UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL

“SAN LUIS GONZAGA”

FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA
DE MINAS Y METALURGIA

ESCUELA PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERÍA

DE MINAS

FULL NAME: …….………………………………………..……

TECHNICAL ENGLISH IN
MINING

AUTOR:

ING. CESAR EDUARDO LUCERO MARTINEZ.

E-mail : clucero9@ hotmail.com
Cel : 940196837

NASCA – PERU
2022

1
 Mineral definition and classification

To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must be a solid and have a

crystalline structure. And it can be a rock. It must also be a naturally occurring,
homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition. Traditional
definitions excluded organically derived material. However, the International
Mineralogical Association in 1995 adopted a new definition:

a mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline

and that has been formed as a result of geological processes. [2]

The modern classifications include an organic class - in both the new Dana and
the Strunz classification schemes.[3][4]The chemical composition may vary
between end members of a mineral system. For example the plagioclase
feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium-rich albite (NaAlSi3O8) to
calcium-rich anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) with four recognized intermediate
compositions between. Mineral-like substances that don't strictly meet the
definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids. Other natural-occurring
substances are nonminerals. Industrial minerals is a market term and refers to
commercially valuable mined materials

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2
 Crystal

A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the

internal structure of a mineral. There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements
of atoms in three dimensions, and these are referred to as the 14 "Bravais
lattices". Each of these lattices can be classified into one of the six crystal
systems, and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in one Bravais lattice
and one crystal system. This crystal structure is based on regular internal
atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that

the crystal takes.

Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the
underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray
diffraction. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. In fact, two
or more minerals may have the same chemical composition, but differ in crystal
structure (these are known as polymorphs). For example, though diamond and
graphite have the same composition (both are pure carbon), graphite is very
soft, while diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. There are currently
more than 4,000 known minerals, according to the International Mineralogical
Association, which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral
species found in nature. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called "common," 50 are
"occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare."

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3
 Differences between minerals and rocks

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and

a specific crystalline structure. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
(A rock may also include organic remains and mineraloids.) Some rocks are
predominantly composed of just one mineral. For example, limestone is a
sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of the mineral calcite. Other rocks
contain many minerals, and the specific minerals in a rock can vary widely.
Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have
been found in only one or two locations worldwide. The vast majority of the
rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz, feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin,
calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a
few other minerals.[5] Over half of the mineral species known are so rare that
they have only been found in a handful of samples, and many are known from
only one or two small grains .Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are
referred to as industrial minerals. Rocks from which minerals are mined for
economic purposes are referred to as ores (the rocks and minerals that remain,
after the desired mineral has been separated from the ore, are referred to as

tailings).

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4
 Physical properties of minerals

Classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult. A mineral can be
identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full
identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be
classified by more complex chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these
methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming.

Physical properties commonly used are:

 Crystal structure and habit

 Hardness
 Luster
 Color
 Streak
 Cleavage
 Fracture
 Specific gravity
 Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism,
radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape
or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.

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5
 Chemical properties of minerals

Minerals may be classified according to chemical composition. They are here

categorized by anion group. The list below is in approximate order of their
abundance in the Earth's crust. The list follows the Dana classification
system[1][7] which closely parallels the Strunz classification.

 Silicate class

 Carbonate class

 Sulfate class

 Halide class

 Oxide class

 Sulfide class

 Phosphate class

 Element class

 Organic class

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6
 Mining

Chuquicamata, Chile, site of the largest circumference and second deepest open pit
copper mine in the world.

Break time underground, Colorado, ca. 1900

Coal strip mine in Wyoming

7
 MINING

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the
earth, usually from an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining
include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil
shale, rock salt and potash. Any material that cannot be grown through agricultural
processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a
wider sense comprises extraction of any non-renewable resource (e.g., petroleum,
natural gas, or even water).

Mining of stone and metal has been used by humans since pre-historic times, with a
significant increase in the modern era. Modern mining processes involve prospecting
for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the
desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once the
mine is closed. The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on
the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is
closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to
moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as
well, though modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining
today is able to profitably and safely recover minerals with little negative impact to the
environment.

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8
Quarry
A quarry is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted.
Quarries are generally used for extracting building materials, such as dimension stone.
Quarries are usually shallower than other types of open-pit mines.

