Clinical Biochemistry
Lecture 1&2
BIOC 416
Dr. Maryam AL-Ghamdi
Introduction to Clinical Biochemistry
• Clinical biochemistry is an important field in
teaching healthcare professionals about the
biochemical processes that occur in the
human body and their relevance to clinical
medicine. It encompasses the study of
laboratory methods used in the diagnosis and
monitoring of diseases, manufacture of
various biological products, treatment of
diseases, in nutrition, agriculture etc.
1.Introduction to Clinical Biochemistry
2.Importance of biochemistry in different filed
3. Introduction to clinical chemistry & Biochemical Investigations in Clinical
Medicine
4. Specimen collection:
❑ Request
❑ Sample
❑ Patient
❑ Interpretation of results
❑ Specificity vs. Sensitivity
5. Quality Assurance & Quality Control
6.Department of laboratory
7. General Lab Safety
In teaching clinical biochemistry, educators typically cover
a range of topics including:
1. Biomolecules: This involves teaching about important
biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids, and their role in various physiological processes.(BIOC 201)
2. Metabolic pathways: Students learn about different metabolic
pathways, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle,
gluconeogenesis, and fatty acid metabolism, protein metabolism .
They also learn how these pathways are regulated and how
disruptions in these pathways can lead to disease.(BIOC 211- 312)
3. Biochemical analysis: Students learn about different laboratory
techniques used in clinical biochemistry, such as
spectrophotometry, electrophoresis, chromatography, and
immunoassays (BIOC 341- 343- 392)
 Clinical biochemistry help to learn about
Clinical case studies: By presenting and discussing clinical • Summary
case studies, students gain a better understanding of how
biochemistry is applied in real-life situations. This helps them
Clinical biochemistry is a fundamental
develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. subject in teaching healthcare
Disease mechanisms: Students learn about the biochemical professionals. It provides a strong
basis of different diseases, for example, diabetes, metabolic -

disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. They understand how foundation in the understanding of
-

alterations in biomolecules and metabolic pathways contribute

to the development and progression of these conditions
various diseases, the interpretation of
-

Therapeutic interventions: Educators also cover the role of laboratory test results, and the basis
biochemistry in the development and mechanism of action of for developing effective treatment
drugs used in the treatment of various diseases. This helps
students appreciate the importance of understanding strategies. vidance in
biochemistry in personalized medicine and drug design. cover
-

strong a

result
(Various topics are covered in the courses Biochemistry)
Chemistry lab
ii)
Importance of biochemistry in different filed: -
Hormon Lab

Introduction to Clinical Chemistry

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z - #8
is,
In Medicine: Biochemistry
- is a valuable subject in medicine. The --- -

• Clinical chemistry also know as Medical Laboratory

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=/ I

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-

diagnosis of any clinical condition is easily possible by biochemical

Scientist (MLS) that is generally concerned with
in
-

estimations eq:1Kidney function test ,Blood test, Liver

&
analysis of the dissolved elements in body fluids,
- -
-

function….elc
holflife ,

constrips
In Pharmacy : Biochemistry gives an idea of the constitution of the chemical constituents of the blood, urine, elc
drug, its chances of degradation with varying temperature , the • Clinical biochemistry Laboratory play an important
half-life, drug storage and drug metabolism. role to often recognized disease diagnosis and the
·/49 59/ its

.s In Physiology: understand the biochemical changes and related

monitoring of treatment.
.
1
-

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9

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XS physiological alteration in the body life style, se
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job
• Laboratory results produced are used by medical staff
In Pathology: study the pathology of any disease. the physician can in the diagnosis of disorders.
o
-

get S
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biopsy and send it to lab on the biochemical change and • Most of the laboratory testing uses sophisticated
the 15
associated
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disorder.
& instrumentation interfaced to a laboratory information
,

jus In Nutrition: describes the food chemistry for maintenance of

· -
system.
health, optimum intake of many biochemicals recommendation by
-
• Accurate and precise laboratory measurements can aid
physicians and other health optimum intake of many biochemicals
micronutrients, vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids…elc in diagnosis and management of disease.
 je3j5,4 kit .‫ وهذا مهم بشكل خاص ملراقبة حالة املرض وفعالية العالج‬.‫ يجب أن يرتبط تركيز أو مستوى العالمة بخطورة أو تطور الحالة التي يتم اختبارها‬:‫انعكاس لخطورة املرض‬

