CLIMATOLOGY :
to 4% which is found in the warm and wet regions.
ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is described as the air that
surrounds the earth.
1. The thickness of the earth’s atmosphere is
about 480 km. 99 percent of the thickness lies
up to the height of 32 km from the earth.
2. With increasing altitude, the air pressure
decreases.
3. The atmosphere has a mixture of gases that
sustains life on earth.
4. The earth’s gravity helps hold the atmosphere in
place.
5. The major role of the atmosphere is to contain
the entry of ultraviolet rays.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Ozone Gas
 Present around 10-50 km above the earth’s surface and
acts as a sieve, absorbing UV (ultraviolet rays) from the
sun.
 Ozone averts harmful rays from reaching the surface of
the earth.
 The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very
little and is limited to the ozone layer found in the
stratosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Water Vapour
 Water vapour is a variable gas, declines with altitude.
 It also drops towards the poles from the equator.
 It acts like a blanket letting the earth from becoming
neither too hot nor too cold.
 It also contributes to the stability and instability in the
air.
 Gases form of water present in the atmosphere is
called water vapour.
 It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.
 The amount of water vapour decreases with altitude.
It also decreases from the equator (or from the low
latitudes) towards the poles (or towards the high
latitudes).
 Its maximum amount in the atmosphere could be up
 Water vapour reaches in the atmosphere through
evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation takes
place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes
while transpiration takes place from the plants, trees
and living beings.
 Water vapour absorbs part of the incoming solar
radiation (insolation) from the sun and preserves the
earth’s radiated heat. It thus acts like a blanket
allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too
hot.
 Water vapour also contributes to the stability and
instability in the air
Composition of the Atmosphere – Dust Particles
 Dust particles are in higher concentrations in temperate and
subtropical regions due to dry winds in contrast to the polar and
equatorial regions.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of the
atmosphere condenses to create clouds.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Nitrogen
 The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.
 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying the required nitrogen
for living things.
Composition of the atmosphere – Oxygen
 The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.
 It is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.
 It is obligatory for burning.
Also read: Oxygen Cycle
Composition of the Atmosphere – Argon
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.9% argon.
 They are mainly used in light bulbs.
Composition of the Atmosphere – Carbon Dioxide
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation
and transparent to incoming solar radiation.
 It is also one of the gases responsible for the greenhouse effect.
 Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas.
 It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation (insolation)
but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
 It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back
some part of it towards the earth’s surface.
 When the volume of other gases remains constant in the
atmosphere, the volume of the carbon dioxide has been
rising in the past few decades mainly because of the burning
of fossil fuels. This rising volume of carbon dioxide is the
main reason for global warming.

Troposphere
 It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
 The height of this layer is about 18 km on the
equator and 8 km on the poles.
 The thickness of the troposphere is greatest
at the equator because heat us transported
to great heights by strong convectional
currents.
 Troposphere contains dust particles and
water vapour.
 This is the most important layer of the
atmosphere because all kinds of weather
changes take place only in this layer.
 The air never remains static in this layer.
Therefore this layer is called ‘changing
sphere’ or troposphere.
 The environmental temperature decreases
with increasing height of the atmosphere. It
decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for
every 165 m of height. This is called Normal
Lapse Rate.
 The zone separating troposphere from the
stratosphere is known as tropopause.
 The air temperature at the tropopause is
about – 80 degree Celsius over the equator
and about – 45 degree Celsius over the
poles. The temperature here is nearly
constant, and hence, it is called tropopause.
Stratosphere
 Stratosphere is found just above the
troposphere.
 It extends up to a height of 50 km.
 The temperature remains almost the same in
the lower part of this layer up to the height of
20 km. After this, the temperature increases
slowly with the increase in the height. The
temperature increases due to the presence
of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
 Weather related incidents do not take place
in this layer. The air blows horizontally here.
Therefore this layer is considered ideal for
flying of aircraft.
 The upper limit of the stratosphere is known
as stratopause.
 One important feature of stratosphere is that
it contains a layer of ozone gas.
 The relative thickness of the ozone layer is
measured in Dobson Units.
 It is mainly found in the lower portion of the
stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 km
above the earth’s surface.
 It contains a high concentration of ozone
(O3) in relation to other parts of the
atmosphere.
 It is the region of the stratosphere that
absorbs most of the sun’s ultra-violet
radiations.
Mesosphere
 It is the third layer of the atmosphere
spreading over the stratosphere.
 It extends up to a height of 80 km.
 In this layer, the temperature starts
decreasing with increasing altitude and
reaches up to – 100 degree Celsius at the
height of 80 km.
 Meteors or falling stars occur in this layer.
 The upper limit of the mesosphere is known
as mesopause.
Thermosphere
 This layer is located between 80 and 400 km
above the mesopause.
 It contains electrically charged particles
known as ions, and hence, it is known as
the ionosphere.
 Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
reflected back to the earth by this layer and
due to this, radio broadcasting has become
possible.
 The temperature here starts increasing with
heights.
Exosphere
 The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the
atmosphere.
 Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to
the lack of gravitational force. Therefore, the
density of air is very less here.
Difference between heat and temperature
 The interaction of incoming solar radiation (insolation)
with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates
heat. This is measured in terms of temperature.
 While heat represents the molecular movement of
particles comprising a substance, the temperature is
the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a
thing (or a place) is.
 So, heat is the energy which makes things or objects
hot, while temperature measures the intensity of heat
(degree of hotness/coldness).
 Heat and temperature are closely related to each other
because gain or loss of heat is necessary to raise or
lower the temperature.
 The Celsius scale is the internationally accepted scale
for reporting air temperature.
 Fahrenheit scale and Kelvin scales are other scales
used to measure temperature.
 The Fahrenheit temperature scale is based on 32 °F for
the freezing point of water and 212 °F for the boiling
point of water, with the interval between the two being
divided into 180 parts.
 On the Kelvin scale, 0 K represents absolute zero (-273
°C), the temperature at which the molecules of a
substance have their lowest possible energy.
Distribution of TemperatureA) Horizontal Distribution of
Temperature
 Distribution of temperature across the latitudes over the
surface of the earth is called its horizontal distribution.
 On maps, the horizontal distribution of temperature is
commonly shown by isotherms.
 Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal
temperature.
 When we analyse an isotherm map, it can be seen that
the horizontal distribution of temperature is uneven.
THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE UNEVEN
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE ARE:
LATITUDE
 In the previous article, we have studied that the angle of
incidence of sun’s rays goes on decreasing from the
equator towards the poles.
 Higher the angle of incidence, higher is the temperature.
Similarly, lower the angle of incidence, lower is the
temperature.
 This is why the temperature is higher near the tropical
regions and decreases towards the poles.
ALTITUDE
 As we all know, the temperature in the troposphere goes
on decreasing with increase in height.
 Temperature decreases at an average rate of nearly 6
degree Celsius per 1000 m altitude, which is known as
Normal Lapse Rate.
LAND AND SEA CONTRAST
 Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
 As a result, the temperature is relatively higher on land
during day time and it is higher in water during the night.
 Also, the places situated near the sea come under the
moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which
moderates the temperature.
 There are also seasonal variations in the temperature of land
and sea. During summer, the air above land has a higher
temperature than the oceans. But the air above oceans gets
higher temperature than landmass in winter.
 Notwithstanding the great contrast between land and water
surfaces, there are differences in the rate of heating of
different land surfaces. A snow-covered land as in polar areas
warms very slowly because of a large amount of reflection of
solar energy. A vegetation covered land does not get
excessively heated because a great amount of insolation is
used in evaporating water from the plants.
OCEAN CURRENTS
 Ocean Currents are of two types – warm and cold.
 Warm currents make the coasts along which they flow
warmer, while cold currents reduce the temperature of
the coasts along which they flow.
 The North-Western European Coasts do not freeze in
winter due to the effect of North Atlantic Drift (a warm
current), while the Quebec on the coast of Canada is
frozen due to the Cold Labrador Current flowing along
it, though the Quebec is situated in lower latitudes than
the North-West European Coast.
AIR MASSES decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards the
equator in Europe.
 In the southern hemisphere, the effect of the oceans is
 Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air
well pronounced (due to few landmasses).
masses also affects the temperature.
 Here, the isotherms are more or less parallel to the
 The places, which come under the influence of warm
latitudes and the variation in temperature is more
air masses experience higher temperature and the
gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
places that come under the influence of cold air
masses experience low temperature.
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN JULY
VEGETATION COVER
 In July, the sun shines vertically overhead near the
Tropic of cancer. Hence, high temperatures are found
 Soil devoid of vegetation cover receives heat more
in the entire northern hemisphere.
rapidly than the soil under vegetation cover. Because
vegetation cover absorbs much of sun’s heat and then  The regions having high temperature include South
prevents quick radiation from the earth whereas the Western USA, the Sahara, the Arabia, Iraq, Iran,
former radiates it more rapidly. Afghanistan, desert region of India and China.
 Hence the temperature variations in densely forested  However, the lowest temperature of 0°C is also noticed
areas are lower than those in desert areas. in the Northern Hemisphere during summer in the
central part of Greenland.
Note: Along with these, the other factors which are responsible
for the uneven horizontal distribution of temperature are winds,
nature of the soil, slope and aspect of the surface, relief
features, etc.

 The horizontal distribution of temperature over the

globe can be studied easily from the isotherm maps of
January and July months since the seasonal extremes
of high and low temperature are most obvious in both
northern and southern hemispheres during these
months.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN  During summer in the northern hemisphere, isotherms

JANUARY
 In January, the sun shines vertically overhead near the
tropic of Capricorn. Hence, it is summer in southern
hemisphere and winter in the northern hemisphere.
 A high temperature is found over the landmasses
mainly in three regions of the southern hemisphere.
These regions are North-West Argentina, East and
Central Africa, and Central Australia.
 Isotherm of 30°C closes them.
bend towards the equator while crossing oceans and
towards the poles while crossing landmasses.
 Isotherms are wide spaced over oceans while they are
closely spaced over landmasses.
 In July, the deviation of isotherms is not that much
pronounced as in January.
B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature
 We have already studied that the temperature in the
troposphere decreases with an increase in the altitude.
 This vertical gradient of temperature is commonly
referred to as the standard atmosphere or Normal
Lapse Rate.
 However, this normal lapse rate varies with height,
season, latitude and other factors.
 Indeed the actual lapse rate of temperature does not
always show a decrease with altitude.

 In the northern hemisphere, landmasses are cooler

than the oceans. As the air is warmer over the oceans
than over landmasses in the northern hemisphere, the
isotherms bend towards the north (poles) when they
cross the oceans and to the south (equator) over the
continents.
 This can be clearly visible over the North Atlantic
Oceans. The presence of warms ocean currents (Gulf
Stream and North Atlantic Drift) make the Northern
Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend
towards the poles. Over the land, the temperature
TEMPERATURE INVERSION: time.

A temperature inversion is a layer in the atmosphere in which air

temperature increases with height. An inversion is present in the
lower part of a cap. Temperature Inversion is also known as thermal
inversion.
The cap is a layer of relatively warm air aloft (above the inversion).
Air parcels rising into this layer become cooler than the surrounding
environment, which inhibits their ability to ascend.

 The reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in

the troposphere is known as temperature inversion.
 The troposphere is the lowest region of the atmosphere,
extending from the earth’s surface to a height of about o Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface
6–10 km. Temperature Inversion)
 Inversions play an important role in determining visibility,
precipitation, and cloud forms.
 When a widespread layer of air descends,
 There will be limited diffusion of air pollutants, smoke it is compressed and heated by the
and dust. resulting increase in atmospheric pressure,
 During the day time, the radiation from the sun heats up and as a result the lapse rate of
the land surface and the air gets mainly heated up when temperature is reduced.
this air gets in touch with the heated land surface.
 The air at higher altitudes becomes
 Diurnal variations in air temperature also affect warmer than at lower altitudes, producing a
inversion. temperature inversion. This type of
temperature inversion is called subsidence
 Convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce
inversion.
showers in regions where a pronounced low-level
inversion is present. This happens due to the  It is very common over the northern
accumulation of smoke and dust particles. continents in winter (dry atmosphere) and
 Even in the absence of clouds, visibility may be greatly over the subtropical oceans; these regions
reduced below the inversion. generally have subsiding air because they
are located under large high-pressure
 Fog is frequently present there, as the air near the base centers.
of an inversion tends to be cool.
 Through convection and conduction, the heat from the  It is also called upper surface temperature
ground gets transferred to the air. inversion because it takes place in the
upper parts of the atmosphere.
 The magnitude of ground inversions is greatly affected
by the topography.
 Temperature inversion is quite common, but it happens
for a short duration.
 An ideal situation for inversion is still air, long winter
nights with clear skies.
 It is a normal phenomenon throughout the year over the
polar areas.
 Non-Advectional

o Radiation Inversion (Surface Temperature

Inversion)

 Surface temperature inversion develops

when air is cooled by contact with a colder
surface until it becomes cooler than the
overlying atmosphere; this occurs most
often on clear nights, when the ground  Advectional
cools off rapidly by radiation. If the
temperature of surface air drops below its
dew point, fog may result. o Valley inversion in intermontane valley
 It is very common in the higher latitudes. In
lower and middle latitudes, it occurs during
cold nights and gets destroyed during day  In high mountains or deep valleys,
sometimes, the temperature of the lower
layers of air increases instead of
decreasing with elevation along a sloping
surface.
  Here, the surface radiates heat back to
space rapidly and cools down at a faster
rate than the upper layers. As a result the
lower cold layers get condensed and
become heavy.
 The sloping surface underneath makes
them move towards the bottom where the
cold layer settles down as a zone of low
temperature while the upper layers are
relatively warmer.
 This condition, opposite to normal vertical
distribution of temperature, is known as
Temperature Inversion.
o Stops the movement of air: It causes the
stability of the atmosphere that stops the
downward and upward movement of air.
o Less rainfall: Convection clouds can not move
high upwards so there is less rainfall and no
showers. So, it causes a problem for agricultural
productivity.
o Lower visibility: Fog is formed due to the
situation of warm air above and cold air below,
and hence visibility is reduced which causes
disturbance in transportation.
o Thunderstorms and tornadoes: Intense
thunderstorms and tornadoes are also associated
with inversion of temperature because of the
intense energy that is released after an inversion
blocks an area’s normal convention patterns.
o Diurnal variations in temperature tend to be
very small.

o Frontal or Cyclonic inversion

 When the warm and cold fronts meet, then

the warm front rises up and being heavier
the cold front sinks down. It results in
formation of Frontal Inversion.

 It has considerable slope, whereas other

inversions are nearly horizontal. It often
takes place in the temperate zone and
causes cyclonic conditions which result in
the precipitation in different forms.

 A frontal inversion is unstable and is

destroyed as the weather changes.

Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with

increase in altitude in the troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every
165 metres. This is called normal lapse rate.
Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion
 Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation
from the ground surface during night may exceed the
Effect amount of incoming solar radiation.
 Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through terrestrial
 Temperature inversion determines the precipitation,
radiation proceeds more rapidly without any obstruction.
forms of clouds, and also causes frost due to
 Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the absorption of
condensation of warm air due to its cooling.
the radiated heat from the Earth’s surface.
 Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or mixing
o Dust particles hanging in the air: Due to of heat in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as  Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum loss
dust particles and smoke do not disperse on the of heat through reflection of incoming solar radiation.
surface.
INSOLATION & HEAT BUDGET:
Insolation – Insolation refers to the incoming shortwave
solar radiation to the earth’s surface. The processes
involved with insolation in maintaining heat balance
include:
 Reflection – Reflection occurs when incoming solar waves bounce
back from a surface that it strikes in the atmosphere, on land, or
water, and are not transformed into heat.
 Absorption – Absorption of radiation involves the conversion of
electromagnetic radiation into heat energy.
 Scattering – Scattering of solar waves takes place when the radiation
strikes small objects in Earth’s atmosphere, such as air molecules or
water droplets or aerosols which disperse the solar waves in all
directions.
Insolation or Incoming Solar Radiation
 However, the effect of this variation is
masked by some other factors like the
distribution of land and sea and the
atmospheric circulation. Hence the variation
does not have a greater effect on daily
weather changes on the surface of the earth.
Factors influencing Insolation VARIABILITY
The amount of insolation received on the earth’s
surface is not uniform everywhere. It varies
according to the place and time. When the tropical
regions receive maximum annual insolation, it
gradually decreases towards the poles. Insolation
is more in summers and less in winters. The major
factors which influence the amount of insolation
received are:

1. Rotation of the earth on its axis

 As we all know, the sun is the primary source

of energy for the Earth. The sun radiates its
energy in all directions into space in short
wavelengths, which is known as solar
radiation.
 The earth’s surface receives only a part of
this radiated energy (2 units out of
1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by
the sun).
 The energy received by the earth’s surface in
the form of short waves is
termed Incoming Solar Radiation or  The earth rotates on its axis which makes an
Insolation. angle of 66.5 with the plane of its orbit
 The amount of insolation received on the around the sun.
earth’s surface is far less than that is radiated  The rotation of the earth on this inclined axis
from the sun because of the small size of the has a greater influence on the amount of
earth and its distance from the sun. insolation received at different latitudes.
 Moreover, water vapor, dust particles, ozone,
and other gases present in the atmosphere
absorb a small amount of solar radiation. 2. The angle of incidence of the sun’s rays
 The solar radiation received at the top of the
atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to
the variations in the distance between the
earth and the sun.
 During the earth’s revolution around the sun,
the earth is farthest from the sun on the 4th of
July. This position of the earth is
called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
nearest to the sun. This position is
called perihelion.
 Due to this variation in the distance between
the Earth and the sun, the annual insolation
received by the earth on 3rd January is
slightly more than the amount received on
4th July.
  Since the earth is a geoid resembling a
sphere, the sun’s rays strike the surface at
different angles at different places. This
depends on the latitude of the place.
 The higher the latitude, the less the angle
they make with the surface of the earth.
 The area covered by the vertical rays is
always less than the slant rays. If more area
is covered, the energy gets distributed and
the net energy received per unit area
decreases.
 Moreover, the sun’s rays with small angles
traverse more of the atmosphere than rays
striking at a large angle.
 The longer the path of the sun’s rays, the
greater the amount of reflection and
absorption of heat by the atmosphere. As a
result, the intensity of insolation is less.
3. Duration of the day
 The duration of the day varies from place to
place and season to season. It decides the
amount of insolation received on the earth’s
surface.
 The longer the day, the greater the amount of
insolation received. Conversely, a shorter
day leads to the receipt of less insolation.
4. Transparency of the atmosphere
 The transparency of the atmosphere
depends upon the cloud cover and its
thickness, dust particles, water vapor, etc.
They reflect, absorb, or transmit insolation.
 A thick cloud hinders solar radiation from
reaching the earth’s surface. Similarly, water
vapour absorbs solar radiation resulting in
less amount of insolation reaching the
surface.
 When solar radiation passes through the
atmosphere, water vapor, ozone, and other
gases absorb much of the near-infrared
radiation (mainly in the troposphere).
 Very small suspended particles in the
troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to
space and towards the earth’s surface. This
process adds color to the sky.
 The red color of the rising and the setting sun
and the blue color of the sky are the results
of the scattering of the light within the
atmosphere.
Note: Maximum insolation is received over the
subtropical desert, where the cloudiness is the least.
The equator receives comparatively less insolation than
the tropics. Generally, at the same latitude, the
insolation is higher over the continent than over the
oceans. In winter, the middle and higher latitudes
receive less radiation than in summer.
5.The distribution of land: While the
geographical distribution of land and water bodies can
affect temperature patterns due to their different
specific heat capacities, it does not directly affect the
variability of insolation.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere
1. Terrestrial Radiation
Before discussing terrestrial radiation, the following
facts about radiation are worth noting.
1. All objects whether hot or cold emit radiant
energy continuously.
2. Hotter objects emit more energy per unit area
than colder objects.
3. The temperature of an object determines the
wavelength of radiation. Temperature and
wavelength are inversely proportional. The
hotter the object, the shorter the length of the
wave.
 So, when the earth’s surface is heated up by
the insolation (in the form of short waves), it
becomes a radiating body.
 The earth’s surface starts to radiate energy
to the atmosphere in the form of long waves.
 This is what we call terrestrial radiation.
This energy heats the atmosphere from
bottom to top.
 It should be noted that the atmosphere is
transparent to short waves and opaque to
long waves.
 The long-wave radiation is absorbed by the
atmospheric gases, particularly by carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Thus,
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the
terrestrial radiation.
  The atmosphere, in turn, radiates and
transmits heat to space. Finally, the amount
of heat received from the sun is returned to
space, thereby maintaining a constant
temperature at the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere.
2. Conduction (transfer of heat by contact)
 Conduction is the process of heat transfer
from a warmer object to a cooler object when
they come in contact with each other.
 The flow of heat energy continues till the
temperature of both the objects becomes
equal or the contact is broken.
 The conduction in the atmosphere occurs at
the zone of contact between the atmosphere
and the earth’s surface.
 Conduction is important in heating the lower
layers of the atmosphere.
3. Convection (vertical transfer of heat)
 Transfer of heat by the movement of a mass
or substance from one place to another,
generally vertical, is called convection.
 The air of the lower layers of the atmosphere
gets heated either by the earth’s radiation or
by conduction. The heating of the air leads to
its expansion. Its density decreases and it
moves upwards.
 The continuous ascent of heated air creates
a vacuum in the lower layers of the
atmosphere. As a consequence, cooler air
comes down to fill the vacuum, leading to
convection.
 The cyclic movement associated with the
convectional process in the atmosphere
transfers heat from the lower layer to the
upper layer and heats the atmosphere.
 The convection transfer of energy is confined
only to the troposphere.
4. Advection (horizontal transfer of heat)
 The transfer of heat through the horizontal
movement of air (wind) is called advection.
 Winds carry the temperature of one place to
another. The temperature of a place will rise
if it lies in the path of winds coming from
warmer regions. The temperature will fall if
the place lies in the path of the winds blowing
from cold regions.
 The horizontal movement of the air is
relatively more important than the vertical
movement. In the middle latitudes, most of
diurnal (day and night) variations in daily
weather are caused by advection alone.
 In tropical regions particularly in northern
India during the summer season, local winds
called ‘Loo’ are the outcome of the advection
process.
Heat Budget of the Earth
The surface of the earth maintains its
temperature, this is because the amount of
heat received by the earth in the form of
insolation equals the amount of heat lost by
the earth through terrestrial radiation.
When 100% of solar radiation reaches the
earth’s atmosphere, about 35% is reflected
back to space even before reaching the
surface of the earth. The reflected amount is
called the albedo of the earth. This amount of
energy does not heat either the earth or the
atmosphere.
 Out of the remaining 65% of the energy, 14%
are absorbed by the atmosphere and the rest,
51% by the surface of the earth (34% through
direct solar radiation and 17% from scattered
radiation).
 51% of the energy received by the earth is
radiated back as terrestrial radiation.
 17% is radiated back to space directly and the
remaining 34% is absorbed by the
atmosphere (6% is absorbed directly by the
atmosphere, 9% through convection and 19%
through latent heat of condensation).
 The total 48% absorbed by the atmosphere
(14% from insolation and 34% from terrestrial
radiation) are also radiated back to space.
 Thus, the total radiation returning back from
the atmosphere and the earth is respectively
48+17=65% which balances the total of 65%
received from the sun.
 This is termed the heat balance or heat
budget of the earth, and explains how the
 earth maintains its temperature despite the
huge transfer of heat.
The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat. It maintains
its temperature.
This can happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of
insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial
radiation.
This balance between the insolation and the terrestrial radiation is
termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth.
This is why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the
huge transfer of heat that takes place.

