GEOGRAPHY FOR PRELIMS:
General geography:
Universe origin : theorie:
EARLY:
1. nebular hypothesis: Immanuel kant{1796}
modified: pierre laplace.
Planets formed out of cloud of material
associated with youthful sun-slow rotate.
2. 1900- chamberlain/moultan {binary theory} :
wandering star approached sun/result> formatin>
cigar-shaped extension material got seprated
from solar surface/material contine to revolve
aroun sun& slowly get condensed into planets.
3. 1959- nebular hypothesis revise: otto
Schmidt{ Russian}- carl weizascar{Germany}
Sun/surroundedby/ solar nebula> hydrogen-
helium-dust particle>friction &collision > disk
shaped clouds & planets formed through
accretion.
MODERN: BIG-BANG> xpanding universe hypothesis
 1927- abbe georges Lemaitre{Belgian arsto}-1st
Edwin hubble > evidnce> universe expanding
13.8 billion years ago> majority atoms formed>
hydrogen helium lithium> fused togrther to
form star galaxies . tmp droped to 4500k within
300000years.
 Hoyle’s concept of steady state:fred hoyle
/Thomas gold/herman bondi.
GALAXY: charls messier-17hcn/al sufi
 Elliptical galaxies are like flattened balls of old
stars with little gas.- NGC 5 (Andromeda), NGC
67 , NGC 71 , and PGC 1000714.
 Spiral galaxies have a flattened shape with a bulge
of old stars in the center and a disk of young stars
around it.70% of it is spiral ex -andromeda
 Irregular galaxies have no particular shape.
 center of every galaxy contains a massive black
hole.
 Romans- Milky Way "via lactea," which means
"milk road" – central blackhole- Sagittarius A
 largest galaxy - IC 1101
 closest: Canis Major Dwarf Galax
 far away- JADES-GS-z13-0
 Barred spiral galaxies: It is a spiral galaxy made of
stars with a central bar-shaped structure. The
milky way is a large barred spiral galaxy. ex barred
spiral galaxies are M58 (SBc), Large Magellanic
Cloud (LMC, Sm), M61 (SABbc).
 Hubble Space Telescope- dis- 10000
STAR FORMATION:
Nebula: a cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium)
and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars.
Protostar: an early stage of a star formation where
nuclear fusion is yet to begin.
 T Tauri Star: a young star still undergoing gravitational
contraction; it represents an intermediate stage
between a Protostar & a low-mass main sequence star.
 Main Sequence Star: E.g., Sun Gtype main sequence
star – full of life (nuclear fusion at the core is in full
swing).red dwarf: nearest star to sun: proxima centauri
 Red Giant (in case of a small star) and Red
Supergiant (in case of a large star).
 Planetary Nebula (in case of a small
star) and Supernova (in case of a large star).
 White dwarf (in case of a small star) and Neutron
Star or Black Hole (in case of a large star).
 Watch study iq
 Closest nebula: helix nebula
 Biggest star: uyscuti / smallest: eblm jo555-57ab
SOLAR SYSTEM:
located in an outer spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy
called the Orion Arm, or Orion Spur
SUN :
99.8% total mass> solar system / Jupiter> 1.2%
Greek > helios / roman > sol.
70% > hydrogen / 28%> helium
Surface of sun called photosphere >temp 1500k
PLANETS:
INNER PLANETS: TERRESTIAL PLANETS
MERCURY: no atmosphere/ similar to moon/inactive.
 From earth>planet can be seen near west or
east hotizon early eve or morning appear as
bright star.
 Mercury is smaller than the largest natural
satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede
(largest moon of Jupiter) & Titan (largest moon
of Saturn). However, Mercury is massive (has
more mass) than Ganymede & Titan.
 MESSENGER spacecraft in 2004 have revealed
evidence for pyroclastic flows (vulcanicity)
and water ice at Mercury’s poles.
Takes 88 days to complete 1 revolution.
59 eathdays to make 1 rotation.
Mercury’s very thin atmosphere is made
primarily of sodium, potassium, helium, and
hydrogen.
Day: 430c / night:-170c
VENUS: BRIGHTEST PLANET/ hottest>greenhouse effect
 MORNING/EVE STAR, sister planet,earth twin
 Bright > highest albedo due to the highly
reflective sulfuric acid that covers its
atmosphere.thick atmos > 96% carbon dioxide
 densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial
planets. The atmospheric pressure at the
planet’s surface is 92 times that of Earth, or
roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater
on Earth.
 A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days
and lasts longer than its year (224
days). It rotates in the opposite direction
(clockwise) to most other planets.
