Policy on Gender

and
Development
 亚行

性别与发展
政
策

亚洲开发银行
Introduction

T
his booklet provides a review of the Bank’s policy on the
role of women in development (WID). The evolution of the Bank’s
WID approach and that of other agencies over the past decade are
summarized. The transition from WID to gender and development (GAD)
is traced; some of the new and emerging areas of concern for women in
the Asian and Pacific region are discussed; and the recommendations to
development finance institutions contained in the Platform for Action
endorsed by the United Nations (UN) Fourth World Conference on Women
held in Beijing in 1995 are highlighted. Against this background, potential
areas for policy revisions are discussed, the form that such revisions might
take are suggested, and institutional mechanisms to more systematically
operationalize the Bank’s strategic objective of improving the status of women
are proposed.

B-ST

1
引言

本
手册回顾了该行关于妇女在发展中的作用（WID）的政策
。 总结了该行过去十年WID方法以及其他机构的演变。
追溯了从WID到性别与发展（GAD）的转变；讨论了亚
洲和太平洋地区妇女面临的一些新的和正在出现的问题；并重点介
绍了1995年在北京举行的联合国（UN）第四次妇女问题世界大会
通过的《行动纲领》中对发展融资机构的建议。 在此背景下，讨论
了政策修订的潜在领域，提出了修订的形式，并提出了更系统地将
该行改善妇女地位的战略目标付诸实施的体制机制。

B-ST
Gender and development
issues in the Asian and Pacific
region

R
ecognition of the need to improve the status of women and to
promote their potential roles in development is no longer seen
only as an issue of human rights or social justice. While the pur-
suit of gender equity remains strongly embedded within the frame-
work of fundamental human rights and gender justice, investments in
women now also are recognized as crucial to achieving sustainable
development. Economic analyses recognize that low levels of educa-
tion and training, poor health and nutritional status, and limited access
to resources not only depress women’s quality of life, but also limit
productivity and hinder economic efficiency and growth. Hence, pro-
moting and improving the status of women need to be pursued, for
reasons of equity and social justice and also because it makes economic
sense and is good development practice.
The Bank’s SDOs such as economic growth, poverty reduction,
human development including population planning, and sound man-
agement of natural resources and the environment cannot be fully
achieved without increased investments in women and greater atten-
tion to their needs, concerns, and contributions. Public policies and
investments that promote the development of women have economic
payoffs in terms of higher economic growth rates; improved produc-
tivity; reduced health and welfare costs; low fertility, and infant and
maternal morbidity and mortality rates; and increased life expectancy.

3
亚洲和太平洋地区
的性别与发展问题

认
识到需要提高妇女地位并促进她们在发展中的潜在作用，
这不再仅仅被视为人权或社会正义问题。 虽然追求性别
平等仍然牢固地嵌入基本人权和性别正义的框架内，但
对妇女的投资现在也被认为是实现可持续发展的关键。 经济分析认
识到，教育和培训水平低、健康和营养状况差以及获得资源的机会
有限，不仅会降低妇女的生活质量，还会限制生产力，阻碍经济效
率和增长。 因此，出于公平与社会正义的考虑，以及因为这样做在
经济上是合理的，也是良好的发展实践，需要促进和改善妇女的地
位。

世界银行的战略发展目标，如经济增长、减贫、人口规划等人
类发展以及自然资源和环境的良好管理，如果没有对妇女的更多投
资以及更多关注她们的需求、关切和贡献，就无法完全实现。 促进
妇女发展的公共政策和投资在经济上具有回报，例如更高的经济增
长率；提高生产力；降低健康和福利成本；生育率降低，婴儿和孕
产妇发病率和死亡率降低；以及预期寿命延长。

3
Increased investment in women produces a healthier, better educated,
and literate workforce, and provides a sound human resource
foundation on which to build the economy.
Investing in women’s health has positive impacts on reducing the
country’s population growth rates, improving the health and welfare
of children and families, reducing health costs, and contributing to
poverty reduction. Throughout the world, it has been shown that
improving health care for women aged 15–44 years offers the biggest
returns on health care spending for any group of adults.
Investing in the education of girls not only results in positive returns
to the girls themselves, but the returns to society are even larger and last
for generations. For the girls, education means enhanced future earning
capacity, increased access and opportunities in the labor market, reduced
health risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth, and often greater
control over their personal lives. For the society at large, investments in
the education of girls will likely result in slower population growth rates,
and better health and education of future generations.
Likewise, improving women’s access to financial services contrib-
utes to poverty reduction as it enables women to contribute to house-
hold income and family welfare, thereby making the transition out of
poverty easier for their families. Extending such services to women
also makes good economic sense for financial intermediaries, as women
have shown themselves to be better savers, leading to greater savings
mobilization, and better repayers, resulting in fewer bad debts.
Most of the countries in the region are undergoing rapid social and
economic change. The obstacles to women’s participation in and ben-
efits from these changes mean that the potential contribution of half of
the population of these countries is either unutilized or underutilized,
signifying an economic loss to the country. The direct links of expanded
opportunities for women, especially in education and income-
generating activities, with reduction in population growth, improved
health and education of children, easing of environmental pressure,
improved nutrition, poverty reduction, and sustainable development,
indicate that underinvestment in women is an uneconomic
proposition.1 Keeping women at the margins of development could
1 World Bank. 1994. Enhancing Women’s Participation in Economic Development: A World
Bank Policy Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank, pp. 22-28.

4
对妇女的投资增加，将产生一支更健康、受教育程度更高、识字率
更高的劳动力队伍，并为经济发展提供坚实的人力资源基础。

投资妇女健康对降低国家人口增长率、改善儿童和家庭的健康
和福利、降低医疗成本以及促进减贫具有积极影响。 在世界范围内
，研究表明，改善 15-44 岁妇女的医疗保健，为任何成年人群体提
供最大的医疗保健支出回报。

投资女孩的教育不仅会给女孩本人带来积极的回报，而且对社
会的回报更大，而且会持续几代人。 对于女孩来说，教育意味着提
高未来的收入能力，增加在劳动力市场的准入和机会，降低与怀孕
和分娩相关的健康风险，并且通常对她们的个人生活有更大的控制
权。 对于整个社会来说，对女孩教育的投资可能会导致人口增长速
度放缓，以及未来几代人的健康和教育水平提高。

同样，改善妇女获得金融服务的途径也有助于减贫，因为它使
妇女能够为家庭收入和家庭福利做出贡献，从而使她们的家庭更容
易摆脱贫困。 将此类服务扩展到妇女也对金融中介机构具有良好的
经济意义，因为妇女已被证明是更好的储蓄者，从而导致更多的储
蓄动员，以及更好的偿还者，从而导致更少的坏账。

该地区的大多数国家正在经历快速的社会和经济变化。 妇女参
与这些变化并从中受益的障碍意味着这些国家一半人口的潜在贡献
要么没有得到利用，要么没有得到充分利用，这表明该国经济损失
。 妇女，特别是教育和创收活动方面机会扩展的直接联系，与人口
增长减少、儿童健康和教育改善、环境压力缓解、营养改善、减贫
和可持续发展有关，表明对妇女的投资不足是一种不经济的提议。1
将妇女置于发展边缘可能

1 世界银行。1994年。增强妇女在经济发展中的参与：世界银行政策文件。 华盛顿特区：世
界银行，第22-28页。

4
prove detrimental to the overall development efforts and goals of the
country.
Overall, development programs that include measures to expand
women’s economic opportunities and increase their incomes, or pro-
mote improvements in women’s health and education, result in greater
economic efficiency and decreased levels of poverty.2 Public policies
to reduce gender inequalities are essential for counteracting market
failure and improving the well-being of all members of
society.3 Discrimination against women in both the private realm of
the household and the public realm of the market carries not only
private costs for the individual, but social and economic costs for the
overall society. Hence, it is in the interest of the country to promote,
support, enhance, and ensure women’s participation in and more
equitable sharing of the rewards of development.
Undoubtedly, some progress has been achieved worldwide in
reducing gender disparities. Many women in developing countries have
benefited positively from increased access to education, employment,
safe drinking water, modern health care, higher standard of living, and
greater social mobility. According to the World Bank4 (WB) figures for
all developing countries

• in 1990, 86 girls were enrolled in primary school for every

100 boys, compared with 67 girls for every 100 boys in 1960;
75 females per 100 males were enrolled in secondary schools in
1990 compared with 53 in 1960;
• the average 6-year-old girl now goes to school for 8.4 years,
compared with 7.3 years in 1980; and
• since the 1950s the official female labor force rate has grown at
twice the rate of the male labor force, so that today 30 percent of
women over 15 years are in the formal labor force in developing
countries, albeit in relatively low-paying, low-quality, and low-
status occupations.

2 World Bank. 1995. Advancing Gender Equity: From Concept to Action. Washington, DC:
World Bank, pp. 5-6.
3 World Bank. 1995. Toward Gender Equality: The Role of Public Policy. Washington, DC:
World Bank, pp. 22-42.
4 Ibid., p. 2.

5
证明对国家整体发展努力和目标有害。

总的来说，包括扩大妇女经济机会和增加其收入的措施，或促
进妇女健康和教育改善的发展项目，会导致更高的经济效率和更低
的贫困水平。2减少性别不平等的公共政策对于抵消市场失灵和改善
社会所有成员的福祉至关重要。3在家庭私人领域和市场公共领域对
妇女的歧视不仅会给个人带来私人成本，还会给整个社会带来社会
和经济成本。 因此，促进、支持、加强和确保妇女参与发展并更公
平地分享发展成果符合国家利益。

毫无疑问，在减少性别差距方面，全世界取得了一些进展。 许
多发展中国家的妇女从获得更多教育、就业、安全饮用水、现代医
疗保健、更高生活水平和更大社会流动性中受益。 根据世界银行4(
WB)对所有发展中国家的数据

• 1990年，每100名男孩中就有86名女孩入学，而1960年则是每10
0名男孩中就有67名女孩入学；1990年，每100名男性中就有7
5名女性进入中学，而1960年则是每100名男性中就有53名女
性入学；
• 现在，平均6岁的女孩上学时间为8.4年，
而1980年为7.3年；
• 自 20 世纪 50 年代以来，官方女性劳动力参与率的增长速度是男
性劳动力参与率的两倍，因此，如今发展中国家 15 岁以上女
性中有 30% 参与了正规劳动力市场，尽管她们从事的是相对
低薪、低质量和低地位的工作。

2 世界银行。1995 年。促进性别平等：从理念到行动。 华盛顿特区：

世界银行，第 5-6 页。
3 世界银行。1995年。走向性别平等：公共政策的作用。 华盛顿特区：
世界银行，第22-42页。
4 同上，第2页。

5
 Table 1: Gender Disparities, 1993
Gross enrollment
Adult rate, all Earned
Life expectancy literacy educational income
at birth (years) rate (%) levels (%) share (%)
Region Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
Sub-Saharan Africa 52.5 49.3 45.4 64.7 37.2 45.9 35.6 64.4
East Asia and Pacifica 70.8 66.8 71.9 89.1 55.0 61.0 37.5 62.5
South Asia 60.5 60.1 35.0 61.7 43.2 59.6 23.9 76.1
Eastern Europe and CIS 74.2 64.2 98.7 98.9 76.5 72.4 40.2 59.8
Middle East and North Africa 64.1 61.5 40.4 65.6 51.0 63.4 20.0 80.0
Latin America and the Caribbean71.2 65.9 84.2 87.0 68.2 68.9 26.1 73.9
CIS=Commonwealth of Independent States
a Includes Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific.
b Excludes Iran, Israel, Syrian Republic, West Bank, and Gaza.
Source: UNDP (1996)

At the same time, in many parts of the world, especially in rural

areas, women still lack access to education, decent health care, safe
drinking water, family planning services, decision making in both the
household and the community, employment and income-generating
opportunities, information, and resources (Table 1). Women continue
to suffer from inferior legal, economic, and social status; poor health;
illiteracy; long hours of arduous work; and the burden of multiple roles.
According to the 1995 Human Development Report:5

• Of the world’s 900 million illiterate people, women outnumber

men two to one.
• Of the 1.3 billion people living in poverty, 70 percent are women.
• At least half a million women die each year from complications
due to pregnancy.
• Adult women suffer more than men from malnutrition. Iron
deficiency is suffered by 458 million women compared with
238 million men.

5 United Nations Development Programme. 1995. Human Development Report.

6
 表1：性别差距，1993年
入学总率
成人 率，所有 收入
预期寿命 识字率 教育 收入
出生时（年） 率（%） 水平（%） 份额（%）

地区 女性 男性 女性 男性 女性 男性 女性 男性
撒哈拉以南非洲 52.5 49.3 45.4 64.7 37.2 45.9 35.6 64.4
东亚和太平洋 a
70.8 66.8 71.9 89.1 55.0 61.0 37.5 62.5
南亚 60.5 60.1 35.0 61.7 43.2 59.6 23.9 76.1
东欧和独联体 74.2 64.2 98.7 98.9 76.5 72.4 40.2 59.8
中东和北非 64.1 61.5 40.4 65.6 51.0 63.4 20.0 80.0
拉丁美洲和加勒比海71.2 65.9 84.2 87.0 68.2 68.9 26.1 73.9

独联体=独立国家联合体
a 包括东南亚、东亚和太平洋地区。
b 不包括伊朗、以色列、叙利亚共和国、西岸和加沙。
资料来源：联合国开发计划署（1996年）

与此同时，在世界许多地方，特别是在农村地区，妇女仍然缺
乏受教育的机会、体面的医疗保健、安全饮用水、计划生育服务、
家庭和社区决策权、就业和创收机会、信息和资源（表1）。 妇女
继续遭受法律、经济和社会地位低下、健康状况不佳、文盲、长时
间繁重劳动以及承担多重角色的负担。

根据1995年人类发展报告：5

• 在世界上9亿文盲中，妇女是男性的两倍。

• 在13亿贫困人口中，70%是妇女。
• 每年至少有五十万妇女死于妊娠并发症。

• 成年妇女比男性更容易遭受营养不良。 有4.58亿妇女患有缺铁症
，而男性只有2.38亿。

5 联合国开发计划署。1995年。人类发展报告。

6
• While women represent 41 percent of all workers in developing
countries, women’s wages are 30–40 percent less than those of
men for comparable work.

In the region, rapid economic growth has generated correspond-

ing improvements in the condition of women. Progress toward gen-
der equity is clearly evident. Between 1970 and 1993, adult female
literacy rates rose from 17 to 35 percent in South Asia, and from 55 to
72 percent in Southeast Asia; female primary school enrollments rose
between 1960 and 19926 from 39 to 80 percent in South Asia; and
tertiary enrollment ratios in Southeast Asia and the Pacific quadrupled
from 4 to 16.1 percent between 1960 and 1991.7 Throughout the region,
between 1970 and 1995, women’s participation in the labor force
increased dramatically, especially in Bangladesh, Republic of Korea,
Nepal, Pakistan, and Singapore8 (Table 2).
In spite of these achievements, much remains to be done to reduce
the gender gap and achieve greater improvements in women’s social,
economic, and political status. In many parts of the Asian and Pacific
region, women are still isolated, unorganized, and constrained by
sociocultural and legal structures that restrict their access to resources
and their control over their own lives. Gender disparities continue to
persist, with some countries in the region having the worst health and
education indicators for women in the world.
In some of the Bank’s DMCs, deaths of women associated with
childbirth are among the highest in the world (e.g., Bangladesh, 850;
Cambodia, 900; Indonesia, 650; Nepal, 1,500; and Papua New Guinea,
930 per 100,000 live births) (Figure 1). The number of girls enrolled in
primary school relative to boys is lower, with boys spending more
years at school. Literacy rates for females remain as low as 14 percent
in some of the DMCs (Figure 2), with women’s literacy, relative to
men’s, being significantly lower in almost all of the DMCs (see
Appendix for selected gender statistics).
Contrary to demographic norms, more girls than boys die at a young
age in some of the Bank’s DMCs. Although women outlive men almost
everywhere, there are slightly fewer women than men in the world—
6 Asian Development Bank. 1997. Emerging Asia: Changes and Challenges. Manila. p. 279.
7 United Nations Development Programme. 1995. Human Development Report. p. 25.
8 Asian Development Bank. 1998. Asian Development Outlook. Manila. p. 185

7
• 虽然妇女占发展中国家所有劳动力的41%，但妇女的工资比男性
做相同工作要低30%到40%。

在该地区，快速的经济增长带来了妇女状况的相应改善。 朝着
性别平等的进步是显而易见的。 在1970年到1993年之间，南亚成
年女性识字率从17%上升到35%，东南亚从55%上升到72%；1960
年到1992年之间，南亚女性小学入学率从39%上升到80%；1960年
到1991年之间，东南亚和太平洋地区女性高等教育入学率从4%上
升到16.1%。7在整个地区，1970年到1995年之间，妇女的劳动力
参与率大幅增加，特别是在孟加拉国、韩国、尼泊尔、巴基斯坦和
新加坡8（表2）。

尽管取得了这些成就，但要缩小性别差距，在妇女的社会、经
济和政治地位方面取得更大的进步，还有很多工作要做。 在亚太地
区的许多地方，妇女仍然处于孤立、无组织的状态，受到社会文化
和法律结构的限制，限制了她们获得资源和控制自己生活的权利。
性别差距依然存在，该地区一些国家的妇女健康和教育指标在世界
上处于最差水平。

在世行的一些成员国中，与分娩相关的妇女死亡率位居世界前
列（例如，孟加拉国 850 人；柬埔寨 900 人；印度尼西亚 650 人；
尼泊尔 1500 人；巴布亚新几内亚 930 人，每 10 万活产婴儿）（图
1）。 女生小学入学率低于男生，男生在学校的学习时间更长。 在
一些 DMC 中，女性的识字率仍然低至 14%（图 2），在几乎所有 D
MC 中，女性的识字率都明显低于男性（见附录，了解选定的性别
统计数据）。

与人口统计规范相反，在世界银行的一些 DMC 中，女孩的死亡

率高于男孩。尽管女性在几乎所有地方都比男性寿命长，但世界上
女性的数量略少于男性——
6 亚洲开发银行。1997 年。新兴亚洲：变化与挑战。马尼拉。第 279 页。
7 联合国开发计划署。1995 年。人类发展报告。第 25 页。
8 亚洲开发银行。1998 年。亚洲发展展望。马尼拉。第 185 页

7
 Table 2: Women as Percentage of Total Labor Force,
Selected Asian Economies, 1970—1995
Subregion
and economy 1970 1980 1990 1995
East Asia 33.6 38.4 39.9 39.9
China, People’s Rep. of 41.7 44.0 45.7 46.0
Hong Kong, China 34.7 34.2 36.7 36.4
Korea, Rep. of
Singapore
Southeast Asia 39.1 40.6 42.0 42.7
Indonesia 30.2 35.8 39.5 40.6
Malaysia 31.0 33.7 35.7 36.8
Myanmar 44.4 43.7 44.1 44.7
Philippines 32.9 35.0 36.2 36.6
Thailand 48.2 47.4 46.7 47.0
Viet Nam 47.7 48.1 50.1 50.2
South Asia 21.6 33.3 34.6 35.8
Bangladesh 5.4 43.0 40.7 42.2
India 29.4 33.8 31.2 32.1
Nepal 39.3 39.4 40.3 40.5
Pakistan 9.0 23.4 26.1 28.5
Sri Lanka 25.0 27.0 34.6 35.7

Source: World Bank (1997b).

98.6 for every 100 men. Of the 21 countries with fewer than 95 women
per 100 men, all but two are in the Asian and Pacific region (Table 3).
There is some evidence from a few Asian countries that the sex ratio
deviates from the norm in favor of male children, reflecting strong
traditional preferences for sons and perhaps discrimination against
daughters at birth. India has had a ratio below the norm for more than
a decade, while People’s Republic of China (PRC), Republic of Korea,
and Pakistan show ratios falling rapidly since 1982 (Table 4). Female
infanticide, underreporting of female births, and sex-selective abor-
tion appear to be the major explanation for the imbalances reported in
the sex ratio at birth. International comparisons of female-male mor-
tality rates indicate that in some Asian countries, along with sub-Saharan
Africa, more than 100 million women are missing from official statistics.

8
 表 2：女性占总劳动力的百分比，
选定亚洲经济体，1970-1995 年
次区域
和经济体 1970 1980 1990 1995
东亚 33.6 38.4 39.9 39.9
中国 41.7 44.0 45.7 46.0
中国香港 34.7 34.2 36.7 36.4
韩国
新加坡
东南亚 39.1 40.6 42.0 42.7
印度尼西亚 30.2 35.8 39.5 40.6
马来西亚 31.0 33.7 35.7 36.8
缅甸 44.4 43.7 44.1 44.7
菲律宾 32.9 35.0 36.2 36.6
泰国 48.2 47.4 46.7 47.0
越南 47.7 48.1 50.1 50.2
南亚 21.6 33.3 34.6 35.8
孟加拉国 5.4 43.0 40.7 42.2
印度 29.4 33.8 31.2 32.1
尼泊尔 39.3 39.4 40.3 40.5
巴基斯坦 9.0 23.4 26.1 28.5
斯里兰卡 25.0 27.0 34.6 35.7

来源: 世界银行 (1997b).