ALBEDO:

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the

Surface of the Earth

 Although the earth as a whole maintains a

balance between the insolation and the terrestrial
radiation, this is not what we observe at different
latitudes.
 As we have discussed earlier, there are variations
in the amount of insolation received at different
latitudes.
 In the tropical region, the amount of insolation is
higher than the amount of terrestrial radiation.
Hence it is a region of surplus heat. In the polar
region, the heat gain is less than the heat loss.
Hence it is a region of deficit heat.
 Thus the insolation creates an imbalance of heat
at different latitudes.
 This imbalance is nullified to some extent by
winds and ocean currents, which transfer heat
from surplus heat regions to deficit heat regions.
 This process of redistribution and balancing of
latitudinal heat is commonly known as Latitudinal
Heat Balance.
 The insolation received at the surface varies
from place to place, some part of the earth
has surplus radiation balance while the other
part is deficit.
 There is a surplus of net radiation balance
between 40°N and 40°S and the regions near
the poles are in deficit. The extra heat energy
from the tropics gets redistributed towards the
poles, and as a result, the tropics don’t get
progressively heated up due to the
accumulation of excess heat nor do the high
altitudes get permanently frozen due to
excess deficit.
 Albedo can be simply defined as a measure of
how much light that hits a surface is reflected
without being absorbed.
 It is a reflection coefficient and has a value of less
than one.
 When solar radiation passes through the
atmosphere, some amount of it is reflected,
scattered, and absorbed.
 The reflected amount of radiation is called the
albedo of the earth.
 The value of albedo will be different for different
surfaces.
 Because of the effect of albedo, highly developed
areas such as urban cities can experience higher
average temperatures than the surrounding
suburban or rural areas, a phenomenon known as
the “Urban Heat Island Effect”.
 The higher average temperature can be attributed
to less vegetation, higher population densities,
and more infrastructures with dark surfaces
(asphalt roads, brick buildings, etc.).
Solar Constant: This is a measure of the amount of solar
electromagnetic radiation received at the outer atmosphere
of Earth. It's called a "constant" because it's considered to be
a fixed amount, but it can actually vary slightly with the Sun's
activity. The average value of the solar constant is about
1.361 kilowatts per square meter.
Solar Zenith Angle: This is the angle between the
direction of the sun at its highest point in the sky and the
vertical direction directly overhead from a point on Earth's
surface. The solar zenith angle changes with the time of day
and the time of year. It affects the amount of sunlight that
hits a particular location on Earth's surface, and therefore the
intensity of insolation.

Atmospheric Pressure
It is defined as the force exerted by the weight
of the air molecules above the earth’s surface
per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is higher
at the surface of the earth due to the
gravitational force. The pressure decreases
with height and at any elevation, it varies from
place to place. This variation is the primary
cause of air motion (wind) which moves from
high-pressure area to low pressure area.
 Atmospheric pressure and temperature are inversely
related. With the increase in temperature, the air expands
and the number of molecules per unit area decreases
which leads to a decrease in pressure. Similarly when the
temperature falls, the air contracts and the pressure
increases.
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called
a “Barometer”. At sea level, the average atmospheric
pressure is 1013.25 mb (millibar).
Air Pressure
 Since air has mass, it also has weight. The pressure
of air at a given place is defined as a force exerted
in all directions by virtue of the weight of all the air
above it.
 The weight of a column of air contained in a unit
area from the mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure is expressed in various units.
Measurement of Air Pressure
 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column
of air at any given place and time. It is measured by
means of an instrument called barometer.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose
are called millibars (mb).
 One millibar is equal to the force of one gram
on a square centimeter. A pressure of 1000
millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053
kilograms per square centimeter.
 In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a
column of mercury 75 cm high.
 The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be
about 76 centimeters (1013.25 millibars).
Vertical Variation of Pressure
 In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases
rapidly with height.
 At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is
about two-thirds less than what it is at the sea level.
 The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is
not constant. Since the factors controlling air
density – temperature, amount of water vapour and
gravity are variable, there is no simple relationship
between altitude and pressure.
 In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on
an average at the rate of about 34 millibars every
300 metres of height.
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger
than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. But, it
is generally balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
 Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and
hence has higher pressure. Since air pressure is
proportional to density as well as temperature, it
follows that a change in either temperature or
density will cause a corresponding change in the
pressure.
 The pressure decreases with height. At any
elevation it varies from place to place and its
variation is the primary cause of air motion, i.e.
wind which moves from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas.
 A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather,
while a falling pressure indicates unstable and
cloudy weather.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
 Small differences in pressure are highly significant
in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by
drawing isobars at constant levels.
 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal
pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude
on pressure, it is measured at any station after
being reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
 The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and
direction of pressure changes and is referred to
as pressure gradient.
 Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong
pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests
weak gradient. The pressure gradient may thus be
defined as the decrease in pressure per unit
distance in the direction in which the pressure
decreases most rapidly.
 There are distinctly identifiable zones of
homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes
or ‘pressure belts’. On the earth’s surface, there
are in all seven pressure belts.
 The seven pressure belts are :
1. equatorial low,
2. the sub-tropical highs,
3. the sub-polar lows, and
4. the polar highs.
 Except the equatorial low, all others form matching
pairs in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centers
 Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more
isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or
more isobars with the highest pressure in the
centre.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
 The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034 gm per
square cm at sea level. This amount of pressure is
exerted by the atmosphere at sea level on all
animals, plants, rocks, etc.
 Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and
the area is known as equatorial low. Along 30° N
and 30° S are found the high-pressure areas
known as the subtropical highs. Further pole
wards along 60° N and 60° S, the low-pressure
belts are termed as the sub polar lows. Near the
poles the pressure is high and it is known as the
polar high.
 These pressure belts are not permanent in nature.
They oscillate with the apparent movement of the
sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they
move southwards and in the summer northwards.
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or
‘Doldrums’
 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N
and 20°S.
 This belt happens to be the zone of convergence
of trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-
tropical high pressure belts.
 This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of
the extremely calm air movements.
 The position of the belt varies with the apparent
movement of the Sun.
Formation
 As this region lies along the equator, it receives
highest amount of insolation.
 Due to intense heating, air gets warmed up and
rises over the equatorial region (convection).
 Whenever there is vertically upward movement of
air, the region at the surface will be at low pressure.
Thus the belt along the equator is called equatorial
low pressure belt.
Climate
 This belt is characterized by extremely low
pressure with calm conditions.
 This is because of the absence of Surface
winds since winds approaching this belt begin to
rise near its margin. Thus, only vertical currents
are found.
 As the larger part of the low pressure belt passes
along the oceans, the winds obtain huge amount of
moisture.
 Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture
form cumulonimbus clouds and lead
to thunderstorms (convectional rainfall).
 Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not
formed at the equator because of ‘zero’ coriolis
force. (we will see more later)
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or
Horse Latitudes
 The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics
to about 35°N and S.
Formation
 After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the
ITCZ, the air moving away from equatorial low
pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes
dry and cold.
 This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
 So the high pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the equatorial
region which descends after becoming heavy.
 The high pressure is also due to the blocking effect
of air at upper levels because of the Coriolis force.
Climate
 The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore,
most of the deserts are present along this belt,
in both hemispheres.
 A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds
is created in this high pressure belt.
 The descending air currents feed the winds blowing
towards adjoining low pressure belts.
 This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and
extra-tropical disturbances.
Horse Latitudes
 The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high
pressure belt are called horse latitudes.
 In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of
horses found it difficult to sail under calm
conditions of this high pressure belt.
 They used to throw horses into the sea when
fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt
 Located between 45°N and S latitudes and
the Arctic and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and
S latitudes).
 Owning to low temperatures in these latitudes the
sub polar low pressure belts are not very well
pronounced year long.
 On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub polar
low-pressure belts of the northern hemisphere are
grouped into two centers of atmospheric activity:
the Iceland low and the Aleutian depression
(Aleutian low).
 Such belts in the southern hemisphere surround
the periphery of Antarctica and are not as well
differentiated.
Formation
 These are dynamically produced due to
1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth
on its axis, and.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence of
westerlies and polar easterlies (we will more
about these in next topic – wind systems).
 Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly
encountered above

Seasonal behavior
 During winter, because of a high contrast between
land and sea, this belt is broken into two distinct
low centers – one in the vicinity of the Aleutian
Islands and the other between Iceland and
Greenland.
 During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more
developed and regular belt.

Climate
 The area of contrast between cold and warm air
masses produces polar jet streams which encircles
the earth at 60 degrees latitudes and is focused in
these low pressure areas.
Due to a great contrast between the
temperatures of the winds from sub-tropical
and polar source regions, extra tropical
cyclonic storms or lows’ (temperate
cyclones or frontal cyclones) are produced
in this region.
Polar High Pressure Belt
 The polar highs are small in area and extend
around the poles.
 They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S
latitudes.
Pressure belts in January
 During winter, these conditions are completely
reversed and the pressure belts shift south of their
annual mean locations. Opposite conditions prevail
in the southern hemisphere. The amount of shift is,
however, less in the southern hemisphere due to
predominance of water.
 Similarly, distribution of continents and oceans
have a marked influence over the distribution of
pressure. In winter, the continents are cooler than
the oceans and tend to develop high pressure
centres, whereas in summer, they are relatively
warmer and develop low pressure. It is just the
reverse with the oceans.

Formation
 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after
saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold
while moving towards poles through upper
troposphere.
 The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides
creating a high pressure belt at the surface of earth.

Climate
 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.

Pressure belts in July

 In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with
the apparent northward shift of the sun, the
thermal equator (belt of highest temperature) is
located north of the geographical equator.
 The pressure belts shift slightly north of their
annual average locations.
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems
 There are two main causes, thermal and dynamic,
for the pressure differences resulting in high and
low pressure systems.
Thermal Factors
 When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its
density decreases. This naturally leads to low
 pressure. On the contrary, cooling results in
contraction. This increases the density and thus
leads to high pressure.
 Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are
examples of thermal lows and thermal highs,
respectively.
Dynamic Factors
 Apart from variations of temperature, the formation
of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic
controls arising out of pressure gradient forces
and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
Example
 After saturation (complete loss of mosture) at the
ITCZ, the air moving away from equatorial low
pressure belt in the upper troposphere becomes
dry and cold. This dry and cold wind subsides at
30°N and S.
 So the high pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the equatorial
region which descends after becoming heavy.
 The rate of deflection increases with the
distance from the equator (Coriolis force). As a
result, by the time the poleward directed winds
reach 25° latitude, they are deflected into a nearly
west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking
effect and the air piles up. This causes a general
subsidence in the areas between the tropics and
35°N and S, and they develop into high pressure
belts.
 The location of pressure belts is further affected by
differences in net radiation resulting from apparent
movement of the sun and from variations in
heating of land and water surfaces.
 Thus formation of sub-tropical high and sub-
polar low pressure belts are due to dynamic
factors like pressure gradient forces, apparent
movement of sun and rotation of the
earth (Coriolis force)\
Forces which affect the atmospheric Circulation by the
Velocity and Direction of Wind:
Pressure Gradient Force
The temperature differences lead to the difference in
the air pressure and the differences in atmospheric
pressure produces a force and this pressure gradient
force actually drives the air from the high pressure
areas to the low-pressure areas. The rate of change of
pressure with respect to distance is the pressure
gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the
isobars are close to each other and is weak where the
isobars are apart. Let us take an example of an
equatorial region and the polar region. Air in the
equatorial area is warm due to more solar energy than
the air in the Polar Regions so the warm air of the
equatorial region rises and then moves horizontally
towards the polar region. As the air cools, it sinks back
down towards the warmer equatorial region.
The force generated by variations in atmospheric
pressure can be attributed to differences in pressure.
The pressure gradient refers to the rate at which
pressure changes in relation to distance. A stronger
pressure gradient occurs when isobars (lines
connecting points of equal pressure) are closely
spaced, while a weaker pressure gradient is observed
when isobars are farther apart.
Frictional Force
It affects the speed of the wind. It is highest at the
surface and its influence generally extends up to an
elevation of 13 kms. Over the sea surface, the friction is
minimal. The surface of the earth exerts a frictional
force on the air blowing just above it and that acts to
change the wind direction and slow it down. Actually, it
is the terrain condition, which directly affects how much
friction is going to be exerted. For example, the plain
areas exert less frictional force and cause minimal
change in the velocity and direction of the wind
whereas the rugged terrains like hilly and mountainous
areas slow down the velocity of the wind and may
change the direction of the wind
The speed of the wind is influenced by it. The greatest
impact is observed at the surface, and its effects
typically reach up to an altitude of 1 – 3 km. In
contrast, there is minimal friction over the surface of
the sea.
Coriolis Force
The rotation of the earth on its axis generates force,
which affects the direction of the wind. This force is
causing deflection of winds and this deflection of wind
due to the earth’s rotation is called the Coriolis force. It
deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
The effect of the Coriolis force also differs accross the
latitude. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the
angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is
absent at the equater. Due to the earth’s rotation and
the Coriolis force all free moving objects, like air, water,
airplanes and even snowballs appear to leave their
straight-line paths. Therefore, we can say that nothing
is free from the effect of the Coriolis force. The Coriolis
force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an
isobar. The higher the pressure gradient force, the more
is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the
deflection in the direction of wind. Because of these
two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the
low-pressure areas the wind blows around it. At the
equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows
perpendicular to the isobars. The low pressure is filled
instead of being intensified. That is the reason why
tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator. If
the earth would not have been rotating, this pressure
gradient force would create only two single cell
circulations of the wind i.e., one for the northern
hemisphere and one for the southern hemisphere. But
as the earth is rotating on its axis, we get multiple
circulation of wind on the earth.
The movement of the Earth around its axis influences
the wind’s direction. This phenomenon is known as
the Coriolis force, named after the French physicist
who first explained it in 1844.
In the northern hemisphere, the wind is deflected
towards the right, while in the southern hemisphere, it
is deflected towards the left. The degree of deflection
increases with higher wind speeds. The Coriolis force is
directly linked to the latitude angle, being strongest at
the poles and non-existent at the equator.
Pressure and Wind
 The speed and path of the wind are
determined by a combination of factors. In
the upper atmosphere, approximately 2 – 3
km above the Earth’s surface, the wind is
not influenced by surface friction.
 Instead, it is primarily influenced by
the pressure gradient and the Coriolis
force. When the lines connecting areas
of equal pressure (isobars) are straight and
there is no friction, the pressure gradient
force is counterbalanced by the Coriolis
force.
 As a result, the wind blows parallel to the
isobars in this scenario, and it is referred to
as the geostrophic wind.
 In atmospheric Circulation, the circulation
of wind around a low pressure system is
known as cyclonic circulation, while around
a high pressure system it is referred to
as anticyclone circulation.
 The direction of winds around these
systems varies depending on their location
in different hemispheres. The wind
circulation near the Earth’s surface around
lows and highs is often closely linked to the
wind circulation at higher altitudes.
 Typically, air converges and rises over areas
of low pressure, while over areas of high
pressure, air subsides from above and
diverges at the surface.
 In addition to convergence, several factors
such as eddies, convection currents,
orographic uplift, and uplift along fronts
contribute to the upward movement of air,
which is crucial for cloud formation and
precipitation.
General Circulation of the
Atmosphere
 The pattern of planetary winds mainly
depends on-
o Latitudinal variation of
atmospheric heating
o Emergence of pressure belts
o The movement of belts followss
the apparent path of the sun
o The distribution of continents
and oceans
o The rotation of the earth.
 The movement of the planetary winds is
known as the general atmospheric
circulation. This atmospheric circulation
also affects the movement of ocean water,
which in turn has an impact on the Earth’s
climate. The given below figure provides a
description of the general atmospheric
circulation.
The pattern of movement of the planetary
winds is called the general circulation of the
atmosphere. Three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere. These
are – Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell.
Hadley Cell
 This model was proposed by George Hadley
in 1735.
 The air at the equator (ITCZ – InterTropical
Convergence Zone) rises due to high
 insolation, flows polewards and descends in
the subtropics (30°N and S). Down below
near the land surface, the air flows towards
Inter Tropical Convergence
the equator due to pressure gradient as the
easterlies. The easterlies (north-east trade
Zone (ITCZ)
winds and south-east trade winds) converge
in the ITCZ. Such a circulation of air gives rise
to cells.
 This type of cell formed along with trade
winds, equatorial low (ITCZ) and subtropical
high pressure belts is called the Hadley cell.
Image source: NCERT
Ferrel Cell
 This model was proposed by William Ferrel in
1856.
 It is a global atmospheric circulation that
features part of the air rising at 60° latitude
flowing towards the equator, descending in
the sub-tropics and then returning towards the
subpolar region.
 At the surface, these winds are called
westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel
cell.
Polar Cell
 It features part of the air rising at 60° latitude
that flows towards poles, descends and
returns towards the subpolar region.
 The winds blow towards the subpolar region
as the polar easterlies and the cell is called
the Polar cell.
These cells – Hardley, Ferrel and Polar cells
set the pattern for the general circulation of the
atmosphere.
 The air in the atmospheric Circulation
at the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) rises due to convection
caused by high solar radiation,
leading to the formation of a low
pressure area. The winds from the
tropics converge at this zone of low
pressure. As the converged air rises,
it forms a convective cell and reaches
the top of the troposphere, reaching
an altitude of approximately 14 km.
 From there, it moves towards the
poles, resulting in the accumulation
of air around 30-degree N and S
latitudes. Some of the accumulated
air descends towards the Earth’s
surface, creating a subtropical high.
 Another reason for the air to sink is
the cooling that occurs when it
reaches latitudes of 30-degree N and
S. Near the surface, the air flows
towards the equator as easterlies. The
easterlies from both sides of the
equator converge at the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
 These atmospheric circulations, from
the surface upwards and vice versa,
are known as cells. In the tropics, this
type of cell is called the Hadley Cell.
 In the middle latitudes, the
atmospheric circulation consists
of sinking cold air from the poles
and rising warm air from the
subtropical high. These winds at the
surface are referred to as westerlies,
and the cell is known as the Ferrel
cell.
 At polar latitudes, the cold and dense
air descends near the poles and moves
towards the middle latitudes as polar
easterlies. This cell is called the polar
cell. These three cells establish the
general pattern of atmospheric
circulation.
  The transfer of heat energy from
lower latitudes to higher latitudes
plays a crucial role in maintaining this
overall atmospheric circulation.
 The atmosphere’s general
circulation also has an impact on the
oceans. The large-scale winds in the
atmosphere create slow-moving
currents in the ocean.
 Conversely, the oceans contribute
energy and water vapour to the air.
These interactions occur gradually
across a significant portion of the
ocean.
Atmospheric Circulation and
its Effects on Oceans
 The warming and cooling of
the Pacific Ocean play a crucial role
in the overall atmospheric circulation.
The central Pacific Ocean gradually
carries warm water towards the coast
of South America, replacing the
cool Peruvian current. This
occurrence of warm water near Peru’s
coast is commonly referred to as El
Nino.
 The El Nino event is closely
connected to pressure changes in
the Central Pacific and Australia.
This change in pressure conditions
across the Pacific is called the
southern oscillation. The combined
effect of the southern oscillation
and El Nino is known as ENSO.
 During years when ENSO is
particularly strong, significant
weather variations occur worldwide.
The dry west coast of South America
experiences heavy rainfall, while
Australia, India, and at times China
can face droughts and floods. This
phenomenon is closely monitored and
utilized for long-range forecasting in
many parts of the world.
Wind Systems
 It is the horizontal movement of air from high
pressure zones to low pressure areas to maintain
atmospheric equilibrium. Due to the Coriolis force,
winds do not flow in a straight path. The direction of
the wind is identified by an instrument called a wind
vane. Anemometer is an instrument that
measures the speed of the wind.
 Types of winds – Winds are classified into three:
 Primary winds,
 Secondary winds and
 Tertiary winds.
Primary Winds
 Primary winds are also called planetary winds,
permanent winds (blow constantly throughout
the year), global winds, invariable winds and
prevailing winds.
 There are three types of primary winds –
Trade Winds, Westerlies and Easterlies.
 Trade winds
 These winds flow between 30°N and
30°S latitudes from sub-tropical high
pressure belts towards equatorial low
pressure belts (in Hadley cell).
 These trade winds flow towards the
equator from the north-east in the
northern hemisphere and from the
south-east in the southern
hemisphere.
 North-east and south-east trade winds
get warm and pick up moisture on
their way to the equator. Near the
equator, they rise and cause heavy
rains.
 Westerlies
 These winds flow between 30°N and
60°N in the northern hemisphere and
between 30°S and 60°S in the
southern hemisphere (in Ferrel cells).
These winds blow from subtropical
high pressure towards subpolar low
pressure belts.
 Westerlies blow from south-west to
north-east in the northern hemisphere
and north-west to south-east in the
southern hemisphere.
 Westerlies are stronger in the
southern hemisphere because there
are no large landmasses to interrupt
them.
 Easterlies
 These winds blow from polar high
pressure belts towards subpolar low
pressure belts between 90° and 60°
 latitudes in both the hemispheres (in developed from the land to the sea and this results in
Polar cells). land breeze.
 These polar easterlies blow from
north-east to south-west in the
northern hemisphere and from south-
east to north-west in the southern
hemisphere.