MARS: reddish iron oxide/similar tilt as of earth.
 No magnetosphere.>solarwind{ direct
bombard} interact with matian ionosphere> low
density
 Atmosphere> 96% co2/1.93% argon& 1.89%
no2 {atmos pressure low less than 1%}
extremely thin atmosphere.no water
 Whatever water is left is locked in the two
polar ice caps.
 Olympus Mons (shield volcano), the largest
volcano highest known mountain (24 km) in
the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one
of the largest canyons in the Solar System.
 2moons: phobos& deimos.
 53% of the diameter of Earth
 10% of the mass of Earth
 Surface gravity on Mars is only 38% of Earth’s
gravity.
 A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days.
 Axial tilt on Mars is 25.19° (close to Earth’s
23.5° tilt).
 A year on Mars lasts about twice as long as an
Earth year; the seasons are twice as long.
 The atmosphere of Mars (95% carbon dioxide)
is less than 1% the thickness of Earth’s
atmosphere.
OUTER PLANETS: GAS GAINTS
JUPITER: largest planet/67 moon
 GAS/LIQUID : NO SOLID SURFACE/rapid rotation
 Mood: Io, Europa, Ganymede{largest=5268km
in diameter, larger than Mercury, and three
times larger than the earth’s Moon (3,474 km
in diameter, the fifth largest moon). The latest
probe to visit Jupiter is Juno. larger than
Mercury, and three times larger than the
earth’s Moon (3,474 km in
diameter, the fifth largest moon). The latest
probe to visit Jupiter is Juno.}, and Callisto>
Galilean satellites because Galileo.
SATURN: 7 rings/mass 95times of earth.
 Saturn’s density is even lesser than water. Its rings
are probably made up of billions of ice particles and
ice-covered rocks.96% hudrogen { atmos= flled with
methane & ammonia}
 Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar
System, and it is the only satellite in the Solar
System with a substantial atmosphere (nitrogen-
rich) dense.62 moons
 Saturn rotates once around its axis in around 10.5
hours.
 Saturn orbits one time around the Sun in 29.5 Earth
years and is the second most massive planet in the
Solar System, at 95 times the Earth's mass.
Cassini - NASA/ESA Mission to Saturn
Huygens - NASA/ESA Mission to Saturn's satellite Titan
Voyager 1 - NASA Mission to Jupiter and Saturn
Voyager 2 - NASA Mission to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and beyond
Pioneer 11 - NASA Saturn flyby (1979)
URANUS:
 it is tipped and spins on its sides. Its axis of
rotation lies in nearly the plane of its orbit (the
poles of Uranus lie in a plane where equators of
other planets lie).
 the poles of Uranus lie where the equators of
other planets lie
 Uranus is a large planet and situated extremely
far away, i.e. 2.8 billion km away from the Sun
 It has 14 times the mass of Earth and has less
density than Earth
 Uranus has a unique retrograde rotation, i.e.
opposite to the Sun’s rotation
 Uranus has a high fraction of icy materials like
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), and water
 It has 27 moons along with magnetic and
electric field
NEPTUNE:
 Neptune is a gas giant with an atmosphere
consisting of helium, hydrogen, and methane
gases. Its mantle is made up of methane ices,
ammonia, and water, while the core is made up
of ice and rock
 Neptune has 14 satellites, with Triton and
Nereid being the most prominent among them
 At 2100 km/h, Neptune boasts of the strongest
sustained winds among all the planets of the
solar system
 There is also an Earth-sized blemish on Neptune
called “The Great Dark Spot”
 Neptune was the first planet in the solar system
to be located with the help of mathematical
calculations
first five recognised dwarf planets are Ceres, Pluto,
Eris, Makemake and Haumea.
Ceres:It is the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars
and Jupiter. OCEAN WORLD
It was the first member of the asteroid belt to be discovered
when Giuseppe Piazzi spotted it in 1801.
It is the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar sy
  Evolution of Earth is concerned with the evolution of lithosphere, atmosphere and origin of life.
 Evolution of lithosphere can be understood in the following stages:
1. During the moon formation, due to the giant impact, Earth was further heated up.
2. Through the process of differentiation, Earth forming material separated into different layers.
3. It got separated into the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.
4. From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases.