Ore
An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals such as gemstones and metals that can be
extracted through mining and refined for use. Samples of ore in the form of
exceptionally beautiful crystals, exotic layering visible when sectioned or polished or
metallic presentations such as large nuggets or crystalline formations of metals such as
gold or copper may command a value far beyond their value as mere ore or raw metal
for subsequent reduction to utilitarian purposes.

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9
Underground mining (hard rock)
Underground hard rock mining refers to various underground mining techniques used
to excavate hard minerals, mainly those minerals containing metlas [1] such as gold,
copper, zinc, nickel and lead, but also involves using the same techniques for excavating
gems such as diamonds. In contrast soft rock mining refers to excavation of softer
minerals such as salt, coal, or oil sands.
Mine access
Accessing underground ore can be achieved via a decline (ramp), inclined vertical shaft
or adit.
 Declines can be a spiral tunnel which circles either the flank of the deposit or
circles around the deposit. The decline begins with a box cut, which is the portal
to the surface. Depending on the amount of overburden and quality of bedrock, a
galvanized steel culvert may be required for safety purposes. They may also be
started into the wall of an open cut mine.
 Shafts are vertical excavations sunk adjacent to an ore body. Shafts are sunk for
ore bodies where haulage to surface via truck is not economical. Shaft haulage is
more economical than truck haulage at depth, and a mine may have both a
decline and a ramp.
 Adits are horizontal excavations into the side of a hill or mountain. They are
used for horizontal or near-horizontal ore bodies where there is no need for a
ramp or shaft.

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10
Ore access
Levels are excavated horizontally off the decline or shaft to access the ore body. Stopes
are then excavated perpendicular (or near perpendicular) to the level into the ore.

Development mining vs. production mining

There are two principal phases of underground mining: development mining and
production mining.

Development mining is composed of excavation almost entirely in (non-valuable) waste

rock in order to gain access to the orebody. There are five steps in development mining:
remove previously blasted material (muck out round), drill rock face, load explosives,
blast explosives, and support excavation.

Production mining is further broken down into two methods, long hole and short hole.
Short hole mining is similar to development mining, except that it occurs in ore. There
are several different methods of long hole mining. Typically long hole mining requires
two excavations within the ore at different elevations below surface, (15 m – 30 m
apart). Holes are drilled between the two excavations and loaded with explosives. The
holes are blasted and the ore is removed from the bottom excavation.

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11
 Ventilation

Door for directing ventilation in an old lead mine. The ore hopper at the front is not part
of the ventilation.

One of the most important aspects of underground hard rock mining is ventilation.
Ventilation is required to clear toxic fumes from blasting and removing exhaust fumes
from diesel equipment. In deep hot mines ventilation is also required for cooling the
workplace for miners. Ventilation raises are excavated to provide ventilation for the
workplaces, and can be modified to be used as escape routes in case of emergency. The
main sources of heat in underground hard rock mines are virgin rock temperature,
machinery, auto compression, and fissure water although other small factors contribute
like people breathing, inefficiency of machinery, and blasting operations.

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12
Ground support
Some means of support is required in order to maintain the stability of the openings that
are excavated. This support comes in two forms, local support and area support.

Area ground support

Area ground support is used to prevent major ground failure. Holes are drilled into the
back (ceiling) and walls and a long metal bar (or rock bolt) is installed to hold the
ground together. There are three categories of rock bolt, determined on the way the
behave in the rock.[2] They are:

Mechanical bolts
 Point anchor bolts (or expansion shell bolts) are a common style of area ground
support. A point anchor bolt is a metal bar between 20 mm – 25 mm in diameter,
and between 1 m – 4 m in length (the size is determined by the mine's
engineering department). There is an expansion shell at the end of the bolt which
is inserted into the hole. As the bolt is tightened by the installation drill the
expansion shell expands and the bolt tightens holding the rock together.
Mechanical bolts are considered temporary support as their lifespan is reduced
by corrosion as they are not grouted.[2]

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13
Grouted bolts

 Resin grouted rebar is used in areas which require more support than a point
anchor bolt can give. The rebar used is of similar size as a point anchor bolt but
does not have an expansion shell. Once the hole for the rebar is drilled,
cartridges of epoxy resin are installed in the hole. The rebar bolt is installed after
the resin and spun by the installation drill. This opens the resin cartridge and
mixes it. Once the resin hardens the drill spinning tightens the rebar bolt holding
the rock together. Resin grouted rebar is considered a permanent ground support
with a lifespan of 20–30 years.[2]
 Cable bolts are used to bind large masses of rock in the hanging wall and
around large excavations. Cable bolts are much larger than standard rock bolts
and rebar, usually between 10–25 metres long. Cable bolts are grouted with a
cement grout.[2]