• An ideal marker for use in clinical biochemistry should possess

&
- • Reflective of Disease Severity: The concentration or level of the
certain characteristics that make it effective and reliable for a wide
-

- -
range of applications. While no single marker can meet all
requirements perfectly,
• General characteristics that are desirable for a biomarker :
marker should correlate with the severity or progression of the
condition being tested. This is particularly important for
monitoring disease status and treatment effectiveness.
• Early Detection: The marker should be capable of detecting the
condition at an&
-

• Specificity and Sensitivity: The marker should be specific to the

- -
early stage, before significant symptoms or
-
&
-
condition or analyte being measured, minimizing
- -
false positives complications develop. Early detection often leads to more -

and negatives. It should also have high sensitivity to accurately

- -
effective interventions and improved outcomes.
-

detect even low levels of the analyte. • Stability: The marker should remain stable in various sample types
- -

• Quantifiability: The marker should be measurable in a (e.g., blood, ~

urine) during storage and transportation, minimizing
gij -

quantitative manner, allowing for accurate determination of the

-

-
-

-
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2 2
the potential for degradation and inaccurate results.
W analyte's concentration. The measurement should be reproducible
P • Minimal Interference: The marker should be minimally affected by
and consistent across different laboratories and assays. -
other biological factors, medications, or external conditions,
• 2
Ease of Measurement: The test to measure the marker should be
- -

ensuring that the measurement is accurate and reliable.

simple,
L
robust, and ~
-
easy to perform. This ensures that healthcare
professionals with varying levels of expertise can obtain accurate
results

• Cost-Effectiveness: The marker and the associated testing method

-

should be affordable and cost-effective, making it accessible to a

Why are tests ordered -

wide range of patients and healthcare facilities. short

answer
I • Diagnosis ~
&Is y
-
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• Established Reference Ranges: The marker should have

-
-

=>
2 • Monitor progression of disease
-
-
established reference ranges for different populations and
demographics, aiding in the interpretation of results.
3 • Monitor -
-
--
effectiveness of
treatment
• It's important to note that finding a marker that fulfills - S

all of these characteristics can be challenging due to the • Screening population for
diseases
-

complexity of human biology and the diversity of

4 • ToW
-

diseases. Clinical biochemistry often involves a identify complications of

-
combination of biomarkers, each contributing a piece of
information to create a comprehensive diagnostic and
=
treatment
-

prognostic picture. • To conduct research

 difaction ,

E Synonym
simple

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The principal functions of biochemical tests
45
• Biochemical tests are essential diagnostic tools used
Diagnosis (Identification):
-
Gathering information about the patient's medical history, symptoms,
and performing a physical examination can help formulate an initial
in clinical laboratories to assess various aspects of a hypothesis about the underlying condition.
patient's health and diagnose medical conditions. Prognosis (Prediction):
These tests provide valuable information about the
composition and functioning of cells, tissues, and :
5
Serial Tests: Regularly monitoring specific biomarkers or indicators
-

over time can help predict the progression of a disease or assess the
organs within the body. i s
-

patient's response to treatment.

Monitoring (Observing):
[ -

Serial tests are used to monitor how the disease or condition is

-
Y progressing. This helps healthcare providers adjust treatment plans as
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-

rig needed & Indicate whether a chosen treatment approach is effective

-

or if modifications are required.