Monsoon Winds

A monsoon is a wind in low-latitude climates that periodically reverses

direction between summer and winter. Monsoons usually flow from the

land in winter and from water to the land in summer, resulting in a

severe change in the temperature and precipitation patterns of the

area affected by the monsoon. The temperature difference created by

the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Himalayan wall
Mountain and Valley Winds
forms the basis of the monsoon in the Indian subcontinent.
 In mountainous regions, during the day the
slopes get heated up and air moves up the
slope. To fill the resulting gap, the air from the
valley blows up and this wind is known as the
valley breeze or Anabatic wind or upslope
wind.
 During the night, the slope gets cooled and
the dense air descends downhill into the
valley. This wind is known as mountain wind
or Katabatic wind or downslope wind.
 On the leeward side of the mountain ranges,
warm winds may occur. While crossing the
mountain ranges, the moisture in these winds
condenses and precipitate. The resulting dry
winds descend down the leeward side of the
slope and get warmed up by the adiabatic
process. This warm wind may melt the snow
in a short time.

Secondary Winds
Also called seasonal winds, periodic winds, variable
winds and regional winds. Seasonal winds change their
direction in different seasons. Monsoons are seasonal
winds that are characterised by seasonal reversal of
wind direction.
Land and Sea Breezes

During the day, the land heats up faster than water and
the air over the land warms and expands leading to the
formation of a low pressure zone. At the same time, the
air over the ocean is comparatively cool because of
water’s slower rate of heating and forms a high
pressure area. Thus, the pressure gradient from sea to
land is created and the wind blows from sea to the land
as the sea breeze. In the night, the reversal of condition
takes place. The land loses heat faster than the sea and
is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is

Tertiary Winds
Tertiary winds are formed due to pressure
gradients which may develop on a local scale
due to differences in the heating and cooling of
the earth’s surface. Local winds are tertiary
winds that blow only during a particular period
of the day or year in a small area. Such winds
blow locally and are confined to the lowest
levels of the troposphere.
North American local winds –
 Chinook – (snow eater) These are warm dry
westerly off the Rocky Mountains.
 Blizzard – These are cold winds that blow in
Canada, the USA, Siberia, etc.
 Norte – These are strong cold winds that blow
along the Gulf of Mexico.
 Santa Ana – These are warm, dry and strong
winds that blow out of the Great Basin through
the upper Mojave desert to California.
South American local winds –
 Mistral – It is a cold northerly wind that blows
from central France and the Alps to the
Mediterranean.
 Levante – It is a moist and rainy wind that
blows near the Mediterranean sea and
southern France and Spain.
 Bora – It is cold, dry and gusty wind that
blows north-easterly from Eastern Europe to
northeastern Italy.
Asian winds –
 Karaburan – (Black storm). It is a dusty fast
blowing wind that blows in central Asia.
 Buran – In summer, it is hot and dry. During
winters, it is an extremely cold wind that blows
across eastern Asia.
 Simoom – It is a strong, dry desert wind that
blows in the Arabian desert.
 Loo – It is a hot and dry wind that blows over
the plains of India and Pakistan.
 Yoma – It is a warm and dry wind that blows
in Japan.
Australian winds
 Brickfielder – It is a hot and dry wind that
blows in southern Australia.

 Pampero – These are cold winds and blow in

Argentina and Uruguay.
 Zonda – These are warm and dry winds, and
blow on the eastern slope of the Andes in
Argentina and Uruguay.

African winds –

 Sirocco – Also called blood rain as it brings

reddish sand along with it from the Sahara
desert. It is warm, dry and dusty. Blows in a
northerly direction from the Sahara desert and
crossing over the Mediterranean Sea, reach
southern Europe.
 Khamsin – Dry, hot and sandy wind blows
from North Africa to the eastern
Mediterranean. Air Masses
 Harmattan – Also called doctor wind as it
makes the weather pleasant. It is a dry An air mass is defined as an immense body of
northerly wind across central Africa. air several kilometres in length, breadth and
 Berg – A hot dry wind blows from the Kalahari thickness, with little horizontal variation in
high to the coastal low pressure area.
temperature and moisture. When the air
European winds – remains over a homogeneous area for a
 Fohn/Foehn – It is a dry, strong and warm sufficiently long time, it acquires the
wind that blows along the northern slope of characteristics of the area. The homogenous
the Alps and Switzerland. The wind helps in
melting snow and aids in the ripening of snow. regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
It is a katabatic wind. plains and plateaus.
  The homogeneous surfaces over which air
masses form are called the source regions.
The main source regions are the high
pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to
tropical air masses) and around the poles,
giving rise to polar air masses. The air
masses are classified according to the source
regions and there are five major source
regions:
 Warm tropical and subtropical oceans.
 Subtropical hot deserts.
 Relatively cold high altitude oceans.
 Very cold snow-covered continents in
high altitudes.
 Permanently ice-covered continents in
the Arctic and Antarctica.
 Accordingly, the following types of air masses
are recognised:
 Maritime tropical (mT) – moist and
warm.
 Continental tropical (cT) – dry and
warm.
 Maritime polar (mP) – moist and cold.
 Continental polar (cP) – dry and cold.
 Continental arctic (cA) – dry and cold.
Tropical air masses are warm and polar air
masses are cold.
Fronts
When two different air masses (different
physical properties like temperature, humidity,
density, etc.) meet, the boundary zone
between them is called a front. The fronts
occur in middle latitudes (30°-60° N and S) and
are characterised by steep gradients in
temperature and pressure. They are
uncommon in tropical and polar regions.
 Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones
or extratropical cyclones occur due to
frontogenesis.
There are four types of fronts –
1. Stationary front -When the front remains
stationary, it is called a stationary front. When
a warm or cold front stops moving and is
unable to push against each other, it results in
a stationary front. It brings significant
precipitation along the front.
2. Cold front – When the cold air moves towards
the warm air mass, its contact zone is called
the cold front. Here, cold air mass replaces
warm air mass by advancing into it. Cold
fronts result in the formation of cumulonimbus
clouds with heavy rainfall associated with
lightning and thunder.
3. Warm front – When the warm air mass moves
towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is
a warm front. Here, the active movement of
warm air over cold air takes place. Warm
fronts result in the formation of stratus and
nimbostratus clouds and cover over large
areas, leading to moderate to gentle rainfall.
4. Occluded front – This type of front is formed
when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air
mass and goes underneath it. Occlusion is a
process by which the cold front of a rotating
low pressure system catches up the warm
front, so that the warm air between them is
forced upwards. Weather along an occluded
front is complex, a mixture of warm front type
and cold front type weather. Such fronts are
common in western Europe.

FRONT CAN BE RECOGNIZED WITH FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS:

Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance. Sometimes change

of 10 degrees to 20 degrees Celsius may be observed. Change in moisture

content Rapid shifts in wind direction Pressure changes Clouds and

precipitation patterns

 The process of formation of fronts is known

as frontogenesis and dissipation of a front is
known as frontolysis. Frontogenesis involves
the convergence of two distinct air masses
and frontolysis involves over riding of one of
the air masses by the other.
  During summer, when the sun shifts to
the north over the tropic of cancer,
Pressure Belts also migrate by around
10°. Thus the Trade wind belt moves up
to 35-45° N.
 During winter, Pressure belts move
equatorward and so do the trade winds.
35-45° N latitudes then come under the
influence of Westerlies.
 Thus, 35-45° N has a peculiar climate
where Westerlies cause winter rainfall
along western margins but during
summer, Trade winds cause rainlessness.
 The mid-continental parts, however,
receive some rainfall both during
summers and winters. They have a Semi-
arid type of climate.
Cyclones
The atmospheric disturbances which involve a
closed circulation of air around a low pressure
at centre and high pressure at the periphery,
rotating anti-clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere (due to the Coriolis force) are
called “cyclones”.
Cyclones are classified into two types based
on the latitudes of their origin-
1. Tropical cyclones
2. Temperate/Extra-tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are formed between 5 degrees to 30
degrees in both the Northern and Southern
hemispheres. These are not formed over or near the
equator due to a lack of Coriolis force.
They are low-pressure atmospheric systems of low
latitudes.
Cyclones developed in the regions lying between the
tropics of Capricorn and cancer are called tropical
cyclones which are not regular and uniform like
extratropical or temperate cyclones.
Numerous forms of cyclones vary considerably in shape
size velocity and weather conditions.
Different names of tropical cyclones in different regions
of the world:
 Southeast Asia- typhoons
 Caribbean sea- hurricane
 Indian Ocean- tropical cyclones
 Northeast coast of Australia- Willy Willy
 A tornado is the smallest and most deadly form of
cyclone in the Mississippi valley of the USA. They
are funnel-shaped storms that are small but the
most violent and disastrous of all storms. The
center of a tornado is characterized by extremely
low pressure.
Because of such steep pressure gradient winds rush
hour with great force towards the center having a high
velocity of 600 to 800 km per hour. The approach of
tornadoes is heralded by dark and thick clouds in the sky
resulting in complete darkness and minimum visibility
and low air pressure.
Conditions required for the origin of tropical cyclones:
1. Presence of a warm Ocean surface with a
temperature of 27 degrees Celsius or more. The
warm surface is the source of thermal convection
and strong hot and humid currents. It is because
of this factor that tropical cyclones are
characteristically developed over the east coast of
continents under the influence of warm ocean
currents.
2. The presence of ITCZ (Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone) supports the intensification of
low pressure and augments the supply of
moisture due to the inflow of trade winds.
3. Coriolis force helps in deflection of strong
influence wind to generate circulatory system. In
the absence of Coriolis force tropical cyclones do
not originate near the equator.
4. Presence of high moisture in the atmosphere as it
becomes the source of latent heat of vaporization
which is the basic source of energy for a tropical
cyclone.
5. Minimum vertical wind shear to support the
unrestricted flow of air currents upwards.
6. Divergence of air in the upper troposphere.
Tropical cyclones cover relatively smaller areas but are
more destructive. On average their diameters range
between 80-300 km but sometimes they become so
small that the diameter is restricted to 50 km or less. But
they are relatively taller and extend up to 15 km from surges. These cyclones are one of the most
sea level in the upper troposphere. devastating natural calamities.
 Tropical cyclones are known by different names
depending on the regions of the world. They are
The basic source of energy is the latent heat of
known as Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons
vaporization present in hot and humid thermal
in the Western Pacific and the South China Sea,
convective currents. This latent heat of vaporization later
Willy-willies in Western Australia and Cyclones
becomes a source of cooling condensation cloud
in the Indian ocean.
formation and rainfall.

Normally they move from east to west under the

influence of trade winds hence the general direction is
there for the West word from their origin.

A fully developed tropical cyclone consists of:

1. Eye: the pressure is lowest in the eye. It is a zone

of high temperature and high humidity. It is also a
cloudless, windless, and rain-less zone.
2. Inner eyewall: It is the most destructive part of a
tropical cyclone. It is characterized by strong
winds and the greatest intensity of rainfall.
Rainfall is generated through cumulonimbus
clouds.
3. Outer eyewall: It is the outermost part of a
tropical cyclone. In this zone, wind velocity is
relatively low and so is the intensity of rainfall.
Tropical cyclones become very vigorous with high
velocity over the oceans but become weak while moving
over land areas and ultimately die out after reaching the
interior portion of the continents. That is why the
cyclones affect only the coastal areas of the continents.
Factors favourable for the formation of tropical
cyclones
1. Large sea surface with a temperature greater
than 27°C, which is a source of warm and moist
air to feed the storm. The condensation of
moisture releases enough latent heat of
condensation to drive the storm.
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create
a cyclonic vortex. The Coriolis force is zero at
the equator and it increases with latitudes.
Coriolis force at 5°latitude is significant enough
to create a storm. About 65% of the cyclonic
activity takes place between 10° and 20°(N & S)
latitudes.
3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
Winds that do not vary greatly with height are
known as low wind shear. This allows the storm
clouds to rise vertically to a high level.
4. Pre-existing weak low pressure area or low level
cyclonic circulation. They act as seeds for the
cyclones.
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system.

 Tropical cyclones develop in the region between

the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. These are
violent storms that originate over oceans in the
tropical areas and move on to the coastal
regions bringing large scale destruction caused
by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm