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14
Friction bolts

 Split-sets are much easier to install than mechanical bolts or grouted bolts. The
bolt is hammered into the drill hole, which has a smaller diameter than the bolt.
Pressure from the bolt on the wall holds the rock together. Split-set bolts are
particularly susceptible to corrosion and rust from water unless they are
grouted.[2]
 Swellex is similar to a split-set, except the bolt diameter is smaller than the hole
diameter. High pressure water is injected into the bolt to expand the bolt
diameter to hold the rock together. Like the split-set, swellex is poorly protected
from corrosion and rust.[2]

Local ground support

Local ground support is used to prevent smaller rocks from falling from the backs and
walls. Not all excavations require local ground support.

 Welded Wire Mesh is a metal screen with 10 cm x 10 cm (4 inch) openings. It

is held to the backs using point anchor bolts or resin grouted rebar.
 Shotcrete is a spray on concrete which coats the backs and walls preventing
smaller rocks from falling. Shotcrete thickness can be between 50 mm –
100 mm.
 Latex Membranes can be sprayed on the backs and walls similar to shotcrete,
but in smaller amounts.

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15
 Stope and retreat vs. stope and fill
Stope and retreat

Sub-Level Caving Subsidence reaches surface at the Ridgeway underground mine.

Using this method, mining is planned to extract rock from the stopes without filling the
voids; this allows the wall rocks to cave in to the extracted stope after all the ore has
been removed. The stope is then sealed to prevent access.

Stope and fill

Where large bulk ore bodies are to be mined at great depth, or where leaving pillars of
ore is uneconomical, the open stope is filled with backfill, which can be a cement and
rock mixture, a cement and sand mixture or a cement and tailings mixture. This method
is popular as the refilled stopes provide support for the adjacent stopes, allowing total
extraction of economic resources.

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16
 Mining methods
Selective mining methods

 Cut and Fill mining is a method of short hole mining used steeply dipping or
irregular ore zones, in particular where the hanging wall limits the use of long
hole methods. The ore is mined in horizontal or slightly inclined slices, and
filled with waste rock, sand or tailings. Either fill option may be consolidated
with concrete, or left unconsolidated. Cut and fill mining is an expensive but
selective method, with low ore loss and dilution.[3]

 Drift and Fill is similar to cut and fill, except it is used in ore zones which are
wider than the method of drifting will allow to be mined. In this case the first
drift is developed in the ore, and is backfilled using consolidated fill. The second
drift is driven adjacent to the first drift. This carries on until the ore zone is
mined out to its full width, at which time the second cut is started atop of the
first cut.

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17
Shrinkage Stoping is a short hole mining method which is suitable for steeply dipping
orebodies. The method is similar to cut and fill mining with the exception that after
being blasted broken ore is left in the stope where it is used to support the surrounding
rock and as a platform to work off of. Only enough ore is removed from the stope to
allow for drilling and blasting the next slice. The stope is emptied when all of the ore
has been blasted. Although it is very selective and allows for low dilution, since the
most of the ore stays in the stope until mining is completed there is a delayed return on
capital investments.[3]

 Room and Pillar mining : Room and pillar mining is commonly done in flat or
gently dipping bedded ore bodies. Pillars are left in place in a regular pattern
while the rooms are mined out. In many room and pillar mines, the pillars are
taken out starting at the farthest point from the stope access, allowing the roof to
collapse and fill in the stope. This allows a greater recovery as less ore is left
behind in pillars.

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18
Bulk mining methods

 Block Caving is used to mine massive steeply dipping orebodies (typically low
grade) with high friability. An undercut with haulage access is driven under the
orebody, with "drawbells" excavated over the undercut. The drawbells serve as a
place for caving rock to fall into. The orebody is drilled and blasted above the
undercut, and the ore is removed via the haulage access. Due to the friability of
the orebody the ore above the first blast caves and falls into the drawbells. As
ore is removed from the drawbells the orebody caves in providing a steady
stream of ore.[3] If caving stops and removal of ore from the drawbells continues,
a large void may form, resulting in the potential for a sudden and massive
collapse and potentially catastrophic windblast throughout the mine.[4]

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Ore removal
In mines which use rubber tired equipment for coarse ore removal, the ore is removed
from the stope (referred to as "mucked out" or "bogged") using center articulated
vehicles (referred to as boggers or LHD [short for Load, Haul, Dump]). These pieces of
equipment may operate using diesel or electric engines and resemble a low-profile front
end loader.