每 100 个男性中就有 98.6 个女性。在女性人口少于每 100 个男性中 95 个的

21 个国家中，除了两个国家外，其余国家都在亚洲和太平洋地区（表 3）。
一些亚洲国家的一些证据表明，性别比例偏离正常值，有利于男性儿童，
反映了强烈的传统偏好儿子，也许是对女儿的出生歧视。 印度的比例在
十多年来一直低于正常水平，而中华人民共和国、大韩民国和巴基斯坦的
比例自 1982 年以来迅速下降（表 4）。 女婴杀害、女婴出生登记不足和
选择性堕胎似乎是出生时性别比例失衡的主要解释。 对女性死亡率与男
性死亡率的国际比较表明，在一些亚洲国家以及撒哈拉以南非洲，官方统
计数据中缺少超过 1 亿女性。

8
 Figure 1: Maternal Mortality Rate
(per 100,000 live births), 1990 a

B a n g la d e s h 850

B h utan 1 ,6 0 0

C a m b o d ia 900

C h in a , P e o p le 's R e p . o f 95

I n d ia 570

I n d o n e s ia 650

L ao P D R 650

M a la y s ia 80

M o n gb o lia 240

M y an m ar 580

N ep al 1 ,5 0 0

P a k is t a n 340

P a p u a N e w G u in e a 930

P h ilip p in e s 280

S r i L anka 140

T h a ila n d 200

V ie t N a m 160
r

a Source: UNDP. 1997. Human Development Report.

b Data refer to latest available years.

Increased participation of women in the labor force, while provid-

ing women with much-needed access to income, has in some instances
generated new concerns for working women. Issues such as poor work-
ing conditions, exposure to health risks, higher incidence of industrial
diseases, worker health and safety, and new forms and patterns of
exploitation such as sexual harassment in the workplace are receiving
attention. The increase in women’s labor force participation rates,
especially in Southeast Asia and parts of South Asia and the Pacific, is
due largely to the mobilization and integration of young women into
formal wage employment in the labor-intensive export-oriented manu-
facturing industries, particularly the electronics, garment, and footwear
industries. Admittedly, these industries have generated extensive
employment opportunities for women, with accompanying benefits.

9
 图1：孕产妇死亡率
（每10万活产），1990年 a

孟加拉国 850

不丹 1,600

柬埔寨 900

中国，中华人民共和国 95

印度 570

印度尼西亚 650

老挝人民民主共和国 650

马来西亚 80

蒙古 240

缅甸 580

尼泊尔 1,500

巴基斯坦 340

巴布亚新几内亚 930

菲律宾 280

斯里兰卡 140

泰国 200

越南 160
r

a 来源：联合国开发计划署。1997年。人类发展报告。
b 数据指的是最新的可用年份。

妇女劳动力参与率的提高，虽然为妇女提供了急需的收入来源
，但在某些情况下也引发了对女工的新担忧。 诸如工作条件差、暴
露于健康风险、工业病发病率高、工人健康和安全以及工作场所性
骚扰等新型和模式的剥削等问题正在引起关注。 女性劳动力参与率
的提高，特别是在东南亚以及南亚和太平洋的部分地区，主要是由
于年轻女性被动员并融入劳动密集型出口导向型制造业的正规工资
就业，特别是电子、服装和鞋类行业。 诚然，这些行业为女性创造
了广泛的就业机会，并带来了相应的益处。

9
 Figure 2: Adult Illiteracy Rate, 1995

Bangladesh 73.9
50.6
Bhutan 71.9
43.8
China, People's Rep. of 27.3
10.1
Fiji Islands 10.7
6.2
India 62.3
34.5
Indonesia 22.0
10.4
Lao PDR 55.6
30.6
Malaysia 21.9
10.9
Maldives 7.0
6.7
Mongolia 22.8
11.4
Myanmar 22.3
11.3
Nepal 86.0
59.1
Pakistan 75.6
50.0
Papua New Guinea 37.3
19.0
Philippines 5.7
5.0
Sri Lanka 12.8
6.6
Thailand 8.4
4.0
Viet Nam 8.8
3.5

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Male Female

Source: UNESCO, 1995. World Education Report

At the same time, many of these jobs have tended to be unreliable,

short term, in unskilled or semiskilled categories with little scope for
skills acquisition, with generally substandard working conditions and
low wages. In such instances, the positive benefits to women are neu-
tralized by the adverse impacts of poor working conditions, especially
in the area of worker health and safety. With increasing numbers of
women entering wage employment, women and labor issues are
emerging in the region as new areas of concern.
Along with the traditional challenges of achieving greater improve-
ments in women’s health, education, access to financial services, and
income-generating opportunities, there are new challenges emerging

10
 图 2：成人文盲率，1995 年

孟加拉国 50.6
73.9

不丹 43.8
71.9

中国 10.1
27.3

斐济群岛 6.2
10.7

印度 34.5
62.3

印度尼西亚 22.0
10.4
老挝人民民主共和国
55.6
30.6
马来西亚 21.9
10.9
马尔代夫 7.0
6.7
蒙古 11.4
22.8

缅甸 11.3
22.3

尼泊尔 59.1
86.0

巴基斯坦 50.0
75.6

巴布亚新几内亚 19.0
37.3

菲律宾 5.7
5.0
斯里兰卡 6.6
12.8

泰国 4.0
8.4

越南 8.8
3.5

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

男性女性

来源: 联合国教科文组织，1995 年。世界教育报告

与此同时，许多这类工作往往不稳定，短期，属于非熟练或半熟练
类别，技能获取空间有限，工作条件普遍低于标准，工资低。 在这
种情况下，女性的积极益处被恶劣的工作条件的负面影响所抵消，
特别是在工人的健康和安全方面。 随着越来越多的女性进入有偿就
业，妇女和劳工问题正在该地区成为新的关注领域。

除了在妇女健康、教育、获得金融服务和创收机会方面取得更
大进步的传统挑战外，还出现了新的挑战

10
 Table 3: Asian and Pacific Countries with Fewer than
95 Women per 100 Men, 1970 and 1995
Women per 100 men
Country 1970 1995
Hong Kong, China 97 94
Bangladesh 93 94
India 93 94
Maldives 89 92
Pakistan 93 92
Cook Islands 95 92
Papua New Guinea 92 93
Samoa 93 89
Solomon Islands 89 94
Vanuatu 89 92
Source: United Nations, 1995. The World’s Women 1995: Trends and Statistics.

Table 4: Girls Born per 100 Boys, Selected

Asian Countries, 1982 and 1988/1989

Country 1982 1988/1989

China, People’s Rep. of 93 88
India 92 91
Korea, Rep. of 94 88
Pakistan 98 a 92
a Data refer to 1979.
Source: United Nations, 1995. The World’s Women 1995: Trends and Sta-
tistics.

in the region that need to be addressed. The challenges of dealing

with the increasing feminization of poverty, increasing spread of human
immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/
AIDS) among women, the trafficking in women and girls, migrant
women workers, violence against women, and female infanticide were
brought to the forefront by the women of the region at both the Jakarta
Regional Meeting (1994) and the Beijing World Conference on Women
(1995). Many of these new challenges and emerging areas of concern
are conspicuously manifested in the region.

11
 表 3：1970 年和 1995 年每 100 个男性中女性少
于 95 个的亚洲和太平洋国家
妇女 每 100 个男性
国家 1970 1995
中国香港 97 94
孟加拉国 93 94
印度 93 94
马尔代夫 89 92
巴基斯坦 93 92
库克群岛 95 92
巴布亚新几内亚 92 93
萨摩亚 93 89
所罗门群岛 89 94
瓦努阿图 89 92
来源: 联合国，1995 年。世界妇女 1995：趋势与统计。

表 4：每 100 个男孩出生的女孩数，选定

亚洲国家，1982 年和 1988/1989 年

国家 1982 1988/1989
中国 93 88
印度 92 91
韩国 94 88
巴基斯坦 98 a 92
a 数据指 1979 年。
来源：联合国，1995年。世界妇女1995：趋势与统计。

该地区需要解决的问题。 该地区妇女在 1994 年雅加达区域会议和

1995 年北京世界妇女大会上，将应对贫困女性化加剧、艾滋病毒/
艾滋病在女性中传播加剧、妇女和女孩贩运、女性移民工人、暴力
侵害妇女和杀害女婴等挑战提到了首位。 许多这些新的挑战和新出
现的关注领域在该地区显而易见。

11
• Feminization of poverty is a serious concern in Asia, where two
thirds of the world’s poor reside, of whom two thirds are women.
In poor households, women are more disadvantaged than men
in terms of their workloads and access to resources and
remunerative activity. Households headed by women are
particularly vulnerable. Disproportionate numbers of women
among the poor pose serious constraints to human development
because children raised in poor households are more likely to
repeat cycles of poverty and disadvantage.
• The phenomenon of migrant women workers, who are
recognized as a vulnerable group in the Beijing Platform for Action,
is increasing in the Asian and Pacific region. Migrant women
workers contribute substantially to the national economies of
several DMCs and are the mainstay of the remittance economy
relied upon by many poor urban and rural families. In spite of
the valued contribution of migrant women workers not only to
their families but also to the economy, there is an absence of
protective legislation and regulatory mechanisms to prevent their
exploitation and ensure their protection.
• Disproportionate burdens of structural adjustment and economic
transition are borne by women. For example, in the Central Asian
DMCs, the social and economic advancement of women fostered
by public policies and expenditure in the past is being slowed or
reversed as a result of restructuring. Likewise, some of the austerity
measures being pursued by many of the DMCs under adjustment
programs impact more negatively on women than men.
• Asia has the second highest prevalence of HIV infection among
women. On a world scale, South Asia is the highest after sub-
Saharan Africa in the degree of prevalence of HIV infection among
women. In Asia, almost half of all adults newly infected with the
virus are women compared with less than 25 percent just six years
ago. In the year to mid-1994, Asia’s share of global AIDS cases
rose eightfold. Using Cambodia as an example, a 1994 World
Health Organization (WHO) study indicated that nearly 40 percent
of sex workers surveyed in Sihanoukville were infected with HIV.
There were concerns that the virus had already gone beyond this
risk group into the general population. The nexus between the
spread of HIV, and the low status and powerlessness of women,

12
• 贫困女性化是亚洲的一个严重问题，世界上三分之二的贫困人口
居住在亚洲，其中三分之二为女性。
在贫困家庭中，妇女在工作量、获得资源和有偿活动方面比男
性更不利。 由妇女户主领导的家庭特别脆弱。 贫困人口中女
性比例过高对人类发展构成严重制约，因为在贫困家庭中长大
的儿童更有可能重复贫困和不利循环。

• 亚洲和太平洋地区，被《北京行动纲要》认定为弱势群体的女性
移徙工人的现象正在增加。 女性移徙工人对几个发展中国家的
国民经济做出了重大贡献，是许多贫困城市和农村家庭所依赖
的汇款经济的支柱。 尽管移民妇女工人的贡献不仅对她们的家
庭而且对经济都很有价值，但缺乏保护性立法和监管机制来防
止她们的剥削并确保她们的保护。

• 结构调整和经济转型带来的不成比例的负担由妇女承担。 例如，
在中亚发展中国家，过去公共政策和支出促进的妇女社会和经
济进步正在由于重组而放缓或逆转。 同样，许多发展中国家在
调整计划下实施的一些紧缩措施对妇女的影响比对男性的影响
更大。

• 亚洲是女性艾滋病毒感染率第二高的地区。 在全球范围内，南亚
在女性艾滋病毒感染率方面仅次于撒哈拉以南非洲。 在亚洲，
几乎一半新感染病毒的成年人是女性，而仅仅六年前这一比例
还不到 25%。从 1994 年年中到当年年底，亚洲在全球艾滋病
病例中的比例增长了八倍。 以柬埔寨为例，1994年世界卫生
组织（WHO）的一项研究表明，在西哈努克城接受调查的性
工作者中，近40%感染了艾滋病毒。人们担心这种病毒已经从
这个高危人群传播到普通人群中。 艾滋病毒传播与妇女地位低
下和无权之间的联系，

12
 is seen as one of the major contributors to the spread of HIV/
AIDS among women in the region.
• Gender-selective abortion, female infanticide, trafficking in
women, abuse, and malnutrition among girls seriously
compromise the rights of the girl child in some of the Bank’s DMCs.
• Violence (homicides, domestic violence, rape) against women,
although widespread in all cultures, ages, and income groups,
has ill effects particularly on the well-being and productivity of
women in some of the DMCs of the Bank.

The new and emerging areas of concern for women described and
internationally endorsed in the Beijing Platform for Action are
acknowledged as important development issues. Aside from questions
of equity and rights, these problems are recognized as infringing on
women’s ability to participate and contribute to development; as a drain
on community and societal resources; as entailing economic costs to
the country; and as posing serious obstacles to human resource devel-
opment, economic efficiency, and growth. Many studies also indicate
that development programs with insufficient gender sensitivity can
actually increase the magnitude of some of these problems.
For example, attention is now focused on the social, political, and
economic costs of all forms of violence against women. Female-focused
violence interferes with and reduces women’s capacity to participate
fully and equally in the country’s development. It is not only an issue
of fundamental justice, equality, and human rights, but also an impor-
tant public health and development issue for communities and gov-
ernments. The relationship between female-focused violence and
maternal mortality, health care utilization, child survival, AIDS preven-
tion, costs to the judiciary and law enforcement agencies, other
economic costs, and socioeconomic development are receiving increas-
ing attention. A recent WB study on Violence Against Women strongly
argues that female-focused violence represents a hidden obstacle to
economic and social development, and makes a case for interventions
in primary prevention, reform of the justice system, and health care
response.9
9 World Bank. 1994. Violence Against Women –The Hidden Health Burden. Washington, DC:
World Bank.

13
 被认为是该地区妇女艾滋病毒/艾滋病传播的主要原因之一。

• 性别选择性堕胎、杀婴、贩卖妇女、虐待和女孩营养不良严重损
害了世行部分成员国女孩的权利。

• 针对妇女的暴力行为（凶杀、家庭暴力、强奸），虽然在所有文
化、年龄和收入群体中普遍存在，但对世行部分成员国妇女的
福祉和生产力产生了不良影响。

北京行动纲要中描述和国际认可的妇女关注的新兴领域被认为
是重要的发展问题。 除了公平与权利问题外，这些问题被认为侵犯
了妇女参与和促进发展的权利；是社区和社会资源的消耗；给国家
带来经济成本；并对人力资源开发、经济效率和增长构成严重障碍
。 许多研究也表明，缺乏性别敏感度的发展项目实际上会加剧其中
一些问题的严重程度。

例如，现在人们关注的是针对妇女的各种形式的暴力的社会、
政治和经济成本。 针对妇女的暴力行为会干扰和降低妇女充分平等
地参与国家发展的能力。 这不仅是基本正义、平等和人权问题，也
是社区和政府重要的公共卫生和发展问题。 女性暴力与孕产妇死亡
率、医疗保健利用率、儿童生存率、艾滋病预防、司法和执法机构
的成本、其他经济成本以及社会经济发展之间的关系越来越受到关
注。 世界银行最近关于针对妇女的暴力的研究强烈认为，针对妇女
的暴力是经济和社会发展中一个隐藏的障碍，并为初级预防、司法
制度改革和医疗保健应对措施的干预提供了理由。9

9 世界银行。1994年。针对妇女的暴力——隐藏的健康负担。 华盛顿特区：
世界银行。

13
 Even domestic violence is now seen as entailing not only private
costs to the individual but also wider social and economic costs. At the
Beijing World Conference on Women, domestic violence was endorsed
as a public issue and taken out of being relegated solely to the private
realm of the household. Domestic violence constrains human devel-
opment, economic growth, and productivity; operates as a drain on
financial resources; and undermines the viability of the family/house-
hold as a key unit of production. For both urban and rural women,
domestic violence can mean loss of work days and consequent loss of
income, and reduction in their efficiency and level of productivity. The
costs to the country’s health care and legal systems, loss in production,
and emotional stress and other social costs all have a direct impact on
economic growth. If the level of violence against women could be
sharply reduced, the social and economic advantages to the country
would be significant.
Women in the region are pointing to these emerging and growing
problems, previously ignored as development issues. These are the
new challenges for the development of the region, alongside the tradi-
tional challenges in agriculture, health, education, and employment.

T-NA

14
 即使是家庭暴力现在也被认为不仅对个人造成私人成本，而且
还会造成更广泛的社会和经济成本。 在北京世界妇女大会上，家庭
暴力被认可为一个公共问题，不再仅仅局限于家庭的私人领域。 家
庭暴力限制了人类发展、经济增长和生产力；消耗了财政资源；并
破坏了家庭/家庭作为生产关键单元的可行性。 对于城市和农村妇
女来说，家庭暴力可能意味着工作日损失，从而导致收入损失，以
及效率和生产力水平下降。 对国家医疗保健和法律体系的成本、生
产力损失、情绪压力和其他社会成本都会对经济增长产生直接影响
。 如果能够大幅减少对妇女的暴力行为，国家将获得重大的社会和
经济优势。

该地区的妇女正在指出这些新出现和不断增长的问题，这些问
题以前被忽视为发展问题。 这些是该地区发展面临的新挑战，与农
业、卫生、教育和就业方面的传统挑战并存。

T-NA
Overview of Bank policy
and operations on WID
(1985–1996)

T
he Bank’s Policy on the Role of Women in Development was
adopted in 1985. It provided the following directives:
(i) promote the role of women by providing financing for those
projects that will directly benefit women or facilitate their partici-
pation in development;
(ii) support projects in social infrastructure that provide direct benefits
for women, and in sectors that create income-generating and
employment opportunities for women;
(iii) take account of the role of women and the effects projects may
have on them at every stage of the project cycle, particularly project
identification, preparation, appraisal, implementation, and
postevaluation;
(iv) undertake efforts to promote increased WID awareness among
staff, and develop suitable approaches and staff instruction to assist
them; and
(v) seek to build a socioeconomic database on WID and consider
sponsoring or cosponsoring workshops, seminars, and training
courses on promoting the role of WID.10

10 R56-85: “Role of Women in Development,” 16 July.

15
世界银行关于妇女发
展（WID）政策和业
务概述（1985-199

T
世界银行关于妇女在发展中的作用的政策于 1985 年通过。 它
提供了以下指示：（i）通过为直接惠及妇女或促
进其参与发展的项目提供资金来促进妇女的作用；

(ii) 支持社会基础设施项目，这些项目为妇女提供直接利益，并在
为妇女创造创收和就业机会的部门提供支持；

(iii) 在项目周期的各个阶段，特别是项目识别、准备、评估、实施
和事后评估阶段，考虑妇女的作用以及项目可能对她们产生的
影响；

(iv) 努力提高工作人员对 WID 的认识，并制定适当的方法和工作人

员指导，以帮助他们；以及

(v) 寻求建立关于 WID 的社会经济数据库，并考虑赞助或共同赞助

关于促进 WID 作用的研讨会、研习班和培训课程。10

10 R56-85：“妇女在发展中的作用”，7 月 16 日。

15
 Initially, the Bank’s WID approach, like that of other aid agencies,
was to implement a range of activities within its regular operational
program that emphasized women as a special target group. Emphasis
was placed on the provision of financing for projects in areas such as
social infrastructure that directly benefit women, as well as in agricul-
ture, rural development, and small-scale industries that create income-
earning and employment opportunities for women.
In 1992, the Bank’s policy on WID was reinforced and given added
momentum by being included in the Bank’s Medium-Term Strategic
Framework as one of the Bank’s five strategic development objectives
(SDOs), alongside overall economic growth, poverty reduction, human
development including population planning, and sound management
of natural resources and the environment. This elevated women to the
mainstream of the Bank’s strategic development agenda. The intro-
duction of the strategic framework was followed in 1993 by the Bank’s
adoption of a commitment to achieving a portfolio mix of approxi-
mately 50:50 between the number of traditional growth projects and
those addressing social and environmental concerns.
Since 1992, increased efforts have been directed to operationalizing
the new emphasis on women in the Bank’s mainstream development
agenda. To implement the SDO of improving the status of women,
there was some refocusing of direction and a shift in emphasis from
addressing women only in projects in the social sectors to considering
gender implications in all aspects of Bank operations. In other words,
a mainstreaming approach was developed and largely adopted. This
meant systematically addressing gender considerations in the Bank’s
macroeconomic work, such as country operational strategy studies
(COSSs), country assistance plans (CAPs), and related analytical work
in economic and sector studies; promotion of gender analysis in all
projects; facilitating gender considerations to be addressed at all stages
of the project cycle; and careful screening of Bank activities to ensure
that sufficient attention is given to gender issues.
The revised Operations Manual (OM) issued in January 1997
includes a revised section on WID 11 that provides more detailed

11 Following the adoption of the Policy on Gender and Development, the title of the relevant
section will be revised accordingly and changed to GAD.