 The centre of the cyclone where the wind
converges and vertically rises is called the “eye”.
The eye is a calm region with no rainfall,
experiences the highest temperature and lowest
pressure within the cyclonic system. A mature
tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong
spirally circulating wind around the centre, called
the eye.
 All the wind that is carried upwards loses its
moisture and becomes cold and dense. It
descends to the surface through the cylindrical
eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
 Continuous supply of moisture is the major
driving force behind every cyclone. On reaching
the land, the moisture is cut off and the storm
dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone
crosses the coast is called the “landfall” of the
cyclone.
 Around the eye is the eye wall, the most violent
region of the cyclone. The wind reaches
maximum velocity in this region, reaching as
high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rains occur
here. From the eye wall, rain bands may radiate
and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds
may drift into the outer region.
 The diameter of the storm over the Bay of
Bengal, Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean is
between 600 – 1200 km. The system moves
slowly about 300- 500 km per day. The cyclone
creates storm surges and they inundate the
coastal lowlands.
 Tropical cyclones mostly move along with the
direction of trade winds, so they travel from east
to west and make landfall on the eastern coasts
of the continents.
Temperate Cyclones
Temperate cyclones also called extratropical cyclones or
waves cyclones, are low-pressure centers produced in
the mid-latitudes during winters in both hemispheres.
They are formed in regions extending between 35-65
degree latitudes in both hemispheres due to the
convergence of two contrasting air masses.
They are most intensified and frequent during winters as
thermal contrast is high during that time.
The polar front theory discusses and explains the origin
of temperate cyclones, according to this theory
frontogenesis is a precondition for the formation of
temperate cyclones.
Hence the conditions necessary for the development of
a front are also required for the development of a
temperate cyclone:
1. The presence of two opposing air masses has
contrasting properties of air temperature and
pressure density and humidity.
2. The two air masses must move in the face
direction.
Temperate cyclones cover a large area as these are
formed due to the convergence of large and contrasting
air masses. Sometimes temperate cyclones are so
extensive that they cover an area of about 10 lakh
square kilometers.
Temperate cyclones extend up to 10 km from sea level
in the upper troposphere.
Moisture present in hot humid and lighter air mass is the
source of energy in temperate cyclones. This moisture
later becomes a source of cooling condensation cloud
formation and rainfall. Since the source of energy in
temperate cyclones is moisture present in warm air
mass they can occur and develop over both oceanic and
continental surfaces.
Temperate cyclones are cyclones of mid-latitudes and
hence are primarily under the influence of permanent
winds of mid-latitude that is the westerlies.
The movement is these cyclones are eastwards of the
origin with an average velocity of 32 km per hour in
summers and 48 km per hour in winters.
The formation of temperate cyclones is a quick process
but passes through a series of successive stages:
The period of a cyclone from its inception (cyclogenesis)
to its termination (frontolysis or occlusion) is called the
life cycle of a cyclone. It is completed through 6
successive stages and is described by the polar front
theory.
Stage 1: It involves the convergence of two masses of
contrasting physical properties and directions.
Stage 2: It is also called an incipient stage during which
the warm and cold air masses penetrate the territories of
each other and a wave-like front is formed under the
influence of Coriolis force.
Stage 3: It is the mature stage when the cyclone is fully
developed and isobars become almost circular. The
energy and intensity of the cyclone are greatest in this
stage. Rainfall is generated by nimbostratus clouds
along the warm front and cumulonimbus clouds
generate high-intensity rainfall at cold fronts.
Stage 4: The warm sector of the cyclone is narrow due
to the more advancement of the cold front full stop as a
warm front declines energy reservoir of the cyclonic
system starts declining.
Stage 5: It starts with the occlusion of the cyclone when
the advancing cold front finally overtakes the warm front
and an occluded front is formed. The intensity of rainfall
and winds declines further.
Stage 6: In this warm sector completely disappears
occluded front is eliminated cold air mass covers the
surface and ultimately cyclone dies out.
Temperate cyclones are relatively regular and
predictable compared to tropical cyclones and a
primarily observed in the winter seasons.
WESTERN DISTURBANCES:
Wave cyclones originating over the Mediterranean sea
and Caspian sea flow eastward under the influence of
subtropical westerly jet stream. The cyclones enter into
North-Western parts of India during the winter season to
generate snowfall on the Himalayan mountain ranges of
Jammu and Kashmir Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand. They also cause rainfall in the plains of
Punjab Haryana Western Uttar Pradesh Delhi and
northern Rajasthan and support Rabi crops.
Anticyclones
Anticyclones are centers of high pressure. They are
surrounded by closed isobars having decreasing
pressure outward.
The circulation is from central high pressure towards the
periphery in such a way that air blows outwards in
a clockwise direction in the Northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise direction in the
southern hemisphere.
Due to Coriolis force, blowing winds are deflected from
their paths to the right in the Northern hemisphere and
left in the Southern hemisphere, that’s how it gets
circular with a flowing system.
The difference in pressure between the center and
periphery of anticyclone ranges between 10 to 20 mb
and sometimes higher.
There are much larger in size and area than temperate
cyclones as the diameter is 75% larger than that of
temperate cyclones. Temperate anticyclones are very
extensive that a single anticyclone can cover nearly half
of the USA.
The track is highly variable and unpredictable. They
move very sluggishly and sometimes they become
stationary over a particular place for 4 days. The
average velocity of an anticyclone is 30 to 50 km per
hour.
Anticyclones originated due to the descent of either
polar cold air mass or warm tropical air mass.
These anticyclones are high-pressure systems and are
more common in subtropical high-pressure belts and
polar high-pressure belts where the air is sinking from
the upper troposphere to the lower troposphere but are
practically absent in equatorial regions.
The formation of anticyclonic conditions at polar high-
pressure belts is a thermal phenomenon as these bills a
thermally direct whereas the formation of anticyclonic
conditions at subtropical high-pressure belts is a
dynamic phenomenon as these bills are thermally
indirect.
Hence, anticyclones of polar high-pressure belts are
termed thermal anticyclones, and anticyclones of
subtropical high-pressure belts are termed dynamic
anticyclones.
Types of anticyclones:
1. Cold anticyclones or thermal
anticyclones: They are formed above the Polar
Regions due to the sinking of air. Post
subsidence of air outflows from the polar region in
an easterly and southeasterly direction.
2. Warm anticyclones or dynamic
anticyclones: They are formed above warm
subtropical regions due to the sinking of air from
the upper troposphere to the lower troposphere
and consequent divergence of air.
3. Blocking anticyclones: These developed due to
obstruction in the air circulation in the upper
troposphere that develops over mid-latitudes and
are called blocking because they obstruct the flow
of temperate cyclones in mid-latitudes.
Anticyclones tend to produce fairly uniform weather.
Whence descends from above at the center and the
weather becomes clear and rainless because the
descending wind brings atmospheric stability. The
weather of Canada USA and northern Eurasia is mostly
affected by anticyclones.
Colour code for Cyclones by IMD
Green: The color green denotes that everything is
smooth and in order, or that “everything is well” with no
bad weather.
Yellow: The yellow color code requests that the security
personnel “be updated” to deal with adverse weather
that could linger for days and could have an impact on
everyday activities.
Orange: The color-coded alert meaning “be prepared” is
orange. It may serve as a warning of severe damage to
communication breakdowns that could result in power
outages, traffic and rail jams, and other problems. The
orange notice also serves as a warning to evacuate and
to prepare the essentials for families.
Red: The color red represents the strongest level of
warning and urges authorities to “take action.” In this
situation, the worst weather conditions pose a hazard to
human life. With the assistance of disaster management
response teams, all necessary steps are taken in this
circumstance to manage the situation.
Jet Stream?
 The Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind blowing horizontally
through the upper layers of the troposphere, generally from
west to east, at an altitude of 20,000 - 50,000 feet.
 Jet Streams develop where air masses of differing
temperatures meet. So, usually surface temperatures
determine where the Jet Stream will form.
 Greater the difference in temperature, faster is the wind velocity
inside the jet stream.
 Jet Streams extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in
both hemispheres.
Genesis of Jet Streams
The genesis of the Jet-streams is provided by three kinds of gradients:
 Thermal gradient between pole and equator
 Pressure gradient between pole and equator
 Pressure gradient between surface and subsurface air over the
poles.
Where does it actually begin?
 Air when warmed in the tropics, around the equator, fuel the Jet
Stream as it rises. Hitting the tropopause at about 58,000 feet
(the layer of the atmosphere separating the troposphere from
the stratosphere), it is drawn toward the colder air at the north
and south poles.
Types of Jet Streams
 Sub Tropical Jet Streams are best developed in winter and
early spring. Their maximum speed approaches 300 knots
which are associated with the merger with polar-front jets. A
subsidence motion accompanies subtropical jets and gives rise
to predominantly fair weather in areas they pass over.
Sometimes they drift northward and merge with a polar-front
jet.
 Tropical Easterly Jet Stream occurs near the tropopause over
Southeast Asia, India, and Africa during summer. This jet
implies a deep layer of warm air to the north of the jet and
colder air to the south over the Indian Ocean. The difference in
heating and cooling and the ensuing pressure gradient is what
drives this jet.
 Polar-Night Jet Stream meanders through the upper
stratosphere over the poles. They are present in the
convergence zone above the sub polar low pressure belt.
Climatic Significance of Jet Stream
 At times, Jet Streams bring about some moisture to the
stratosphere, leading to the formation of Noctilucent clouds
(tenuous cloudlike phenomena in the upper atmosphere which
are made of ice crystals visible in a deep twilight.)
 Plays a significant role in the onset and withdrawal
of monsoon winds.
 Known to have brought some ozone depleting substances to
stratosphere which result in ozone layer depletion.
 Intensifies alternative cyclonic and anticyclonic
conditions with the crust and trough formation in its
movement.
 When the air mass is moving, it undergoes alternate expansion
and compression which means that it is associated with
alternative high pressure and low pressure.
Characteristics of Jet Streams
 Its genesis is associated with the thermal contrast of air cells,
for example Hadley cell, Ferrel cell.
 The meandering or the whirl movement of the Jet Stream is
called ‘Rossby Wave’.
 Equatorial extension of the Jet Stream is more in winter
because of the southern shift of the pressure belts.
 During winters, the thermal contrast increases and the intensity
of the high pressure centre at the pole increases. It intensifies
the formation of Jet Streams, its extension as well as its
velocity.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism and the Role of Sub Tropical Jet Streams
 The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation
which is dominated by Sub Tropical Jet Streams (STJ).
 The south west monsoon coming in India is related to tropical
easterly stream. It blows between 8 degree- 35 degree North
latitudes.
 The north east monsoon (winter monsoon) is related to the
subtropical westerly Jet Stream which blows between 20
degree and 35 degree latitudes in both hemispheres.
Seasonal Migration of STJ
 In winter, STJ flows along the southern slopes of the Himalaya
and in summer shifts northwards dramatically, flowing along the
edge of Himalayas in early June and in late summer (July-
August) along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
 The periodic movement of the Jet Stream often indicates the
onset and subsequent withdrawal (STJ returns back to its
position – south of Himalayas) of the monsoon.
 Northward movement of the subtropical jet is the first indication
of the onset of the monsoon over India.
STJ in Summer
 With the beginning of summer, the STJ [upper westerlies] start
their northward march.
 The weather over northern India becomes hot, dry and squally
due to larger incoming solar radiation and hot winds like loo.
 Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ) moves northwards
with the weakening of the STJ south of Tibet, but the burst of
the monsoon does not take place until the upperair circulation
has switched to its summer pattern.
 By the end of May the southern jet breaks and later it is
diverted to the north of Tibet Plateau. There is sudden burst of
monsoons (the ridge moves northwards into Central Asia, the
high pressure zone over north-west India moves northwards
into Central Asia making way for south-west monsoon winds).
 The clockwise cyclic origin in the middle of the troposphere
begins in the winds rising up from the plateau of Tibet after it
becomes too hot. While going up separates near tropopause.
One of these blows in the form of the easterly Jet Stream
towards the equator and the other blows in the form of the
westerly Jet Stream towards the poles.
 Western and eastern jets flow to north & south of Himalayas
respectively. The eastern jet becomes powerful and is
stationed at 15° N latitude.
 The easterly winds become very active in the upper
troposphere and they are associated with westerly winds in the
lower troposphere (south-west monsoon winds).
 This results in more active southwest monsoon and heavy
rainfall is caused. The plateau of Tibet and central Asia
becoming too hot is considered for its origin.
 It is to be noted that the westerly Jet Stream begins to settle
down in the Arabian sea by blowing in the south west direction
and also creates a very high pressure belt there. Inversely,
when this hot Jet Stream blows over the Indian sub continent, it
pulls up the surface air and creates a very low pressure there.
To fill up the low pressure, winds from high pressure area of
the Arabian Sea begins to blow towards in the north east
direction- known as the southwest monsoon.
STJ in Winters
 The winter subtropical westerly Jet Stream blows from the
west to the east in the entire west and middle Asia
 It is bifurcated by the Himalayan ranges and Tibetan
Plateau. One of the branch blows parallel to the plateau from
the north while the other moves towards the east in the south of
the Himalayas.
 The western disturbance which enter the Indian subcontinent in
winter are brought by these westerly winds.
 The southern branch blows to the south of the Himalayan
ranges along 25° north latitude.
How Does It Trigger The North East Monsoon?
 The westerly Jet Stream, a cold wind which pushes down wind
to the surface creating a high pressure on the surface.
 Dry winds from this high pressure area (north western part of
India) start blowing towards the low pressure area (Bay of
Bengal).
 These winds in turn bring cold waves in winter in the northern
part of the country including UP and Bihar.
 After reaching the Bay of Bengal, westerly under the influence
of Ferrel’s cell take the form of north east monsoon.
 When this wind reaches the coast of Tamil Nadu, it causes
rainfall with the humidity received from the Bay of Bengal.
Monsoon?
The term “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word “Mausin” or
the Malayan word “Monsen,” both meaning “season.” Monsoons
refer to seasonal winds that are a prominent feature in certain regions
of the world. These winds reverse their direction with the change of
season, bringing significant changes in weather patterns.
Monsoon Winds
Monsoon winds are classified into two main types: the south-west
monsoon winds and the north-east monsoon winds.
 South-west Monsoon Winds: These winds occur during
summer and are formed due to an intense low-pressure
system over the Tibetan plateau. They bring intense rainfall
to most of the regions in India, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, and other nearby areas.
 North-east Monsoon Winds: These winds occur during
winter and are associated with high-pressure cells over the
Tibetan and Siberian plateaus. They bring rainfall mainly
to the south-eastern coast of India, the southern coast of
Seemandhra, the coast of Tamil Nadu, South East China,
Japan, and other regions.
Factors Responsible for South-west Monsoon
Several factors contribute to the formation of the south-west
monsoon. These include:
 Intense heating of the Tibetan plateau during the summer
months.
 The presence of a permanent high-pressure cell in the
South Indian Ocean, east to north-east of Madagascar
during summer.
Factors Influencing the Onset of South-west Monsoons
The onset of the south-west monsoon is influenced by several factors,
including:
 Intense heating of the Tibetan plateau.
 Subtropical Jet Streams.
 Tropical Easterly Jet Streams.
 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – a region of
converging winds and associated rainfall.
Factors Influencing the Intensity of South-west Monsoons
The intensity of the south-west monsoons is influenced by various
factors, such as:
 The strength of the low-pressure system over Tibet.
 The high-pressure system over the southern Indian Ocean.
 The Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
 The Somali Current.
 The Indian Ocean branch of the Walker Cell.
 The Indian Ocean Dipole.
Factors Responsible for North-east Monsoon Formation
The formation of the north-east monsoon is influenced by the
following factors:
 Strengthening and formation of high-pressure cells over the
Tibetan plateau and Siberian Plateau in winter.
 Westward migration and subsequent weakening of high-
pressure cells in the southern Indian Ocean.
 Migration of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
to the south of India.
Mechanism of Indian Monsoon
The mechanism of the Indian monsoon is not fully understood, and
various theories have been proposed to explain its occurrence. These
theories can be divided into two categories: the Classical Theory and
the Modern Theories.
Classical Theory
The Classical Theory of monsoons is based on historical accounts
and early scientific studies. It includes:
 References to monsoons in ancient scriptures like the Rig
Veda, which describe the phenomenon without specific
mechanisms.
 The first scientific study of monsoon winds was conducted
by Arab traders who recognized the importance of
understanding monsoon patterns for their trading activities.
 Arab explorer Al Masudi provided an account of the
reversal of ocean currents and monsoon winds over the
North Indian Ocean in the 10th century.
 In the 17th century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the
monsoon as resulting from thermal contrasts between
continents and oceans due to their differential heating.
The Classical Theory describes two types of monsoons:
 Summer Monsoon: During summer, the sun’s apparent
path is vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, resulting in
high temperatures and low pressure in Central Asia. The
pressure is sufficiently high over the Arabian Sea and Bay
of Bengal, causing winds to flow from the ocean towards
the landmass, bringing heavy rainfall to the Indian
subcontinent.
 Winter Monsoon: During winter, the sun’s apparent path is
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn. The northwestern
part of India grows colder than the Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal, leading to a reversal of the monsoon flow.
While the Classical Theory provides a basic understanding of the
monsoon phenomenon, it has limitations in explaining its intricacies,
such as sudden bursts of monsoons and delays in onset.
Modern Theory
Modern theories of monsoons take into account air masses, jet
streams, and upper tropospheric circulation. They explain the
development of monsoons by considering factors such as the shape of
continents, orography, and air circulation conditions in the upper
troposphere.
Modern Theory: Air Mass Theory
The Air Mass Theory explains monsoons as a modification of the
planetary winds of the tropics. It is based on the migration of the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) with seasons and its
interaction with trade winds. The theory can be summarized as
follows:
  The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere cross
the equator and start blowing in a southwest to northeast
direction under the influence of the Coriolis force. These
displaced winds are called the southwest monsoon winds
when they blow over the Indian subcontinent. When they
meet the northeast trade winds, a front called the Monsoon
Front (ITCZ) is formed, causing rainfall.
 The northeast trade winds in the northern hemisphere meet
the southeast trade winds at the equator, forming the Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This region
experiences ascending air, maximum clouds, and heavy
rainfall. The location of the ITCZ shifts north in summer
(sun vertically over the Tropic of Cancer) and south with
the change of season.
 In July, the ITCZ shifts to around 20-25 degrees North,
located in the Indo-Gangetic plain. The south-west
monsoon winds blow from the Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal, bringing significant rainfall.
The seasonal shift of the ITCZ gives rise to the concept of the
Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (NITCZ) during summer
(rainy season) and the Southern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(SITCZ) during winter (dry season).
Jet Stream Theory
The Jet Stream Theory, proposed by P. Koteswaram, explains the
influence of upper-air circulation on monsoons. It focuses on the role
of jet streams in the origin of monsoons. The key points of this theory
are as follows:
 Jet streams are narrow bands of fast-moving air flowing
from west to east (westerlies) at high altitudes. The Sub-
Tropical Jet Stream (STZ) plays a significant role in
hindering or facilitating the onset and intensity of
monsoons.
 The STZ is a narrow band of fast-moving air flowing from
west to east between 25-35 degrees North in the upper
troposphere, at a height of about 12-14 km.
 During winter, the STZ flows along the southern slopes of
the Himalayas. However, in summer, it shifts northwards
and flows along the northern edge of the Himalayas.
 The periodic movement of jet streams is often an indicator
of the onset and subsequent withdrawal of the monsoon.
The northward shift of the STZ is the first indication of the
monsoon onset over India.
 The STZ in winter creates strong divergence and high-
pressure regions over northwestern India, leading to dry
weather conditions.
 In summer, with the emergence of an easterly jet over
peninsular India, associated with the northward migration
of the STZ, upper-air circulations reverse, becoming active
in the upper troposphere and associated with the south-west
monsoon winds.
The Jet Stream Theory explains how the mechanism of jet streams
influences Indian monsoons by affecting upper-level circulation
patterns and the convergence or divergence of winds at different
levels of the atmosphere.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism: Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Streams
The Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STZ) plays a significant role in both
hindering and facilitating the onset and burst of monsoons. Its
seasonal migration and associated weather patterns are crucial
factors. Let’s explore this in more detail.
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STZ)
The STZ is a narrow band of fast-moving air flowing from west to
east (westerlies) in the upper troposphere. It is positioned between
25-35 degrees North at a height of about 12-14 km. The STZ is a key
player in influencing monsoon dynamics.
Seasonal Migration of Sub-Tropical Jet Streams
During winter, the STZ flows along the southern slopes of the
Himalayas. However, in summer, it shifts northwards and flows
along the northern edge of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau.
The periodic movement of jet streams often indicates the onset and
subsequent withdrawal of the monsoon.
 In early June, the STZ shifts to the north of the Himalayas,
indicating the onset of the monsoon over India.
 In July and August, the STZ flows along the northern edge
of the Tibetan Plateau.
 The ridge of the STZ moves northwards into Central Asia,
resulting in a high-pressure system over north-west India,
which creates conditions for the south-west monsoon.
The movement of the STZ is closely linked to the seasonal variations
in monsoon patterns.
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STZ) in Winter
During winter, the westerly jet stream blows at high speeds over the
sub-tropical zone. It bifurcates due to the Himalayan ranges and the
Tibetan Plateau, reuniting off the east coast of China. The northern
branch blows along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, while
the southern branch flows to the south of the Himalayan ranges,
along the 25 degrees North latitude. The western disturbances, or
winter monsoons, are associated with the southern branch of the jet
stream.
Meteorologists believe that the southern branch of the jet stream
influences the winter weather conditions of India. It creates a strong
upper jet responsible for steering western disturbances from the
Mediterranean Sea. This is followed by cold waves in the northern
plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions.
The dynamics of the STZ and its interaction with other atmospheric
features contribute to winter weather patterns in India.
Why No South-west Monsoons During Winter?
Several factors contribute to the absence of south-west monsoons
during winter:
1. During winter, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) moves away from India. The winds blowing over
India are mostly offshore, carrying no moisture.
2. The southern branch of the STZ, which is strong and
positioned south of the Himalayas, creates a ridge that
causes strong divergence and high-pressure conditions in
north-west India. This blocks the incoming winds and
prevents strong convergence along the ITCZ, resulting in
dry and warm weather.
3. The presence of a strong high-pressure system over Tibet,
combined with the high pressure from the southern branch
of the STZ, leads to strong divergence and no rainfall.
These factors contribute to the absence of south-west monsoons
during the winter months, despite favorable insolation and high
temperatures.
II: Indian Monsoons
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEZ)
What is the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)?
 The Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) refers to major high-
velocity winds in the lower troposphere known as low-level
jets (LLJs).
 The most prominent TEJ is the Somali jet and the African
Easterly Jet, which are unique and dominant features
during the Northern hemispheric summer over southern
Asia and northern Africa.
 These jets are found near 5 and 20 degrees North and
exhibit fairly persistent direction and intensity from June
through the beginning of October.
 The TEJ comes into existence quickly after the Sub-
Tropical Jet Stream (STZ) shifts north of the Himalayas in
early June.
 It flows from east to west over peninsular India and the
northern African region.
Formation and Role of the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
 The exact cause of the establishment and maintenance of
the TEJ is not fully understood, but it is believed to be
caused by the uniquely high temperature and heights over
the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