 Evolution of atmosphere and hydrosphere: Present composition of Earth’s atmosphere mainly consists
of nitrogen and oxygen.
 The evolutions can be understood in three stages:
1. Loss of Primordial atmosphere because of the solar wind.
2. The early atmosphere mainly consisted of hydrogen and helium.
3. During the cooling of Earth, gases and water vapour were released from the interior solid Earth and the process
is termed as degassing.
4. Continuous volcanic eruption contributed to water vapour and gases in the atmosphere.
5. This water vapour released and started getting condensed.
 The Carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further decreased and caused more
condensation and rain.
 The rainwater gets collected in the depressions and rises to oceans which leads to the Evolution of Hydrosphere.
1. The last phase of evolution is the origin of life.
2. Around 3800 million years ago life began to evolve.
3. Around 2500-3000 million years ago photosynthesis evolved.

Latitude: circlcs around earth /parallel. They are farthest at equator nearest at poles.
4 imp lat [horizontally Help to determine time: local time in reation to
Equator: biggest circle G.M.T [UTC= UNIVERSAL CORDINATE TIME].
Measured north & south SUNRISE: EAST TO WEST

Longitude: measured in degree along equator east

or west of prime meridian.[vertically]
Meridian : 1884: 0 meridian: passes through royal
atronomical observatory Greenwich.
TIME:
180 w ------0------ 180e
Longitude: meridians/not full circles.
EARTH: ROTATION :360 degree: 24 HR
1hr= 15degree ; 4min= 1degree rotate
180<west<Greenwich(0)to
east>15>30>45>60>75>90>105>120>135>150>165
>180.
-2gmt<-1gmt<0>+1gmt+2gmt
INDIA: +5.30 GMT.
USA: 6 Time jones ( -)
Chine:
Russia :11
India: 82.5 degree east

MOTION OF EARTH: SOLISTICE:

ROTATION REVOLUTION 21ST JUNE :
 NORTH HEMISPHERE TILTED TOWERD SUN
Turning around its Movement of earth
 SUN RAYS DIRECTLY ON TROPIC OF
axix around sun
CANCER.
Takes 24hr for 1 Takes 365 day
 LONGEST DAY: SHORTEST NIGHT OCCUR AT
rotation
THIS PLACE ON 21ST JUNE.
Axis of rotation Earth orbit is
 SUMMER SOLISTICE
tilted by 23.5 elipticl
 SOUTH HEMISPHERE AT THIS TIME :WINTER
degree
SEASON : NIGHTS LONGER
DAY& NIGHTS SEASONS
22ND DECEMBER:
ROTATION:
 SUNRAYS DIRECT ON TROPIC OF CAPRICON
Along its axis:W to E /24 hr.
AS SOUTH POLE TILTS TOWERDS IT.
23:56:4sec= sidereal period.
 SOUTH HEMISPHERE: LONGER DAYS/SHORT
NIGHT.
 WINTER SOLSTICE
 REVERSE HAPPEN IN NORTH HEMISPHERE.

Places beyond artic circle exp continuous daylight:

6mnths

EQUINOX;
 21ST MARCH & 23RD SEPT DIECT RYS OF SUN
FALL ON EQUATOR
REVOLUTION : 365 1/4th days  WHOLE EARTH: EQUAL DAY/NIGHTS
6hrs saved every 4years to have feb 29th  23RD SEPT : AUTUMN SEASON; NORTH
366: leap year. HEMISISPHERE & SPRING IN SOUTH
 OPP : 21ST MARCH
SuperEon ==> Eon ==> Era ==> Period ==> Epoch