16
 最初，世界银行的 WID 方法，与其他援助机构一样，是在其常
规业务计划中实施一系列活动，这些活动强调妇女是一个特殊的目
标群体。 重点放在为社会基础设施等领域的项目提供资金，这些项
目直接惠及妇女，以及在农业、农村发展和小型工业等为妇女创造
创收和就业机会的领域提供资金。

1992年，世行将WID政策纳入其中期战略框架，作为世行的五
个战略发展目标（SDO）之一，与总体经济增长、减贫、人口规划
的人力发展以及自然资源和环境的良好管理并列，从而加强了该政
策并赋予其更大的动力。 这将妇女提升到世行战略发展议程的主流
。 战略框架的引入之后，世行于1993年承诺实现投资组合组合，在
传统增长项目和解决社会和环境问题的项目之间，数量大致为50:50
。

自1992年以来，世行在将妇女纳入其主流发展议程方面，加大
了努力。 为了实现改善妇女地位的SDO，世行对方向进行了重新调
整，并将重点从仅在社会部门项目中解决妇女问题转变为考虑所有
世行业务中的性别影响。 换句话说，一种主流化方法被开发出来并
被广泛采用。 这意味着在银行的宏观经济工作中系统地解决性别问
题，例如国家业务战略研究（COSSs）、国家援助计划（CAPs）以
及相关的经济和部门研究分析工作；在所有项目中推广性别分析；
促进在项目周期的所有阶段解决性别问题；并仔细筛选银行活动，
以确保对性别问题给予足够的关注。

1997年1月发布的修订后的业务手册（OM）包括一个关于WID
的修订部分 11，提供了更详细的

11 在采用性别与发展政策后，相关部分的标题将相应修订并更改为GAD。

16
operational procedures to guide Bank staff in addressing gender issues
in the Bank’s operations. It reflects the mainstreaming approach that is
currently promoted and increasingly being adopted. A related section
was added to the Guidelines on Operational Procedures.
Bankwide training on WID has been conducted regularly on an
annual basis since 1989 to introduce, familiarize, and sensitize Bank
staff to WID issues, and to impart knowledge and practical skills such
as the conduct of gender analysis. More recently, WID training was
also introduced into the Bank’s Operations Induction Program for New
Staff (since 1995), project implementation seminars for executing agen-
cies (since 1994), and the secondment scheme (since 1994). Specifi-
cally tailored, client-oriented, and sector-specific training on GAD is
currently being developed and scheduled for trial in two sectors toward
the latter part of 1999.

Gender considerations in the Bank’s

macroeconomic work
The inclusion of gender considerations in the Bank’s macroeconomic
work is seen as the key to ensuring that gender issues are systemati-
cally addressed in all Bank operations, as it is the country operational
strategy that sets the stage for future Bank activities in a DMC. Hence,
a women in development country briefing paper (WID CBP)12 is now
prepared concurrently with the COSS to ensure mainstreaming of gen-
der considerations. In addition, the COSS now includes, as an appendix,
a separate strategy for women that clearly identifies and elaborates
how the Bank intends to operationalize the SDO of improving the sta-
tus of women in the individual DMC. The WID CBP also serves as a
background document for guiding Bank operations in the DMC dur-
ing the strategy period. Since 1993, all county operational strategies
have overtly integrated gender considerations.
To facilitate greater attention to social and gender issues in the
Bank’s macroeconomic work, especially the COSSs, and programming
work, as part of its 1995 reorganization, the Bank created six econo-
mist (social sector) positions in the Programs Departments.

12 Following the adoption of the policy on GAD, the WID country briefing paper will be referred
to as the CBP on Women.

17
操作程序，以指导银行工作人员在银行的运营中解决性别问题。 它
反映了目前正在推广并日益被采用的主流化方法。 在操作程序指南
中添加了一个相关部分。自1989年以来，银行每年定期进行关于WI
D的银行范围内的培训，以向银行工作人员介绍、熟悉
和使他们对WID问题敏感，并传授知识和实践技能，例如进行性
别分析。 最近，WID 培训也被引入到世界银行的新员工运营入职培
训项目（自 1995 年起）、执行机构项目实施研讨会（自 1994 年起
）和借调计划（自 1994 年起）。 目前正在开发针对特定客户、面
向客户和针对特定部门的 GAD 培训，并计划于 1999 年下半年在两
个部门进行试点。

世界银行宏观经济工作中的性别因素
将性别因素纳入世界银行的宏观经济工作被视为确保在所有世界银
行业务中系统地解决性别问题的关键，因为它是国家业务战略，为
世界银行在 DMC 的未来活动奠定了基础。因此，现在与 COSS 同
时编制了妇女发展国别简报文件 (WID CBP)12，以确保将性别因素纳
入主流。 此外，COSS 现在还包括一个单独的妇女战略作为附录，
该战略明确识别和阐述了世界银行打算如何将改善 DMC 中妇女地
位的 SDO 具体化。WID CBP 也是指导世界银行在战略期间在 DMC
开展业务的背景文件。 自1993年以来，所有县级行动战略都公开地
将性别因素纳入其中。

为了在世界银行的宏观经济工作（特别是COSS）和项目工作中
更加关注社会和性别问题，作为其1995年重组的一部分，世界银行
在项目部设立了六个经济学家（社会部门）职位。

12 在通过了关于性别与发展政策后，关于妇女的WID国家简报将被称为关于妇女的CBP。

17
Gender considerations in project work
Technical assistance for WID
The Bank’s policy on WID and the related OM section require gender
issues to be addressed in all Bank operations. In keeping with the
Bank’s goal for a 50:50 mix between traditional growth projects and
those addressing social and environmental concerns, a number of Bank
projects have placed primary emphasis on improving the status of
women. Between 1992 and 1996, the Bank approved 22 advisory tech-
nical assistance (ADTA) grants and 10 RETA grants focused exclusively
on women, and 33 project preparatory technical assistance (PPTA)
grants for projects that substantially addressed women’s concerns.
During the last three years, greater efforts have been made to
address the concerns of women, with virtually all PPTAs in the agri-
culture, forestry, fisheries, health, education, and microcredit sectors
conducting gender analysis and integrating gender concerns. Many
other ADTAs, PPTAs, and RETAs have addressed the concerns and
needs of women by utilizing a mainstreaming approach.
Since 1992, a number of TAs have been directed toward policy
development, databases, institution building, credit, health, and edu-
cation to address the specific needs of women.13 For example, a TA
grant to Cambodia (Box 1) assisted the Government to develop a
national policy on women and to establish a Ministry of Women’s
Affairs. Similar capacity-building TA grants to Indonesia, Marshall
Islands, and Papua New Guinea provided assistance with institution
building of the national machineries for women’s affairs.14 Aside from
capacity-building assistance, the Bank has provided TAs to Fiji, Pakistan,
and Philippines to develop and strengthen databases to enable the

13 For example, TA No. 5670: Low-Income Women Entrepreneurs in Asia, for $600,000, approved
on 18 January 1996; TA No. 2157-CAM: Women in Development, for $545,600, approved on
20 September 1996; TA No. 2577-PAK: Women’s Health Care, for $500,000, approved on
4 June 1996; and TA No. 2557- LAO: Women’s Education, for $380,000, approved on 23 April
1996.
14 TA No. 2038-INO: Institutional Strengthening of the State Ministry for the Role of Women,
for $600,000, approved on 23 December 1993; TA No. 1983-RMI: Institutional Strengthen-
ing of Women’s Affairs of the Ministry of Social Services, for $250,000, approved on
16 November 1993; and TA No. 1798-PNG: Institutional Strengthening of the Women’s
Division of the Department of Home Affairs and Youth, for $575,000, approved on
8 December 1992.

18
项目工作中的性别因素
妇女与发展技术援助
世界银行关于妇女与发展的政策以及相关的OM部分要求在所有世
界银行业务中解决性别问题。 为了实现世界银行在传统增长项目和
解决社会和环境问题项目之间实现50:50的混合目标，世界银行的一
些项目将重点放在改善妇女地位上。 在1992年至1996年期间，世
界银行批准了22项专门针对妇女的咨询技术援助（ADTA）赠款和1
0项RETA赠款，以及33项针对主要解决妇女问题的项目的项目准备
技术援助（PPTA）赠款。

在过去三年中，为解决妇女的关切问题做出了更大的努力，几
乎所有农业、林业、渔业、卫生、教育和微额信贷部门的项目文件
都进行了性别分析，并纳入了性别问题。 许多其他技术援助项目、
项目文件和区域技术援助项目通过采用主流化方法来解决妇女的关
切和需求。

自1992年以来，一些技术援助项目一直针对政策制定、数据库
、机构建设、信贷、卫生和教育，以解决妇女的具体需求。13例如
，一项对柬埔寨的技术援助赠款（方框 1）帮助政府制定了关于妇
女的国家政策，并建立了妇女事务部。类似的针对印度尼西亚、马
绍尔群岛和巴布亚新几内亚的机构建设技术援助赠款为妇女事务国
家机构的建设提供了帮助。14 除了能力建设援助外，世界银行还向
斐济、巴基斯坦和菲律宾提供了技术援助，以开发和加强数据库，
使

13 例如，技术援助项目第 5670 号：亚洲低收入女性企业家，金额为 600,000 美元，于 1996 年

1 月 18 日获批；技术援助项目第 2157-CAM 号：妇女发展，金额为 545,600 美元，于 199
6 年 9 月 20 日获批；技术援助项目第 2577-PAK 号：妇女保健，金额为 500,000 美元，于
1996 年 6 月 4 日获批；以及技术援助项目第 2557-LAO 号：妇女教育，金额为 380,000 美元，于 4 月 23 日获批。
1996.
14 技术援助项目第 2038-INO 号：加强妇女作用国家部委机构建设，金额为 600,000 美元，
于 1993 年 12 月 23 日获批；技术援助项目第 1983-RMI 号：加强社会服务部妇女事务机
构建设，金额为 250,000 美元，于 1993 年 11 月 16 日获批；以及技术援助项目第 1798-
PNG 号：加强内政和青年事务部妇女司机构建设，金额为 575,000 美元，于 1992 年 12
月 8 日获批。

18
 Box 1: Cambodia: Women in Development
(1994)

N ewly formed women agencies face the difficulty of not only influ-
encing national strategic planning processes, but also of developing
a specific national policy on women. Cambodia faced this challenge in
1993 when it established its Secretary of State for Women’s Affairs
(SWA). Bank TA was provided to help SWA’s capacity to manage this
change.
Under the Women in Development Project, Cambodia was provid-
ed TA to help SWA develop, through participatory national workshops,
a National Policy on Women, which was subsequently adopted by the
Cabinet. Following this, SWA was upgraded to Ministry status. Under
the TA, SWA’s functions and roles were redefined to become consis-
tent with its new status as a Ministry, and to enable it to implement
the national policy, especially aspects relating to the mainstreaming of
gender considerations into all sectoral policies and programs. Training
was provided to SWA staff to perform their modified roles and func-
tions. The Project resulted in enabling the women in Cambodia to have
a voice and a greater role in their country’s development.

collection and collation of gender-disaggregated data.15 Accurate data

on women are necessary for the formulation and development of poli-
cies and programs on women. In the case of the Philippines, the Bank’s
TA to the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women resulted
in a series of gender-disaggregated data publications.16
Likewise, the Bank’s RETA facility has been utilized to conduct
studies and develop regional and national strategies to address the
concerns and needs of women. For example, a RETA17 cofinanced with
the Economic and Social Commission on Asia and the Pacific assisted
the region in preparing for the UN Fourth World Conference on Women
held in Beijing in 1995 through financing the Regional Meeting of NGOs
and the Regional Meeting of Ministers and Senior Government Offi-
cials. A regional strategy and overview papers on issues of concern to
women of the region were also prepared under the RETA. The Bank is
15 TA No. 1964-FIJ: Socioeconomic Database on Women, for $100,000, approved on 14 Octo-
ber 1993; TA No. 2514-PAK: Development of a Gender-Disaggregated Database, for $200,000,
approved on 27 December 1995; and TA No. 1823-PHI: Development of a Gender-
Disaggregated Database System, for $220,000, approved on 24 December 1992.
16 Filipino Women: Issues and Trends; Filipino Women: Facts and Figures; Trends in Women’s
Employment in the Regions, 1991-1994; Filipino Women Migrants: A Statistical Fact Book.
17 TA No. 5564-REG: Regional Initiatives in Social Development and Women in Development,
for $310,000 approved on 22 December 1993.

19
 方框 1：柬埔寨：妇女发展
(1994)

新 成立的妇女机构面临着不仅要影响国家战略规划过程，
还要制定具体国家妇女政策的困难。 柬埔寨在 1993 年
成立妇女事务国务秘书处 (SWA) 时就面临着这一挑战。 世界
银行提供了技术援助，以帮助 SWA 提高管理这一变化的能力
。

在妇女发展项目下，柬埔寨获得了技术援助，以帮助 SWA
通过参与式全国研讨会制定国家妇女政策，该政策随后被内阁
通过。在此之后，SWA 被提升为部级机构。 在技术援助下，
SWA 的职能和作用被重新定义，使其与作为部级机构的新地
位相一致，并使其能够实施国家政策，特别是将性别因素纳入
所有部门政策和计划的主流化方面。 对 SWA 工作人员进行了
培训，以使其能够履行其修改后的角色和职能。 该项目使柬埔
寨妇女能够在她们国家的发展中发挥作用，并拥有更大的发言
权。

性别分类数据的收集和整理。15关于妇女的准确数据对于制定和发
展妇女政策和方案是必要的。 以菲律宾为例，世行对菲律宾妇女作
用国家委员会的技术援助导致了一系列性别分类数据出版物。16 同样
，世行的区域技术援助设施已被用于开展研究并制定区域和国家战略，以解决妇女的关切和需求。 例如，一项由经

帮助该地区为1995
济及社会事务部和亚太经社会共同资助的区域技术援助17

年在北京举行的联合国第四次妇女问题世界会议做准备，方法
是为非政府组织区域会议和部长级高级政府官员区域会议提供资金
。 该区域技术援助还编制了关于该地区妇女关切问题的区域战略和
概览文件。世行正在

15 TA 编号 1964-FIJ：妇女社会经济数据库，100,000 美元，1993 年 10 月 14 日批准；TA 编

号 2514-PAK：性别分解数据库的开发，200,000 美元，1995 年 12 月 27 日批准；以及
TA 编号 1823-PHI：性别分解数据库系统的开发，220,000 美元，1992 年 12 月 24 日批
准。
16 菲律宾妇女：问题与趋势；菲律宾妇女：事实与数据；1991-1994 年各地区妇女就业趋势
；菲律宾妇女移民：统计概况。17 TA 编号 5564-REG：区域社会发展和妇女发展倡议，
310,000 美元，1993 年 12 月 22 日批准。

19
implementing a RETA18 to assess the sociolegal status of women in
selected DMCs with a view to developing legal frameworks and strat-
egies, promoting legal reform, and building legal institutional capacity
to address gender issues. Another RETA19 currently under implemen-
tation is helping to build the capacity and expand the outreach of
women’s NGOs delivering financial services, including microcredit, to
low-income women entrepreneurs.

Loan projects with specific WID objectives

Similarly, a number of loan projects since 1992 have included the
improvement of women’s health, education, and economic status as
their principal objectives20 (Boxes 2, 3, 4, and 5). For example, the
Microcredit for Women Project in Nepal will provide women with access
to microcredit to enhance their economic status, while the Urban
Primary Health Care Project in Bangladesh is directed primarily towards
improvement in women’s health. The latter project also addresses the
issue of violence against women through the inclusion of a compo-
nent on public awareness campaigns against violence, and health and
referral services for women victims. The Pakistan Social Action Pro-
gram is directly supporting the Government’s efforts to tackle the low

Box 2: Bangladesh: Rural Poor Cooperative (1992)

T he overall objective of the Project is to support the Government’s poverty

reduction efforts through creation of sustainable nonfarm employment to
increase incomes of the rural poor. The Project focuses on development of
cooperatives for the landless poor to meet local savings and credit needs, and
on strengthening of support services for the cooperatives. Under the Project,
8,247 primary cooperatives with 195,884 members have been formed, with
women constituting 74 percent of the total membership and the majority of
borrowers. Repayment rates stand at approximately 90 percent, reflecting wom-
en as excellent credit risks. The Project has had a significant development impact
on women and has contributed to improvement of the standard of living of over
one million poor persons.

18 TA No. 5700-REG: Sociolegal Status of Women in Selected DMCs, for $450,000, approved on
30 August 1996.
19 TA No. 5670-REG: Low-Income Women Entrepreneurs in Asia, for $600,000, approved on
18 January 1996.
20 For example, Loan No. 1237-NEP: Microcredit for Women, for $5 million, approved on
24 June 1993; Loan No. 1301-PAK: Social Action Program, for $100 million, approved on
23 June 1994; Loan No. 1331-PHI: Women’s Health and Safe Motherhood, for $54 million,
approved on 10 November 1994; and Loan No. 1583-BAN: Urban Primary Health Care, for
$40 million, approved 16 September 1997.

20
实施一项 RETA18 以评估选定 DMC 中妇女的社会法律地位，旨在制
定法律框架和战略，促进法律改革，并建立法律机构能力以解决性
别问题。 另一项正在实施的 RETA19 正在帮助建立妇女非政府组织
的能力，并扩大其覆盖范围，为低收入女性企业家提供包括小额信
贷在内的金融服务。

具有特定 WID 目标的贷款项目

同样，自 1992 年以来，许多贷款项目已将改善妇女的健康、教育
和经济状况作为其主要目标20（方框 2、3、4 和 5）。 例如，尼泊
尔的妇女小额信贷项目将为妇女提供小额信贷，以提高她们的经济
状况，而孟加拉国的城市初级保健项目主要针对改善妇女的健康状
况。 后一个项目还通过纳入关于反对暴力的公众意识宣传活动以及
针对女性受害者的健康和转介服务，解决了针对妇女的暴力问题。
巴基斯坦社会行动计划直接支持政府努力解决低

方框 2：孟加拉国：农村贫困合作社（1992 年）

该 项目的总体目标是通过创造可持续的非农就业来支持政府的减贫
工作，以增加农村贫困人口的收入。 该项目侧重于为无地贫困
人口发展合作社，以满足当地储蓄和信贷需求，并加强对合作社的支持
服务。 在该项目下，已成立了 8,247 个初级合作社，拥有 195,884 名
成员，其中女性占总成员人数的 74%，并且是大多数借款人。 偿还率
约为 90%，反映出女性是优秀的信贷风险。 该项目对妇女产生了重大
的发展影响，并为改善一百多万贫困人口的生活水平做出了贡献。

18 TA No. 5700-REG: 选定 DMC 中妇女的社会法律地位，450,000 美元，批准于

1996 年 8 月 30 日。
19 TA No. 5670-REG: 亚洲低收入女性企业家，600,000 美元，批准于
1996 年 1 月 18 日。
20 例如，贷款编号 1237-NEP: 妇女微贷，500 万美元，批准于
1993 年 6 月 24 日；贷款编号 1301-PAK:社会行动计划，1 亿美元，批准于
1994 年 6 月 23 日；贷款编号 1331-PHI:妇女健康和安全分娩，5400 万美元，批准于 19
94 年 11 月 10 日；以及贷款编号 1583-BAN:城市初级卫生保健，4000 万美元，批准于
1997 年 9 月 16 日。

20
 Box 3: Viet Nam: Population and Family Health (1996)

T he Project will support the strengthening of the primary health care

system at the commune and district levels in 10 selected provinces. Its
objectives are to strengthen health and family planning programs, and to
improve health status, especially that of mothers. Emphasis is placed on ser-
vices for safe motherhood and, more broadly, family health. It is envisaged
that birth spacing will improve, and fertility and population growth can be
reduced.
The Project will also provide in-service training to existing women health
workers, and more women will be trained as nurses, midwives, and doctors’
assistants. Two model outreach programs designed to reach ethnic minority
women in remote provinces will also be pilot-tested under the Project.

educational and health status of women, while the Women’s Health and
Safe Motherhood Project in the Philippines focuses on strengthening
referral systems in the poorest provinces in support of the national safe
motherhood program. The Bank’s current pipeline includes several
projects in the areas of health, education, and employment promotion
that can significantly address gender disparities and women’s concerns.21
In spite of these achievements, the Bank’s overall lending opera-
tions directed at improving the status of women seem modest when
seen in the context of the Bank’s project classification system. For
example, in 1993, 1994, and 1996, only one project per year was clas-
sified with WID as a primary objective, although more encouraging
results with a total of 18 projects (5.9 percent) between 1992 and 1996
were classified with WID as a secondary objective. The adoption of
the mainstreaming approach within the Bank in recent years is the
primary reason for the limited number of Bank projects carrying WID
classification. As gender concerns are now mainstreamed, few Bank
projects are classified with the primary or secondary objective of WID.
Also, there are a number of Bank projects substantially targeted to improve
women’s health or educational opportunities that do not carry WID clas-
sification, but instead are classified as human development projects.22

21 TA No. 2503-CAM: Employment Promotion, for $300,000, approved on 22 December 1995;

TA No. 2577-PAK: Women’s Health, for $500,000, approved on 4 June 1996; TA No. 2547-
PAK: Nonformal Education for Rural Women, for $600,000, approved on 23 March 1996;
and TA No. 2839-INO: Reproductive Health Care, for $500,000, approved on 11 August 1997.
22 For example, Loan No. 1447-CAM: Basic Health Project, for $20 million, approved on 20
June 1996; and Loan No. 1396-PHI: Integrated Community Health Services, for $25.9 mil-
lion, approved on 17 October 1995.