Screening (Viewing):
s Testing individuals who do not show symptoms The goal is to identify
- -

. potential cases early, which can lead to earlier intervention and

33 improved outcomes.
&

Ultimately, the combination of medical history, physical SPECIMEN COLLECTION

examination, laboratory tests, radiology, serial testing,
Specimen collection is a critical step in the
and screening forms a comprehensive framework for diagnostic process, as it involves the proper
understanding and managing a patient's health collection, handling, and preservation of
throughout their medical journey. biological samples from patients. These 2
samples are then used for - laboratory testing,
Common chemical pathology tests include:
-
= which plays a crucial role in diagnosing and
• Electrolytes
-
monitoring medical conditions.
• Kidney function tests -
Proper specimen collection is vital for
-

producing - accurate and meaningful test

• Liver function tests
-
results, which in turn guide medical decisions
and patient care. Following standardized
• Cardiac Markers
protocols and ensuring attention to detail are
• Minerals essential in this process.
-

-
-1
• Blood disorders 1. The request -

2. Sample ies
• Urine Analysis - -

3. Patient &-
-

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Y-
-
 Short A
REQUEST
Clinical laboratories have specific protocols for sample collection,
handling, and testing. It's important to follow their guidelines to
ensure accurate and reliable results request
T
&
-

T
• The specimen must be labeled with the patient's full name
&medical record number
•2 Sex and-gender
age
-
•3 ward/clinic/address
--

• Name of requesting doctor (telephone/pager Number for urgent

requests) &
test
• Clinical diagnosis/problem requested
u
Th
Clinic
- Patient's age ward
•5test( s) requested fullname gender Clinic diagnosis
-

• type of specimen
• date and time of sampling
• Order of Draw: Blood collection tubes must be drawn in a specific
order to avoid cross-contamination of additives between tubes.
Short Ad Hype of
Samples : we have types of Specimens
sample)
Blood: One of the most common specimens collected, blood is
& Phlebotomy
Phlebotomy is the medical
-
Processor
procedure of drawing blood from a
-

patient's veins for diagnostic, therapeutic, or blood donation

-
used for a wide range of tests, including complete blood count
(CBC), blood chemistry ( Serum ), and blood clotting tests( purposes. Proper phlebotomy techniques ensure the accurate and
plasma) . safe collection of blood sample
Urine: Used for urinalysis, which provides information about Gather all necessary equipment, including collection tubes, needles,
kidney function, urinary tract infections, and other metabolic syringes, alcohol swabs, adhesive bandages, and gloves. Choose a
conditions. suitable vein for blood collection. Collect the required amount of
Saliva: Some genetic tests and hormone tests can be performed blood according to the specific test orders.
using saliva samples. Two common methods for blood specimen collection:
Swabs: Nasal, throat, vaginal, or wound swabs can collect samples Assist
·
1-Venipuncture using-
arm vein: It's often used when
for bacterial or viral testing. larger blood volumes are needed.
-

Stool: Collected for gastrointestinal tests, including testing for

infections and disorders. -
2-capillary puncture :Capillary puncture, also known as fingerstick
Tissues: Biopsies are collected to diagnose various diseases, or heel stick, is used to collect small amounts of blood from
-

including cancer. capillaries just beneath the skin's surface.

Fluids: Fluids like cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can be collected for This method is commonly used for
tests related to neurological conditions. glucose monitoring and pediatric blood collection.
 &
4
&
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whole
blood
Hemolysis
--
-

Blood Sample Centrifugation CBC y&

complete bloodCount >

• is a laboratory technique used to separate components of a blood Hemolysis is the -

rupture or destruction of red blood cells, leading to the

E
-
sample based on their density by subjecting the sample to high-
-

release
-
of haemoglobin and other cellular components into the
- -

speed rotation. This process is commonly employed in clinical surrounding fluid, such as serum
z
or plasma. Hemolysis can=interfere
- 2
laboratories to prepare blood specimens for various diagnostic with laboratory test results, as it can introduce substances that are not
-

tests. Centrifugation separates the blood into its constituent naturally present in the sample, leading to inaccurate readingsIf grossly
parts, including plasma, serum, and cellular components (red hemolyzed, will appear dark red May be due to
-

blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets). The separated conditions such as: burns, snakebite
-
or some diseases
2
2
components can then be analyzed separately for different tests. ▪ Hemolysis may cause false result
E
Certain samples should
:

-
"

1.Samples with HemolysisL

-
[ F
be avoided: due to increase in: potassium, magnesium, iron,
LDH, phosphorous, ammonia and total protein

&
2.Samples with Lipemia Ensure professionals who collect blood samples
3. Samples from High-Risk Patients are trained in proper techniques and Use
4. Unlabelled Samples draw Proper Equipment. By following proper collection,
5. Clotted Blood Samples the
Blood handling, and processing procedures, can reduce
It's crucial to consult with laboratory guidelines and the risk of hemolysis and ensure accurate test results.

harding
and follow appropriate protocols for centrifugation. was
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im
er
Prevent Hemolysis G
it
Techniques to-
In
4 &
Blood Composition
1 anticoagulant additives[
• Mix all tubes with- gently (vigorous shaking Blood is a vital fluid that
-

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can cause hemolysis) 5-10 times. 50I circulates throughout the body
• Avoid drawing blood& from a[
2 -
hematoma; select another draw site. makes up about[ 8% of the
• If using a needle and syringe, avoid drawing the plunger back too human body weight, It consists
forcefully. of several components, each
- -50
•
3-Make sure the venipuncture /
site is dry before proceeding with draw.
with specific functions. The
main components of blood
• Avoid a probing, traumatic venipuncture. include: Red blood cells
• Avoid prolonged tourniquet #
--- application (no more than 2 minutes; (erythrocytes) RBC
less than 1 minute is optimal). =
-

are responsible for carrying

• Avoid massaging, squeezing, or probing a site. oxygen and carbon dioxide.
-

= 42/
-

• Avoid excessive fist clenching. Platelets (thrombocytes) are

-

• If blood flow into tube slows, adjust needle position to remain in the responsible for -blood clotting.
center of the lumen. White blood cells (leukocytes) WBC
• Keep blood samples at the appropriate temperature during collection,
-
are part of the immune
-
system
transport, and storage. Avoid exposing samples to extreme heat or and function in immune
cold response.
• Serum and plasma are two distinct components
of blood that are obtained through the process
-55, 04
-

Serum , Plasma
What is the difference between serum and plasma
of centrifugation. Antigosiat-
s]
What is the difference between serum and plasma S

• Plasma: Plasma is the liquid portion of

bloodcontains&
-
-

fibrinogen, an important - -

• factor in the clotting process and other major X

~factors of clotting , making up about 55% of -
- -

S
-

total blood volume. It is a yellowish fluid that

contains water, electrolytes, proteins, hormones, -
- -
- ~

X
waste products, and gases.
clotting factor
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-
no

• Serum: yellowish fluid obtained after blood has

been allowed to clot and the clot is then
removed by centrifugation, so serum lacks some G &
X of the clotting factors present in plasma.
- -

Therefore, serum does not contain fibrinogen (

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&

clotting protein)
-

Plasma Liquid fibrinogen clothing

:

Contain
-
Cortion
I
of blood
,
-
factor . (Yellowish find)
↓
water electrolyte P
"Slls' /I

There are various types of

"Serum

C
, ,

tubes commonly used in

: Collection tubes
Serum Yellowish
after blood has allowed to clot
hormon gases ,

clinical biochemistry for

obtain
-
-
analysis. Plain
centrifuge it lack
by of clotting factor
-

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Do self have 1. Serum separator tubes
fibrinogen - - .
1 ...