The ore is then dumped into a truck to be hauled to the surface (in shallower mines). In
deeper mines the ore is dumped down an ore pass (a vertical or near vertical excavation)
where it falls to a collection level. On the collection level it may receive primary
crushing via jaw crusher. The ore is then moved by conveyor belts, trucks or
occasionally trains to the shaft to be hoisted to the surface in buckets or skips and
emptied into bins beneath the surface headframe for transport to the mill.

In some cases the underground primary crusher feeds an inclined conveyor belt which
delivers ore via an incline shaft direct to the surface. The ore is fed down ore passes,
with mining equipment accessing the ore body via a decline from surface.

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 Deepest mines
 The deepest mines in the world are the TauTona (Western Deep Levels) and
Savuka gold mines in the Witwatersrand region of South Africa, which are
currently working at depths exceeding 3,700 meters (12,139 feet). AngloGold
plans to increase the maximum depth of these mines to 3,910m (12,828 feet) by
2009.
 The deepest hard rock mine in North America is Xstrata's Kidd Mine, which
mines copper and zinc ore in Timmins, Ontario. Mining is actively occurring
2,682 m (8,800 feet) below surface. The shaft bottoms out at over 2,926m (9,600
feet) down.
 The deepest hard rock mines in Australia are the copper and zinc lead mines in
Mount Isa, Queensland at 1,800 m (5,906 feet).
 The deepest platinum-palladium mines in the world are on the Merensky Reef,
in South Africa, with a resource of 203 million Troy ounces, currently worked to
approximately 2,200 m (7,218 feet) depth.
 The harshest conditions for hard rock mining are in the Witwatersrand area of
South Africa, where workers toil in temperatures of up to 45 °C (113 °F).
However, massive refrigeration plants are used to bring the air temperature
down to around 28 °C.

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Hardrock mining terms
 stope and pillar
 longhole stoping
 benching
 breasting
 vertical crater retreat
 shrinkage stoping
 panel mining

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22
Underground mining (soft rock)
Underground mining (soft rock) refers to a group of underground mining techniques
used to extract coal, oil shale and other minerals or geological materials from
sedimentary ("soft") rocks. Because deposits in sedimentary rocks are commonly
layered and relatively less hard, the mining methods used differ from those used to mine
deposits in igneous or metamorphic rocks (see Underground mining (hard rock)).
Underground mining techniques also differ greatly from those of surface mining.

Methods
 Longwall mining: Longwall mining machines consist of multiple coal shearers
mounted on a series of self-advancing hydraulic ceiling supports. Almost the
entire process can be automated. Longwall mining machines are about 800 feet
(240 meters) in width and 5 to 10 feet (1.5 to 3 meters) tall. Longwall miners
extract "panels" - rectangular blocks of coal as wide as the mining machinery
and as long as 12,000 feet (3,650 meters). Massive shearers cut coal from a wall
face, which falls onto a conveyor belt for removal. As a longwall miner
advances along a panel, the roof behind the miner's path is allowed to collapse.

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23
Room-and-pillar mining or continuous mining: Room and pillar mining is commonly
done in flat or gently dipping bedded ores. Pillars are left in place in a regular pattern
while the rooms are mined out. In many room and pillar mines, the pillars are taken out,
starting at the farthest point from the mine haulage exit, retreating, and letting the roof
come down upon the floor. Room and pillar methods are well adapted to mechanization,
and are used in deposits such as coal, potash, phosphate, salt, oil shale, and bedded
uranium ores.

 Blast mining – An older practice of coal mining that uses explosives such as
dynamite to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded
onto shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process
consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coalbed so it will
break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less
than 5% of total underground production in the U.S. today.

 Shortwall mining– A coal mining method that accounts for less than 1% of
deep coal production, shortwall involves the use of a continuous mining
machine with moveable roof supports, similar to longwall. The continuous
miner shears coal panels 150–200 feet wide and more than a half-mile long,
depending on other things like the strata of the Earth and the transverse waves.