21
 方框 3：越南：人口与家庭健康（1996 年）

该 项目将支持在 10 个选定省份的公社和区一级加强初级卫生保
健系统。 其目标是加强健康和计划生育项目，并改善健康状
况，特别是母亲的健康状况。 重点放在安全母婴服务以及更广泛的
家庭健康服务上。 预计生育间隔将改善，生育率和人口增长将减少
。

该项目还将为现有的女性卫生工作者提供在职培训，并将培训更
多女性担任护士、助产士和医生助理。 该项目还将试点两个旨在接
触偏远省份少数民族妇女的示范外展项目。

妇女的教育和健康状况，而菲律宾的妇女健康和安全分娩项目则侧
重于加强最贫困省份的转诊系统，以支持国家安全分娩计划。 该银
行目前的项目储备包括几个在健康、教育和就业促进方面的项目，
这些项目可以显著解决性别差距和妇女的关切。21 尽管取得了这些成就，但从该
银行的项目分类体系来看，该银行针对改善妇女地位的整体贷款业务似乎并不多。 例如，在 1993 年、1994 年和 19

96 年，每年只有一项项目被归类为以 WID 为主要目标，尽管在 1992 年至 1996 年期间，共有 18 个项目（5.9%）

被归类为以 WID 为次要目标，这令人鼓舞。 近年来，该银行采用主流化方法是导致该银行项目中 WID 分类数

量有限的主要原因。 由于性别问题现在已成为主流，因此很少有该银行项目被归类为以 WID 为主要或次要目标。

此外，该银行还有一些项目专门针对改善妇女的健康或教育机会，但没有被归类为 WID，而是被归类为人类发展项

目。22

21 技术援助项目编号 2503-CAM：就业促进，金额为 300,000 美元，于 1995 年 12 月 22 日获批；

技术援助项目编号 2577-PAK：妇女健康，金额为 500,000 美元，于 1996 年 6 月 4 日获批；技术援助项目编号 2547-
PAK: 农村妇女非正规教育，金额为 600,000 美元，于 1996 年 3 月 23 日获批；
以及技术援助项目编号 2839-INO：生殖健康保健，金额为 500,000 美元，于 1997 年 8 月 11 日获批。
22 例如，贷款编号 1447-CAM：基本卫生项目，金额为 2000 万美元，于 1996 年 6 月 20 日
获批；以及贷款编号 1396-PHI：综合社区卫生服务，金额为 2590 万美元，于 1995 年 1
0 月 17 日获批。

21
 Hence, the project classification system does not fully reflect the
efforts and resources directed to addressing and mainstreaming gender
concerns in Bank activities. For example, the work of the Programs
Departments in addressing gender issues in the Bank’s macroeconomic
work, such as the COSS, is not reflected. Likewise, the gender
mainstreaming approach adopted by the Projects Departments to
address and integrate gender concerns in projects cannot be measured
through the project classification system. There are a number of projects
not classified as WID that have either substantial components to
specifically facilitate the inclusion of women or that mainstream gen-
der considerations.23 Similarly, the Bank’s TA activities in the areas of
gender awareness, capacity building, policy support, and regional
cooperation are not reflected in the project classification system.

Review of WID in Bank projects

In 1995, a review of Bank efforts on WID and poverty reduction was
undertaken under the Bank’s RETA facility.24 The WID study reviewed
45 projects in agriculture, education, population, health and sanita-
tion, and industry, examining the extent to which the Bank policy for
WID was applied to the processes of project formulation, design, imple-
mentation, monitoring, and evaluation. The key finding of the study
was that the operationalization of Bank policy and its SDO for WID in
Bank projects needs substantial improvement. The principal recom-
mendations were as follows:

(i) Bank staff, including directors and managers, need further gender
sensitization to strengthen their commitment to operationalizing
the Bank policies and procedures for WID.
(ii) Gender planning and analysis need to be addressed more
rigorously during project preparation and formulation to ensure
that project designs incorporate specific measures to address
gender concerns.

23 For example, Loan No. 1515-VIE: Forestry Sector, for $33 million, approved on 20 March
1997; and Loan No. 1462-SRI: North Central Province Rural Development, for $20 million,
approved on 24 September 1996.
24 Report of RETA 5572:Review of Performance of WID and Poverty Reduction Efforts in Bank-
financed Projects. June 1995.

22
 因此，项目分类系统并未完全反映出银行活动中针对性别问题
并将其纳入主流的努力和资源。 例如，项目部在银行宏观经济工作
中解决性别问题的努力，例如 COSS，并未得到反映。 同样，项目
部门采用的将性别问题纳入项目并解决性别问题的性别主流化方法
无法通过项目分类系统进行衡量。 有一些项目没有被归类为WID，
但它们要么包含专门促进妇女参与的实质性内容，要么将性别因素
纳入主流。23同样，世行在性别意识、能力建设、政策支持和区域
合作方面的技术援助活动也没有反映在项目分类系统中。

世行项目中WID的回顾
1995年，世行在RETA机制下对世行在WID和减贫方面的努力进行了
回顾。24WID研究回顾了农业、教育、人口、健康和卫生以及工业领
域的45个项目，考察了世行WID政策在项目制定、设计、实施、监
测和评估过程中的应用程度。 该研究的主要发现是，世界银行政策
及其关于妇女发展（WID）的战略行动文件（SDO）在世界银行项
目中的实施需要大幅改进。 主要建议如下：

(i) 世界银行工作人员，包括主管和经理，需要进一步接受性别意
识培训，以加强他们对实施世界银行关于妇女发展（WID）的
政策和程序的承诺。
(ii) 在项目准备和制定阶段，需要更加严格地进行性别规划和分析
，以确保项目设计纳入针对性别问题的具体措施。

23 例如，贷款编号 1515-VIE：林业部门，金额为 3300 万美元，于 1997 年 3 月 20 日批准；

贷款编号 1462-SRI：中北部省农村发展，金额为 2000 万美元，于 1996 年 9 月 24 日批
准。
24 RETA 5572 报告：世界银行资助项目中妇女发展（WID）和减贫工作绩效评估，1995 年 6
月。

22
 Box 4: Bangladesh: Participatory Livestock
Development Project (1997)

I mproving the status of women is the primary classification for the Project.
Reducing poverty among women and rural communities through the provi-
sion of financial services, including microcredit via NGOs, and developing the
capacity of rural communities to manage village livestock development are the
primary objectives.
Around 70 to 80 percent of the primary beneficiaries under the Project will
be women, and households headed by women will receive special benefits.
The Project supports microcredit through NGOs for 364,000 households for
smallholder poultry production, beef fattening, and goat raising enterprises;
provision of institutional, technical, and training services by NGOs to poor wom-
en farmers; and upgrading of livestock infrastructure, e.g., veterinary services.
In addition, some 10,800 women will be trained and provided credit to estab-
lish village-based feed supply, vaccination, and marketing services. The cre-
ation of these enterprises will establish a basis for expanded participation of
women in economic activities.

(iii) For projects with WID as a primary or secondary objective, more

careful analysis is needed to ensure that they accurately identify
and respond to women’s specific needs.
(iv) Monitoring and evaluation processes should more systematically
incorporate attention to gender in all activities.
(v) Substantial efforts are needed to build and improve the technical
capacity of executing and implementing agencies to implement
projects that mainstream gender concerns or include specific
components to facilitate the inclusion of women.
(vi) Gender technical capacity within the Bank should be increased
to facilitate increasing the number of projects with WID as a
primary or secondary objective or projects directly aiming at the
mainstreaming of women.
(vii) Project implementation and the administration capacity in the area
of GAD need substantial improvement both at headquarters and
in resident missions.

The study pointed out that a significant constraint to success is the

lack of commitment and capacity in the DMCs to identify, design, and
implement projects or project components targeting women. The

23
 方框 4：孟加拉国：参与式畜牧业发展项
目（1997 年）

该 项目的首要分类是改善妇女地位。通过提供金融服务（包括通过
非政府组织提供小额信贷）以及发展农村社区管理村庄畜牧业
发展的能力，减少妇女和农村社区的贫困是主要目标。

该项目的主要受益者约 70% 到 80% 将是妇女，由妇女户主领导的

家庭将获得特殊福利。
该项目通过非政府组织为 364,000 户家庭提供小额信贷，用于小型家
禽生产、牛肉育肥和养山羊企业；非政府组织向贫困妇女农民提供机
构、技术和培训服务；以及升级畜牧业基础设施，例如兽医服务。

此外，将对约 10,800 名妇女进行培训，并提供信贷，以建立以村庄为

基础的饲料供应、疫苗接种和营销服务。 这些企业的创建将为妇女更
多地参与经济活动奠定基础。

(iii) 对于以 WID 为主要或次要目标的项目，需要进行更仔细的分析

，以确保它们准确识别和满足妇女的特定需求。

(iv) 监测和评估过程应更系统地将性别纳入所有活动。

(v) 需要付出大量努力来建设和提高执行和实施机构的技术能力，
以实施将性别问题纳入主流或包含具体组成部分以促进妇女参
与的项目。

(vi) 应加强银行内部的性别技术能力，以促进增加以 WID 为主要或

次要目标的项目或直接旨在将妇女纳入主流的项目数量。

(vii) 项目实施和 GAD 领域的管理能力需要在总部和驻地代表处进行

大幅改进。

该研究指出，成功的一个重要制约因素是 DMC 在识别、设计和

实施针对妇女的项目或项目组成部分方面缺乏承诺和能力。这

23
 Box 5: Viet Nam: Forestry Sector Project (1997)

T he Project aims to restore the vegetative cover of hilly and mountainous

areas in critical watersheds and to raise the productivity of the coun-
try’s forestry resources. Project activities will allow access to land and raise
the incomes of poor households, ethnic minorities, and women, through
improved land allocation and greater tenurial security. Since women in the
project areas have the primary responsibility for food production and for-
est-based activities, the Project has been designed to address women’s
development needs through (i) strengthening women’s access to land, with
provision for joint use/individual rights; (ii) encouraging participation by wom-
en’s unions in planning and decision making; (iii) training women in improved
agricultural and forestry techniques; and (iv) improving women’s access to
credit for productive activities.

design of many projects assumed institutional capacity that did not

exist. For example, it was often overlooked that there were insuffi-
cient female staff to implement the women’s projects or project com-
ponents directed at women in rural areas. Likewise, the absence of
women-friendly infrastructure (housing, travel facilities, lack of secu-
rity, and protection) contributed to the problems in recruitment and
retention of women staff in rural areas. This indicates a need for project
design that addresses difficulties in recruitment and retention of female
staff by incorporating specific measures to resolve the problem. It sug-
gested that efforts are required to increase the gender technical capac-
ity of executing and implementing agencies, as well as more stringent
reviews by the Bank regarding implementation of components de-
signed to encourage and facilitate the inclusion of women. Improved
gender technical capacity in the Bank’s resident missions also would
address this constraint.

Gender considerations in recruitment and

staffing
The Bank has achieved the quantitative target of 100 women profes-
sional staff by the end of 1996. In December 1997, the number of
women professional staff had increased from 33 in 1990, representing
5.46 percent of all professional staff, to 111, which was 16.52 percent
of the total. Committed to achieving a critical mass in women’s repre-
sentation, the Bank will intensify its efforts to (i) recruit women for
underrepresented skill areas, (ii) maintain Management’s lead in

24
 方框 5：越南：林业部门项目（1997年）

该 项目旨在恢复重要流域丘陵和山区植被覆盖，提高国家森林资
源生产力。 项目活动将通过改善土地分配和提高土地所有权
安全，使贫困家庭、少数民族和妇女能够获得土地并提高收入。 由
于项目地区妇女承担着粮食生产和林业活动的首要责任，该项目旨
在通过以下方式解决妇女发展需求：（一）加强妇女获得土地的途
径，并提供联合使用/个人权利；（二）鼓励妇女工会参与规划和决
策；（三）培训妇女掌握改进的农业和林业技术；（四）改善妇女
获得生产性活动信贷的途径。

许多项目的设计都假设了不存在的制度能力。 例如，人们常常忽略
了农村地区缺乏女性工作人员来实施针对妇女的项目或项目组成部
分。 同样，缺乏妇女友好型基础设施（住房、交通设施、缺乏安全
保障和保护）也加剧了农村地区招募和留住女性员工的难题。 这表
明需要进行项目设计，以解决招募和留住女性员工的困难，并纳入
解决问题的具体措施。 它建议需要努力提高执行和实施机构的性别
技术能力，以及由银行对旨在鼓励和促进妇女参与的组成部分实施
情况进行更严格的审查。 提高银行驻地代表处的性别技术能力也将
解决这一制约因素。

招聘和人员配置中的性别因素
该银行在1996年底实现了100名女性专业人员的目标。 1997年12月
，女性专业人员数量从1990年的33人（占所有专业人员的5.46%）
增加到111人，占总数的16.52%。为了实现女性代表的临界质量，
该银行将加倍努力（i）招募女性担任代表性不足的技能领域，（ii
）保持管理层的领先地位

24
balanced distribution of women in departments/offices, and (iii) fur-
ther improve the work environment for the retention and promotion
of women.
On the recruitment front, identifying women candidates at various
levels for underrepresented skill areas will remain a major focus. Cost-
effective avenues in networking and resourcing with internal and
external recruitment contacts will be explored further. With regard to
the retention and promotion of women, several policy initiatives will
be further strengthened. They include increasing the number of women
in manager training courses and implementing an individual career
counseling service. The Bank’s human resource policies will be
reviewed periodically, and more responsive programs will be provided
to increase the number of women professional staff and to place more
women in higher positions.

PK-NE

25
部门/办公室妇女的均衡分配，以及（三）进一步改善工作环境，以
留住和提升妇女。

在招聘方面，识别各级妇女候选人以填补代表性不足的技能领
域将继续成为重点。 将进一步探索与内部和外部招聘联系人建立网
络和资源的成本效益途径。 关于妇女的留任和晋升，将进一步加强
若干政策举措。 这些措施包括增加女性参加管理人员培训课程的人
数，以及实施个人职业咨询服务。 世界银行的人力资源政策将定期
进行审查，并将提供更具针对性的项目，以增加女性专业人员的数
量，并将更多女性安排到更高的职位。

PK-NE
The need for a revised policy
on gender and development
From WID to GAD

T
he Bank’s experience is similar to that of other international
development agencies. Formal policy approaches aiming to
incorporate women into development activities began in the early
1970s, and over the past 30 years evolved on the basis of experience,
review, and reformulation of strategies and objectives through several
stages from welfare-oriented, equity, antipoverty, and mainstreaming
approaches. By the 1980s, WID was accepted and adopted interna-
tionally as a strategic emphasis aiming to achieve women’s integration
in all aspects of the development process.
International acceptance of the need to overtly place women on
the development agenda was accompanied by the formulation of WID
policies and the institutionalization of various mechanisms, among both
development agencies and recipients of international development
assistance, to address the concerns, needs, and contributions of women.
This led to a plethora of WID programs and projects aimed to improve
the condition of women and to deliver development to women.25
Agency and independent reviews by the early 1990s of these WID
projects, approaches, and institutional mechanisms drew virtually

25 This section has been influenced by the following: Jahan, Rounaq. 1995. The Elusive Agenda
Mainstreaming Women in Development. London: Zed Books; Moser, Caroline O.N. 1993.
Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training. London: Routledge;
Lotherington, A.T., M. Haug, and A.B. Flemmen. 1991. Implementation of WID Policy. Oslo:
University of Oslo Center for Development and the Environment; Anderson, M. 1990. Women
on the Agenda: UNIFEM’s Experience in Mainstreaming with Women 1985-1990. New
York: United Nations Development Fund for Women; World Bank. 1994. Enhancing Women’s
Participation in Economic Development: A Policy Paper, May.

27
需要修订关于性别与
发展的政策

世
从WID到GAD
界银行的经验与其他国际发展机构类似。 旨在将妇女纳入
发展活动的正式政策方法始于 1970 年代初，在过去 30
年中，基于经验、审查和战略和目标的重新制定，经历
了从福利导向、公平、反贫困和主流化方法的几个阶段而不断发展
。 到 1980 年代，WID 已在国际上被接受和采用，成为一项战略重
点，旨在实现妇女在发展过程各个方面的融入。

国际上普遍接受将妇女纳入发展议程的必要性，并随之制定了
妇女发展政策，并在发展机构和国际发展援助接受国中建立了各种
机制，以解决妇女的关切、需求和贡献。

这导致了大量旨在改善妇女状况和为妇女提供发展的妇女发展项目
。25 到 20 世纪 90 年代初，对这些妇女发展项目、方法和体制机制的机构和独立评估几乎

25 本节内容参考以下资料：Jahan, Rounaq. 1995.难以捉摸的议程：将妇女纳入发展主流。

伦敦：Zed Books；Moser, Caroline O.N. 1993.
性别规划与发展：理论、实践与培训。 伦敦：Routledge；Lotherington, A.T., M. Haug
, and A.B. Flemmen. 1991.WID政策的实施。奥斯陆：奥斯陆大学发展与环境中心；安
德森，M. 1990。妇女议程：妇女署在1985-1990年将妇女纳入主流的经验。纽约：联合
国妇女发展基金；世界银行。1994。 增强妇女参与经济发展：政策文件，5月。

27
unanimous conclusions about the strengths and weaknesses of the
WID approach. Reviews of the underresourced and often marginalized
government women’s units indicated they were unable to effectively
influence national policies or to bring about the gender equity that
was envisaged at their establishment. Targeted and segregated women-
only projects operated to further marginalize and isolate women from
the mainstream of development. Relegating the responsibility for
improving the status of women (50 percent of the population) to one
department rather than to all sectoral ministries simply ghettoized
women. Treating women as a unified and special category divorced
from other social relations, including economic and social processes,
would not accommodate or accurately reflect the various groups of
women or the different voices of women. More importantly, the reviews
and evaluations revealed that such approaches had not succeeded in
significantly narrowing the gap between women and men. Women-
only projects were often poorly conceived and funded, and sometimes
added to women’s already heavy workloads with few compensatory
benefits.
These reviews, analyses, and conclusions led to significant
rethinking of the WID approach. It became evident that projects
focusing exclusively on women implied that the problem, and hence
the solution, could be confined to women. For example, population
programs that exclusively targeted women were often unsuccessful,
since their male partners, whose consent was integral to project success,
were not targeted. Contraceptive acceptance often required the explicit
consent of men. It became obvious that, unless men were sensitized to
the dangers of repeated and frequent pregnancies, improvements in
women’s health and reductions in fertility rates could not be achieved.
Such approaches failed to recognize the critical role of men in deci-
sions regarding women’s lives. Likewise, education projects that
targeted only girls by building schools exclusively for them did not
always achieve the desired results because men were not sensitized to
the benefits to be achieved from educating girls, or the sociocultural
environment was not adequately assessed.
Relying on women as the analytical category for addressing gender
inequalities meant a focus on women in isolation from the rest of their
lives and from the relations through which such inequalities were

