply, a coloring) of a graph G, we mean an assignment of

colors (elements of some set) to the vertices of G, one color to each vertex, such that adjacent
vertices are colored differently.

The smallest number of colors in any coloring of a graph G is called the chromatic number
of G and is denoted by χ(G).

4-coloring of G.

Note:
(The Four Color Theorem) The chromatic number of every planar graph is at most 4.

The Problem of the Five Princes: There once was a king who had five sons. In his will he
stated that on his death his kingdom should be divided into five regions for his sons in such a
way that each region should have a common boundary with the other four. How can this be
done?

The Problem of the Five Palaces: The king additionally required each of his five sons to
build a palace in his region and the sons should link each pair of palaces by roads so that no
two roads cross. How can this be done?

A set S of vertices in a graph G is independent if no two vertices of S are adjacent

A maximum independent set is an independent set of maximum cardinality.

The number of vertices in a maximum independent set of G is denoted by β(G) and is called
the vertex independence number (or, more simply, the independence number) of G.
For the graph G = C6 of Figure , S1 = {v1, v4} and S2 = {v2, v4, v6} are both independent
sets. Since no independent set of G contains more than three vertices, (G) = 3.

A graph G has chromatic number 2 if and only if G is a nonempty bipartite graph.

The graph G shown in Figure is 3-chromatic.

Solution. Since G contains a triangle, it follows that χ(G) ≥ 3. On the other hand, a 3-coloring of G
is shown in Figure, implying that χ(G) ≤ 3. Therefore, χ(G) = 3.

Example: The mathematics department of a certain college plans to schedule the classes Graph
Theory (GT), Statistics (S), Linear Algebra (LA), Advanced Calculus (AC), Geometry (G) and
Modern Algebra (MA) this summer. Ten students (see below) have indicated the courses they plan to
take. With this information, use graph theory to determine the minimum number of time periods
needed to offer these courses so that every two classes having a student in common are taught at
different time periods during the day. Of course, two classes having no students in common can be
taught during the same period.

Solution:
First, we construct a graph H whose vertices are the
six subjects. Two vertices (subjects) are joined by an
edge if some student is taking both classes (see
Figure ).
The minimum number of time periods is χ(H). Since H contains the odd cycle (GT, S, AC, G,
MA, GT), it follows that three colors are needed to color the vertices on this cycle. Since LA
is adjacent to all vertices of this cycle, a fourth color is needed for LA. Thus χ(H) ≥ 4.
However, there is a 4-coloring of H shown in Figure and so χ(H) = 4. This also tells us one
way to schedule these six classes during four time periods, namely, Period 1: Graph Theory,
Advanced Calculus; Period 2: Geometry; Period 3: Statistics, Modern Algebra; Period 4:
Linear Algebra.

Note: every graph G of order n is n-colorable. If G = Kn, then every two vertices must be
assigned different colors and so χ(Kn) = n. If G has order n and G ≠ Kn , then G contains
two nonadjacent vertices, say u and v. Assigning u and v the color 1 and the remaining n − 2
vertices the colors 2, 3, …, n − 1 produces an (n − 1)-coloring of G and so χ(G) ≤ n − 1.
That is, a graph G of order n has chromatic number n if and only if G = Kn.

If H is a subgraph of a graph G, then any coloring of G produces a coloring of H as well.

Since it may be possible to color H with even fewer colors, it follows that χ(H) <= χ(G).

A clique in a graph G is a complete subgraph of G. The order of the largest clique in a graph
G is its clique number, which is denoted by ω(G).

Theorem: For every graph G of order n,

1.

2.

(i) a. Let H be a clique of G having order ω(G). Then (H) = ω(G). Since H is a subgraph of G,
it
follows that (H) ≤ (G), that is, ω(G) ≤ (G).

(ii) b. Suppose that (G) = k. Then V(G) can be partitioned into k independent sets V1 ,
V2 , …, Vk. Hence

Therefore, χ(G) = k ≥ n/ (G).

(ii) Let V(G) = {v1, v2, …, vn}.
Define a coloring c : V(G) → N recursively as follows: c(v1) =1.
Once c(vi) has been defined, 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
define c(vi+1) as the smallest positive integer not already used to color any of the neighbors of
vi+1.
Since vi+1 has deg vi+1 neighbors, at least one of the integers 1, 2, …, 1 + deg vi+1 is available
for c(vi+1).
Therefore, c(vi+1) ≤ 1 + deg vi+1.
If the maximum color assigned to the vertices of G is c(vj), say, then

as desired.

(Brooks’ Theorem) For every connected graph G that is not an odd cycle or a complete
graph,

Theorem: For every graph G where the maximum is

taken over all induced subgraphs H of G.