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24
Surface mining
Surface mining is a type of mining in which soil and rock overlying the mineral deposit
are removed. It is the opposite of underground mining, in which the overlying rock is
left in place, and the mineral removed through shafts or tunnels.

Surface mining is used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rock are
found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the
valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable
for tunneling (as would usually be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). Where
minerals occur deep below the surface—where the overburden is thick or the mineral
occurs as veins in hard rock— underground mining methods are used to extract the
valued material. Surface mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral deposit is
exhausted, or the cost of removing larger volumes of overburden makes further mining
uneconomic.

In most forms of surface mining, heavy equipment, such as earthmovers, first remove
the overburden - the soil and rock above the deposit. Next, huge machines, such as
dragline excavators, extract the mineral.

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25
 Types of surface mining
There are five main forms of surface mining, detailed below.

Strip mining

Strip mining is the practice of mining a seam of mineral by first removing a long strip
of overlying soil and rock (the overburden). It is most commonly used to mine coal or
tar sand. Strip mining is only practical when the ore body to be excavated is relatively
near the surface. This type of mining uses some of the largest machines on earth,
including bucket-wheel excavators which can move as much as 12,000 cubic meters of
earth per hour.There are two forms of strip mining. The more common method is area
stripping, which is used on fairly flat terrain, to extract deposits over a large area. As
each long strip is excavated, the overburden is placed in the excavation produced by the
previous strip.Contour stripping involves removing the overburden above the mineral
seam near the outcrop in hilly terrain, where the mineral outcrop usually follows the
contour of the land. Contour stripping is often followed by auger mining into the
hillside, to remove more of the mineral. This method commonly leaves behind terraces
in mountainsides.

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26
Open-pit mining

Open-pit mining refers to a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by
their removal from an open pit or borrow. Although open-pit mining is sometimes
mistakenly referred to as "strip mining", the two methods are different (see above).

Mountaintop removal

Mountaintop removal mining (MTR) is a relatively new form of coal mining that
involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach the coal seam as deep as 1,000
feet below the surface. It is used where a coal seam outcrops all the way around a
mountain top. All the rock and soil above the coal seam are removed and the soil placed
in adjacent lows such as hollows or ravines. Mountaintop removal replaces previously
steep topography with a relatively level surface.

The technique has been used increasingly in recent years in the Appalachian coal fields
of West Virginia, Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee in the United States. The profound
changes in topography and disturbance of pre-existing ecosystems have made
mountaintop removal highly controversial.

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27
Advocates of mountaintop removal point out that once the areas are reclaimed as
mandated by law, the technique provides premium flat land suitable for many uses in a
region where flat land is at a premium. They also maintain that the new growth on
reclaimed mountaintop mined areas is better able to support populations of game
animals.[1]

Critics contend that mountaintop removal is a disastrous practice that benefits a small
number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. A
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency environmental impact statement finds that
streams near valley fills from mountaintop removal contain high levels of minerals in
the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.[2] The statement also estimates that 724
miles of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills from 1985 to 2001. [2]

In common with other methods of coal mining, processing the coal mined by
mountaintop removal generates waste slurry (also called coal sludge), which is usually
stored behind a dam on-site. Many coal slurry impoundments in West Virginia exceed
500 million gallons in volume, and some, including the Brushy Fork impoundment in
Raleigh County, exceed 7 billion gallons.[3] Such impoundments can be hundreds of feet
high and be in close proximity to schools or private residences. [4] The most
controversial sludge dam at present sits 400 yards above Marsh Fork Elementary
School. The sludge pond is permitted to hold 2.8 billion gallons of toxic sludge, and is
21 times larger than the pond which killed 125 people in the Buffalo Creek Flood.[5]

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Kentucky's Martin County Sludge Spill occurred after midnight on October 11, 2000
when a coal sludge impoundment broke through into an underground mine below,
propelling 306 million gallons of sludge down two tributaries of the Tug Fork River.
The spill polluted hundreds of miles of waterways, contaminated the water supply for
over 27,000 residents, and killed all aquatic life in Coldwater Fork and Wolf Creek.