28
关于WID方法的优缺点没有一致的结论。 对资源不足且经常被边缘
化的政府妇女部门的审查表明，它们无法有效地影响国家政策，也
无法实现其成立时设想的性别平等。 针对妇女的隔离项目进一步边
缘化和孤立了妇女，使她们远离发展主流。 将改善妇女地位（占人
口的50%）的责任委托给一个部门而不是所有部门部委，只会将妇
女隔离起来。 将妇女视为一个与其他社会关系（包括经济和社会进
程）分离的统一和特殊类别，将无法容纳或准确反映不同群体妇女
或妇女的不同声音。 更重要的是，审查和评估表明，此类方法并未
成功显著缩小男女之间的差距。仅针对妇女的项目往往构思和资助
不善，有时还会增加妇女本来就很重的负担，而补偿性福利却很少
。

这些审查、分析和结论导致了对 WID 方法的重大反思。 很明显

，专门针对妇女的项目意味着问题，以及解决方案，可以局限于妇
女。 例如，专门针对妇女的人口计划往往不成功，因为他们的男性
伴侣，其同意对项目成功至关重要，并没有成为目标。 避孕药具的
接受往往需要男性的明确同意。很明显，除非男性意识到反复和频
繁怀孕的危险，否则无法实现妇女健康状况的改善和生育率的降低
。

这种方法没有认识到男性在女性生活决策中的关键作用。 同样，只
针对女孩的教育项目，例如专门为女孩建造学校，并不总是能取得
预期效果，因为男性没有意识到教育女孩的好处，或者没有充分评
估社会文化环境。

将女性作为分析类别来解决性别不平等，意味着将女性孤立于
她们生活的其他方面，以及孤立于产生这种不平等关系的方面。

28
perpetuated and reproduced. This led to the major shift from women
as the key focus of analysis to a focus on gender relations,26 i.e., the
social relations between men and women that generate and perpetu-
ate gender inequalities.
The rethinking of the WID approach also led to a move away from
assessing the adverse impact of development on women to examining
the adverse impact of women’s exclusion on development. “Women
need development” was replaced by “development needs women.”
Social justice and equity arguments were complemented with argu-
ments of economic efficiency. The marginalization and isolation of
women from the mainstream of the development process came to be
seen as economically inefficient and hampering economic growth.
Hence, welfare-oriented and equity approaches were increasingly replaced
and complemented with mainstreaming and efficiency approaches.
However, there were two highly influential criticisms of the eco-
nomic efficiency approach from leading women’s advocates. These
criticisms pointed out that (i) mainstreaming women into development
does not question the nature of the development itself, which may be
contrary to women’s interests and concerns; and (ii) taking account of
and supporting women’s actual roles in production does not challenge
the often inequitable basis by which these roles are allocated within
society. These criticisms have led to a new strategic emphasis on
women’s empowerment within the development process. It aims to
support measures that empower women to contribute to setting
development agenda, and to challenge socioeconomic systems that
place them at a relative disadvantage to men.
The evaluation of past failures also led to the realization that the
development process itself needs engendering. Hence, there is a need
to refocus the strategic emphasis from a narrow WID approach to a
more dynamic GAD approach. In the GAD approach, the strategic
emphasis is widened to include women’s rights, women’s role as active

26 The term gender refers to the social facets of culture, religion, and class that condition the
way in which masculine and feminine roles and status are constructed and defined in each
society. Gender relations are dynamic and changing over time in response to varying socio-
economic and ideological circumstances. They are neither static nor immutable. Rather they
are changeable, subject to modification, renegotiation, and reinterpretation, unlike the uni-
versal and constant biological (sex) differences between males and females. As gender (the
social differentiation between women and men) is socially and culturally constructed, gen-
der roles can be transformed by social changes (Moser 1993).

29
被延续和复制。 这导致了从女性作为分析重点的重大转变，转向关
注性别关系，26即男性和女性之间产生和延续性别不平等的社会关
系。

对 WID 方法的重新思考也导致从评估发展对女性的不利影响转
变为考察女性被排斥对发展的不利影响。 “妇女需要发展”被“发
展需要妇女”所取代。社会正义和公平的论点得到了经济效率论点
的补充。 妇女在发展进程中的边缘化和孤立被认为是经济效率低下
，阻碍经济增长。

因此，以福利为导向和公平的方法越来越多地被主流化和效率方法
所取代和补充。
然而，来自领先妇女倡导者的经济效率方法有两个非常有影响
力的批评。 这些批评指出，(i) 将妇女纳入发展主流并没有质疑发展
的本质，这可能与妇女的利益和关切相悖；(ii) 考虑和支持妇女在生
产中的实际作用并没有挑战这些作用在社会中分配的往往不公平的
基础。 这些批评导致了在发展过程中对妇女赋权的新战略重点。 其
目标是支持赋予妇女权力的措施，使她们能够参与制定发展议程，
并挑战将她们置于相对于男性而言不利地位的社会经济体系。

对过去失败的评估也让人们意识到，发展过程本身需要性别化
。 因此，需要将战略重点从狭隘的WID方法转向更具活力的GAD方
法。 在GAD方法中，战略重点扩展到包括妇女权利，妇女作为积极
的

26“性别”一词指的是文化、宗教和阶层等社会方面，这些方面决定了男性和女性角色和地
位在每个社会中的构建和定义方式。 性别关系是动态的，随着时间的推移，会根据不同
的社会经济和意识形态环境而发生变化。 它们既不是静止的，也不是不可改变的。 相
反，它们是可变的，可以修改、重新谈判和重新解释，这与男性和女性之间普遍存在的
、恒定的生物学（性别）差异不同。 由于性别（女性和男性之间的社会差异）是社会和
文化建构的，因此性别角色可以通过社会变革来改变（Moser 1993）。

29
participants and agents in development, and their role as actors with a
specific agenda for development. Compare this with the earlier WID
approaches that perceived women simply as reproducers (family plan-
ning), and passive recipients of resources (basic needs and services).
Hence, welfare-oriented, “add women and stir” approaches that treated
women as passive recipients of development were replaced by
approaches that attempt to engender development, empower women,
and perceive women as active agents in their own right.
The difference between WID and GAD is essentially based on the
approach to assessing and dealing with women’s unequal position in
society. GAD does not dislodge women as the central subject. Rather,
while the WID approach focused exclusively on women to improve
women’s unequal position, the GAD approach recognizes that improve-
ments in women’s status require analysis of the relations between men
and women, as well as the concurrence and cooperation of men.
Emphasis is placed on the need to understand the ways in which
unequal relations between women and men may contribute to the
extent and forms of exclusion that women face in the development
process. There is also an overt recognition that the participation and
commitment of men is required to fundamentally alter the social and
economic position of women. This recognition led to a shift away from
an exclusive focus on women to a GAD approach that also factors into
the equation males and the broader sociocultural environment.
The gender and development approach sees gender as a cross-
cutting issue with relevance for and influencing all economic, social,
and political processes. A gender-focused approach seeks to redress
gender inequity through facilitating strategic, broad-based, and multi-
faceted solutions to gender inequality.
A strategic or agenda-setting approach analyzes and defines the
structures that generate and maintain the gender disparities that place
constraints on development. This entails a proactive approach to gen-
der issues in project identification and design, and includes gender
analysis and diagnosis in the definition of project beneficiaries. It aims
to identify both the practical gender needs of women such as health
care, water supply, education, labor-saving technologies, etc., and the
strategic gender needs ensuring that the project assists women to
increase their benefits and to overcome structural constraints. The

30
发展中的参与者和行动者，以及他们作为具有特定发展议程的行动
者的作用。 将此与早期的WID方法进行比较，这些方法将女性仅仅
视为生育者（计划生育）和资源的被动接受者（基本需求和服务）
。因此，以福利为导向的“添加女性并搅拌”方法将女性视为发展
的被动接受者，被试图使发展性别化、赋予女性权力并将其视为自
身权利的积极行动者的方法所取代。

WID和GAD之间的区别本质上是基于评估和处理女性在社会中不
平等地位的方法。 GAD并没有将女性从中心主体中剔除。 相反，虽
然WID方法专门关注女性以改善女性的不平等地位，但GAD方法认
识到，改善女性地位需要分析男性和女性之间的关系，以及男性之
间的合作与合作。重点放在需要了解男女之间不平等关系如何导致
女性在发展过程中面临的排斥程度和形式。 也明确认识到，需要男
性参与和承诺，才能从根本上改变妇女的社会和经济地位。 这种认
识导致了从只关注妇女的转变，转向了一种也把男性和更广泛的社
会文化环境纳入考量的性别与发展 (GAD) 方法。

性别与发展方法将性别视为一个横向问题，它与所有经济、社
会和政治进程相关并对其产生影响。 以性别为重点的方法旨在通过
促进针对性别不平等的战略性、广泛和多方面的解决方案来纠正性
别不平等。

战略或议程设定方法分析和定义了产生和维持性别差距的结构
，这些差距限制了发展。 这需要在项目识别和设计中采取积极的性
别问题方法，包括在项目受益人定义中进行性别分析和诊断。 它旨
在识别妇女的实际性别需求，例如医疗保健、供水、教育、节约劳
动力的技术等，以及战略性性别需求，确保项目帮助妇女增加收益
并克服结构性限制。这

30
strategic needs of women may include the right to land ownership,
access to loans, or active participation in decision-making bodies such
as water user associations. Practical and strategic gender needs are
closely related, as one often leads to or is a prerequisite for achieving
the other. For example, improving women’s access to income, which
could be seen as a practical need, may not be possible unless the strategic
need of accessing loans is first met. To achieve the goal of gender equal-
ity, it is considered vital to meet both practical and strategic gender needs.
Inherent in the GAD approach is gender mainstreaming, which is
a means of addressing women’s concerns more holistically and effec-
tively. It requires gender planning to be applied to all development
operations and projects, and allows women to be factored into eco-
nomic and development policy. The GAD approach utilizes gender
analysis, which is the tool for analyzing the specific nature of gender
differences by asking basic questions such as who does what, where,
when, how often, with what resources and returns, and who controls
what. Such questions enable an assessment of gender differentiations
in activities, resource ownership, use, and control.27 On the basis of
the information obtained through gender analysis, appropriate policy,
project interventions, strategies, and mechanisms can be designed to
assist in improving women’s inclusion, status, and productivity.
The GAD approach, however, does not mean that stand-alone
women’s projects or projects with special components targeting women
are to be abandoned altogether. Until there are no structural constraints
and barriers restricting women’s participation, projects directed exclu-
sively at women or projects with special components addressed at
women are still required, especially in circumstances wherein cultural
dictates necessitate segregation of the sexes, or in situations where
women require special assistance to enable their full participation in
mainstream projects. Gender mainstreaming is not to imply that women
no longer require special attention in projects since their interests are
“mainstreamed” and all project inputs are equally accessible to men
and women.
Until women reach a stage when they can truly become equal part-
ners with men in development, special attention to address women’s

27 Moser, Caroline O.N. 1993. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and
Training. London: Routledge.

31
妇女的战略需求可能包括土地所有权、获得贷款或积极参与决策机
构（如用水者协会）的权利。 实际和战略性别需求密切相关，因为
一种需求往往会导致或成为实现另一种需求的先决条件。 例如，改
善妇女的收入获取，这可以被视为一种实际需求，但除非首先满足
获得贷款的战略需求，否则可能无法实现。为了实现性别平等的目
标，满足实际和战略性别需求都被认为至关重要。

GAD 方法的内在特点是性别主流化，这是一种更全面、更有效
地解决妇女问题的方法。 它要求将性别规划应用于所有发展行动和
项目，并允许将妇女纳入经济和发展政策。 GAD 方法利用性别分析
，这是分析性别差异具体性质的工具，它通过提出一些基本问题来
进行分析，例如谁在做什么，在哪里，什么时候，多久一次，使用
什么资源和回报，以及谁控制着什么。 这些问题有助于评估活动、
资源所有权、使用和控制方面的性别差异。27根据性别分析获得的
信息，可以制定适当的政策、项目干预措施、战略和机制，以帮助
改善妇女的包容性、地位和生产力。

然而，GAD 方法并不意味着完全放弃针对妇女的独立项目或包
含针对妇女的特殊组成部分的项目。 在消除限制妇女参与的结构性
约束和障碍之前，仍然需要专门针对妇女的项目或包含针对妇女的
特殊组成部分的项目，特别是在文化规定需要性别隔离的情况下，
或者在妇女需要特殊援助才能充分参与主流项目的情况下。 性别主
流化并不意味着妇女不再需要在项目中得到特殊关注，因为她们的
利益已经“主流化”，所有项目投入对男性和女性都同样可及。

直到妇女能够真正成为发展中与男性平等的伙伴，才需要特别
关注妇女的

27 莫瑟，卡罗琳•奥•恩。1993。性别规划与发展：理论、实践与培训。伦敦：劳特利奇。

31
needs and concerns will be required. Projects that mainstream women
need special design features to facilitate and promote the inclusion of
women. Components have to be built into projects that are strategi-
cally designed to improve women’s access, equity, and benefits so as
to lead to long-term improvements in their social and economic status.
It is not an either/or proposition but entails a combination of approaches
that include mainstreaming women into all projects, women-specific
components, and separate projects and programs directed exclusively
at women. A transition period is required during which the dual
approach of mainstreaming, plus special projects and initiatives tar-
geted directly at women, is required to facilitate women’s full and equal
participation in development.

Experience of the World Bank and other

agencies
In response to the rethinking on WID concerns, following the experi-
ence and evaluation of earlier approaches in the 1980s, both multilat-
eral and bilateral agencies revised their earlier WID policies and adopted
a broader GAD approach to reflect the revised thinking on this issue.

World Bank policy

The WB in 1994 revised its earlier WID policy that tended to treat
women as a special target group of beneficiaries in projects and pro-
grams, and replaced it with a new GAD policy.28 The revised frame-
work is broader, reflecting the ways in which the relations between
men and women constrain or advance efforts to boost economic growth
and reduce poverty. WB’s GAD policy is based on the recognition that
“investing in women is central to sustainable development” and refers
to its own studies indicating strong economic arguments for investing
in women.
The policy states that gender issues will be integrated into the main-
stream of WB activities in all country assistance strategies, and the design
and implementation of the lending program, including adjustment
operations. It further states that its economic and sector work, TA, and
participation in international initiatives will aim at promoting

28 World Bank. 1994. “Enhancing Women’s Participation in Economic Development.” A Policy

Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank.

32
需求和关切。 将妇女纳入主流的项目需要特殊的项目设计特征，以
促进和推动妇女的参与。 项目中必须包含战略性设计的组成部分，
以改善妇女的获取、公平和平等，从而导致她们社会和经济地位的
长期改善。

这不是非此即彼的命题，而是需要结合多种方法，包括将妇女纳入
所有项目、妇女专项内容以及专门针对妇女的独立项目和计划。 需
要一个过渡期，在此期间，需要采用将妇女纳入主流的双重方法，
以及专门针对妇女的特殊项目和举措，以促进妇女充分平等地参与
发展。

世界银行和其他机构的经验
为了回应对 WID 问题的重新思考，在 20 世纪 80 年代早期方法的经
验和评估之后，多边和双边机构都修订了他们早期的 WID 政策，并
采用了更广泛的 GAD 方法来反映对这个问题的修正思考。

世界银行政策
世界银行在 1994 年修订了其早期的 WID 政策，该政策倾向于将妇
女视为项目和计划中的特殊受益群体，并将其替换为新的 GAD 政策
。28修订后的框架更广泛，反映了男女之间关系如何限制或促进提
高经济增长和减少贫困的努力。 世界银行的 GAD 政策基于“投资
妇女是可持续发展核心”的认识，并参考其自身研究表明投资妇女
有强烈的经济论据。

该政策指出，性别问题将被纳入世界银行所有国家援助战略、
贷款计划的设计和实施（包括调整行动）的主流。 它进一步指出，
其经济和部门工作、技术援助以及参与国际倡议将旨在促进

28 世界银行。1994 年。 “增强妇女在经济发展中的参与”。政策文件。华盛顿特区：世界
银行。

32
gender-sensitive policies and programs. The policy includes a com-
mitment that future analytical work will focus on gender differentia-
tion and the factors underlying the structure of gender relations within
the household, and will derive best practices for addressing gender
disparities.
WB’s policy states that gender-targeted assistance will focus on
five main operational strategies for improving women’s status and
productivity:

(i) expanding enrollment of girls in schools,

(ii) improving women’s health,
(iii) increasing women’s participation in the labor force,
(iv) expanding women’s options in agriculture, and
(v) providing financial services to women.

Combined with this, support will be provided to governments to

(i) develop gender-sensitive policies and programs,

(ii) modify legal and regulatory frameworks preventing women from
participating in economic development,
(iii) build institutional capacity to implement programs for advancing
women’s status,
(iv) strengthen the database for gender analysis, and
(v) mobilize resources for addressing gender disparities.

To facilitate the implementation of its GAD policy and ensure

appropriate consultation with civil society, WB has established an
external Advisory Group on Gender consisting of key women from
the community who provide advice and guidance on gender issues. In
addition, an External Group on Gender made up of 14 NGOs (two
from each of WB’s seven regions) meets annually; it has established a
dialogue on WB’s gender activities.
WB’s institutional structure to address gender issues and facilitate
the implementation of its operational policy include (i) a senior adviser
on gender equality located in the Human Resources Vice Presidency,
which is WB’s focal point for in-house gender issues; (ii) a Gender
Analysis and Policy Unit in the Human Capital Development Vice

33
性别敏感的政策和方案。 该政策包括一项承诺，未来的分析工作将
侧重于性别差异以及家庭内部性别关系结构的根本因素，并将得出
解决性别差距的最佳做法。

世行的政策指出，针对性别的援助将侧重于五项主要行动战略
，以改善妇女的地位和生产力：

(i) 扩大女孩入学率，
(ii) 改善妇女健康，
(iii) 提高妇女的劳动力参与率，
(iv) 扩大妇女在农业中的选择，以及
(v) 为妇女提供金融服务。

结合这一点，将为政府提供支持，以

(i) 制定性别敏感的政策和方案，
(ii) 修改法律和监管框架，防止妇女参与经济发展，

(iii) 建立机构能力，实施促进妇女地位的方案，

(iv) 加强性别分析数据库，以及
(v) 调动资源解决性别差距。

为了促进其性别与发展政策的实施，并确保与民间社会的适当
协商，世行成立了一个外部性别咨询小组，由来自社区的关键女性
组成，她们就性别问题提供建议和指导。 此外，一个由 14 个非政
府组织（世行七个地区各两个）组成的外部性别小组每年举行一次
会议；它已经建立了关于世行性别活动的对话。

世行解决性别问题的机构结构和促进其业务政策的实施包括 (i)
人力资源副行长办公室的性别平等高级顾问，这是世行内部性别问
题的协调中心；(ii) 人力资本发展副行长的性别分析和政策部门

33
Presidency, comprising six permanent staff and five long-term con-
sultants, which has responsibility for policy issues and helps WB to
define and implement its gender policies, conduct research, and pro-
vide some operational support to the regional vice presidencies; (iii) a
Gender and Poverty Team in the Human Resources Division of the
Asia Technical Department, comprising three permanent staff and four
long-term consultants, which provides gender support to the region
through research and operational support; (iv) four gender technical
specialists in four resident missions (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, and
Pakistan) to assist with the implementation of projects aimed directly
at reducing gender disparities, and to liaise with government and
bilateral and multilateral aid agencies on gender issues; (v) a few gen-
der technical specialists located in the various regional operational and
technical departments who do not necessarily work exclusively on
gender issues; and (vi) departmental gender coordinators who facilitate
and monitor gender activities within their respective departments along
with their other activities.

The Inter-American Development Bank

The Inter-American Development Bank’s (IADB) operational WID
policy29 defines its WID operational objectives as

(i) recognizing and enhancing women’s actual and potential role in

productive and social activities, and their contribution to the
national development process;
(ii) facilitating women’s access to productive resources, services, and
to social and economic benefits derived from IADB operations;
(iii) reducing social, legal, and economic constraints that depress
women’s ability to effectively participate in and benefit from
productive and other development-oriented programs; and
(iv) improving the effectiveness of institutions responsible for fostering
the social and economic participation of women in the
development process.

29 Inter-American Development Bank. 1987. Operating Policy on Women in Development.

Washington, DC.