Proof. Among all induced subgraphs of G, let k denote the maximum of their minimum
degrees.
Suppose that G has order n and let vn be a vertex of Gn = G such that degG vn = δ(G). Thus
degG vn ≤ k.

Therefore, Gn−1 = G − vn contains a vertex vn−1 such that

Continuing in this manner, we construct a sequence v1, v2, …, vn of all vertices of G and a
sequence G1, G2, …,Gn of induced subgraphs of G such that vi ϵV(Gi) for 1 ≤ i ≤ n and .

Define a coloring c : V(G) → N recursively as follows: c(v1) = 1. Once c(vi) has been defined,
1≤ i < n, define c(vi+1) as the smallest positive integer not already used to color any of the
neighbors of vi+1. Since vi+1 has vi+1 neighbors among the vertices v1, v2, …, vi and vi+1 ≤
k, at least one of the integers 1, 2, …, k + 1 is available for c(vi+1). Hence every vertex of G is
assigned one of the colors 1, 2, …, 1 + k and so (G) ≤ 1 + k, as desired.
The shadow graph S(G) of a graph G is obtained from G by adding, for each vertex v of G, a
new vertex v′, called the shadow vertex of v, and joining v′ to the neighbors of v in G.

Observe that
(1) a vertex of G and its shadow vertex are not adjacent in S(G) and
(2) no two shadow vertices are adjacent in S(G).

The shadow graph S(C5) of C5 is shown in Figure.

The Grötzsch graph of Figure is then obtained by adding a new vertex z to S(C5) and joining
z to the shadow vertices in S(C5).

Theorem: For every integer k ≥ 3, there exists a triangle-free graph with chromatic
number k.
We proceed by induction on k.
We have already seen that the result is true for k = 3 and k =4.
Assume that there is a triangle-free (k − 1)-chromatic graph F, where k ≥ 5 is an integer.
Let G be the graph obtained by adding a new vertex z to the shadow graph S(F) of F and
joining z to the shadow vertices in S(F).

We show that G is a triangle-free graph with (G) = k.

First, we verify that G is triangle-free. Assume, to the contrary, that there is a set U of three
vertices of G such that G[U] = K3.

Since no two shadow vertices are adjacent in G, it follows that U contains at most one
shadow vertex.

Because z is adjacent only to shadow vertices and U contains atleast one vertex that is not a
shadow vertex, z U.

On the other hand, F is triangle-free and so at least one vertex of U is not in F.

Therefore, U = {u, v, w′}, where u and v are adjacent vertices of F and w′ is a shadow vertex
that is adjacent to u and v.

Thus w ≠ u, v. However then, w is adjacent to u and v, producing a triangle in F, which is

impossible since F is triangle-free.

It remains to show that (G) = k.

Let c* be a (k − 1)-coloring of F. We extend c* to a k-coloring of G by defining c*(x′) = c*(x)

for each xϵ V(F) and defining c*(z) = k. Thus χ(G) ≤ k.

Next we show that χ(G) ≥ k. Since F is a subgraph of G, it follows that k − 1 = χ (F) ≤

χ(G).
Assume, to the contrary, that χ(G) = k − 1. Let there be given a (k − 1)-coloring c of G,
say with colors 1, 2, …, k −1.

We may assume that c(z) = k − 1. Since z is adjacent to every shadow vertex in G, it follows
that the shadow vertices are colored with the colors 1, 2, …, k − 2. For every shadow vertex
x′ of G, the color c(x′) is different from the colors assigned to the neighbors of x.
Therefore, if for each vertex y of G belonging to F, the color c(y) is replaced by c(y′), we
have a (k − 2)-coloring of F. This is impossible, however, since χ(F) = k − 1.

A graph G is called perfect if χ(H) = ω(H) for every induced subgraph H of G.

The Perfect Graph Theorem A graph is perfect if and only if its complement is perfect.

The Strong Perfect Graph Theorem A graph G is perfect if and only if neither G nor contains
an induced odd cycle of length 5 or more.

Problems for Practise:

1. Show that there exists no graph G with (G) = 6 whose vertices have degrees 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3,
4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5.

2. Give an example of the following or explain why no such example exists:

(a) a planar graph with chromatic number 5,(b) a nonplanar graph with
chromatic number 3,
(c) a graph G with Δ(G) = 2 (G),
(d) a graph G with (G) = 2Δ(G),
(e) a noncomplete graph of order n with chromatic number n.

A school is preparing a timetable for exams in 7 different subjects, labelled A to G. It is

understood that if there is a pupil taking two of these subjects, their exams must be held in
different time slots. The table below shows (by crosses) the pairs of subjects which are taken by
at least one pupil in common. The school wants to find the minimum number of time slots
necessary and also to allocate subjects to the time slots accordingly. Interpreting this problem as
a vertex-colouring problem, find the minimum number of time slots needed and a suitable time
allocation of the subjects.