Blasting at a mountaintop removal mine expels coal dust and fly-rock into the air, which
can then disturb or settle onto private property nearby. This dust contains sulfur
compounds, which corrodes structures and tombstones and is a health hazard. [6]

Although MTR sites are usually reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has
traditionally focused on stabilizing rock and controlling erosion, but not reforesting the
area with trees.[7] Quick-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide
vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing
root systems in compacted backfill.[2] Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of
the United States with numerous endemic species.[8] Erosion also increases, which can
intensify flooding. In the Eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation
Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation.[9]

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29
Dredging

Dredging is a method often used to bring up underwater mineral deposits. Although

dredging is usually employed to clear or enlarge waterways for boats, it can also recover
significant amounts of underwater minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply.

Highwall Mining
Highwall mining is another form of surface mining that evolved from auger mining. In
highwall mining, the coal seam is penetrated by a continuous miner propelled by a
hydraulic Pushbeam Transfer Mechanism (PTM). A typical cycle includes sumping
(pushing forward) and shearing (raising or lowering the cutterhead boom to cut the
entire height of the coal seam). As the coal recovery cycle continues, the cutterhead is
progressively pushed into the coal seam for 20 feet. Then, the Pushbeam Transfer
Mechanism (PTM) automatically inserts a 20-foot long rectangular pushbeam into the
center section of the machine between the powerhead and the cutterhead. The
pushbeams system can penetrate nearly 1000 feet or 305 meters into the coal seam.
Some highwall mining systems use augers enclosed inside the pushbeams that prevent
the mined coal from being contaminated by rock debris during the conveyance process.
Using a video imaging and/or a gamma detector, the operator can see and guide the
continuous miner's progress. Highwall mining can produce thousands of tons of clean
coal in contour-strip operations with narrow benches, previously mined areas, or trench
mine applications.

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Recovery is much better than augering, but the mapping of areas that have been
developed by a highwall miner are not mapped as rigorously as deep mined areas. Very
little spoil is displaced in contrast with mountain top removal, however a lot of capital is
required to operate & own a highwall miner.

Mapping of the outcrop as well as data derived from core holes & samples taken during
the bench making process are taken into account to best project the panels that the
Highwall miner will cut. Obstacles that could be potentially damaged by subsidence &
the natural contour of the Highwall are taken into account, and an Surveyor points the
Highwall miner in a line mostly perpendicular to the Highwall. Parallel lines represent
the panels cut into the mountain (Up to 1000' deep), because changing the Azimuth
during the mining process results in missing a portion of the coal seam.

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Environmental and health issues
The large impact of surface mining on the topography, vegetation, and water resources
has made it highly controversial.

Surface mining is subject to state and federal reclamation requirements, but adequacy of
the requirements is a constant source of contention. Unless reclaimed, surface mining
can leave behind large areas of infertile waste rock (i.e. it generates 75% of industrial
waste in Spain).

In the United States, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
mandates reclamation of surface coal mines. Reclamation for non-coal mines, is
regulated by state and local laws, which may vary widely.

Human health

Surface mining creates problems for the human health: gases, dust in suspension, noises
and vibrations from the machines and explosions, that can create lung or nervous
diseases.

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Crushing of ore and minerals
In these operations the value is achieved at the fine end, say below 100 micron (150
mesh).
Normally the size reduction by crushing is of limited importance besides the top size of
the product going to grinding.
This means that the number of crushing stages can be reduced depending on the feed
size accepted by primary grinding stage.
Calculation of reduction ratio
All crushers have a limited reduction ratio meaning that size reduction will take place in
stages. The number of stages is guided by the size of the feed and the requested product.

Selection of crushers
Knowing the number of crushing stages we can now start to select the correct crusher
for each reduction stage. Depending on operating conditions, feed size, capacity,
hardness etc, there are always some options.

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Primary crusher type

For soft feed (below Mohs5) a horizontal Impactor (HSI) is normally the first option if
capacity is not too high.
For harder feed there is a choice between a gyratory or a jaw crusher.
Rule 1: Always use a jaw crusher if you can, being the most cost effective alternative.
Rule 2: For low capacity use jaw crusher and hydraulic hammer for oversize
Rule 3: For high capacities use jaw crusher with big intake opening
Rule 4: For very high capacities use gyratory crusher

Secondary crusher type

In a rock crushing circuit, the second stage normally starts to be of importance for
control of size and shape.
Because of this the jaw crusher, in most cases, is disqualified as secondary crusher.
Instead the cone crusher is used more frequently.
Also in comminution (crushing and grinding) circuits for ore and minerals the cone
crusher is frequently used as the secondary stage. Using a secondary HSI means as
always a restriction in feed hardness.