34
主席团由六名常任工作人员和五名长期顾问组成，负责政策问题，
并帮助世行制定和实施其性别政策，进行研究，并为区域副总裁提
供一些业务支持；（三）亚洲技术部人力资源司的性别与贫困团队
，由三名常任工作人员和四名长期顾问组成，通过研究和业务支持
为该地区提供性别支持；（四）四个驻地代表处（孟加拉国、印度
、印度尼西亚和巴基斯坦）的四名性别技术专家，协助实施旨在直
接减少性别差距的项目，并与政府以及双边和多边援助机构就性别
问题进行联络；（五）一些位于各个区域业务和技术部门的性别技
术专家，他们不一定专门从事性别问题；以及（六）部门性别协调
员，他们在其他活动的同时，促进和监督其各自部门的性别活动。

美洲开发银行
美洲开发银行 (IADB) 的妇女发展 (WID) 运营政策29将其 WID 运营目
标定义为

(i) 认识和增强妇女在生产和社会活动中的实际和潜在作用，以及
她们对国家发展进程的贡献；

(ii) 促进妇女获得生产资源、服务以及美洲开发银行运营带来的社
会和经济利益；(iii) 减少社会、法律和经济方面的限制，这些
限制抑制了妇女有效参与和从生产和其他面向发展的项目中获益的
能力；以及 (iv) 提高负责促进妇女在发展进程中参与社会和经
济活动的机构的有效性。

29 美洲开发银行。1987 年。妇女发展运营政策。
华盛顿特区。

34
 Areas targeted for special emphasis in implementing the IADB
policy are activities for the improvement of employment opportuni-
ties, education, training, extension, and credit for women; technical
cooperation for institution-building aimed at improving the status and
legal position of women; violence against women; and research and
studies on the participation of women.
To facilitate implementation of its policy, IADB has a central WID/
Gender Unit located in the Social Program and Sustainable Develop-
ment Department consisting of one chief, three regular staff, and five
long-term consultants. At the Beijing World Conference on Women,
IADB announced that it would be establishing a special fund for
women’s leadership and representation that would finance programs
of leadership training and capacity building for NGOs.
Like WB, IADB has also established a Gender Advisory Council
that meets annually and consists of academics, researchers, and key
women from civil society who provide guidance and advice on gen-
der issues. IADB also is in the process of undertaking an evaluation of
its WID program and activities.

Bilateral aid agencies

The transition from a WID to a GAD approach was pioneered and
initially adopted by many of the bilateral aid agencies, especially the
Nordic countries. They were the first to overtly adopt and put in place
GAD policies to promote gender equity. Most of the bilateral funders
recognized the limitations of the WID approach and made the transi-
tion to GAD in the early 1990s.
Mainstreaming is the essence of most bilateral aid GAD policies,
with a focus on promoting gender equity through development assis-
tance. Gender analysis is deemed mandatory for all projects, and efforts
are placed on integrating gender considerations into their overall
development assistance programs. Special design features are built into
projects to facilitate women’s participation through the increased use
of GAD specialists in project design and implementation. Bilateral aid
GAD policies also emphasize increased gender sensitization and gen-
der skills development training for staff and consultants. With a view
to enhancing the mainstreaming of women’s interests, some bilaterals
such as the Danish International Development Assistance (Danida) have

35
 在实施美洲开发银行政策中，特别强调的领域包括改善妇女就
业机会、教育、培训、推广和信贷的活动；旨在改善妇女地位和法
律地位的机构建设技术合作；针对妇女的暴力行为；以及关于妇女
参与的研究和调查。

为了促进其政策的实施，美洲开发银行在社会项目和可持续发
展部设立了一个中央妇女发展/性别部门，该部门由一名主管、三名
正式员工和五名长期顾问组成。 在北京世界妇女大会上，美洲开发
银行宣布将设立一个专门用于妇女领导力和代表性的基金，该基金
将为非政府组织的领导力培训和能力建设项目提供资金。与世界银
行一样，美洲开发银行也设立了一个性别咨询委员会，该委员会每
年举行一次会议，由学者、研究人员和来自民间社会
的重要女性组成，为性别问题提供指导和建议。 美洲开发银行
也正在对其实施的妇女发展项目和活动进行评估。

双边援助机构
从妇女发展到性别与发展方法的转变是由许多双边援助机构，特别
是北欧国家率先倡导和采纳的。 他们是第一个公开采用并实施性别
与发展政策以促进性别平等的机构。 大多数双边资助者认识到WID
方法的局限性，并在1990年代初过渡到GAD。

将性别问题纳入主流是大多数双边援助GAD政策的核心，重点
是通过发展援助促进性别平等。 所有项目都要求进行性别分析，并
努力将性别因素纳入其总体发展援助计划。 项目中内置了特殊的设
计功能，以通过在项目设计和实施中更多地使用GAD专家来促进妇
女的参与。 双边援助GAD政策还强调加强对工作人员和顾问的性别
敏感性和性别技能发展培训。 为了加强妇女利益的主流化，一些双
边机构，如丹麦国际发展援助署（丹麦国际发展援助署），已经

35
devised mechanisms for establishing quotas, earmarking funds for
women, and developing sector checklists.

Experience of DMC governments

Most DMC governments now have national policies and plans for action
to improve women’s economic, social, and political status. To assist
with the coordination and implementation of these policies and plans,
national machineries have been created as either stand-alone minis-
tries/departments of women’s affairs or, as part of other sectoral minis-
tries. Many DMC governments in the Asian and Pacific region are also
signatories of international conventions on the rights of women. To
date, 23 of the Bank’s DMCs have ratified the Convention on the Elimi-
nation of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Likewise, the
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action was unanimously endorsed,
and most of the Bank’s DMCs made commitments in Beijing to accel-
erate improving the status of women.
As follow-up action of the Beijing Conference, many DMCs are
currently in the process of implementing the commitments made and
targets set for women’s advancement by the year 2000. For example,
in the Philippines the 1996 General Appropriations Act (Section 27)
requires all departments, bureaus, offices, and agencies to set aside
5 percent of their 1996 appropriations to be used for projects designed
to address gender issues. The Philippines also has in place the National
Plan for Gender Responsive Development and the Women in
Development and Nation Building Act.
Many of the Bank’s other DMCs are also renewing their commit-
ment to women: Bangladesh is currently in the process of preparing a
National Policy and Plan of Action on women as part of its Beijing
follow-up activities; the Kyrgyz Republic is preparing to mobilize
resources and establish a mechanism to implement the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action; the PRC is to establish a monitor-
ing system on women’s conditions, and to improve laws and regula-
tions for the protection of the rights of women; the Pacific island states
have prepared a Pacific Plan of Action on Gender and are currently in
the process of developing concrete actions for implementation; India
will set up a Commissioner for Women’s Rights to act as a public
defender of women’s human rights; and Cambodia established a

36
设计了建立配额、为妇女拨款和制定部门清单的机制。

发展中国家政府的经验
大多数发展中国家政府现在都有国家政策和行动计划，以改善妇女
的经济、社会和政治地位。 为了协助协调和实施这些政策和计划，
已经建立了国家机制，要么是独立的妇女事务部，要么是其他部门
的一部分。 亚洲和太平洋地区的许多发展中国家政府也是关于妇女
权利的国际公约的签署国。 迄今为止，该行 23 个发展中国家已批
准《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》。同样，北京宣言和行动纲领
也获得一致通过，该行的大多数发展中国家在北京做出了承诺，以
加速改善妇女地位。

作为北京会议的后续行动，许多发展中国家目前正在实施为妇
女进步在 2000 年之前做出的承诺和设定的目标。 例如，在菲律宾
，1996 年的《一般拨款法》（第 27 条）要求所有部门、局、办公
室和机构将其 1996 年拨款的 5% 用于解决性别问题的项目。 菲律
宾还制定了《性别平等发展国家计划》和《妇女发展与国家建设法
》。

世界银行的许多其他发展中国家也正在重申对妇女的承诺：孟
加拉国目前正在制定一项关于妇女的国家政策和行动计划，作为其
对北京行动纲领的后续行动的一部分；吉尔吉斯共和国正在准备动
员资源并建立机制来实施北京宣言和行动纲领；中国将建立一个妇
女状况监测系统，并完善保护妇女权利的法律法规；太平洋岛国已
制定了《太平洋性别行动计划》，目前正在制定具体行动以实施该
计划；印度将设立一名妇女权利专员，作为妇女人权的公共辩护人
；柬埔寨建立了一个

36
Ministry of Women’s Affairs to coordinate and implement the National
Action Plan for Women. Similar activities are under way in many of the
Bank’s DMCs. Some DMCs have enacted legislation to specifically
address gender inequities such as the antidowry legislation in
Bangladesh and India, the Domestic Violence Act (1996) in Malaysia,
and the Anti-Rape Bill (1997) in the Philippines.

International agenda for women

A series of world conferences on women organized by the UN in 1975,
1980, 1985, and 1995 have produced an international agenda for women
accompanied by recommendations for action. At the 1995 UN Fourth
World Conference on Women held in Beijing, the largest UN conference
ever held, approximately 189 states were represented along with UN
bodies, aid agencies, and multilateral development finance institutions,
including the Bank.
The conference unanimously endorsed the Beijing Declaration and
Platform for Action as a global blueprint for women’s advancement.
Both documents, while not binding on governments, give new promi-
nence, force, and commitment to advancing the status of women by
the year 2000. The Platform for Action lists 12 critical areas of concern
for women (Box 6). Corresponding strategic objectives and actions to
be taken by governments, the international community, NGOs, and
the private sector for the removal of these obstacles are identified and
offered in the platform.
Most of the 12 critical areas of concern reinforce and give renewed
emphasis to previously identified concerns. However, the platform also
acknowledges and emphasizes some new concerns requiring atten-
tion that have particular significance for the Asian and Pacific region.
The platform affirms the rights of the girl child as an inalienable, integral,
and indivisible part of all human rights and fundamental freedoms;
domestic violence is recognized as a public issue and is transferred
from the private into the public domain; migrant women workers are
recognized as a vulnerable group; and women’s unremunerated work
is officially acknowledged with a call for its inclusion in the national
accounts.

37
妇女事务部负责协调和实施国家妇女行动计划。许多银行的 DMC
也在进行类似的活动。一些 DMC 制定了专门针对性别不平等的法
律，例如孟加拉国和印度的反嫁妆法、马来西亚的家庭暴力法 (199
6 年) 和菲律宾的反强奸法案 (1997 年)。

国际妇女议程
联合国在 1975 年、1980 年、1985 年和 1995 年组织了一系列世界
妇女大会，产生了国际妇女议程，并附带行动建议。 1995 年，联
合国在北京举行了第四届世界妇女大会，这是联合国历史上规模最
大的会议，约 189 个国家以及联合国机构、援助机构和多边发展融
资机构（包括世界银行）参加了会议。

会议一致通过了《北京宣言和行动纲领》，将其作为促进妇女
进步的全球蓝图。
这两份文件虽然没有对政府具有约束力，但它们为在 2000 年之前
提高妇女地位赋予了新的重要性、力量和承诺。 行动纲领列出了 1
2 个妇女关切的关键领域（方框 6）。 纲领中确定并提出了政府、
国际社会、非政府组织和私营部门为消除这些障碍而采取的相应战
略目标和行动。

12 个关键关切领域中的大多数加强并重新强调了先前确定的关
切。 然而，该纲领还承认并强调了一些需要关注的新问题，这些问
题对亚洲和太平洋地区具有特殊意义。

该纲领确认女孩的权利是所有人权和基本自由不可剥夺、不可分割
和不可分割的一部分；家庭暴力被认为是公共问题，并从私人领域
转移到公共领域；移徙女工被认为是弱势群体；妇女的无偿工作得
到正式承认，并呼吁将其纳入国民账户。

37
 Box 6: Platform for Action
Twelve Critical Areas of Concern
• poverty
• education
• health
• violence
• armed and other conflicts
• economic participation
• power sharing and decision making
• national and international machineries
• human rights
• mass media
• environment and development
• the girl child

The Platform for Action recommends that international develop-

ment finance institutions

(i) increase resources allocated to eliminating absolute poverty;

(ii) review the impact of structural adjustment programs on social
development by means of gender-sensitive social impact
assessments and safety nets;
(iii) support financial institutions that serve low-income, small-scale,
and micro-scale enterprises run by women entrepreneurs and
producers, in both the formal and informal sectors, through the
provision of capital and/or resources;
(iv) increase funding for the education and training needs of girls and
women;
(v) give higher priority to women’s health;
(vi) revise policies, procedures, and staffing to ensure that investments
and programs benefit women; and
(vii) allocate loans and grants to programs for implementing the
Platform for Action in developing countries.

38
 方框 6：行动纲领
十二个关键关注领域
贫困
教育
健康
暴力
武装冲突和其他冲突
经济参与
权力分享和决策
国家和国际机制
人权
大众传媒
环境与发展
女童

行动纲领建议国际发展融资机构

(i) 增加用于消除绝对贫困的资源；
(ii) 通过性别敏感的社会影响评估和安全网，审查结构调整计划对
社会发展的影响；

(iii) 支持为女性企业家和生产者经营的低收入、小型和微型企业提
供资金和/或资源的金融机构，无论是在正规部门还是非正规
部门；

(iv) 增加对女孩和妇女教育和培训需求的资金；

(v) 优先考虑妇女健康；
(vi) 修改政策、程序和人员配置，以确保投资和项目惠及妇女；以
及
(vii) 向发展中国家实施行动纲领的项目提供贷款和赠款。

38
The Bank’s revised policy
on gender and development
Rationale

T
he Bank and other development agencies have made consider-
able progress in the implementation of policies aiming to improve
the economic and social condition of women in the region.
Improvements in the education and health indicators for women evi-
dent throughout the region are the result of the combined efforts of
governments, NGOs, funding agencies such as the Bank, and women
themselves. While achievements are notable, more needs to be done
to accelerate the achievement of the goals and targets set for women
into the 21st century. The challenge ahead, for development actors such
as the Bank, lies in continued attention to chronic problems of limited
access to education, health care, decision making, financial services,
and other resources, as well as meeting the new challenges and
addressing the emerging problems for women in the region.
Since formulating its WID policy in 1985, the Bank’s approach to
dealing with WID issues has evolved from its cumulative experience,
along very similar lines to that of other development agencies. The
Bank has progressed from a WID to a GAD approach that allows gender
to be seen as a crosscutting issue influencing all social and economic
processes. A GAD approach combined with mainstreaming is being
promoted in the Bank and, to a large extent, is already adopted in
practice. Current Bank practices attempt to integrate gender issues in
the Bank’s macroeconomic, sector, and project work. The
mainstreaming of gender concerns in all projects rather than segregated

39
世行修订的性别与
发展政策

世
基本原理
行和其他发展机构在实施旨在改善该地区妇女经济和社会
状况的政策方面取得了相当大的进展。

该地区妇女教育和健康指标的改善是政府、非政府组织、世行等资
助机构以及妇女自身共同努力的结果。 虽然取得了显著成就，但仍
需付出更多努力，以加快实现为妇女在21世纪设定的目标和指标。
对世行等发展行动者来说，未来的挑战在于继续关注教育、医疗保
健、决策、金融服务和其他资源获取受限的长期问题，以及应对该
地区妇女面临的新挑战和新问题。

自1985年制定其WID政策以来，世行处理WID问题的做法在其积
累的经验基础上不断发展，与其他发展机构的做法非常相似。 世行
已从WID方法转变为GAD方法，这使得性别问题可以被视为影响所
有社会和经济进程的交叉问题。 世行正在推广将GAD方法与主流化
相结合，并且在很大程度上已经将其应用于实践。 世行目前的做法
试图将性别问题纳入其宏观经济、部门和项目工作。 将性别问题纳
入所有项目的主流，而不是将其隔离

39
stand-alone WID projects is now the preferred option, although in
special circumstances projects focusing exclusively on women con-
tinue to be promoted and processed. The revised OM section on WID
issued in January 1997 provides the operational steps to ensure that
gender considerations are addressed in all Bank operations.
In this respect, the Bank’s policy on WID is now out of date, as the
mainstreaming approach is not made explicit. Actual Bank practices
have moved beyond the policy. The revised policy on GAD, aside from
the change in name, will codify and give formal recognition to existing
Bank requirements and practices. It will also introduce new institu-
tional mechanisms for increasing and improving the Bank’s perfor-
mance and activities directed at improving the status of women. The
GAD strategy is based on consideration of social justice and gender
equity, as well as on substantial evidence30 that investments in women
are vital to achieving economic efficiency and growth.
The Bank’s policy on WID was formulated and adopted in 1985,
the year of the UN’s 3rd World Conference on Women held in Nairobi.
A revision of this policy is timely and follows the UN’s 4th World
Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995. During the intervening
decade since the policy was initially formulated, there have been sig-
nificant changes in the region, in the field of women in development,
in the issues and concerns of women, and in the Bank itself. Since the
adoption of the policy on WID the Bank has elevated gender concerns
into the mainstream of its strategic development agenda by including
the improvement of the status of women as one of its five strategic
development objectives.
A new policy31 is needed to (i) reflect the changing environment,
(ii) codify the Bank’s transition from WID to GAD, (iii) incorporate
current thinking on gender and development issues, (iv) increase the
number of projects directly benefiting women, and (v) introduce the
institutional mechanisms to fully operationalize the Bank’s strategic
development objective of improving the status of women. The Bank’s
GAD policy will

30 For example, World Bank. 1995. Toward Gender Equality: The Role of Public Policy.
Washington, DC.
31 The revised Policy on GAD will not necessarily require any modification to the Medium-
Term Strategic Framework. The revised Policy provides the policy and operational frame-
work for implementing the strategic objective of improving the status of women.

40
单独的WID项目现在是首选方案，尽管在特殊情况下，专门针对妇
女的项目仍在继续推广和实施。 1997年1月发布的关于WID的修订
后的OM部分提供了确保在所有世行业务中解决性别问题的操作步
骤。

在这方面，世行的 WID 政策已经过时，因为主流化方法没有明

确说明。 世行的实际做法已经超越了政策。 修订后的 GAD 政策除
了名称变更外，还将对世行现有的要求和做法进行编纂并给予正式
认可。 它还将引入新的体制机制，以提高和改善世行在改善妇女地
位方面的绩效和活动。 GAD 战略基于社会公平和性别平等的考虑，
以及大量证据30表明对妇女的投资对于实现经济效率和增长至关重
要。

世行的 WID 政策是在 1985 年制定的，当年是联合国在内罗毕

举行的第三届妇女问题世界大会。对该政策进行修订是及时的，并
遵循了 1995 年在北京举行的联合国第四届妇女问题世界大会。 在
该政策最初制定后的十年间，该地区、妇女发展领域、妇女问题和
关切以及世行本身都发生了重大变化。 自采用妇女发展政策以来，
世行已将性别问题纳入其战略发展议程的主流，并将改善妇女地位
列为其五个战略发展目标之一。

需要一项新的政策31来（i）反映不断变化的环境，（ii）将世行
从妇女发展向性别与发展过渡的转变编纂成法典，（iii）纳入当前
关于性别与发展问题的思考，（iv）增加直接惠及妇女的项目数量
，以及（v）引入制度机制以充分实现世行改善妇女地位的战略发
展目标。 世行的性别与发展政策将

30 例如，世界银行。1995 年。走向性别平等：公共政策的作用。
华盛顿特区。
31 修订后的 GAD 政策不一定需要对中期战略框架进行任何修改。修订后的政策为实施改善
妇女地位的战略目标提供了政策和运作框架。

40
 (i) provide the appropriate policy framework for the new approaches
and practices,
(ii) place direct emphasis on gender mainstreaming,
(iii) formulate procedures for operationalizing gender in Bank projects
to make it more explicit,
(iv) assist in building more effective operational approaches,
(v) provide the scope for addressing some of the new and emerging
issues for women in the region, and
(vi) introduce new institutional mechanisms for improving and
increasing the Bank’s performance and activities targeted at
improving the status of women.

Bank policy
The Bank’s policy on GAD will adopt mainstreaming as a key strategy
in promoting gender equity. The key elements of the Bank’s policy
will include the following:

• Gender sensitivity: to observe how Bank operations affect women

and men, and to take into account women’s needs and
perspectives in planning its operations.
• Gender analysis: to assess systematically the impact of a project
on men and women, and on the economic and social relationship
between them.
• Gender planning: to formulate specific strategies that aim to bring
about equal opportunities for men and women.
• Mainstreaming: to consider gender issues in all aspects of Bank
operations, accompanied by efforts to encourage women’s
participation in the decision-making process in development
activities.
• Agenda setting: to assist DMC governments in formulating
strategies to reduce gender disparities and in developing plans
and targets for women’s and girls’ education, health, legal rights,
employment, and income-earning opportunities.