 The TEJ plays an important role in kick-starting the
southwest monsoon.
 This jet descends over the Indian Ocean (near Madagascar)
and intensifies the high-pressure cell, resulting in its
movement as the southwest monsoon.
 The easterly jet does not come into existence if the snow
over the Tibetan Plateau does not melt, which hampers
rainfall occurrence in India.
 Therefore, a year with thick and widespread snow over
Tibet will be followed by a year of weak monsoon and less
rainfall.
Role of Tibet in Monsoons
 The Tibet Plateau acts as a formidable barrier and receives
2-3 degrees more insolation due to its protruded height,
making it 2-3 degrees Celsius warmer than the air over
adjoining areas.
 Tibet affects the atmosphere as a mechanical barrier and a
high-level heat source.
 At the beginning of June, the Subtropical jet stream
completely withdraws from India and occupies a position
along 40 degrees North (to the north of the Tibetan
Plateau).
 The plateau accentuates the northward displacement of the
jet stream, leading to the burst of monsoon by the
Himalayas, not thermally induced low-pressure cells over
Tibet, and is responsible for the southwest monsoons.
 However, the STZ facilitates the sudden outburst of the
monsoon with its sudden northward migration.
 In the middle of October, the plateau causes the
advancement of the jet south of the Himalayas and
bifurcates it into two parts.
 The winter Tibetan plateau cools rapidly and produces a
high-pressure cell, strengthening the northeast monsoons.
The cyclonic conditions over Tibet cease, and anticyclonic
conditions are established.
Role of Somali Jet
 Permanent jet streams, such as the polar and subtropical jet
streams, greatly influence the weather of temperate regions.
 Temporary jet streams, like the Somali jet, aid the progress
of the southwest monsoon towards India as it transits
Kenya, Somalia, and Sahel.
 The Somali jet flows from Mauritius and the northern part
of the island of Madagascar, reaching the coast of Kenya at
3 degrees South.
 It strengthens the permanent high-pressure system near
Madagascar and helps drive the southwest monsoons
towards India at a greater pace and intensity.
 The path of the Somali jet around 9 degrees North
coincides with a zone of coastal upwelling, driving away
surface coastal water towards the east. This creates
extremely cold water that rises upwards to preserve the
continuity of mass.
 A peculiar feature of the Somali jet is its reversal in
direction with the onset of the summer monsoon. In winter,
it flows from north to south, running southwards from the
coast of Arabia to the East African coastline, while in
summer, it flows from south to north.
 The African Easterly jet, also known as the Tropical
Easterly Jet, and the Somali jet both play important roles in
the formation and progression of Indian Monsoons.
Role of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a recently discovered
phenomenon that influences Indian monsoons.
 It refers to the sea surface temperature anomaly that occurs
occasionally in the northern or equatorial Indian Ocean
region.
 The IOD is defined by the difference in sea surface
temperature between two areas, namely the western pole in
the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and the eastern
pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
 The IOD develops in the equatorial region of the Indian
Ocean from April to May, peaking in October.
 In a positive IOD year, winds over the Indian Ocean blow
from east to west, resulting in the Arabian Sea being much
warmer and the eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia
being colder and drier. This leads to good Indian monsoons
due to more evaporation in the warm water.
 In a negative IOD year, the reverse happens, making
Indonesia much warmer and rainier.
 The atmospheric component of the IOD, known as the
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO), exhibits
two phases: positive and negative. It oscillates the pressure
cells between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
During the positive phase of EQUINOO, enhanced cloud
formation and rainfall occur in the western part of the
equatorial ocean, while it is suppressed near Sumatra.
EQUINOO and IOD go in step during strong positive IOD
events, but not always.
The interplay between the Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ), Somali jet,
Tibetan Plateau, and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) contributes to the
complex dynamics of Indian monsoons. These factors and their
interactions are vital for understanding and predicting monsoon
patterns, which have significant implications for agriculture, water
resources, and the overall socio-economic well-being of the regions
affected by the monsoon.
III: Indian Monsoon-Seasonal Variations
The Indian monsoon is a unique weather phenomenon that brings the
majority of rainfall to the Indian subcontinent. It is characterized by
distinct seasonal variations, with periods of intense rainfall
alternating with dry spells. Understanding these variations is crucial
for predicting agricultural productivity, water resource management,
and overall climate patterns in the region.
In May-Dry Seasons
In the month of May, the Indian subcontinent experiences dry
conditions as the monsoon season has not yet arrived. Several factors
contribute to the absence of rainfall during this period:
1. High Pressure in North-Western India: A high-pressure
system forms over northwestern India, which creates strong
divergence in the atmosphere. This divergence inhibits the
arrival of the south-west monsoon winds, which are
responsible for bringing rainfall to the region.
2. Low Pressure in Tibet: While high temperatures prevail
over most parts of India, low-pressure conditions persist in
Tibet and the rest of India. The absence of rainfall can be
attributed to the strong divergence caused by the ridge
region of the subtropical jet stream (STZ).
3. Occasional Thunderstorms: Despite the overall dry
conditions, some parts of South India experience
occasional thunderstorms during this period, providing
temporary relief from the heat.
4. Absence of Somali Jet and Tropical Easterly Jet: The
absence of these low-level jets also contributes to the dry
conditions in May.
In June-Onset of Monsoons (June 1st – June 10th)
June marks the onset of the monsoon season in India, with the south-
west monsoon winds making their way into the subcontinent. Several
atmospheric changes occur during this period:
1. Apparent Movement of the Sun: The onset of the
monsoon season is closely linked to the apparent
movement of the sun. The summer solstice occurs,
resulting in a change in the position of the sun, which
triggers the migration of the subtropical jet stream (STZ) to
the north of the Tibetan Plateau.
2. Migration of High Pressure Cells: As the STZ migrates
northward within 1-2 weeks, it leads to a northward
migration of high-pressure cells. This sudden outburst of
monsoon rainfall usually occurs in the first week of June.
3. Tropical Easterly Jet: The reversal of upper air
circulation by the tropical easterly jet creates high pressure
in the upper troposphere and low pressure in the lower
troposphere, facilitating the onset of the monsoon.
4. Somali Jet: The Somali jet, a low-level jet, plays a crucial
role in the monsoon dynamics. Its lower branch drives the
monsoon winds, bringing moisture-laden air to the
subcontinent.
5. Mascarene High: At the Mascarene High, a strong walker
cell creates stronger high-pressure cells, which is favorable
for the monsoons. The subsidence of dry air also
contributes to the onset of the monsoon.
6. South-West Monsoon: The overall atmospheric changes
in June result in the establishment of a strong south-west
monsoon, bringing widespread rainfall to the region.
In July
July is characterized by the further advancement of the monsoon
winds, reaching northwestern India. However, the rainfall
distribution during this period varies across different regions:
1. Monsoon Winds in North-West India: While the
monsoon winds reach northwestern India, the rainfall is
relatively low in this region due to the continentality effect,
where the absence of a nearby large water body results in
decreased moisture availability.
2. Severe Rainfall in North-East States and Central
India: On the other hand, the north-eastern states and
central India receive good rainfall during this period. The
discontinuous and relatively low Eastern Ghats contribute
to the enhancement of rainfall in these regions.
3. Rainfall from the Bay of Bengal Branch: The monsoon
winds from the Bay of Bengal branch bring intense rainfall
to the Western Ghats and other parts of southern India.
4. ITCZ at its Peak: The Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) is at its peak during late June and early July,
resulting in heavy rainfall along its path.
5. Rainshadow Effect: Telangana, parts of Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh receive less rainfall during July due to the
rainshadow effect caused by the Western Ghats.
6. No Rainfall in Rajasthan and Gujarat: Rajasthan
experiences no rainfall during this period as the monsoon
winds blow parallel to the Aravalli Mountains. Similarly,
Gujarat also receives minimal rainfall due to the absence of
an orographic barrier.
In August
August marks the retreat of the monsoon from northwestern India
and the strengthening of high-pressure systems in Tibet and Central
Asia. Key features of this period include:
1. Monsoon Retreat: The monsoon winds start to retreat
from northwestern India, resulting in reduced rainfall in
this region.
2. Building High Pressure: High-pressure systems begin to
build up in Tibet and Central Asia, influencing the
monsoon dynamics.
3. Weakening South-West Monsoons: The south-west
monsoon winds gradually weaken during this period.
4. Rainfall Picking Up in Parts of Telangana, Andhra, and
Karnataka: While the overall monsoon activity decreases,
some parts of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka
continue to receive rainfall.
5. Retreating ITCZ: The ITCZ starts to retreat from its peak
position, affecting the rainfall patterns in the subcontinent.
6. Peak Typhoon Season: The Western Pacific experiences
its peak typhoon season during August.
7. Movement of High Pressure: High-pressure systems
begin moving eastwards during this period.
8. Weakening Somali Jet: The Somali jet, which plays a
crucial role in driving the monsoon winds, starts to weaken.
9. Low-Level Disturbances in the Bay of Bengal: The Bay
of Bengal experiences low-level disturbances, which can
lead to localized rainfall events.
In September
September is characterized by specific weather patterns, including:
1. Apparent Movement of the Sun: The equinox occurs in
September, marking a change in the apparent movement of
the sun.
2. Maximum Rainfall in Parts of South India: Parts of
South India experience the highest rainfall during this
period.
3. Occasional Depressions in the Arabian Sea: The Arabian
Sea may witness occasional depressions, which can lead to
cyclone formation.
4. Cyclones in Northern Bay of Bengal: The northern Bay
of Bengal is prone to cyclone formation during September,
although these cyclones are generally less destructive due
to quick landfall.
5. Strengthening of High Pressure: High-pressure systems
strengthen in Tibet and Central Asia.
6. North East Monsoons: The north-east monsoons bring
good rainfall to regions like southern China and Vietnam.
7. Retreating STZ: The subtropical jet stream starts to retreat
during this period.
8. Minimal Rainfall Along the Equator: Very little rainfall
is observed along the equator.
9. Highest Rainfall Along ITCZ: The ITCZ continues to
bring the highest rainfall, particularly in regions like
Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
10. ITCZ Leaving India: The ITCZ gradually moves away
from the Indian subcontinent.
In October
October marks the retreating phase of the monsoon season. Key
features of this period include:
1. Retreating Monsoons: The monsoon winds start to retreat
from the Indian subcontinent, leading to a decrease in
rainfall.
2. Cyclones in Late October: Late October sees cyclone
formation, which can cause rainfall in regions such as the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
3. Weakening of Somali Jet and Easterly Tropical Jet: By
the end of October, both the Somali jet and the easterly
tropical jet diminish in strength.
4. STZ in North India: The subtropical jet stream moves
back to North India during this period.
5. Intense High Pressure: Intense high-pressure systems
develop in the Siberian plateaus and Central Asia.
6. ITCZ Leaving India: The ITCZ continues its eastward
movement, gradually leaving India.
7. High Pressure Moving Eastward: High-pressure systems
continue to move eastward.
In November
November brings specific weather conditions and changes in
monsoon patterns, including:
1. North-East Monsoons: The north-east monsoons bring
rainfall to regions such as Tamil Nadu, southern
Seemandhra, Japan, and Southeast China.
2. Peak Cyclone Season: Early November marks the peak
cyclone season in the Indian Ocean.
3. Winter Season: Winter starts to set in, with southern India
experiencing cooler temperatures from late November and
northern India from early November.
4. Winter Disturbances: Winter disturbances affect north-
western India, bringing cold waves and weather
disruptions.
5. Strong North-East Monsoons: The strong north-east
monsoons result in good rainfall in Tamil Nadu, southern
Seemandhra, Japan, and Southeast China.
In December
December brings specific weather patterns and climatic events,
including:
1. Maximum Rainfall Month: Tamil Nadu and the southern
Andhra Coast experience the maximum rainfall during this
month.
2. Cold Waves: North India experiences cold waves during
December.
3. Southern Branch of STZ: The southern branch of the
subtropical jet stream weakens and splits into two branches
due to the orographic barrier of the Himalayas.
4. Winter Solstice: The Northern Hemisphere experiences
the winter solstice, marking the shortest day and longest
night of the year.
5. Western Disturbances: Western disturbances, originating
from the Mediterranean Sea, bring frontal storms to north-
western India. These disturbances pick up moisture from
the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, which is important for
wheat crops.
In January
January brings changes in monsoon conditions and weather patterns,
including:
1. Weakening of North-East Monsoons: The intensity of the
north-east monsoons weakens during this period.
2. Continued Conditions from December: Weather
conditions during January are similar to those in December,
with cold waves affecting the entire country and the ITCZ
in its peak position.
In February
February signifies the transition to the dry season, with conditions
similar to those in December and January. The retreat of the ITCZ
continues during this period.
In March
March marks the beginning of summer in India, with several weather
changes occurring:
1. Weakening of Southern STZ: The southern subtropical
jet stream starts to weaken and splits into two branches due
to the orographic barrier of the Himalayas. The southern
branch remains stronger.
In April
April is still part of the dry season, but occasional thunderstorms
occur in certain regions of South and Central India, along with the
ITCZ. These thunderstorms can cause damage to crops in regions
like Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. The STZ remains
intact in the south but starts moving northwards, while high-pressure
systems persist over the plains and northwestern India.
WATER IN ATMOSPHERE:
three different forms of water in the atmosphere: gaseous, liquid, and
solid.
The gaseous form of water in the atmosphere is called
water vapour.
 It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.
 The amount of water in the atmosphere as a vapour form,
which affects meteorological phenomena, ranges from 0%
to 4% of the volume of the atmosphere (with an average
of 2%).
 Through evaporation from water bodies and transpiration
from plants, the atmosphere gets its moisture. Thus,
through the processes of evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, and precipitation, there is a constant
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the seas, and
the continents.
 With height, the amount of water vapour drops. It likewise
gets smaller as you get closer to the poles from the
equator (or from low latitudes) (or towards the high
latitudes).
 Its maximum amount of water in the atmosphere could be
up to 4% which is found in the warm and wet regions.
 Water in the atmosphere (vapour) retains the heat that the
planet radiates by absorbing some of the incoming solar
radiation (insolation) from the sun. As a result, it works as
a blanket, keeping the ground from getting too hot or too
cold.
 Water vapour also contributes to stability and instability
in the air.
Humidity
Water vapour present in the air is known as Humidity.
 Absolute humidity
  Relative humidity
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
 Absolute humidity is the measure of the actual water
vapour content of the air.
 It is measured in terms of grams per cubic meter and
represents the weight of water vapour per volume of air.
 The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the
surface of the earth.
 The temperature of the air determines simply whether or
not it can hold water vapour (Warm air can hold more
moisture than cold air).
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
 The relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of
moisture in the air to its maximum capacity at a particular
temperature.
 The ability to hold moisture increases or decreases as the
air temperature changes and the relative humidity is also
impacted.
 Over oceans, the relative humidity is higher, whereas,
over continents, it is lower (absolute humidity is greater
over oceans because of the greater availability of water
for evaporation).
 The amount and rate of evaporation are determined by the
relative humidity, making it a crucial climatic component.
DEW POINT
 At a specific temperature, the air is considered to be
saturated when it is fully saturated with moisture.
 It signifies that at that point, the air at the specified
temperature is unable to hold any more moisture.
 The dew point is the temperature at which a given sample
of air becomes saturated.
 Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity is 100%
Evaporation And Condensation
Water in the atmosphere consists of evaporation and
condensation forms.
EVAPORATION
 Water changes from a liquid to a gas through the process
of evaporation.
 Evaporation is mostly caused by heat. The latent heat of
vapourization is the term used to describe the
temperature at which water begins to evaporate.
 The given parcel of air can absorb and hold more water
when the temperature rises. Similar to this, low moisture
content air has the potential to absorb and hold moisture.
The saturated layer is replaced by the unsaturated layer
as a result of air movement. Therefore, evaporation
increases in direct proportion to air movement.
CONDENSATION
 It is the process by which water vapour turns into actual
water.
 Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.
 The degree of cooling and the relative humidity of the air
affect condensation.
 The amount of air present, the temperature, the pressure,
and the humidity all affect condensation.
 Both when the dew point is lower than the freezing point
and when it is greater than the freezing point,
condensation occurs.
 It takes place:
when the temperature of the air is dropped to dew point while
maintaining its volume constant (adiabatically);
when both the volume and the temperature are reduced;
And when moisture is added to the air through evaporation.
After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the
atmosphere takes one of the following forms — dew, frost, fog,
and clouds.
1. DEW
 Dew is formed when moisture is deposited as water
droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather than
nuclei in the air on the surface) such as stones, grass
blades, and plant leaves.
 The ideal conditions for its formation are a clear sky, calm
air, high relative humidity, and cold and long nights.
 For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew
point is above the freezing point.
2. FROST
 Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes
place below the freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew point is
at or below the freezing point.
 Instead of water droplets, the extra moisture is deposited
as minute ice crystals.
 The optimum conditions for the creation of white frost are
the same as those for the formation of dew, with the
exception that the air temperature must be at or below
freezing.
3. FOG
 When the temperature of an air mass containing a
substantial amount of water vapour suddenly drops,
condensation occurs on small dust particles inside the air
mass.
 So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near the
ground. Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
becomes poor to zero.
Radiation smog often arises at night when surface heat is
reflected into space. As the earth’s surface cools, the air
becomes completely humid, transforming into a fog.
Advection fog is similar to radiation fog in appearance, but it is
generated when warm moist air travels horizontally over a cold
surface, generating condensation. Sea fog is a typical kind of
advection smog.
Ice fog is formed from ice crystals. Ice fog forms when the air
temperature is below freezing.
Freezing fog is made up of supercooled water droplets that turn
from liquid to ice when they come into touch with a cold surface.
Objects exposed to freezing fog frequently develop ice covering.
Fog is generally associated with hazardous driving
conditions. Because drivers cannot see very far in front of them
(oftentimes, their depth perception becomes skewed), foggy
weather can cause many dangerous accidents.
 Smoke generates a large number of nuclei that aid in the
development of fog and mist in urban and industrial
areas. Smog is a phenomenon that occurs when fog and
smoke mingle.
COMPARISON BETWEEN FOG AND SMOG
Clouds
 A cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
microscopic ice crystals generated by the condensation
of water vapour in free air at high altitudes.
 As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface
of the earth, they take various shapes.
 According to their height, expanse, density, and
transparency or opaqueness, clouds are grouped under
four types :
1. CIRRUS
 Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 –
12,000m)
 They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery
appearance.
 They are always white.
2. CUMULUS
 Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.
 These are generally formed at a height of 4,000 – 7,000 m.
 They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and
there.
 These clouds have a flat base.
3. STRATUS
 These are layered clouds covering large portions of the
sky.
 These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of
heat or the mixing of air masses with different
temperatures.
4. NIMBUS
 Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey.
 They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of
the earth.
 These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the
sun.
 Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.
A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the
following types of clouds:
1. High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;
2. Middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;
3. Low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus (long
duration rainfall cloud) and
4. Clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus
and cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)
Precipitation
After condensation, the release of moisture is known as
precipitation.
It can occur in the following forms:
 Rain: Precipitation in the form of water is called rain.
 Drizzle: It sprays like rainfall which is very slow with
water droplets having 0.5mm diameter. They mostly
happen via stratus clouds.
 Snow: When the temperature falls below 0° C,
precipitation falls in the form of thin flakes of snow and
is referred to as snowfall. Hexagonal crystals are formed
as a result of the discharge of moisture. These crystals
combine to make snowflakes.
 Sleet: It’s made of frozen raindrops and refrozen melted
snow. Sleet forms when a layer of air with a temperature
above freezing overlies a layer of air with a temperature
below freezing near the ground.
 Hailstones – Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
encounter the colder air below. As a result, they solidify and
reach the ground as small pellets of ice not bigger than the
raindrops from which they were formed. The rounded solid
pieces of ice which reach the surface of the earth are
called hailstones. These are formed by the rainwater passing
through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric
layers of ice, one over the other.
Types Of Rainfall
Based on origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types
– convectional, orographic or relief, and cyclonic or frontal.
Convectional Rainfall
 Convectional rainfall happens when the sun’s energy
heats the Earth’s surface, forcing water to evaporate and
produce water vapour.
 When the land warms, the air above it warms as well. As a
result, the air expands and rises. The rising air cools and
condenses. This condensation mechanism creates clouds
high in the atmosphere.
 This type of rainfall is very common in tropical areas.
 Because convective clouds are more vertical than
horizontal, their strength changes rapidly and across a
smaller area.
 In the tropics, convective rainfall results in hail storms
whereas in mid-latitudes it results in cold fronts, squalls,
and warm fronts.
Orographic Rainfall
 When warm wet air is blocked by a mountain, it climbs to
a high altitude along the mountain slope.
 It condenses at high altitudes, resulting in severe rains.
This is referred to as orographic rainfall.
Cyclonic Rain
 Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale.
 Precipitation in a tropical cyclone is convectional,
whereas precipitation in a temperate cyclone is due to
frontal activity.
World Distribution of Rainfall
 Different places on the earth’s surface receive different
amounts of rainfall in a year.
 Rainfall steadily decreases as we move from the equator
to the pole.
 The equatorial zone and the monsoon region of Southeast
Asia have the most rainfall. Precipitation is modest in the
 middle latitudes, but it is scarce in the desert regions of
the subtropics and around the poles.
 Rain is greater on the eastern shores between latitudes
35° and 40° N and S of the equator and gradually
decreases towards the west. However, due to the
westerlies, rainfall is first obtained on the western
borders of the continents and then decreases towards the
east between 45° and 65° N and S of the equator.
 Major precipitation regimes of the world are characterized
based on total yearly precipitation as follows: o The trade
winds from both hemispheres converge in the equatorial
belt, causing a general upward motion of air that becomes
intensified locally in tropical storms that produce very
heavy rains in the Caribbean, the Indian and southwest
Pacific oceans, and the China Sea, as well as
thunderstorms that are particularly frequent and active
over land areas.
 Rainfall in the interior continental areas is moderate,
ranging from 100 to 200 cm per year. The continents’
coastal parts receive a moderate quantity of rainfall.
 Rainfall in the central tropical area and the eastern and
inner temperate lands ranges between 50 and 100 cm per
year.
 Low precipitation at high latitudes, particularly in the
polar regions, is caused partly by the subsidence of air in
high-pressure belts and partly by cold temperatures.
Snow and rainfall from time to time, but evaporation from
the freezing sea and land surfaces is slow, and the frigid
air has limited moisture capacity
 Koeppen’s scheme Of Classification Of Climate
 The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by V. Koeppen. [empirical: verifiable by
observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic][when dropped, stone falls to the ground – logic. Drop a stone to confirm that it falls to the
ground – empirical]
 Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate. He selected certain values
of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
 Koeppen recognized five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature and one on precipitation.
 The capital letters : A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
 The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
 The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s, where f corresponds to no dry season, m – monsoon climate, w – winter
dry season and s – summer dry season.
 The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
 The B – Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.