-
(SST): These tubes contain a
> 2 0 41 0
-
-

-je
factor
gel separator that separates
clotting
- -

serum from blood cells upon

centrifugation. ,
-

2. Anticoagulant tubes: These

-
tubes contain additives that
-- 1

prevent blood from clotting.

--

-1
Centrifuge

It's important to remember

that theCspecific tubes used
=

may vary depending on the

-

laboratory and the specific

- -

tests being conducted

 Red-top tubes (Plain tubes)- Gold (and “tiger ) top tubes
Vellew

These tubes [do not contain any

- • Also known as a "serum separator tube" S%*
-
X 43 X
anticoagulant
-
- or preservative. or "SST," This tube contains aG gel tube 51,551,

They are used for collecting blood Cseparator at the bottom, which, when 5 14 Centirfuge
samples that will be used to obtain
G
serum. After the blood is drawn, it
- -
is allowed to clot 10-20 Mint , and
19 :/
E
cells
-

from
forms &
-
I
the serum. The [
gel
C
centrifuged, helps to separate the blood· iss
barrier
a physical barrier between the
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Scrum
--

diheig
-
then the tube is centrifuged to Cand the
serum 5
Gclot, making it easier to
& -
-

separate theW serum from the clot. obtain a clear serum sample for testing.
contierfugecommonly used for various biochemical
- -

These tubes are used for tests that

require serum samples.
-
tests that require serum samples, such as,
Used for blood bank specimens, liver function tests, and lipid profiles.
some chemistries • No other additives are present
:1591 % • Gel barrier may affect some lab tests
-

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404-5,.3
-

- Is I'd 1)
-

EDTA
Lavender-top tubes
& di 1 Letra
Gray-top tubes stop of glycolysis
These tubes > contain the anticoagulant -
-
acticaeid • Used for-CGlucose measurement.
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acidG
-

(EDTA).
EDTA prevents blood fromE clotting by
-
-
Ed
• After blood collection, glucose
concentration decreases significantly
binding toE EDTA
- -

calcium ions because of cellular metabolism

(essential for clot formation) and inhibits ↓ Bind • Gray-top tubes contain either:
coagulation, making it suitable for tests Ca
o Sodium fluoride and potassium
C
~
that require whole blood or plasma, such as
- - oxalate, or
complete blood counts o Sodium iodoacetate
(CBC), and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) analysis.
- • Both preservatives stabilize glucose in
Mix specimen with additive immediately after plasma byO inhibiting enzymes of the
collection.
=

glycolytic pathway
-
Used for haematology, and some chemistries -

❖NaF/oxalate inhibits enolase X

Cannot be used for K or Ca tests
-

❖Iodoacetate inhibits glucose-3-

X- X
phosphate dehydrogenase
-

-
 citrate it
Na ca
Green-top tubes & Blue-top tubes
•[
&
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Heparin tubes contain the anticoagulant • These tubes contain sodium citrate, an
heparin. Heparin inhibits clotting by
-
anticoagulant that binds to-C calcium &
enhancing the activity of antithrombin, an 91s S
-

&

ions and= &

,

prevents blood clotting. They Es -1

enzyme that neutralizes clotting factors. j ↑ 1

are primarily used for coagulation

-
• contain either the Na or lithium (Li) salt of studies, such as[
PT (prothrombin time)
heparin. Most widely used for tests that =>>

require plasma, such as electrolyte analysis- and[*

aPTT (activated partial R
-
and arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis During 10 min
thromboplastin time) and other tests
-
related to blood clotting.
• The advantage of plasma is that[ no time is Sec 14 -
10

wasted waiting for the specimen to clot - CBC

o Should not be used for Na or Li measurement hormone

XX
~

o Can effect the size and integrity of cellular &

blood components and not recommended for (5= 1

hematology studies &

X green

SAMPLE ANALYSIS AND Analysis

REPORTING
• The ideal analytical method is
1. -Accurate (correct)
2. -Precise (same result if repeated)
3. ~Sensitive (measures low concentrations)
4. ~Specific (is not subject to interference by
other substances)