The Bank will aim to operationalize its policy on GAD primarily

through mainstreaming gender considerations in its macroeconomic

41
 (i) 为新的方法和实践提供适当的政策框架，

(ii) 直接强调性别主流化，
(iii) 制定将性别纳入银行项目的程序，使其更加明确，

(iv) 协助建立更有效的运作方法，
(v) 为解决该地区妇女面临的一些新兴问题提供范围，以及

(vi) 引入新的制度机制，以改善和提高银行在改善妇女地位方面的
工作绩效和活动。

银行政策
银行的 GAD 政策将采用主流化作为促进性别平等的关键战略。 银
行政策的关键要素包括以下内容：

• 性别敏感度: 观察银行业务如何影响妇女和男子，并在规划其
业务时考虑妇女的需求和观点。

• 性别分析: 系统地评估项目对男子和妇女的影响，以及对他们
之间经济和社会关系的影响。

• 性别规划: 制定旨在为男子和妇女创造平等机会的具体战略。

• 主流化: 在银行业务的所有方面考虑性别问题，并努力鼓励妇
女参与发展活动中的决策过程。

• 议程设定: 协助发展中国家政府制定减少性别差距的战略，并
制定妇女和女孩教育、健康、法律权利、就业和收入机会的计
划和目标。

银行将努力通过将性别因素纳入其宏观经济政策来将其实施其
关于性别与发展的政策

41
and sector work, including policy dialogue, lending, and TA operations.
Increased attention will be given to addressing directly gender dispari-
ties, by designing a larger number of projects with GAD either as a
primary or secondary objective in health, education, agriculture, natu-
ral resource management, and financial services, especially microcredit,
while also ensuring that gender concerns are addressed in other Bank
projects, including those in the infrastructure sector. More specifically,
the Bank will

(i) provide assistance to DMCs in the areas of GAD policy support;

capacity building; and awareness, formulation, and
implementation of policies and programs directed at improving
the status of women;
(ii) facilitate gender analysis of proposed projects, including program
and sector loans, and ensure that gender issues are considered at
all appropriate stages of the project cycle, including identification,
preparation, appraisal, implementation, and evaluation;
(iii) assist its DMCs to implement commitments made at the Beijing
World Conference on Women to achieve the targets set for women
into the 21st century;
(iv) explore opportunities to directly address some of the new and
emerging issues for women in the region; and
(v) promote increased GAD awareness within the Bank through
training workshops and seminars, development of suitable
approaches, and staff guidelines to implement the revised policy
on GAD.

Operational approaches
Macroeconomic and sector work
Gender considerations will be included in the Bank’s macroeconomic,
sector, and programming work as specified in the Bank’s revised OM
section on WID. A country briefing paper on women will be prepared
as a background document to the COSS. The COSS will include
consideration of how the Bank intends to promote women’s develop-
ment in the country in the context of the strategy. Aside from

42
和部门工作，包括政策对话、贷款和技术援助业务。
将更加重视直接解决性别差距问题，通过设计更多以性别平等为主
要或次要目标的项目，涵盖健康、教育、农业、自然资源管理和金
融服务，特别是小额信贷，同时确保在其他银行项目中，包括基础
设施部门，也解决性别问题。 更具体地说，世界银行将

(i) 在性别平等政策支持、能力建设以及提高妇女地位的政策和方
案的意识、制定和实施方面，为发展中国家提供援助；

(ii) 促进对拟议项目的性别分析，包括项目和部门贷款，并确保在
项目周期的所有适当阶段，包括识别、准备、评估、实施和评
价，都考虑性别问题；(iii) 协助其发展中国家履行在北京世界
妇女大会上做出的承诺，实现为妇女进入21世纪设定
的目标；

(iv) 探索机会，直接解决该地区妇女面临的一些新兴问题；(v) 通过
培训研讨会和研讨会、制定适当的方法以及
员工指南来实施关于性别与发展（GAD）的修订政策，从而提高银
行内部对 GAD 的认识。

行动方法
宏观经济和部门工作
将根据银行关于 WID 的修订 OM 部分，将性别因素纳入银行的宏观
经济、部门和规划工作。将编制一份关于妇女的国家简报文件，作
为 COSS 的背景文件。COSS 将包括考虑银行如何在该国战略的背
景下促进妇女发展。除了

42
incorporating gender considerations in the main text of the COSS, a
separate gender strategy will be developed for the DMC and included
as an appendix to the COSS.
The CAP will specify the means by which the Bank’s operational
program will address and support the gender strategy. In DMCs where
gender disparities are marked, the Bank will attempt to design a lend-
ing strategy that addresses some of the gender disparities. For example,
in DMCs with low levels of education among women or low health
indicators for women, the lending program could include basic edu-
cation or basic health programs to address the gender gap. Sector stud-
ies will include gender indicators among the sectoral indicators, and
contain specific objectives and targets to promote gender equity. Like-
wise, greater efforts will be made to consult with women’s groups and
key women in the DMCs during strategy and programming missions.
Gender issues will be included in the general policy dialogue
conducted by the Bank with its DMCs, especially in those with acute
levels of gender inequality. Through policy dialogue the Bank can
ascertain the DMC government’s policies and programs on GAD, inform
the DMC of the Bank’s GAD policy, assess the respective areas of con-
cern, and discuss potential opportunities for the Bank to assist the DMC
in furthering their mutual GAD priorities and concerns.
Consistent with the Bank’s redefined role as a broad-based
development institution, greater emphasis will be given to institutional
development, policy support, and regional cooperation activities.
Opportunities to support DMCs’ development and implementation of
policies and programs to address improvements in women’s economic
and social status will be explored. Policy reform and capacity building
in GAD will be given particular attention. The Bank’s role as a project
financier will be integrated with that of a catalyst for addressing gen-
der concerns and gender inequities.
In both its policy-oriented work and broader research activities,
the Bank will increase its efforts to study the situation of women in the
region. Studies of the impact on women of economic reform programs
and adjustment policies, public expenditure reform, public enterprise
restructuring, public sector reforms, and program loans will be
promoted. Likewise, studies on the feminization of poverty, economic
implications of gender disparities, and the development of pilot

43
在 COSS 的正文中纳入性别因素外，还将为 DMC 制定一项单独的
性别战略，并将其作为附录纳入 COSS。

CAP 将具体说明银行的业务计划将通过何种方式解决和支持性
别战略。 在性别差距明显的 DMC 中，世行将尝试设计一种贷款策
略来解决一些性别差距。 例如，在女性受教育程度低或女性健康指
标低的 DMC 中，贷款项目可以包括基础教育或基础保健项目，以
缩小性别差距。部门研究将把性别指标纳入部门指标，并包含促进
性别平等的具体目标和指标。 同样，世行将在战略和规划任务期间
，更加努力地与 DMC 的妇女团体和关键女性进行协商。

性别问题将纳入世行与其 DMC 进行的一般政策对话，特别是在

性别不平等程度较高的 DMC 中。 通过政策对话，世行可以了解 DM
C 政府的 GAD 政策和计划，向 DMC 介绍世行的 GAD 政策，评估各
自关注的领域，并讨论世行协助 DMC 推进其共同 GAD 优先事项和
关注点的潜在机会。

与世行作为广泛的开发机构的重新定义角色相一致，将更加重
视体制发展、政策支持和区域合作活动。

将探索支持发展中国家制定和实施政策和方案的机会，以改善妇女
的经济和社会地位。 将特别关注性别与发展政策改革和能力建设。
世行作为项目融资者的作用将与解决性别问题和性别不平等的催化
剂作用相结合。

世行将在其政策导向的工作和更广泛的研究活动中，加强对该
地区妇女状况的研究。 将推动对经济改革方案和调整政策、公共支
出改革、国有企业重组、公共部门改革和项目贷款对妇女的影响进
行研究。 同样，关于贫困女性化、性别差距的经济影响以及试点项
目开发的研究

43
initiatives and best practices for advancing the status of women will be
conducted. Such studies may be carried out through the Bank’s
Economics and Development Resource Center and the RETA facility.

Loans and technical assistance

GAD will be actively promoted in both TA and loan operations. As
with the Bank’s economic and sector work, gender considerations will
constitute an essential element of project work. The Bank will pro-
mote the mainstreaming of gender considerations in projects, and gen-
der concerns will be addressed at all appropriate stages of the project
cycle from identification through postevaluation.
Special design features and strategies will be built into projects,
especially those with the potential to address GAD objectives, to facili-
tate and encourage women’s involvement, and to ensure tangible
benefits to women. The Bank will continue to devise special projects
targeting women, as well as stand-alone GAD projects to address glar-
ing gender disparities. While mainstreaming will be the preferred
approach, projects directed exclusively at women or projects with spe-
cial components for women may be warranted where the sociocul-
tural environment necessitates segregation of the sexes, or where
women need special attention to enable their inclusion in mainstream
projects.
The Bank will endeavor to increase the number of projects with
GAD as either a primary or secondary objective, especially projects in
health, education, agriculture, natural resource management, employ-
ment and income generation, and financial services (microfinance).
Special strategies will be included in the Bank’s health, education, and
agriculture projects to facilitate women’s inclusion and to address gen-
der disparities such as the provision of scholarships for girls; reserving
school places for girls; establishing single-sex classrooms; training
female teachers; reducing or subsidizing the direct and indirect costs
of girls’ education to encourage their participation; promoting com-
munity-based health services; training female health personnel and
female community health providers; campaigns, counseling, and
advisory services to address female-focused violence; campaigns to
contain the spread of HIV/AIDS among women; improving women’s
access to land; training of female agricultural extension workers;

44
将开展促进妇女地位的举措和最佳实践。 此类研究可通过世行经济
与发展资源中心和RETA设施进行。

贷款和技术援助
性别平等将积极地在技术援助和贷款业务中得到推广。 与世行的经
济和部门工作一样，性别因素将构成项目工作的重要组成部分。 世
行将促进性别因素在项目中的主流化，并在项目周期的所有适当阶
段，从识别到事后评估，解决性别问题。

将把特殊的设计特征和策略纳入项目，特别是那些有可能实现
性别平等目标的项目，以促进和鼓励妇女参与，并确保妇女获得切
实利益。 世行将继续设计针对妇女的特殊项目，以及独立的性别平
等项目，以解决明显的性别差距。 虽然将性别问题纳入主流将是首
选方法，但在社会文化环境需要性别隔离或妇女需要特别关注才能
参与主流项目的情况下，专门针对妇女的项目或包含妇女特殊成分
的项目可能是必要的。

世行将努力增加以性别平等与发展为主要或次要目标的项目数
量，特别是卫生、教育、农业、自然资源管理、就业和创收以及金
融服务（小额信贷）项目。

世行将在卫生、教育和农业项目中纳入特殊战略，以促进妇女的参
与并解决性别差距，例如为女孩提供奖学金；为女孩保留学校名额
；建立单性别教室；培训女教师；降低或补贴女孩教育的直接和间
接成本，以鼓励她们参与；促进社区卫生服务；培训女性卫生人员
和女性社区卫生工作者；开展针对女性暴力问题的宣传、咨询和咨
询服务；开展针对女性的艾滋病毒/艾滋病传播的宣传活动；改善妇
女获得土地的权利；培训女性农业推广人员；

44
supporting labor-saving technologies; and enhancing women’s access
to savings and credit services.
In the processing of new projects, including program and sector
loans, gender concerns will be addressed as part of the ISA, which is
now required for all Bank projects. Consultants’ terms of reference for
PPTAs and feasibility studies will provide for gender analysis as an
essential element of the ISA, and, if the ISA identifies important gender
issues in the project, these will be examined further through a detailed
social analysis, which will include a detailed gender analysis.32 Where
appropriate, gender mainstreaming strategies will be included in the
project design.
During project implementation, GAD objectives and components
will be systematically monitored and reported. Project completion and
postevaluation reports will describe gender-specific project objectives,
achievements, and their impact. The postevaluation report will assess
the impact of the project on women and describe how women benefi-
ciaries perceive the benefits of the project.

Institutional mechanisms
To accelerate the Bank’s performance and achievements in address-
ing gender issues, new institutional mechanisms are required together
with some additional resources and changes in skills mix. The sug-
gested mechanisms and institutional arrangements were developed
keeping in mind the current environment of limited resources. How-
ever, some additional resources will be needed for the implementa-
tion of the policy on GAD and for accelerated progress in achieving
the strategic objective concerning women.33

Gender and development plan of action

A Bankwide GAD plan of action will be developed to operationalize
the Bank’s strategic objective and policy on GAD, and to enable peri-
odic reviews of the implementation of the policy.

32 For details, see OM Section 47: Incorporation of Social Dimension in Bank Projects.
33 The Asian Development Fund VII Report of the Donors “urges” the Bank to “reinforce its
efforts to improve the status of women by increasing lending to targeted WID projects,
further mainstreaming gender considerations in all Bank operations, and deepening the
Bank’s understanding of gender issues. Adequate human and financial resources should be
allocated for this purpose” (January 1997, para. 29).

45
支持节省劳力的技术；并提高妇女获得储蓄和信贷服务的机会。

在处理新项目（包括项目和部门贷款）的过程中，性别问题将
作为 ISA 的一部分得到解决，而 ISA 现在是所有银行项目的必备条
件。 PPTAs 和可行性研究的顾问工作范围将规定性别分析作为 ISA
的重要组成部分，如果 ISA 在项目中确定了重要的性别问题，这些
问题将通过详细的社会分析进一步研究，其中将包括详细的性别分
析。32在适当的情况下，性别主流化战略将纳入项目设计。

在项目实施过程中，将对 GAD 目标和组成部分进行系统监测和

报告。 项目完成和项目后评估报告将描述针对性别的项目目标、成
就及其影响。 项目后评估报告将评估项目对妇女的影响，并描述妇
女受益者如何看待项目的益处。

体制机制
为了加速银行在解决性别问题的绩效和成就，需要新的体制机制，
以及一些额外的资源和技能组合的变化。建议的机制和体制安排是
在有限资源的当前环境下制定的。 然而，实施 GAD 政策和加速实
现有关妇女的战略目标，需要一些额外的资源。33

性别与发展行动计划
将制定一项全行 GAD 行动计划，以将银行的 GAD 战略目标和政策
付诸实施，并使政策实施情况能够定期审查。

32 详细信息，请参见 OM 第 47 节： 在银行项目中纳入社会维度。
33 亚洲开发基金第七期捐助者报告“敦促”银行“通过增加对目标 WID 项目的贷款，进一
步将性别因素纳入所有银行业务，并加深银行对性别问题的理解，来加强其改善妇女地
位的努力。 为此目的，应分配充足的人力和财力”（1997 年 1 月，第 29 段）。

45
 The introduction of the GAD plan of action will ensure that a more
systematic and coherent approach is adopted by the Bank to address
its GAD objective. The plan will include departmental GAD goals,
related to planned activities over a three-year period. It will be
developed in a participatory manner by OESD, in consultation with
departments and offices concerned, taking into account specific
sociocultural environments, the nature and character of individual sec-
tors, and the different circumstances of the DMCs. While addressing
cross-cutting gender issues, the departmental goals included in the plan
of action will reflect the Bank’s increased country focus, as documented
in COSSs.

Increased in-house gender and development capacity

The limited number of technical gender specialists is a serious con-
straint within the Bank to achieving a substantial increase in the activi-
ties directly addressing the improvement of the status of women. Like
other areas of expertise, GAD is a specialized academic and technical
area. The strategic perspective of gender analysis, including design of
projects, requires expert skills. If the Bank is to substantially increase
its activities in the GAD area, additional technical gender specialists
are required.
Currently, GAD is underresourced in comparison with the resources
provided to operationalize the Bank’s other strategic objectives.
Economic growth and poverty reduction are supported in all Bank
operations, while human development and environment are each sup-
ported by the divisions concerned. In contrast, the Bank’s current in-
house technical gender capacity consists of two gender specialists in
the Social Development Division (SOCD) who work on gender issues
for approximately 50 percent of their time. In addition, a few of the
staff occupying the economist (social sector) positions in Programs
Departments have technical gender skills, although their terms of ref-
erence do not focus exclusively on gender.
Hence, the Bank will increase its current staff complement of gen-
der specialists by two to assist in the operationalization of its strategic
development objective and the policy on GAD. The two additional
gender specialists, one assigned to work on countries of Region East
and one on countries of Region West, will primarily assist with and

46
 GAD 行动计划的引入将确保银行采用更系统、更连贯的方法来
实现其 GAD 目标。 该计划将包括部门 GAD 目标，涉及三年内计划
的活动。 该计划将由 OESD 以参与式方式制定，并与相关部门和办
公室协商，同时考虑具体的社会文化环境、各个部门的性质和特点
以及 DMC 的不同情况。在解决跨部门的性别问题的同时，行动计
划中包含的部门目标将反映银行日益增强的国家重点，如 COSS 中
所记录的那样。

内部性别与发展能力的提高
技术性别专家数量有限是银行在实现大幅增加直接针对改善妇女地
位的活动方面的一个严重制约因素。 与其他专业领域一样，性别与
发展（GAD）是一个专门的学术和技术领域。 性别分析的战略视角
，包括项目设计，需要专业技能。 如果该行要大幅增加其在 GAD
领域的活动，则需要额外的技术性别专家。

目前，与为实现该行其他战略目标而提供的资源相比，GAD 的
资源不足。
所有银行业务都支持经济增长和减贫，而人力发展和环境则分别得
到相关部门的支持。 相比之下，该行目前内部的技术性别能力包括
社会发展司（SOCD）的两名性别专家，他们大约 50% 的时间都在
处理性别问题。 此外，项目部中担任经济学家（社会部门）职位的
一些工作人员拥有技术性别技能，尽管他们的职责范围并不完全侧
重于性别。

因此，银行将把目前的性别专家队伍增加两人，以协助其实施
战略发展目标和性别与发展政策。这两位新增的性别专家，一位负
责东部地区国家，另一位负责西部地区国家，将主要协助和

46
advise on the identification, design, processing, and administration of
loans and TAs either targeting women or mainstreaming gender
concerns. They will also constitute part of the newly established
Resource Team on GAD, coordinated by SOCD, to promote and sup-
port expanded Bankwide activities on GAD.
The Resource Team, which will include the Bank’s current gender
specialists, the two new gender specialists, and some social sector spe-
cialists from the operational departments, will operate in a manner
similar to other existing resource teams within the Bank such as those
on capacity building and governance. Expanded in-house GAD
capacity will facilitate increased Bank activities in GAD, improvements
in GAD training, and a more systematic approach to implementing the
policy on GAD.

Enhancing gender capacity of DMCs’ executing agencies

The review of some of the Bank’s ongoing projects under the RETA
Review of Performance of WID and Poverty Reduction Efforts in Bank-
Financed Projects34 highlighted the need for strengthening the gender
aspects of project implementation and administration. It was found
that components of projects or mechanisms to facilitate women’s par-
ticipation were either inadequately implemented or, sometimes, not
implemented at all. The main reason was the lack of technical gender
capacity in executing and implementing agencies and in the Bank’s
resident missions.
To address this issue, the Bank will process a RETA on Enhancing
Gender Capacity Building of DMCs’ Executing Agencies.35 The RETA,
to be carried out over a three-year period, will include DMCs where a
large number of projects focusing on women are currently under
implementation. Through the RETA, the Bank will place local gender
specialists in the selected DMCs to help executing agencies implement
projects focusing on women, while simultaneously building and
strengthening their institutional gender capacity. The terms of refer-
ence of the local gender specialists will include (i) implementation

34 TA No. 5572, for $450,000, approved on 23 February 1994. A total of 45 projects in the
agriculture, education, population, health, sanitation, and industry sectors were reviewed.
35 At the RETA Screening Committee Meeting of 28 January 1997, concept clearance was ob-
tained. It is expected that untied external resources of $1 million will be provided by Den-
mark to finance the RETA on a pilot basis for a three-year period.

47
就针对妇女或将性别问题纳入主流的贷款和技术援助的识别、设计
、处理和管理提供咨询。 他们也将成为由社会发展协调局协调的新
成立的性别与发展资源小组的一部分，以促进和支持银行范围内扩
大性别与发展活动。

该资源小组将包括银行现有的性别专家、两位新的性别专家以
及来自业务部门的一些社会部门专家，其运作方式类似于银行内其
他现有的资源小组，例如能力建设和治理资源小组。 扩大内部性别
与发展能力将促进银行在性别与发展方面的活动增加、性别与发展
培训的改进以及实施性别与发展政策的更加系统化的方法。

增强发展中国家执行机构的性别能力
对世界银行正在进行的一些项目进行的回顾，即 RETA 对世界银行
资助项目中 WID 和减贫工作绩效的回顾34，强调了加强项目实施和
管理的性别方面的必要性。 发现，项目组成部分或促进妇女参与的
机制要么实施不足，要么有时根本没有实施。主要原因是执行和实
施机构以及世界银行驻地代表团缺乏技术性别能力。

为了解决这个问题，世界银行将处理一项关于增强发展中国家
执行机构的性别能力建设的 RETA。35这项 RETA 将在三年内进行，
将包括目前正在实施大量针对妇女项目的 DMC。 通过 RETA，世界
银行将在选定的 DMC 中安置当地性别专家，帮助执行机构实施针
对妇女的项目，同时建设和加强其机构性别能力。 当地性别专家的
职责范围将包括（i）实施

34 TA 编号 5572，金额为 450,000 美元，于 1994 年 2 月 23 日批准。 共审查了农业、教育

、人口、卫生、环境卫生和工业等部门的 45 个项目。
35 在 1997 年 1 月 28 日的 RETA 筛选委员会会议上，获得了概念审批。 预计丹麦将提供 100
万美元的无附加条件外部资源，以试点方式为 RETA 提供三年期的资金。

47
assistance to executing agencies; (ii) gender capacity training for
executing agencies and for resident mission staff; (iii) close monitor-
ing of projects focusing on women; (iv) active participation in the
in-country aid coordination group on gender; (v) liaison with the gov-
ernment, especially the government’s focal point on women; and
(vi) maintaining close links with in-country women’s NGOs.