Group A : Tropical Humid Climates

 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn.
 The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (INTCZ) make the climate hot and
humid.
 Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is
high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types, namely
1. Af – Tropical wet climate;
2. Am – Tropical monsoon climate;
3. Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate.

Distribution
 Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator. [little or no Coriolis Force ==
no tropical cyclones]
 Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the
Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

 Also known as ‘The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate’, ‘Equatorial
Rainforest Climate’.
 The regions are generally referred as ‘Equatorial Rainforests’,
‘Equatorial Evergreen Forests’, ‘Tropical Moist Broadleaf Forest’, Equatorial Climate
‘Lowland Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest’.
 Dominated by Maritime Tropical air masses.
 Temperature

 Temperature is uniform throughout the year.

 The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27° C with very
little variation.
 There is no winter. [Typical to Equatorial Rainforest Climate]
 Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate the daily temperature.
 Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable
climate.
 The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.  All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in
a peculiar layer arrangement.
Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another
Precipitation
plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the
air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
 Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
 Annual average is always above 150 cm. In some regions the annual
average may be as high as 250 – 300 cm.
 There is no month without rain (distinct dry season is absent). The
monthly average is above 6 cm most of the times.
 There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October. [shortly
after the equinox]. Least rain fall occurs in June and December
[solstice].
 The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a
characteristic feature of equatorial climates not found in any other type
of climate.
 There is much evaporation and convectional air currents are set up,
followed by heavy thunderstorms in the afternoons.

Climate Graphs

 The tallest trees attain a height close to 50 m.

 The smaller trees beneath form the next layer.
 The ground is rooted with ferns and herbaceous plants which can
tolerate shade.
 Because the trees cut out most of the sunlight the undergrowth is not
dense.

Multiple species

In spite of dense forests, countries in equatorial regions are net

Equatorial Vegetation
 High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical
rain forest.
 In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense that it is
called ‘selvas’. [selvas: A dense tropical rainforest usually having a
cloud cover (dense canopy)]
 Unlike the temperate regions, the growing season here is all the
year round-seeding, flowering, fruiting and decaying do not take place
in a seasonal pattern.
 The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees
that yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods
etc.
 Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared either
for lumbering or shifting cultivation.
 In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
Canopy
importers of timber. Comment.
 Though the tropics have great potential in timber resources,
commercial extraction is difficult.
 Multiple species of trees occur in a particular area (trees do not occur
in homogenous stands or pure stands) making commercial exploitation
a difficult task.
 Many of the tropical hardwoods (very heavy) do not float readily on
water and this makes transportation an expensive matter.
 It is therefore not surprising that many tropical countries are net
timber importers.
Life and Economy
Agriculture
 The forests are sparsely populated.
 In the forests most primitive people live as hunter gatherers and the
more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation.
 Food is abundantly available. People generally don’t stock food for the
next day.
Commercial

 From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for
cultivation.
1. In the Amazon basin the Indian tribes collect wild rubber,
2. in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather nuts and
3. in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane
products and sell them to people in villages and towns. [The names of
the tribes come under Social Geography – Prelims]

Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn Cultivation.

 This type of cultivation is followed in many parts of the world where
dense forests are common [In India, North-East is known for this type
of cultivation].
 Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them and cultivate the plot till the
fertility is exhausted.
 Once the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned and they
move on to a new plot. Such farming practices are becoming more and
more widespread even among backward tribes.
 In the clearings for shifting cultivation, crops like manioc
(tapioca),maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.
Plantation Boom in Rainforests
Factors Affecting the Development of Equatorial Regions
Equatorial climate and health
 Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high humidity creates serious physical
and mental handicaps.
 High humidity feeds many tropical diseases such as malaria and
yellow-fever.
 Communicable diseases are rampant as germs and bacteria are
transmitted through moist air.
 Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.

 With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been
established, especially in Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and
Central America.
 The climate is very Favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that
are highly valued in the industrial West. The most important is natural
rubber.
 Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers. The home
country, Brazil exports practically no natural rubber.
 Cocoa is another important crop which is cultivated in West Africa,
bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The two most important producers
are Ghana and Nigeria. All the cocoa here goes into American and
European chocolate industry.
 From the same area another crop, oil palm, has done equally well and
many countries like Indonesia have now taken to its cultivation.
 Other important crops include coconuts, sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea,
tobacco, spices, etc.
 The plantations resulted in the destruction of nearly half of equatorial
forests.
Jungle hinders development
 The construction of roads and railways is a risky business as workers
are exposed to wild animals, poisonous snakes, insects and most
importantly tropical diseases.
 Once completed, they have to be maintained at a high cost.
Rapid deterioration of tropical soil
Why does restoration of lost forests take decades in equatorial
regions?
 The fertility of top soil in rainforest regions is very poor. Torrential
downpours wash out most of the top soil nutrients [leaching ==
percolation and draining way of nutrients due to rain water action].
 The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil
impoverishment.
 It takes decades to replenish the soil of lost nutrients.
 So a seed doesn’t usually germinate and even if it does, its
development is hindered due to little availability of sunlight.
 Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the
trees are cut. They choke the restoration of forests.
 Indonesian island of Java is an exception because of its rich volcanic
ashes.

Difficulties in livestock farming

 Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow

grass. The grass is so tall and coarse that it is not nutritious.
 The few animals like buffaloes are kept mainly for domestic use. Their
yield in milk or beef is well below those of the cattle in the temperate
grasslands.
Plantation  In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies that cause
Regions ngana, a deadly disease.
s
Palm Malaysia, Indonesia
Mineral resources
Sugarcane Brazil  Gold, copper, diamonds, and other precious metals and gemstones
are important resources that are found in rainforests around the world.
Coffee Brazil  Extracting these natural resources is a destructive activity that
damages the rainforest ecosystem.
Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia  Examples are gold mining in the Brazilian and Peruvian
Amazon, rare earth mining in the Congo, and gold and copper
Cocoa Ghana, Nigeria mining in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
 Some of the world’s most promising oil and gas deposits lie deep in
tropical rainforests. Oil and gas development often takes a heavy toll
on the environment and local people (This happens in Ecuador).
 More than 70 percent of the Peruvian Amazon is now under
concession for oil and
 gas
 MONSOON CLIMATE
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates
 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn.
 The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence
of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate
hot and humid.
 Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall
is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types, namely
1. Af- Tropical wet climate [Done in previous post];
2. Am – Tropical monsoon climate [This post];
3. Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate
 Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a much larger scale.
 Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon climate is
characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons associated
with seasonal reversal of winds.
 Floods in wet season and droughts in dry season are
common.
 Usually there are three seasons namely summer, winter and
rainy season.
Distribution of Tropical Monsoon Climate
 Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator.
 On-shore [sea to land] tropical monsoons occur in the summer
and off-shore [land to sea] dry monsoons in the winter.
 They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south
China and northern Australia.
Climate
 The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in
the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea (This is old
theory. New theory will be explained while studying Indian
Climate).
 In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of
Cancer, a low pressure is created in Central Asia.
 The seas, which warm up much slower, remain comparatively
at high pressure. At the same time, the southern hemisphere
experiences winter, and a region of high pressure is set up in
the continental interior of Australia.
 Winds blow outwards as the South-East Monsoon, to Java,
and after crossing the equator are drawn towards the
continental low pressure area reaching the Indian sub-
continent as the South-West Monsoon (Coriolis force).
 In the winter, conditions are reversed.
Temperature
 Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C.
 Temperatures range from 30-45° C in summer. Mean summer
temperature is about 30°C.
 In winters, temperature range is 15-30° C with mean
temperature around 20-25° C.
Precipitation
 Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some
regions it is around 350 cm.
 Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram receive an annual
rainfall of about 1000 cm. [They lie on the windward side of the
Meghalaya hills, so the resulting orographic lift (orographic
rainfall) enhances precipitation. Also, they are located
between mountains which enhances cloud concentration due
to funneling effect]
Seasons
 Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.
The cool, dry season (October to February)
 Out blowing dry winds, the North-East Monsoon, bring little or
no rain to the Indian sub-continent.
 However, a small amount of rain falls in Punjab from cyclonic
sources (Western Disturbances: Frontal precipitation brought
by jet streams) and this is vital for the survival of winter
cereals.
 North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of Bengal acquires
moisture and bring rains to the south-eastern tip of the
peninsula at this time of the year (Nov-Dec).
The hot dry season (March to mid-June)
 The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s northward shift to
the Tropic of Cancer.
 Day temperatures of 35° C are usual in central India and the
mean temperature in Sind and south India may be as high as
44° C.
 Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes. There is
practically little rain. [Hailstorms (thunderstorms with hail)
occurs here and there]
The rainy season (mid-June to September)
 With the ‘burst’ of the South-West Monsoon in mid-June,
torrential downpours sweep across the country. Almost all the
rain for the year falls within this rainy season.
 This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a
characteristic feature of the Tropical Monsoon Climate.
The Retreating Monsoon
 The amount and frequency of rain decreases towards the end
of the rainy season. It retreats gradually southwards after mid-
September until it leaves the continent altogether.
 The skies are clear again and the cool, dry season returns in
October, with the out blowing North-East Monsoon.
The role of monsoons in India is vital for its economy.
Tropical Marine Climate
 Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is modified by the
influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the year round.
This type of climate is called Tropical Marine Climate. Such a
climate has a more evenly distributed rainfall.
 Such a climate is experienced in Central America, West Indies,
north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa,
Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
 The rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet
upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and convectional due to
intense heating during the day and in summer.
 Its tendency is towards a summer maximum without any
distinct dry period.
 Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine
Climate is more Favourable for habitation, but it is prone to
severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.
Tropical Monsoon Forests
Drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry-deciduous
forest; tropical deciduous forest.
 Broad-leaved hardwood trees. Well developed in southeast
Asia.
 Trees are normally deciduous, because of the marked dry
period, during which they shed their leaves to withstand the
drought [They shed their leaves to prevent loss water
through transpiration].
 The forests are more open and less luxuriant than the
equatorial jungle and there are far fewer species.
 Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern Burma, peninsular
India, northern Australia and coastal regions with a tropical
marine climate, the resultant vegetation is luxuriant.
 With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the forests thin out
into thorny scrubland or savanna with scattered trees and
tall grass.
 In parts of the Indian sub-continent, rainfall is so deficient that
semi-desert conditions are found in summer. Monsoonal
vegetation is thus most varied, ranging from forests to thickets,
and from savanna to scrubland.
Population and Economy in Monsoon Climate
 Monsoon climatic regions support high population density.
 Income levels are low as most of these regions are
underdeveloped or developing.
 Subsistence farming is the main occupation. (crops grown with
an intention to secure food for the season. The crops are not
sold as the production is very low).
 Intensive cultivation is common in regions with irrigational
facilities.
 Shifting cultivation is followed in North-East India and South-
East countries.
 Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton, jute, spices, etc..
 Cattle and sheep rearing is carried out for domestic and
commercial purposes. Livestock industry is not as profitable as
in temperate regions.
Agricultural Development in the Monsoon Lands
 Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for agriculture to
support the very dense population. Subsistence agriculture is
the major occupation.
 Farms are small and the people are forever ‘land
hungry.’ Industrialization make things worse.
 Tropical agriculture dependent on natural rainfall and a large
labour force, reaches its greatest magnitude in the monsoon
lands.
 Farming is the dominant occupation of the Indian sub-
continent, China, South- East Asia, eastern Brazil and the
West Indies. The following types of agriculture are
recognizable.
Crops
 Rice is the most important staple crop.
 Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or wells is
extensively used in the major rice producing countries.
 Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and
beans are of subsidiary importance. They are cultivated in the
drier or cooler areas where rice cannot be grown.
Lowland cash crops
 The most important crop in this category is cane sugar.
 As much as two-thirds of world’s sugar production comes from
tropical countries.
 Some of the major producers include India, Java, Formosa,
Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
 Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges – Brahmaputra
delta, in India and Bangladesh.
 Other crops include cotton, a major commercial crop of the
Indian sub-continent.
Highland plantation crops
 The colonization of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a
new form of cultivated landscape in the cooler monsoonal
highlands.
 Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests were cleared to
make way for plantation agriculture in which tea and coffee are
the most important crops.
Coffee
 Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia.
 But Brazil accounts for almost half the world’s production of
coffee.
 It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian
plateau.
 The crop is also cultivated on the highland slopes in the
Central American states, India and eastern Java.
Tea
 Tea originated in China and is still an important crop there.
 It requires moderate temperatures (about 15° C), heavy
rainfall (over 150 cm) and well drained highland slopes.
 It thrives well in the tropical monsoon zone (highlands).
 The best regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India
and Bangladesh, the central highlands of Sri Lanka and
western Java, from all of which it is exported.
 In China tea is grown mostly for local consumption.
Lumbering
 Most of the forests yield valuable timber, and are prized for
their durable hardwood.
 Lumbering is undertaken in the more accessible areas. This is  Floods and droughts are common.
particularly important in continental South-East Asia.  Vegetation, wildlife and human life are quite different from monsoon
 Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of which Burma is the climate regions.
leading producer, is perhaps the most sought after. It is
valuable on account of its great durability, strength,
immunity to shrinkage, fungus attack and insects.
 Teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water.
It is therefore necessary to ‘poison’ the tree several years
before actual felling, so that it is dry and light enough to be
floated down the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach the
saw mills at Rangoon.
 Other kinds of timber include Neem, Banyan, Mango, Teak,
Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus
 Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, which often
grow to great heights.

Teak Distribution of Savanna Climate

 Burma alone accounts for as much as three – quarters of the
world’s production.
 It is such a durable timber that it is extensively used for ship
building, furniture and other constructional purposes.
Shifting Cultivation
 This most primitive form of farming is widely practiced.
 Instead of rotating the crops in the same field to preserve
fertility, the tribesmen move to a new clearing when their first
field is exhausted.
 Maize, dry padi, sweet potatoes and some beans are the most
common crops.
 Farming is entirely for subsistence, i.e. everything is
consumed by the farmer’s family, it is not traded or sold.
 As tropical soils are rapidly leached and easily exhausted,
the first crop may be bountiful but the subsequent
harvests deteriorate.
 Shifting cultivation is so widely practiced amongst indigenous
peoples that different local names are used in different
countries.
Region Name of Shifting Cultivation
Malaysia Lacking
 It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan, hence
its name the Sudan Climate.
 It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial
rainforests and hot deserts.
African Savanna
 The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards
into East Africa and southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
South American Savanna
 There are two distinct regions namely the llanos of the Orinoco basin
[north of equator] and the compos of the Brazilian Highlands [South of
equator].
Australian savanna
 The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip (northern
Australia) running from west to east north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
Indian Savanna
 Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra and
Telangana exhibit characteristics of both semi-arid and savanna
climate.
 Due to irrigation and cultivation, this region is different from other
savanna regions.

Burma Taungya

Thailand Tamrai

Philippines Caingin

Java Humah

Sri Lanka Chena

Africa and Central

Milpa
America
Savanna Climate
North-east India Jhum
Rainfall
Can be a [tough] prelims question under social geography  Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm [Rainfall decreases with
distance from equator].
 In the northern hemisphere, the rainy season begins in May and lasts
till September.
Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate
 In the southern hemisphere, the rainy season is from October to
or Sudan Climate : March.

 This type of climate has alternate wet and dry seasons similar to Temperature
monsoon climate but has considerably less annual rainfall.
 Also, there is no distinct rainy season like in monsoon climate.  Mean annual temperature is greater than 18° C.
[Only two seasons – winter and summer. Rains occur in summer].  The monthly temperature hovers between 20° C and 32° C for lowland
stations.
 Highest temperatures do not coincide with the period of the
highest sun (e.g. June in the northern hemisphere) but occur just
before the onset of the rainy season, i.e. April in Northern Hemisphere
and October in Southern Hemisphere.
 Days are hot and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of
temperature is another characteristic feature of the Sudan type of
climate.
Winds
 The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in the Kenyan
Highlands were taken over by the immigrant white settlers for
plantation agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy farming.
 The cattle kept by the Masai are kept entirely for the supply of milk.
They don’t slaughter cattle for meat. Agriculture is barely practiced.
 The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators who inhabit the savanna
lands of the Nigeria. They are more advanced in their civilization.
 They do not practice shifting cultivation. Instead, they clear a piece of
land and use it for several years.

 The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring
rain to the coastal districts.
 They are strongest in the summer [favorable position of ITCZ] but are
relatively dry by the time they reach the continental interiors or the
western coasts [Trade winds are easterlies – flow from east to west. So
rainfall decreases from east to west here].
 In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in fact, blow off-shore [continent
to sea] from the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea coast as a dry,
dust-laden winds.
What is the reason for alternating wet and dry seasons in Savanna
type climate?
 On shore winds is summer bring rains.
 Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate dry.
Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate
Crops in Savanna
 Settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have
shown that the savannas have immense agricultural potential
for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, oil palm,
groundnuts and even tropical fruits.
 Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity of labour force has been very
successful in developing its huge empty land.
 Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi have already taken to large-scale
production of cotton.
 In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm and
cocoa have been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
 In the cooler highlands, temperate crops have been successfully raised.
Farming
 Droughts are long due to unreliable rainfall.
 Political instability hinders the development of agricultural
infrastructure.

 The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.

 The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also
responsible for the rapid deterioration of soil fertility.
 The grasslands are also called as ‘bush-veld’.
 During the rainy season, torrential downpours of heavy rain cause
 The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season
leaching of nitrates, phosphates and potash.
to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias.
 During the dry season, intense heating and evaporation dry up most of
 Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices to survive
the water.
through the prolonged drought.
 Many savanna areas therefore have poor lateritic soils which are
 Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the
incapable of supporting good crops.
strong winds.
 In true savanna lands, the grass is tall and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet Cattle rearing
high. The elephant grass may attain a height of even 15 feet.
 The savanna is said to be the natural cattle country and many of the
 Grasses appear greenish and well-nourished in the rainy season but
native people are pastoralists.
turns yellow and dies down in the dry season that follows.
 But the quality of grass doesn’t support large scale ranching.
 As the rainfall diminishes towards the deserts the savanna merges into
thorny scrub
 Grasses here are no match to nutritious and soft grasses of temperate
grasslands.
 The cattle varieties are also poor and yield little meat or milk.
 The export of either beef or milk from the tropical grasslands is so far
not important.
 Few regions progressed with the adaptation of science and
technology. Queensland has become Australia’s largest cattle
Animal Life of the Savanna producing state. Both meat and milk are exported.
 The savanna is known as the ‘big game country’ as thousands of
animals are trapped or killed each year by people from all over the
world.
 There are two main groups of animals in the savanna, the grass-eating
herbivorous animals and the fleshing-eating carnivorous animals.
 The herbivorous include the zebra, antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle,
elephant etc. [most of the National geographic and Animal Planet
documentaries on wild animals are shot in savanna regions] and
carnivorous animals include the lion, tiger, leopard, hyena, panther,
jaguar, jackal etc..
 Species of reptiles and mammals including crocodiles, alligators, giant
lizards live together with the larger rhinoceros and hippopotamus in
rivers and marshy lakes.