– It should be -
cheap, simple
~
and ~
quick to
perform.
 Reporting results

S
Both

The total laboratory testing process Preanalytic Errors : act on both the⑧
patient and Patient,
in vivo
specimen

tiologic
the&
-

can be divided into three phases specimen before analyses, factors may be divided [
-
and
Physiologic
[preanalytic, analytic, and further into those acting in vivo (biologic or in Vitro

ostanalytic]. Chandling interfere

- -

Errors that may affect the accuracy

physiologic) and those acting in vitro (specimen
- -
Factor)

and the reliability of results can occur handling and interference factors) such as :insufficient
- -

in any of the phases.

-
1--
volume to perform test, Some physiologic factors: age,
error &+sm
-

&118s
-

-
- &

-
-1 -
-

&
- -

sex, race, diet, starvation, exercise, Physical stress ,

-

seasonal variations, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy.

.
-

I &

-
Analytic Errors :Test System Not Calibrated, Reagents
ES
~
~

-
-
prepared incorrectly, Instrument maintenance not
dance • Dilution and pipetting error Inaccuracy …elc
-

Jam
-

Postanalytic Errors :Transcription errors in reporting

- - =>

=
- - -

- report sent to the wrong location ,report illegible ,

report not sent
 Examples of important factors that influence biochemical variables

not enoug
>
-
volume of specimen
-

>
- unlabeled sample

(Pre-analytic)
(Pre-analyticl

Wrong SmtheSpecie
To
>
-
Put it out the fridge for
time
long
Prepard incrroct
>
-
reagent
-
Pippting er ror
(Analytic)

Analytic
er ror of
>
-
maintenance insterment

&-
>
Post
Pre

Urgent requests Repeat requesting error

--1 3
- .

-- 5 • When biochemical investigations are being used repeat

to monitor
• Some requests will be urgent in that their results may have an immediate influence the progress of a patient's condition, -
↓ request

on the management of the patient & Tix

Serial analyses will be required
/

-
S &

• Briefly explain the medical or clinical reasons why this request is urgent.
Examples include the: Example: toile
-

·
* • Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that requires quick intervention.
In patients being treated with thyroxine for
-

Blood cultures and tests can help identify the causative organism and
hypothyroidism, it can take several weeks for the
·

guide antibiotic treatment.

plasma concentration of thyroid stimulating hormone
-
-

• Patients experiencing &

-

acute bleeding due to trauma or surgery might

(TSH) to stabilize at a new value after a change in the
-

require immediate blood tests to assess hemoglobin and other blood counts
• patients with- chest pain suspected strokes or cardiac events, blood samples
are needed to assess biomarkers like troponin level
dose of thyroxine. -

Repeat requeste
•&Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) • In contrast: of ioden
are diabetic emergencies that necessitate rapid blood tests to assess glucose

si
-

↳
·Sid
-

levels, electrolytes, and acid-base balance. -

-– Plasma glucose conc.
•&Newborn Screening -
• Patients being considered for organ transplantation require timely blood – Plasma& potassium concentrations
2

tests to assess compatibility and evaluate the recipient's health. -

can change very rapidly in patients being treated for:

drug overdose Tverdose
• Measurement of paracetamol concentration in a patient who has taken a
2
• Measurement of- serum potassium concentration in a patient with acute &
-
✓Diabetic ketoacidosis, and it may be appropriate to make
-
renal failure?
&
measurements as frequently as

E
newborn
lead screening
>
-

to
erkaleming Sep sis
-

may >
-

organ transplantation • Every 1-2h, at least initially.

a
nexcretion acute bleed
caused by disorder
·

Iran
Danger mmanbie diabetic
in Ketoacidosis (DKA)
>
-
Paracetamol
-
Serum K couc
.
overdose
Liodene) (g)
(thyroxine (DKA)
,