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Cone crusher – a powerful concept
Compared to other crushers the cone crusher has some advantages making them very
suitable for size reduction and shaping downstream a crushing circuit.
Reason is the crushing chamber and the possibilities to change feed and discharge
openings during operation.

Final crushing stage – more than just crushing

For many rock and gravel crushing circuits the final crushing stage is of special interest.
The final sizing and shaping will take place in this stage influencing the value of the
final product.
For hard rock circuits there are only two options, cone crushers or Vertical Shaft
Impactors (VSI).

VSI – A Rock on Rock autogeneous crushing Impactor

Horizontal impactors normally use rock to metal impaction. This means a restriction in
crushing circuits with hard feed material, when wear can be dramatically high.
The VSI Impactor of Barmac type is using a rock-to-rock impaction technology where
most of the design is protected by rock, see below. This means that we
can use the advantages of the impaction techniques also in hard rock operations.
The crushing action takes place in the “rock cloud” in the crushing chamber, not against
the rock protection.

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Grinding
Size reduction by crushing has a size limitation for the final products. If we require
further reduction, say below 5-20mm, we have to use the processes of grinding.
Grinding is a powdering or pulverizing process using the rock mechanical forces of
impaction, compression, shearing and attrition.
The two main purposes for a grinding process are:

To liberate individual minerals trapped in rock crystals (ores) and thereby open up for
a subsequent enrichment in the form of separation.

To produce fines (or filler) from mineral fractions by increasing the specific surface.

Grinding mills – reduction ratios

All crushers including impactors have limited reduction ratios. Due to the design there
is a restricting in retention time for the material passing.
In grinding as it takes place in more “open” space, the retention time is longer and can
easily be adjusted during operation.
Below the theoretical size reduction and power ranges for different grinding mills are
shown. In practise also size reduction by grinding is done in optimised stages.

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Typical for cost of grinding
The main costs for grinding are energy, liners and grinding media. They are different for
different mill types.

Mill linings
Use rubber linings wherever possible due to lifetime, low weight, easy to install and
noise dampening.
Durability and versatile application are the benefits of the Skega Mill Linings.
When application is getting tougher use steel-capped rubber, still easier to handle than
steel.
When these both options are overruled (by temperature, feed size or chemicals) use
steel.
Ore-bed is a lining with rubber covered permanent magnets used for special applications
like lining of Verti mills, grinding of magnetite a.o.

Pulverizing of coal
Coal pulverizing is an important application for grinding mills (ball mill type) and the
advantages of using tumbling grinding are many.

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Grinding vs enrichment and upgrading
In the size reduction stages of grinding we are also creating the conditions for the
following process stages of enrichment and upgrading.
From the picture below we can see the effect of “under- and over grinding”. The lost
performance in separation, sedimentation and dewatering due to “misgrinding”
represents a major problem for many operations, eroding the process economy.

Enrichment
With Enrichment we understand the process of improving the mineral or rock value by
removing impurities by:

Washing, mainly used in the enrichment process of industrial minerals, coal,

aggregates, sand and gravel, normally with the products in solid form. (size =1 mm
and coarser)

Separation, mainly used in the enrichment processes of metallic minerals and high
value industrial minerals, normally with the products in liberated particle form (size =
1mm and smaller)
Enrichment processes
Washing by using Separation by
Wet Screens Gravity separation (wet)
Attrition Scrubbers Magnetic separation (dry & wet)
Separators Flotation (wet)
Leaching (wet)

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Washing

Log washers
Single or double shaft log washers are used for washing of gravel. Contaminated
material is fed at the trough bottom and is transported upwards by blades in a screw
pattern due to friction between the material. Effluent in slurry form leaves via an
overflow weir.
Wet screens
Water spraying can be used to wash materials on a screen regardless of hole size in the
screening media. If the hole size is 20 mm or less, water spraying increases the capacity
(inversely proportional to the hole size).
Aquamator separator
The Aquamator is developed for efficient washing of waste material of lower densities
like coal, wood etc. Used mainly for gravel, chippings and demolition rubble. The water
and feed form a bed with a density high enough (SG range1.2-1.6) enabling light
material to float off.
Tumbling scrubber
If solids of rock, gravel or minerals contain a high and sticky content of clay and dirt
that has to be removed, wet screening is normally not effective enough. A medium
speed washing drum for scrubbing solids against solids is then the option. The drum is
relatively short in relation to its diameter. Water requirements per ton is the same as for
wet screening.