Life and Economy in the Savanna

 Many tribes live in savanna region. Tribes like the Masai tribes of the
East African plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of northern Nigeria
are settled cultivators.
 Desert Climate
 Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
 There are mainly two types – hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type
and temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.
Hot Desert Climate
 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade
Winds, hence they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
 The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of
continents between latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked in
Previous Mains Exam).
 They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great
Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert,
Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
 In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called
by different names at different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran,
Californian and Mexican Deserts.
 In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (rain shadow
effect and off-shore trade winds) is the driest of all deserts with less than 2
cm of rainfall annually.
Temperature of Hot deserts
 There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer
temperature is high around 30°C.
 The highest temperature recorded is 57.77° C in 1922 at A1 Azizia, Libya.
 The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious—a clear, cloudless sky,
intense insolation, dry air and a rapid rate of evaporation.
 Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect
of the cold currents have much lower temperatures.
 The desert interiors, however, experience much higher summer
temperatures and the winter months are rather cold.
 The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense
insolation by day in a region of dry air and no clouds causes the
temperature to rise with the sun.
 But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly
by radiation and the mercury levels drop.
 High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. Average
diurnal range varies from 14 to 25° Celsius.
 Frosts may occur at night in winter.
Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude deserts
 These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered
by the high mountains all around them. As a result they are cut off from the
rain-bearing winds.
 Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and
bring light rainfall in winter. Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls
in winter.
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
 The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentiality or rain-
shadow effect. [Gobi desert is formed due
to continentiality and Patagonian desert due to rain-shadow effect]
 Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a
considerable distance from the sea. These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum,
Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central Asia, drier portions of
the Great Basin Desert of the western United States and Patagonian
Deserts of Argentina etc..
 The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the
leeward side of the lofty Andes than to continentiality.
Desert Climate
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)
 Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less
than 25 cm.
 Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically no rain at all.
 Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type.
 It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small
areas.
 The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes so suddenly that it has
disastrous consequences on desert landforms [flash floods].
 The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot
deserts. Continentiality accounts for these extremes in temperature.
 Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong cold winds
blow all the time. When the ice thaws in early summer, floods occur in
many places.
Desert Vegetation
 The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts
is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
 This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and
scattered dwarf acacias.
 Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support
clusters of date palms.
 Along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the
Atacama Desert, support a thin cover of vegetation.
 Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved
salts tend to accumulate on the surface forming hard pans [Bajada, Palaya].
 Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are
very deficient in humus.
 Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather
moisture, and search for ground water. Plants have few or no leaves and
the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce the
loss of water through transpiration.
 The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to
protect them while they lie dormant.
 The settled cultivators
 The life-giving waters of the Nile made it possible for the Egyptians to raise
many crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
 Modem concrete dams constructed across the Nile e.g. Aswan and Sennar
Dams improved agriculture.
 In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-
Euphrates in Iraq, and the Colorado in the Imperial Valley of California.
 In the deserts, wherever there are oases, some form of settled life is bound
to follow. These are depressions of varying sizes, where underground,
water reaches the surface.
 Some of them are abnormally large like the Tafilalet Oasis in
Morocco which measures 5,000 square miles.
 A wall is usually constructed around the oasis to keep out the violent dust
storms called simooms.
 The most important tree is the date palm. The fruit is consumed locally and
also exported.
 Other crops cultivated include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar,
fruits and vegetables.

The mining settlers

 It was gold that brought immigrants scrambling into the Great Australian
Life in the Deserts Desert.
 Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different  Some of them like Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have become towns of
groups of inhabitants. considerable size.
 In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought
Tribe Desert Occupation many white men to the ‘thirstland’ as it is called.
Bedouin
Arabia nomadic herdsmen
 Even in the most arid Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining camps have
Arabs been established for the mining of caliche (cemented gravels) from
which sodium nitrate, a valuable fertilizer, is extracted and exported to all
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen parts of the world.
 Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. Chuquicamata is the world’s largest
Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen copper town.
 Similarly in the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico,
Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters and collectors. uranium in Utah and copper in Nevada.
 In recent years, the discovery of oil, in many parts of the Saharan and
Bindibu Australiaprimitive hunters and collectors. Arabian Deserts has transformed this forgotten part of the globe.
 Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria, Libya, Lebanon, Nigeria etc. are
important oil producing desert countries.

 The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for
precipitation of any kind to take place.
 The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside the desert limits.
 Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative humidity is lowered, making condensation almost
impossible.
 There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low, decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than
30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of permanent drought.
Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
 On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with
the hot land, and little rain falls. The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the mean annual
rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.
 STEPPE CLIMATE OR TEMP CC / TEMP Precipitation
 The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm, but this varies
GRASSLAND CLIMATE: according to location from 25 cm to 75 cm.
 The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early
Distribution summer).
 They lie in the interiors of the continents.  Most of the winter months have about an 2.5 cm of precipitation,
 Lie in the Westerly wind belt [mid-latitudes or temperate region]. brought by the occasional depressions of the Westerlies and coming in
 Grasslands are practically treeless due to continentiality [deep within the form of snow.
the interiors of the continents where rain bearing winds don’t reach].  The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere causes more
 In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes, and stretch eastwards from the rainfall.
shores of the Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai Mountains. [2,000
Chinook: Local winds in Steppe regions
miles long belt].
 On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Canada and U.S.A. a local wind,
Name of the Temperate similar to the Fohn in Switzerland, called the Chinook, comes in a
Region
Grassland south-westerly direction to the Prairies and has a considerable effect
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions on the local pastures.
 It actually comes with the depressions in winter or early spring from
North America [between the foothills of the the Pacific coast ascending the Rockies and then descending to the
Prairies
Rockies and the Great Lakes] Prairies [katabatic wind].
 It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature by 5° C within a matter
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect] of 20 minutes.
 It melts the snow-covered pastures and animals can be driven out of
Bush-veld (more doors to graze in the open fields. The agricultural year is thus
Northern South Africa
tropical) accelerated.
 Local farmers welcome the Chinook for frequent. Chinooks [Snow
High Veld (more eaters] mean mild winters.
Southern South Africa [Other important Local Winds in different regions: Loo, Mistral, Sirocco,
temperate)
Foehn etc.]
Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern
Downs
Australia
Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate
Canterbury New Zealand Grasses

 Greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that steppes are

Steppe Climate
Temperature
 Climate is continental with extremes of temperature.
 Temperatures vary greatly between summer and winter.
 The summers are hot and the winters are cold.
 Summers are very warm, over 18 – 20° C.
 The steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe.
practically treeless and the grasses are much shorter.
 Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious. This is typical of the grass of the
wheat-lands in North America, the rich black earth or chernozem
areas of Russian Ukraine and the better watered areas of the Asiatic
Steppes.
 Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or the soil is poor, as in the
continental interiors of Asia the short steppe type of grass prevails.
 The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry [lean, tough] and
sparse [thinly dispersed or scattered].
 These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for
some form of ranching as in the High Plains of U.S.A.
 The growth of grasses is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or root contains a high concentration of sucrose]
winter cold.
Trees Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.
Alfalfa: nutrient rich grass.
 Polewards, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone
of wooded steppes where some conifers gradually appear. Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
Pampas
 In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms of the Prairies,
double rows of trees are planted around the house to shield the Extensive wheat producing region
occupants from the strong wind.
Animals Economy depends on wheat and beef export
Downs and Sheep and Cattle rearing,
 Does not have much animal diversity. Canterbury
 Horses are common in Asian Steppes. Merino sheep: wool production
Maize farms
Veldts

Economic Development of Steppes Sheep and Cattle rearing

Wheat and Maize Cultivation

 Cultivation was unknown just before a century and the region was one
of the most sparsely populated parts of the world.
 In recent years, the grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive,
mechanized wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the
world’ [Prairies].
 Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in the warmer and
wetter areas.

Ranching
 The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious Lucerne
or alfalfa grass for cattle and sheep rearing.
 These temperate grasslands are now the leading ranching regions of
the globe.

Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes

 This type of migratory animal grazing has almost disappeared from the
major grasslands. The herders were wandering tribes e.g. the Kirghiz,
and the Kazakhs.
 The harsh environment of the nomads, with long droughts and
unreliable showers made the Kirghiz a tough and fearless people, and
they long resisted subjugation by the Russians.
 Now, however, under the Communist regime they are being forced to
settle down.
 The steppes have been made into huge collective farms and state
farms for ranching or producing cereals.

Extensive mechanized wheat cultivation

 The temperate grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat cultivation.
 The level ness of the Steppes and other temperate grasslands all over
the world makes ploughing and harvesting a comparatively easy job.
 In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes and
the Downs of Australia, agriculture is completely mechanized.

Pastoral farming
 The natural conditions suit animal farming.
 With the development of refrigerated ships in the late nineteenth
century, the temperate grasslands became major pastoral regions,
exporting large quantities of beef, mutton, wool, hides.
 Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products are also important in
some parts of the North American grasslands.

Grassland Major Economic Activity

Wheat Granaries
Prairies

Extensive Ranching
Pustaz Rich black soil

Abundant wheat production

Sugar from Sugar beet [Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose

 Mediterranean Climate or Warm Temperate Western Margin  The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction (south to north)
Climate or Warm Temperate West Coast Climate from the desert interiors into the cooler Mediterranean Sea.
 After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by
the absorption of the water vapour.
 Its scorching heat withers [To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture]
vegetation and crops.
 This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind is carrying the red dust of
the Sahara Desert.

Mistral
 Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone
valley in violent gusts between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
 The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funneling effect in the
valley between the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau in France].

Distribution
 Entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses,
between 30° and 45° north and south of the equator.
 The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind
belts.
 Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain
climate’, and gives rise to the name Mediterranean Climate.
 The best developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile.
 Other Mediterranean regions include
1. California (around San Francisco),
2. the south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
3. southern Australia, and south-west Australia (Swanland).

 A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along

the Adriatic coast is called the Bora.
Mediterranean Climate
 Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean
Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, dry summers and cool, wet Sea.
winters.
 Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm.
 Temperature of warmest month greater than or equal to 10⁰ C.
 Temperature of coldest month is less than 18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C
 Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.

A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades

 In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the belt
of influence of the Westerlies is shifted a little pole wards. Rain
bearing winds are therefore not likely to reach the Mediterranean
lands.
 The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical easterlies] are off-shore and
there is practically no rain.
 Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.
Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate
Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies
 Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
 The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation  The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
in winter when the Westerlies shift equator wards.
 Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive
 In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring evaporation and prolonged droughts. They are, in short xerophytic
much cyclonic rain from the Atlantic (Typical to Mediterranean [drought tolerant], a word used to describe the drought-resistant
Climate). plants in an environment deficient in moisture.
 The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with
bright sunny periods between them. This is another characteristic
feature of the Mediterranean winter rain.
 Though the downpours are infrequent they are often very torrential
and in mountainous districts, destructive floods occur.

Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate

 Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the
Mediterranean Sea.

Sirocco
 This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
 It is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
 Mediterranean evergreen forests
 These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks.
 They are found only in the climatically most favored regions.
 The trees are normally low, even stunted, with massive trunks, small
leathery leaves and a wide-spreading root system in search of water.
 The cork oaks are specially valued for their thick barks, used for
making wine-bottle corks and for export around the world.
 In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
 The giant redwood is typical of the Californian trees.
Evergreen coniferous trees
 These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses
which have evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks.
Mediterranean bushes and shrubs
 This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean
vegetation.
Grass
 Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of
the rain comes in the cool season when growth is slow.
 Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry [lean, tough] and
bunchy that they are not suitable for animal farming.
 Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.
Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate
Orchard farming
 The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands.
 A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons
and grapefruit are grown.
 The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths
during the long summer drought.
 The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive
transpiration.
 The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and
harvested.
 The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the world’s exports
of citrus fruits.
 The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean
cultivated vegetation.
 Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of cooking oil in a region
deficient in animal fat.
 Besides olives, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and
almonds are grown and the nuts picked as fruits or for the chocolate
industry.
Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
 Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal.
 The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep,
goats and sometimes cattle.
 Transhumance is widely practiced (moving up and down the hills in
search of pastures according to seasons).
Wine production
 Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation.
 Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea account for three-quarters
of the world’s production of wine.
 Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.
 The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen.
Economy
Net exporter of citric fruits and net importer of dairy products.
 Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism [Lot
of Indian Songs are shot here].
 European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and are famous for
their health and pleasure resorts, frequented by millions all-round the
year
Different variants of Warm Temperate Eastern
Margin Climate include the
1. Temperate monsoon Climate or China Type Climate,
2. Gulf Type Climate and
3. Natal Type Climate.
 Found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude (warm
temperate latitudes just outside the tropics); on the east
coast in both hemispheres.
China Type Climate
 Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate is observed in most
parts of China. The climate is also observed in southern parts
of Japan.
Gulf Type Climate
 Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico
where continental heating in summer induces an inflow of air
from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
Natal Type Climate
 Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South
Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin (South America).
 Natal type is different from temperate monsoon or China type
as it receives rainfall from on-shore Trade Winds all the
year round.
Climate
 Characterized by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry
winter (one exception: winters are also moist in Natal Type).
Temperature
 The mean monthly temperature varies between 4° C and 25° C
and is strongly modified by maritime influence.
 Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar Vortex) from
the continental interiors may bring down the temperature to
freezing point.
 Though frosts are rare they occasionally occur in the colder
interiors.
Precipitation
 Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150
cm.
 This is adequate for all agricultural purposes and hence
supports a wide range of crops.
 Areas which experience this climate are very densely
populated.
 There is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall
throughout the year.
 Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic
rain in summer, or from depressions in prolonged showers in
winter.
 In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist,
maritime airflow from the subtropical anticyclonic cells.
 Local storms, e.g. typhoons (tropical cyclones),
and hurricanes, also occur.
Summer in Northern Hemisphere
 Another climatic feature associated with the China type of
climate in southern China is the occurrence of typhoons.
Gulf type climate
 Monsoonal characteristics are less intense compared to China
type.
 There is no complete seasonal wind reversal.
 Hurricanes occur in September and October.

Natal type climate

 The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of
maritime influence eliminate the monsoonal elements.
 The South-East Trade Winds bring about a more even
distribution of rainfall throughout the year

Natural Vegetation
 Supports a luxuriant vegetation.
 The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and
Summer in Southern Hemisphere deciduous trees [hardwood].
 On the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines
and cypresses which are important softwoods.
 Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or
a cold season.

Timber
 The forests of China and southern Japan also have
considerable economic value and include oak, camphor, etc..
 South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern
Argentina have Parana pine, and the quebracho (axe-breaker,
an extremely hard wood used for tanning).
 Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
 In Natal palm trees thrive.
 The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland deciduous forests.

Variations of Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate Economic Development

Climate Region Major Cropping Patterns

Feature
type South-Eastern -Rice, tea and mulberries (sericulture)
China type Temperate monsoonal China
-Sericulture is declining
Gulf type Slight-monsoonal -Widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in
South-Eastern
the Corn and Cotton Belts of U.S.A
USA
Natal type Non-monsoonal
-Fruit and tobacco are also grown
Natal, South
China type climate Sugarcane
Africa

Summer
South
 Intense heating within interiors (Tibet, desert region) sets up a Coffee and maize and dairying
America
region of low pressure in summer attracting tropical Pacific air
stream (South-East Monsoon).
 Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor ‘pour’ as heavily as Farming in monsoon China
in India.
 A third of the world’s rice is grown in China, though the huge
 Typhoons form mostly in late summer, from July to September.
population leaves very little for export.
Winter  Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for padi cultivation;
a warm climate, moderately wet throughout the year, and
 In winter, there is intense pressure over Siberia and the
extensive lowlands with fertile moisture-retentive alluvial soil,
continental polar air stream flows outwards as the North-West
which if necessary, can be easily irrigated.
Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry.
 There is little rain but considerable snow on the windward  As the flat lands are insufficient for rice cultivation, farmers
move up the hill-slopes and grow padi on terraced uplands.
slopes.
 Agriculture in the Gulf states
 Lack of population pressure and the urge to export gave rise
to corn, cotton and tobacco.
Corn
 The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit
the crop well.
 It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the Mid-west south of
the Great Lakes, with the greatest concentration in the Corn
Belt of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
 The region accounts for more than half the world’s production
of corn, but only 3 per cent of the world’s export.
 This is because most of the corn is used for fattening animals,
mostly cattle and pigs. [Thriving beef and pork industry]
 The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants in
Chicago and Cincinnati to be processed into ‘corned
beef’. [From here the beef is exported through Great
Lakes and St Lawrence water way]
 Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s most outstanding
feature is its prolific yield.
 It gives almost twice as much food (mainly starch) per acre as
wheat or other cereals.
 This explains why it is so widely cultivated in both the warm
temperate and the tropical latitudes.
Cotton
 Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, none is comparable
with cotton.
 The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton
growing.
 Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost free and a
moderately high temperature permits the crop to grow slowly
and mature within six months.
 In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages
the lint. This area is therefore less suitable for cotton and is
devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar and market gardening,
as in Florida.
 The commercial cultivation of cotton is now concentrated only
in the most favorable areas which are the Mississippi flood
plains and Atlantic coastlands.
 The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-weevil.
The pest multiplies rapidly. The pest is responsible for
the westward migration of the Cotton Belt.
Tobacco
 Native crop of America.
 Virginia tobacco is famous.
 The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the well-drained soils
of the Gulf states, enable tobacco to be successfully cultivated
in many of the eastern states of U.S.A.
 No less than half the tobacco that enters international trade
comes from these states.
Crop in Southern Hemisphere
 In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop,
followed by cotton and tobacco in the interior.
 Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as food and animal
fodder for cattle rearing.
 In South America where rainfall is less than 120 cm, there is
much grassland on which many cattle and sheep are kept for
meat, wool and hides.
 The extensive natural pastures provide valuable forage for both
cattle and sheep.
 Further north in southern Brazil, the rainfall increases to more
than 120 cm and forest gradually replaces grass.
 Here the important occupations are the cultivation of yerba
mate (Paraguay tea) and the lumbering of araucaria or Parana
pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and maize and cane sugar
are grown.
 In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus trees rise one above the
other right up the Eastern Highlands.
 But with the influx of European immigrants, much of the forest
has been cleared for settlement and dairying.
 The eastern margin of New South Wales is now the chief
source of Australia’s milk, butter and cheese, besides cotton,
cane sugar and maize which are increasingly grown in the
north.
British Type Climate
 Westerlies come all the year round.
 There is a tendency towards an autumn or winter maximum of
rainfall.
 Light snow falls in winter.
 Ports are never frozen but frosts do occur on cold nights.
 The seasons are very distinct .
 And the climate is very favorable for maximum human output.
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate
or North-West European Maritime Climate.
 The cool temperate western margins are under the influence
of the Westerlies all-round the year.
 They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity [Temperate
Cyclones].
 This type of climate is typical to Britain, hence the name ‘British
Type’.
 Also called as North-West European Maritime Climate due
to greater oceanic influence.
Europe
 Most pronounced in and around Britain.
 In Europe the climate extends inland some 2,000 km.
 Climatic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of North-
West Europe (northern and western France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway and also north-
western Iberia).
North America
 Confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia. [high
Rockies prevent the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating far
inland]
Southern Hemisphere
 The climate is experienced in southern Chile, Southern
Australia, Tasmania and most parts of New Zealand.
 British Type Climate
 Moderately warm summers and fairly mild winters.
 Rainfall occurs throughout the year with winter maxima.
Temperature
 The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5° C and
15° C.
 Winters are abnormally mild. This is because of the warming
effect brought by warm North Atlantic Drift.
 Sometimes, unusual cold spells are caused by the invasion
of cold polar continental air (Polar Vortex) from the
interiors.
Precipitation
 The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout
the year with a tendency towards a slight winter maximum
(due to frontal cyclones).
 Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
 Relief can make great differences in the annual amount. This is
particularly significant in New Zealand where the western
margins are subjected to heavy orographic rainfall whereas the
eastern Canterbury plains receive comparatively less rainfall
due to rain-shadow effect.
The seasons
 As in other temperate regions there are four distinct seasons.
 Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy and misty mornings,
and many rainy days from the passing depressions.
 Spring is the driest and the most refreshing season when
people emerge from the depressing winter to see everything
becoming green again.
 This is followed by the long, sunny summer.
 Next is the autumn with the roar of gusty winds; and the cycle
repeats itself.
 This type of climate with its four distinct seasons is something
that is conspicuously absent in the tropics. [Rainforest ==
Only Rainy season, Tropical Monsoon == Summer, Winter and
Rainy, Tropical Savanna == Summer (rains) and Winter]
Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate
 The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous
forest.
 The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
 This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the
winter snow and frost.
 Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season.
 Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch,
beech, and poplar.
 In the wetter areas grow willows (Light weight cricket bats are
made from willows. In India willows are found in Kashmir).
 Higher up the mountains in the Scandinavian highlands, the
Rockies, southern Andes and the Southern Alps of New
Zealand, the deciduous trees are generally replaced by
the conifers which can survive a higher altitude, a lower
temperature and poorer soils.
Economy in British Type Climate
Lumbering is quite profitable
 Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur
in pure stands and have greater lumbering value.
 The open nature of the forests with sparse undergrowth is
useful in logging operations.
 Easy penetration means much cost can be saved in the
movement of the logs.
 The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and
industrial purposes.
 In Tasmania, the temperate eucalypts are also extensively
felled for the lumbering industry.
 Higher up the mountains, conifers (softwood) are felled and
transported to paper and pulp industry. They are extensively
used in cardboard making.
Industrialization
 The regions are highly industrialized with high standard of
living.
 The countries are concerned in the production of machinery,
chemicals, textiles and other manufactured articles rather than
agriculture, fishing or lumbering, though these activities are
well represented in some of the countries.
 Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British
Columbia.
 Britain, France and Germany have significant mineral resources
and are heavily industrialized.
 Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire, Manchester and
Liverpool regions in Britain are significant for wide ranging
manufacturing industries.
 Automobile industry is the most significant. (BMW,
Volkswagen, Audi, Mercedes-Benz and many other world
leading car manufacturers have their headquarters in
Germany).
 Industries based on dairy products thrive in Denmark,
Netherlands and New Zealand.
 Tasmania is important for merino wool production. Wool
produced here is exported to textile factories in England,
Japan, China etc..
Agriculture
 A large range of cereals, fruits and root crops are raised, mainly
for home consumption rather than for export.
 North-West Europe, which includes some of the most crowded
parts of the globe, has little surplus for export. It is, in fact,
a net importer of food crops, especially wheat.
Market gardening
 All the north-western European countries are highly
industrialized and have high population densities. There will
normally be great demand for fresh vegetables, eggs, meat,
milk and fruits.
 As the crops are perishable, a good network of transport is
indispensable. The produce are shipped by high speed trucks
(truck farming, which is commonly used in the United States)
 In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the Bass Strait daily
from Tasmania to rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and beans
to most of the large cities in mainland Australia. It is no wonder
the Australians nicknamed Tasmania the ‘garden state’.
Mixed farming
 With the rise of industry, more arable farms are being
devoured by factories and wheat is now a net import item in
Europe.
 Throughout north-western Europe, farmers practice both
arable farming (cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and
pastoral farming (keeping animals on grass meadows).
 Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown,
almost entirely for home consumption.
 The next most important cereal raised in the mixed farm
is barley. The better quality barley is sold to the breweries
for beer-making or whisky distilling.
 The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle.
 The countries bordering the North Sea (Britain, Denmark, the
Netherlands) are some of the most advanced dairying
countries where cattle are kept on a scientific and intensive
basis.
Dairying
 The temperate western margin type of climate is almost ideal
for intensive dairying.
 Cheese is a specialized product of the Netherlands.
 From Denmark and New Zealand comes high-quality butter.
 Milk is converted to cream, which is less perishable than fresh
milk and is exported to all regions across the globe.
 Fresh milk is converted into various forms of condensed or
evaporated milk, and exported around the world for baby-
feeding, confectionery, ice-cream and chocolate making.
Beef cattle
 Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle.
 In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the primary
concern.
 The high rate of beef consumption in Europe necessitates large
imports of frozen and chilled beef.
 The pigs and poultry act as scavengers that feed on the left-
overs from root-crops and dairy processes. In this way, Denmark
is able to export large quantities of bacon [cured meat from
the back or sides of a pig] from pigs that are fed on
the skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-making.
Sheep rearing
 Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.
 Britain is the home of some of the best known sheep breeds.
 With the greater pressure exerted on land by increased
urbanization, industrialization and agriculture, sheep rearing is
being pushed further and further into the less favored areas.
 Britain was once an exporter of wool (But now it imports from
Australia). But today exports only British pedigree animals to
the newer sheep lands of the world (Australia).
 In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief
occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest concentration in
the Canterbury Plain [The rain shadow region]. It has been
estimated that for every New Zealander there are 20 sheep.
 Favourable conditions include extensive meadows, a mild
temperate climate, well-drained level ground, scientific animal
breeding, the development of refrigeration –enables chilled
Canterbury lamb and Corriedale mutton to reach every corner
of the globe.
 Though New Zealand has only 4 per cent of the world’s sheep
population, it accounts for two-thirds of the world’s mutton
exports, and one sixth of world wool exports.
 In Tasmania and southern Chile, sheep rearing has always been
a predominant occupation with surplus sheep products for the
international trade.
Other agricultural activities
 Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature prominently in the
domestic economy of the cool temperate regions.
 It is the staple food in supplementing wheat or bread for
millions of people.
 In terms of starch, potato yields far more food than any cereals
and can be cultivated over a wide range of climatic and soil
types.
 Today almost two-thirds of the world’s annual production of
potatoes comes from Europe, of which Poland, Germany,
France and UK are the major producers.
Beet Sugar
 Found almost exclusively in north-western Europe (including
European Russia) and parts of U.S.A.
 The need for such a crop was greatly felt during the
Napoleonic Wars around 1800 when military blockades caused
a scarcity of sugar.
 The beet is crushed for sugar and the green tops are used as
animal fodder.
 The crop thrives best in the warmer and drier east of Britain
and in mainland Europe. The highest sugar yield is obtained
when the autumn is both dry and sunny.
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate

Found only in the northern hemisphere [due to
great east-west extent. Absent in the southern hemisphere
because of the narrowness in the high latitudes].
 Experienced in the regions just below Arctic circle.
 On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra.
 The climate fades into the temperate Steppe climate.
Distribution
 It stretches along a continuous belt across central Canada,
some parts of Scandinavian Europe and most of central and
southern Russian. [50° to 70° N]
Absent in Southern Hemisphere
 Narrowness of the southern continents in the high latitudes is
the main reason.
 The strong oceanic influence reduces the severity of the
winter.
 Coniferous forests are found only on the mountainous uplands
of southern Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east
Australia.
Taiga Climate
Temperature
 Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-25 °C whereas
winters are long and brutually cold – always 30-40 °C below
freezing.
 Annual temperature range of the Siberian Climate is
the greatest [Almost 50-60 °C in Siberia].
 Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded
in Verkhoyansk (68°N. 113°E) where -67 °C was once
recorded.
 In North America, the extremes are less severe, because of the
continent’s lesser east-west stretch.
 All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen. In normal years,
the Volga is ice-covered for about 150 days.
 Occasionally cold, northerly polar local winds such as
the blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently.
 Permafrosts [a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains below
freezing point throughout the year] are generally absent
as snow is a poor conductor of heat and protects the ground
from the severe cold above.
Precipitation
 Maritime influence in the interiors is absent.
 Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
 Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm.
 It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with
a summer maxima [convectional rain in mid-summer – 15 °C
to 24 °C]
 In winter the precipitation is in the form of snow, as mean
temperatures are well below freezing all the time.
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate
 The predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest.
 The conifers, which require little moisture are best suited to
this type of sub-Arctic climate.
 The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (a
Russian word for coniferous forest) in Siberia.
 In Europe the countries that have a similar type of climate and
forests are Sweden and Finland.
 There are small amounts of natural coniferous forest in
Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria and other parts of
Europe.
 In North America, the belt stretches
from Alaska across Canada into Labrador.
Softwood trees
 The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are
the richest sources of softwood.
 Softwood is used in building construction, furniture,
matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other branches of the
chemical industry.
 The world’s greatest softwood producers are Russia, U.S.A.,
Canada and the Fenoscandian countries (Finland, Norway
and Sweden).
 In the production of wood pulp (by both chemical and
mechanical methods), the U.S.A. is the leader.
 But in the field of newsprint, Canada accounts for almost half
of the world’s total annual production.
 There are four major species in the coniferous forests – Pine,
Fir, e.g. Douglas fir and balsam fir; Spruce and Larch.
 Their presence in pure stands and the existence of only a few
species are a great advantage in commercial forest
exploitation.
 Relatively inaccessible taiga of Siberia will remain the richest
reserve of temperate softwood.
Characteristics of Coniferous forests
 Unlike the equatorial rain forests, Coniferous forests are
of moderate density and are more uniform. The trees in
coniferous forests grow straight and tall.
 Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is no annual
replacement of new leaves as in deciduous trees.
 The same leaf remains on the tree for as long as five years.
Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is thick to protect the
trunk from excessive cold.
 Conifers are conical in shape. Their conical shape and sloping
branches prevent snow accumulation. It also offers little grip to
the winds.
 Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm summer. So,
leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped to check
excessive transpiration.
 The soils of the coniferous forests are poor. They are
excessively leached and very acidic. Humus content is also low
as the evergreen leaves barely fall and the rate of
decomposition is slow. Under-growth is negligible because of
the poor soil conditions.
 Absence of direct sunlight and the short duration of summer
are other contributory factors.
 Coniferous forests are also found in regions with high elevation
[Example: The forests just below the snowline in Himalayas].
 But on very steep slopes where soils are immature or non-
existent, even the conifer cannot survive [Example: Southern
slopes of Greater Himalayas].
Economic Development of Taiga Region
 Lot of coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere are still
untouched due to remoteness.
 Only a small fraction of coniferous forests in Canada, Russia
etc. are exploited leaving a huge potential for the future.
 More accessible forests are cleared for lumbering on a large
scale.
 Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops can survive in the sub-
Arctic climates.
Trapping
 Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in northerly lands of
Canada and Eurasia.
 Wherever the cold is severe, the quality and thickness of the fur
increases.
 The most severe winters produce the finest furs.
 In Canada trappers and hunters, armed with automatic rifles,
reside in log cabins in the midst of the coniferous forests to
track down these animals.
 Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are the most important
fur-bearing animals.
 To ensure a more regular supply of furs many fur farms have
been established in Canada and Siberia.

Lumbering
 This is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of
climate. Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate
 The vast reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for the
lumbering industry. Eastern Marine Climate
 Lumberjacks: Contract laborers called lumber jacks used to
 Intermediate type of climate between
temporarily move to the forest regions to fell the trees. Now
felling is done by machines. the British Type Climate (moderate) and
 Rivers for transportation: The soft wood logs easily float on the Taiga Type Climate (extreme) of climate.
rivers. Hence rivers are used to transport logs to the sawmills  It has features of both the maritime and the
located down the stream.
 Sawmilling: Logs are processed in saw mills into timber, continental climates.
plywood, and other constructional woods.
 Paper and pulp industry: Timber is pulped by both chemical
and mechanical means to make wood pulp. Wood pulp is the
raw material for paper-making and newsprint.
 Canada and U.S.A. are leading suppliers
of newsprint and wood pulp respectively.
 As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as its industrial
uses are far more significant.
 As an industrial raw material: In Sweden, matches form a
major export item.
 From other temperate countries, timber is used for making
furniture, wood- carvings, toys, packing cases etc..
North American region
 From the by-products of the timber, many chemically
processed articles are derived such as rayon turpentine,  North-eastern North America, including eastern
varnishes, paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols, Canada, north-east U.S.A., and Newfoundland.
disinfectants and cosmetics.
This may be referred to as the North American
Factors that favor lumbering region.
Coniferous forests is characterized by the following favorable
features for Lumbering. Asiatic region
 Eastern coastlands of Asia, including
 The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir in the
eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea
northern forests and larch in the warmer south are the most
important.
and northern Japan.
 Unlike rainforests, they occur in homogeneous groups [Pure
stands]. This saves time, costs and enhances the commercial Absent in Southern Hemisphere
value of the felled timber.  In the southern hemisphere only a small section of
 Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter when the sap
continents extends south of 40°S latitude.
ceases to flow. This makes felling much simpler.
 The snow-covered ground makes logging and haulage  Some of these small sections come under the rain-
[commercial transport of goods] a relatively easy job. shadow region of Andes (Patagonia) and hence
 The logs are dragged to the rivers and float to the saw-mills Westerlies hardly ever reach these regions.
downstream when the rivers thaw [unfreeze] in spring. This has  So these regions are subjected to aridity rather
greatly assisted the lumbering industry in eastern Canada and
Sweden.
than continentiality.
 Lumbering is quite easy in Canada, Norway and Sweden as the  In other regions, the oceanic influence is so
rivers are not frozen for a greater part of the year. But in profound that neither the continental nor the
Russian taiga most of Siberian rivers drain poleward into the eastern margin type of climate exists.
Arctic Ocean which is frozen for three-quarters of the year, and
there are few saw-mills there.
 With the use of the Northern Sea Route, which links Murmansk Laurentian Climate
and Vladivostok via the Arctic Ocean, development is
increasing. Temperature
 Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills is harnessed in
 Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
the mountainous uplands of North America and Europe and
 Winter temperatures is below freezing-point and snow fall is
has greatly assisted the lumbering industry.
quite natural.
 Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25 °C).
 Precipitation
 Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer
maxima [easterly winds from the oceans bring rains]
 Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm [two – thirds of
rainfall occurs in the summer].
 Dry Westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate
winters.
The North American region
 In summer, prolonged heat waves cause discomfort.
 In winter, the temperature drops below freezing and snowfall
occurs.
 Precipitation occurs all-round the year due to the influence
of Atlantic ocean (summer) and the Great Lakes (winter).
 The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture of easterly
winds.
 The prevailing Westerlies carry depressions over the Great
Lakes towards eastern regions causing wet conditions in winter
[vital for the agricultural activities].
 Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador
Current near Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and
gives rise to much precipitation.
 It is said that Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than
any other part of the world.
The Asiatic region
 Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is far less
uniform when compared to North American Region.
 Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm
and exceptionally wet.
 The rainfall regime resembles the tropical monsoon type in
India.
 Intense heating of the mountainous interior of China in
summer creates a region of extreme low pressure, and
moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of
Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
 Thus the Laurentian type of climate in China is often described
as the Cool Temperate Monsoon Climate.
 It has a very long, cold winter, and a large annual range of
temperature.
 Much of the winter precipitation in northern China, Korea and
Hokkaido, Japan, is in the form of snow.
Japan
 The climate of Japan is modified by the meeting of warm and
cold ocean currents.
 It receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East
Monsoon in summer and the North- West Monsoon in winter
(western coasts of Japan)
 The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of Japan less extreme.
 The meeting zone between warm Kuroshio from south
and cold Oyashio from the north produce fog and mist,
making north Japan a ‘second Newfoundland’.
 Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occupation in many of
the indented coastlands.
Natural Vegetation – Laurentian Climate
 The predominant vegetation is cool temperate forest.
 The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from
fogs, all favor the growth of trees.
 Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50°N latitude.
 In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea), the coniferous
forests are a continuation of the great coniferous belt of the
taiga.
Lumbering
 Timber and fish are the leading export items.
 Much of the coniferous forests of fir, spruce and larch are
exploited to a great extent.
 Eastern Canada is the heart of the Canadian timber and wood
pulp industry [St. Lawrence River helps in export].
 South of latitude 50°N., the coniferous forests give way
to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and birch are most
common.
 Almost homogeneous species of trees [pure stands], and the
predominance of only a handful of species greatly enhance the
commercial value of these forests.
 They have been extensively felled for the extraction
of temperate hardwood. [From Laurentian Climate regions,
both temperate hardwood and temperate softwood are
obtained]
 In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the forests have made way for
the agriculture.
Economic Development – Laurentian Climate
 Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and
pulp industries are the most important economic undertaking.
 Agriculture is less important because of long and severe
winters.
 In the North American region, farmers are engaged in dairy
farming.
 The Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most
renowned region for apples.
 Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity.
Fishing off Newfoundland
 Regions around the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are
the world’s largest fishing grounds.
 Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador
currents make the region the most productive fishing ground
on earth.
Fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton.
Plankton is abundantly available in shallow waters
[continental shelves] where they have access to both
sunlight as well as nutrients. Also, cold and warm water
mixing creates upwelling of cold nutrient rich water to the
surface.
 The gently sloping continental shelves stretch for over 200
miles south-east of Newfoundland, and off the coasts of the
Maritime Provinces and New England.
 Hence microscopic plankton are abundant [Continental Shelf +
Mixing of Warm and Cold Ocean Currents].
 Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here and support
a thriving fishing industry.
 Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like Norway, France,
Britain, Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Japan, also send fishing
fleets to the Grand Banks.
 In Newfoundland, fishing provides employment for almost the
entire population.
 Further inland, in lakes and rivers, such as the St. Lawrence and
the Great Lakes, freshwater fish, e.g. salmon etc. are caught.
 All the fishing activities are carried out by highly mechanized
trawlers which can store fish in refrigerated chambers for
months.
 St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is the headquarters of
the Grand Banks fishing industries.
 All processing activities like cutting, cleaning, packing for
disposal are done at the ports itself.
 Over-fishing is a growing problem.
Fishing off Japan
 North-west Pacific surrounding the islands of Japan is another
very important fishing grounds of the world.
 Majority of the people in the region depend on fishing for
survival.
 Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports with complete
refrigeration facilities.
 The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and wide into the
Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic waters.
 Large whaling fleets with processing plants venture into distant
regions as far as Arctic and Antarctic [Japan is criticized for its
whaling operations].
 Japan accounts for a sixth of the world’s total annual fish
caught.
 The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal and seaweeds
as fertilizers in their farms.
 Japan is one of the few countries that has taken to seaweed
cultivation (India is taking baby steps in seaweed cultivation).
 Coastal farms that are submerged in water grow weeds for sale
as fertilizers, chemical ingredient and food.
 Another aspect of Japanese fishing is pearl culture. Pearls are
harvested from pearl oysters.
 As natural pearls are difficult to obtain in large numbers, so the
Japanese have begun to harvest ‘cultured pearls’.
Why is fishing the dominant occupation of Japan?
 The mountainous nature of Japan and parts of mainland
eastern Asia support little agricultural activity [80 per cent land
in Japan is classed as ‘non-agricultural’. Around 50% of the
total land is covered by forests].
 Japan is not well endowed with natural resources. So, she has
to take to the sea if she wants to survive.
 The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in Japan for livestock
farming of any kind) popularized fish as the principal item of
diet and the chief protein food of the Japanese and the
Chinese as well.
 There exists a great demand for fish and fish products in the
nearby countries where fishing industry in under-developed.
 Japan has huge stakes in international fishing enterprises and
her advanced fishing techniques give her an edge over
competitors.
 Advanced financial services, encouraging government policy,
advanced technology at hand, skilled workforce with decades
of experience in fishing and the only available natural resource
to exploit, make Japan a leader in fishing industry.
Geographical advantage
 The continental shelves around the islands of Japan are rich in
plankton, due to the meeting of the warm Kuroshio and the
cold Oyashio currents and provide excellent breeding grounds
for all kinds of fish.
 The indented coastline of Japan, provides sheltered fishing
ports, calm waters and safe landing places, ideal for the fishing
industry.
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic
Climate
Distribution
 Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of
Antarctic Circle.
 The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high latitude
regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
 In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single
stretch of ice-cap (10,000 feet thick).
 The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds
of northern Canada and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of
Eurasia, have tundra climate.
Tundra Climate
Temperature
 The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual
temperature.
 In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 – 50 °C below
freezing.
 Summers are relatively warmer.
 Normally not more than four months have temperatures above
freezing-point.
 Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of
continuous darkness (Rotation and Revolution).
 The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants.
 Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of
130 miles an hour are not infrequent.
Precipitation
 Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.
 Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
Natural Vegetation – Tundra Climate
 There are no trees in the tundra.
 Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found
here and there.
 Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little
favorable.
 Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and the reindeer moss
which provide the only pasturage for reindeers.
 In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers
bloom.
 In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous
insects which emerge when the snow thaws.
 Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and
lemmings also live in tundra regions.
 Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
Human Activities
 Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the
coast.
 People live a semi-nomadic life.
 In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos.
 During winter they live in compact igloos.
 Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
 Now a days rifles instead of traditional harpoons are used to
track down animals.
Recent Development of the Arctic Region
 New settlements have sprung up because of the discovery of
minerals.
 Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the Kenai Peninsula,
Alaska; and copper at the Rankin Inlet, Canada.
 With the declining reserves of iron ore around the Great Lakes,
iron ore deposits in Labrador are gaining importance. New
railway lines have been constructed to bring the ores to the St.
Lawrence River.
 Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Gallivare helped
Sweden enjoy a prosperous export trade in iron and steel and
other metallurgical products.
 New ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia has made it
possible to ship timber and fur from Siberia. Modern ice-
breakers makes the frozen seas navigable.