-
 • Specificity and sensitivity are two important concepts in
Interpretation of results -diagnostic testing, particularly to identify the presence or
-

• When the result of a biochemical test is obtained, the absence of disease. They help assess the accuracy and
-

reliability of a test in correctly classifying individuals who have

following points must be taken into consideration:
&
the condition and those who do not.
– Is it normal?- •-
-
3
*

- · Specificity : a person does not have the disease ;the test be

– Is it significantly different from previous results? 99
negative (true negative rate) (TN).
-
I
– Is it consistent with the clinical findings? A test that has 100% specificity will identify 100% of patients who
-

result - -
--
C
do not have the disease A test that is 90% specific will identify
90% of patients who do not have the disease and 10% of patients
-

- S
who do not have the disease.
•~Sensitivity : If a person
--
has a disease the test be positive

as
(true positive rate) (TP)
Xo
O
#

A test that is 100% sensitive will identify all patients who have the
- -

disease. It’s extremely G rare that any clinical test is 100% sensitive.
A test with 90% sensitivity will identify 90% of patients who have
the disease, but will miss 10% of patients who have the disease
S!
Example of Specificity vs. Sensitivity Quality Assurance (QA) is a systematic process that ensures
product and service excellence. The primary goal of QA is to
Suppose 10 women undergo at test to detect cancer
and
[ prevent defects and issues from occurring in & the first place by
implementing best practices, guidelines, and procedures. QA
-

6 of these women have a cancer involves the entire organization and is often a proactive
Fir
I

1. If the test accurately detect all cancer and doesn't approach

s .
to quality management 55 25 5
Quality control (QC) focuses on identifying and correcting
· flag any of the normal women's, it has both highly
54
& -

sensitivity and specificity. defects in the&finished products. It's a reactive approach to

,
- -

----
quality management that involves inspecting, testing, and
8 of 10 cancers with C
2. If the test detectO positive result
↳
T -
9 -

9 measuring products or services to ensure they meet the

-
&

that mean it has o

-

80% sensitivity.
-
-

specified requirements and standards.

-

3. If the test detect only6

-
7 of 10 cancer cases with -
In summary, QA is about establishing processes and practices to
negative result has[ 70% specificity. 3 are positive & prevent defects from occurring, while QC is about identifying and
x) addressing defects in the finished products or services.& Detectoiy
1
& - --- -

&
even though don’t have the disease &
,
-

Both QA and QC are essential

z
components of a comprehensive I
,
2

-!
quality management system, working together to ensure the
consistent delivery of high-quality
- products and services.
 Maching
,
MSQ

Departments of the Laboratory

i
53 250s
• Chemistry : focuses on analyzing blood and*
-
body fluids to assess various

Fin
-
-
-

components such as glucose, electrolytes, enzymes, hormones, and more. These tests
-

-
-
-

help diagnose conditions like diabetes, kidney disease, and liver dysfunction.
- -

I
·

-
⑧ • Hematology: the study
-
-
of blood, blood morphology and blood diseases.
• Transfusion Services & blood bank : includes typing the blood for transfusion and
85's's
-
E--s
-25x testing for infectious diseases.
-
- # • Microbiology: study of microorganisms including algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa
&
-

and viruses.
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• Immunology and serology : the study of immune products such as antibodies
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produced by the body in response to foreign material.

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• Histopathology/Cytology examines human cells under the microscope, looking for

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- early signs of cancer and other diseases and examine tissue eq Pap smear
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• Parasitology :identification of a wide range of human parasites from clinical
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specimens.
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• Toxicology Department: Toxicology laboratories analyze samples to detect
- ↑ ~

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- the presence of drugs, toxins, or chemicals in the body

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• Molecular Diagnostics : analyzing DNA, RNA, and proteins to diagnose
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team
genetic disorders, infectious diseases, and certain types of cancers.
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right
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g
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See Video Below

• General Lab Safety

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_X6cCpO
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