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Attrition scrubber
These scrubbers are mainly used for washing of material below 10 mm in size. Very
high energy inputs are possibly used for washing of silica sand for glass making and
cleaning of foundry sand. The machine is also suitable for clay blunging and lime
slacking

Wash Water Treatment

All washing operations are normally consuming a lot of expensive water. Not only
costly, but also containing a lot of washing effluents both coarse and fine. Water and
effluents that have to be processed partly to recover some value (coarse material and
water), partly to protect the environment from damage (sludge fractions). Most washing
operations today must have systems for this treatment.

Wash water treatment stages

Depending on local conditions and restrictions, one, two or three treatment stages may
be required.

Wash water treatment – closed system

After recovery of coarser material the fines can be treated in a closed system recovering
all process water and bringing the fine solids into a transportable form.

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Separation
After liberation of all individual minerals in a rock or an ore feed, either by grinding or
by natural size reduction (beach sands a.o.) they can be separated individually.
Depending on their behaviour, different technologies are applied.
Separation by gravity
If there is a certain difference in density between two minerals or rock fractions they
can be separated by using this difference. Separation by gravity covers two different
methods.
Separation in water (Gravity concentration)
Separation in a heavy medium (Dense Media Separation, DMS)
Separation in Water
Equipment Particle size range Typical applications
Coal Jigs 40 – 200 mm (1.6 - 8”) Coal
Mineral Jigs 75 µm - 6 mm (31/2 mesh) Gold, Chromite, Galena
Spirals 75 µm - 1.0 mm light, (16 mesh) Coal, Beach sands, Iron
75 µm - 0.5 mm heavy, (32 mesh) Cassiterit.

Shaking tables 50 µm - 2 mm (9 mesh) Tin, Copper, Gold, Lead, Zinc, Tungsten.

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Separation by Jigs
The jig operation consists of two actions. One is the effect of hindered settling
meaning that a heavier particle will settle faster than a light particle. The other one is the
separation process in an upward flow of water which will separate the particles by
their density. These two actions are combined in a Jig by slurry pulses generated
mechanically or by air.

Separation by Spiral Concentrators

A spiral concentrator uses gravity to separate particles of different densities. It should
not be confused with a Spiral Classifier which usually separates particles of different
size.
A Spiral concentrator consists of one or more helical profiled troughs supported on a
central column. As slurry travels down the spiral high and low density particles are
stratified and separated with adjustable splitters at the end of the spiral.

Separation by Shaking Tables

A cross stream of water transports material over the table to riffles running
perpendicular to the direction of feed. Particles build up behind each riffle and
stratification occurs with heavier particles sinking to the bottom. The light particles are
carried over each riffle to the tailings zone. The shaking action of the tables carries the
heavy particles along the back of each riffle to the concentrate discharge.

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Separation in Dense Media
Gravity separation utilises the settling rate of different particles in water to make a
separation. Particle size, shape and density all affect the efficiency of the separation.
Dense Media Separation (DMS) takes place in fluid media with a density between that
of the light and heavy fractions that are to be separated. The separation is dependent
upon density only.
Dense Media Separators
Drum Separator
Mainly mineral applications

Particle size range 6-200 mm (1/4” – 8”)

Simple and robust
Low medium input
Max. media density =3.5

DMS applications
Coal Tin
Diamonds Manganese
Iron Ore Phosphate
Chromite Scrap metals
Fluorspar
In many cases Dense Media Separation is used for “Pre- concentration” e.g. rejecting
waste material prior to further processing (typical between crushing and grinding).

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Magnetic Separation
By creating an environment comprimising a magnetic force (Fm), a gravitional force
(Fg) and a drag force (Fd) magnetic particles can be separated from nonmagnetic
particles by magnetic separation.

Magnetic attraction force (Fm)

Fm = V x X x H x grad H
V = particle volume (determined by process)
X = magnetic susceptibility (see table below)
H = magnetic field (created by the magnet system design) in mT (milliTesla) or kGauss
(kiloGauss) 1 kGauss = 100 mT = 0.1 T grade H = Magnetic field gradient (created by
the magnet system design) in mT/m
Magnetic field and magnetic gradient are equally important factors for creating the
magnet attraction force.

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