Umbrella RETA for gender and development initiatives

Factors such as the average size of Bank loans; limited gender capacity
in the DMCs to conceptualize, design, and implement projects targeted
at women; and, to some extent, the Bank’s own inexperience in
addressing gender objectives contribute to the difficulties in achieving
substantial increases, at least in the short term, in the Bank’s program
focusing on women. Combined with these factors, the nature and scale
of Bank activities do not always lend themselves easily to supporting
small initiatives especially directed at assisting women.
Under these circumstances, a significant increase in the number of
Bank loans and activities addressing gender objectives is unlikely in
the short term. In light of these factors, as well as the limited Bank
resources currently allocated to GAD, and the absence of a depart-
ment or division with responsibility for implementing the GAD strate-
gic objective, the Bank intends to establish an umbrella RETA through
which small GAD initiatives of the Bank, and those of governments
and NGOs, can be funded on a grant basis.
A RETA of this nature will provide the Bank with opportunities to
(i) fund small projects and GAD initiatives at low cost, requiring minimal
processing and Bank resources; (ii) make funds available to operational
departments to pilot-test small GAD initiatives that have potential for
scaling up or replication; (iii) build and strengthen the institutional
gender capacity of governments and women’s NGOs in DMCs that
have potential to become involved in Bank projects; (iv) support ini-
tiatives to address some of the new and emerging issues for women in
the region that may be difficult to address within the context of the
Bank’s lending and TA operations; (v) cofinance GAD initiatives with
other development agencies; (vi) develop GAD best-practice case stud-
ies; (vii) generate goodwill within the GAD and NGO community;
(viii) generate positive exposure for its support of GAD; and (ix) achieve

48
对执行机构的援助；（ii）对执行机构和驻地特派团工作人员进行
性别能力培训；（iii）密切监测以妇女为中心的项目；（iv）积极
参与国家性别援助协调小组；（v）与政府，特别是政府的妇女问
题协调机构保持联系；（vi）与国内妇女非政府组织保持密切联系
。

性别与发展倡议的伞形 RETA
诸如银行贷款的平均规模；发展中国家在为妇女制定、设计和实施
项目方面的有限性别能力；以及在一定程度上，银行自身在解决性
别目标方面的经验不足，这些因素都导致在短期内实现银行妇女项
目实质性增长的困难。 结合这些因素，银行活动的性质和规模并不
总是容易支持小型倡议，尤其是那些旨在帮助妇女的倡议。

在这种情况下，短期内银行贷款和解决性别目标的活动数量大
幅增加是不可能的。 鉴于这些因素，以及目前分配给 GAD 的银行
资源有限，以及没有负责实施 GAD 战略目标的部门或部门，银行打
算建立一个伞形 RETA，通过该 RETA，银行的小型 GAD 倡议以及
政府和非政府组织的倡议可以获得赠款资助。

这种性质的 RETA 将为银行提供机会：（i）以低成本资助小型

项目和 GAD 计划，所需处理和银行资源最少；（ii）为业务部门提
供资金，以试点测试具有扩大或复制潜力的 GAD 小型计划；（iii）
在 DMC 中建立和加强政府和妇女非政府组织的机构性别能力，这
些机构有可能参与银行项目；（iv）支持解决该地区妇女面临的一
些新兴问题的举措，这些问题可能难以在银行的贷款和技术援助业
务范围内解决；（v）与其他发展机构共同资助 GAD 计划；（vi）
开发 GAD 最佳实践案例研究；（vii）在 GAD 和非政府组织界赢得
好感；（viii）为其对 GAD 的支持产生积极影响；以及（ix）实现

48
an overall increase in its GAD activities. In essence, a RETA of this
nature has the potential to provide the Bank with large returns for a
minimal investment.
The RETA, which will be processed under standard Bank
procedures, will pilot-test initiatives along similar lines to the Bank’s
ongoing RETA on Facilitating Capacity-Building and Participation
Activities,36 which provides financing of small initiatives. In a similar
manner, the GAD RETA will provide funds to operational departments
to pilot GAD initiatives that may have potential for scaling up or repli-
cation, for sector work on GAD, for stakeholder workshops during
project processing, and for other selective project processing activi-
ties. The GAD RETA will also provide funds for similar initiatives by
DMC governments and women’s NGOs.
Cofinancing of the GAD RETA will be explored with governments
and other development agencies particularly interested in cofinancing
the Bank’s GAD activities.37 Clear guidelines for the operation of the
RETA to ensure transparency will be established, with SOCD having
primary responsibility for its processing and administration. A com-
mittee to oversee the operation of the RETA and to screen proposals
and submissions will also be established.

Database and manual on best practices in GAD

To assist the Bank in operationalizing its GAD strategic objective and
implement the policy on GAD, the Bank is developing a database on
GAD best practices for use in training of both Bank staff and DMC
officials. Examples of best practice and case studies will be collected,
compiled, and disseminated to assist with promoting greater attention
to gender concerns, and to provide concrete examples of design fea-
tures and mechanisms that can be built into mainstream projects to
enhance women’s access and benefits. Some of the successful initiatives
funded under the GAD umbrella RETA will be included in the data-
base for dissemination within the Bank and the region.
A manual/handbook on GAD for use by Bank staff and consult-
ants that provides guidelines for implementing the revised policy and
designing projects addressing GAD is currently being developed. The

36 TA No. 5692, for $300,000, approved on 19 July 1996.

37 Tentative financing has been offered through the Japan Special Fund.

49
其 GAD 活动的总体增长。 从本质上讲，这种性质的 RETA 有可能为
银行提供微薄投资的巨大回报。

RETA 将按照银行标准程序进行处理，将试点测试类似于银行正
在进行的关于促进能力建设和参与活动的 RETA 的倡议，36该倡议为
小型倡议提供资金。 同样，GAD RETA 将为业务部门提供资金，以
试点可能具有扩大或复制潜力的 GAD 倡议，用于 GAD 的部门工作
，用于项目处理期间的利益相关者研讨会，以及其他选择性项目处
理活动。 GAD RETA 还将为 DMC 政府和妇女非政府组织的类似倡
议提供资金。

将与特别有兴趣共同资助银行 GAD 活动的政府和其他发展机构

探讨 GAD RETA 的共同融资。37将制定明确的 RETA 操作指南以确保
透明度，SOCD 主要负责其处理和管理。 还将成立一个委员会，负
责监督 RETA 的运作，并筛选提案和提交材料。

关于 GAD 最佳实践的数据库和手册
为了协助银行实现其 GAD 战略目标并实施 GAD 政策，银行正在开
发一个关于 GAD 最佳实践的数据库，用于培训银行员工和 DMC 官
员。 将收集、整理和传播最佳实践和案例研究的例子，以帮助促进
对性别问题的更多关注，并提供具体的设计特征和机制的例子，这
些特征和机制可以融入主流项目，以增强妇女的获取和收益。 在 G
AD 伞形 RETA 下资助的一些成功举措将被纳入数据库，以便在银行
和该地区传播。

目前正在开发一本供银行员工和顾问使用的关于 GAD 的手册/指

南，该手册/指南为实施修订后的政策和设计解决 GAD 的项目提供
指导。该

36 TA 编号 5692，金额 300,000 美元，于 1996 年 7 月 19 日批准。

37 日本特别基金已提供初步融资。

49
manual will include examples of best practices and suggestions for
strategies and actions. Some of the best practices in GAD may also be
packaged into various forms such as hard copy, videos, electronic
network, etc. to suit different client user and target groups.

External forum on gender

The Bank will establish an External Forum on Gender to facilitate dia-
logue between the Bank and external groups on gender issues. A group
of approximately 10–15 key GAD experts from various fields (govern-
ments, NGOs, academia, civil society) will be convened periodically
to enable the Bank to maintain dialogue with external groups on its
GAD policy and activities. Financing for this activity could be sourced
from the umbrella RETA on GAD.
Through this mechanism, the Bank will regularly tap into current
thinking on gender issues and maintain an ongoing dialogue with key
GAD experts and NGOs from the Bank’s member countries.

Aid coordination on gender

The Bank will actively seek opportunities to cooperate with other
development agencies on projects aimed at improving gender equity,
through mechanisms such as cofinancing, and through information
sharing. Greater efforts will be placed on interagency coordination and
on coordination with bilateral aid sources both at headquarters and at
the field level. Opportunities for cofinancing regionally based activi-
ties will be explored.

Policy review and evaluation

An overall review and evaluation of the policy on GAD will be con-
ducted five years after its adoption to assess implementation experi-
ence and overall impacts. A Board information paper summarizing the
results will be prepared. An interim report on the status of implemen-
tation and progress will also be prepared for submission to the Bank’s
Board of Directors two years after the adoption of the policy.

Responsibility for GAD

The responsibility for implementing the Bank’s policy on GAD rests
with the Programs and Projects Departments and OESD. Assistance

50
手册将包括最佳实践的例子以及关于策略和行动的建议。 一些 GAD
的最佳实践也可以打包成各种形式，例如纸质版、视频、电子网络
等，以适应不同的客户用户和目标群体。

性别问题外部论坛
银行将建立一个性别问题外部论坛，以促进银行与外部群体之间关
于性别问题的对话。 将定期召集一个由来自不同领域（政府、非政
府组织、学术界、民间社会）的约 10-15 名主要 GAD 专家组成的专
家组，使银行能够与外部群体就其 GAD 政策和活动保持对话。 这
项活动的资金可以来自 GAD 的伞形 RETA。

通过这种机制，银行将定期了解当前关于性别问题的思考，并
与银行成员国的关键 GAD 专家和非政府组织保持持续对话。

性别方面的援助协调
世界银行将积极寻求机会，通过联合融资等机制以及信息共享，与
其他发展机构合作开展旨在改善性别平等的项目。 将更加重视机构
间协调以及与双边援助来源在总部和实地层面的协调。 将探索联合
融资区域性活动的可能性。

政策审查和评估
在该政策通过五年后，将对性别与发展政策进行全面审查和评估，
以评估实施经验和总体影响。 将编写一份总结结果的董事会信息文
件。 在该政策通过两年后，还将编写一份关于实施情况和进展的中
期报告，提交给世界银行董事会。

性别与发展责任
世界银行性别与发展政策的实施责任由项目和项目部以及 OESD 承
担。援助

50
with implementation of the policy will be provided by the Resource
Team on GAD. Overall responsibility for coordinating and monitoring
Bankwide GAD activities will rest with OESD, whose views and guid-
ance will be solicited on the coverage of GAD aspects in all Bank
activities.

Bankwide resource implications

of the revised policy
The resource implications of the policy on GAD are moderate, as the
Bank has, to a large extent, already made the transition from WID to
GAD. The mainstreaming approach codified in the policy is already
being implemented within the current staffing and resource ceilings.
The integration of gender considerations into the Bank’s macroeco-
nomic and sector work, particularly in the COSS, together with the
preparation of the WID CBPs and WID strategies, is already being imple-
mented with the assistance of the economists (social sector) in the
Programs Departments.
More systematic integration of gender concerns throughout the
project cycle, including gender analysis of proposed projects, is
increasingly undertaken, with the assistance of consultant gender spe-
cialists. However, to substantially increase the Bank’s GAD activities,
two additional gender technical specialists are required.
Aside from the two additional gender specialists required to imple-
ment the policy on GAD, the main resource implications relate to staff
time rather than to funding implications. Staff time will be required for
(i) coordinating and preparing the Bankwide GAD action plan,
(ii) processing and administering the RETA on Enhancing Gender
Capacity in Executing Agencies and the umbrella RETA for GAD initia-
tives, (iii) developing a database and manual on GAD best practices,
and (iv) convening the External Forum on Gender. Funding for the
two RETAs will be mobilized externally through cofinancing from aid
sources interested in specifically supporting the Bank’s GAD initia-
tives. The preparation of the database on GAD best practices is already
under way. The additional staff time required will be provided through
the Bank’s newly established Resource Team on GAD, which will
include the two additional gender specialists.

51
政策实施将由 GAD 资源团队提供。 OESD 负责协调和监督全行 GA
D 活动，其意见和指导将用于所有银行活动中 GAD 方面的覆盖范围
。

修订政策的全行资源影响
该政策对 GAD 的资源影响适中，因为银行在很大程度上已经从 WID
过渡到 GAD。 政策中规定的主流化方法已经在现有的人员编制和
资源上限内实施。

将性别因素纳入银行的宏观经济和部门工作，特别是在 COSS 中，
以及编制 WID CBP 和 WID 战略，已经在项目部的经济学家（社会
部门）的协助下实施。

在项目周期的各个阶段更加系统地整合性别问题，包括对拟议
项目的性别分析，在咨询性别专家的协助下越来越多地进行。 然而
，为了大幅增加银行的性别与发展活动，需要两名额外的性别技术
专家。

除了实施性别与发展政策所需的两位额外性别专家外，主要资
源影响与人员时间有关，而不是资金影响。 人员时间将用于(i) 协调
和准备全行性别与发展行动计划，

(ii) 处理和管理关于加强执行机构性别能力的 RETA 和关于性别与发

展倡议的伞形 RETA，(iii) 开发性别与发展最佳实践数据库和手册，
以及 (iv) 召集性别问题外部论坛。两项 RETA 的资金将通过来自对
银行性别与发展倡议提供具体支持的援助来源的联合融资从外部筹
集。 性别与发展最佳实践数据库的准备工作已经开始。所需的人员
时间将通过银行新成立的性别与发展资源团队提供，该团队将包括
两位额外的性别专家。

51
Appendix
Table 1: Population and Health; Education by Male/Female 54

Table 2: Economic Activity; Environment by Male/Female 56

Figure 1: Earned Income Share, 1994 58

Figure 2: Earned Income Share, 1993 59

53
附录
表 1：按性别分列的人口与健康；教育 54

表 2：按性别分列的经济活动；环境 56

图 1：1994 年的收入份额 58

图 2：1993 年的收入份额 59

53
 Statistics on gender
Table 1: Population and Health; Education by Male/Female

Population and Health

Maternal
Mortality Life Expectancy at Adult Literacy
Rate (per Birth (years), 1994 Rate (%), 1994
100,000 live
Country births, 1990
Female Male Female Male
Bangladesh 850.0 56.5 56.3 24.3 48.4
Bhutan 1,600.0 53.2 49.8 - -
Cambodia 900.0 - - - -
China, People’s Rep. of 95.0 71.1 66.9 70.9 89.6
Fiji Islands - 74.1 69.9 89.2 93.7
India 570.0 61.4 61.1 36.1 64.5
Indonesia 650.0 65.3 61.8 77.1 89.4
Kazakhstan - 72.3 62.6 97.5 97.5
Kyrgyz Republic - 72.1 63.3 97.0 97.0
Lao PDR 650.0 53.3 50.3 42.7 68.6
Malaysia 80.0 73.5 69.0 77.5 88.2
Maldives - 61.5 64.2 92.9 93.1
Mongolia 240.0 c 65.8 63.0 75.8 87.9
Myanmar 580.0 60.0 56.8 76.8 88.6
Nepal 1,500.0 54.9 55.8 12.8 39.7
Pakistan 340.0 63.3 61.3 23.3 49.0
Papua New Guinea 930.0 57.3 55.8 60.7 79.8
Philippines 280.0 68.9 65.2 93.9 94.8
Solomon Islands - - - - -
Sri Lanka 140.0 74.6 70.0 86.9 93.2
Thailand 200.0 72.2 66.8 90.7 95.6
Uzbekistan 70.7 64.2 97.2 97.2
Vanuatu - - - - -
Viet Nam 160.0 68.1 63.6 89.9 95.7
All developing countries 471.0 63.5 60.6 60.3 78.4

a UNESCO, 1995. World Education Report. Estimated number of adult illiterates (15 years
and over) expressed as a percentage of the population in the corresponding age-group.

54
 性别统计
表 1：按性别分列的人口与健康；教育

人口与健康
孕产妇
死亡率 预期寿命 成人识字率
率（每出生（年），1994 年率（%），1994 年
100,000 活产
国家 出生，1990 年
女性男性 女性男性
孟加拉国 850.0 56.5 56.3 24.3 48.4
不丹 1,600.0 53.2 49.8 - -
柬埔寨 900.0 - - - -
中国 95.0 71.1 66.9 70.9 89.6
斐济群岛 - 74.1 69.9 89.2 93.7
印度 570.0 61.4 61.1 36.1 64.5
印度尼西亚 650.0 65.3 61.8 77.1 89.4
哈萨克斯坦 - 72.3 62.6 97.5 97.5
吉尔吉斯共和国 - 72.1 63.3 97.0 97.0
老挝人民民主共和国 650.0 53.3 50.3 42.7 68.6
马来西亚 80.0 73.5 69.0 77.5 88.2
马尔代夫 - 61.5 64.2 92.9 93.1
蒙古 240.0 c 65.8 63.0 75.8 87.9
缅甸 580.0 60.0 56.8 76.8 88.6
尼泊尔 1,500.0 54.9 55.8 12.8 39.7
巴基斯坦 340.0 63.3 61.3 23.3 49.0
巴布亚新几内亚 930.0 57.3 55.8 60.7 79.8
菲律宾 280.0 68.9 65.2 93.9 94.8
所罗门群岛 - - - - -
斯里兰卡 140.0 74.6 70.0 86.9 93.2
泰国 200.0 72.2 66.8 90.7 95.6
乌兹别克斯坦 70.7 64.2 97.2 97.2
瓦努阿图 - - - - -
越南 160.0 68.1 63.6 89.9 95.7
所有发展中国家 471.0 63.5 60.6 60.3 78.4

a 联合国教科文组织，1995年。世界教育报告。估计成年文盲人数（15岁及以上）占相应年龄组人口
的百分比。

54
 Education
Combined
Estimated Adult Gross Primary Gross Secondary Primary, Secondary
Illiteracy Rate Enrollment Ratio Enrollment Ratio and Tertiary Gross
(%), 1995a (%) 1993 b (%) 1993b Enrollment Ratio,
(%) 1994
Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male
50.6 73.9 83.0 71.0 25.0 12.0 34.0 45.0
43.8 71.9 31.0 19.0 7.0 2.0 - -
- - - - - - - -
10.1 27.3 125.0 116.0 59.0 48.0 55.0 61.0
6.2 10.7 128.0 127.0 59.0 62.0 78.0 80.0
34.5 62.3 113.0 90.0 60.0 37.0 47.0 63.0
10.4 22.0 116.0 113.0 47.0 39.0 59.0 65.0
0.3 0.5 - - - - 75.0 71.0
0.3 0.5 - - - - 74.0 71.0
30.6 55.6 112.0 84.0 27.0 17.0 42.0 58.0
10.9 21.9 93.0 94.0 58.0 62.0 63.0 61.0
6.7 7.0 - - - - 70.0 70.0
11.4 22.8 96.0 100.0 - - 59.0 45.0
11.3 22.3 107.0 104.0 23.0 23.0 47.0 48.0
59.1 86.0 121.0 81.0 47.0 24.0 42.0 68.0
50.0 75.6 59.0 31.0 29.0 13.0 25.0 50.0
19.0 37.3 78.0 66.0 15.0 10.0 34.0 41.0
5.0 5.7 113.0 111.0 71.0 75.0 80.0 75.0
99.0 81.0 19.0 12.0 - -
6.6 12.8 109.0 105.0 71.0 78.0 68.0 65.0
4.0 8.4 92.0 88.0 34.0 32.0 53.0 53.0
0.2 0.4 - - - - 71.0 75.0
- - - - - -
3.5 8.8 105.0 99.0 43.0 40.0 52.0 57.0
51.6 60.3

b Asian Development Bank. 1995. Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries.
c Ministry of Population Policy and Labor, State Statistical Office, 1993.

55
 教育
综合
估计成年 小学总入学率 初中总入学率 小学、初中
文盲率 入学率 入学率 和高等教育总入学率
(%)，1995年 a (%) 1993年 b (%) 1993年 b 入学率，
(%) 1994
女性男性 女性男性 女性男性 女性男性
50.6 73.9 83.0 71.0 25.0 12.0 34.0 45.0
43.8 71.9 31.0 19.0 7.0 2.0 - -
- - - - - - - -
10.1 27.3 125.0 116.0 59.0 48.0 55.0 61.0
6.2 10.7 128.0 127.0 59.0 62.0 78.0 80.0
34.5 62.3 113.0 90.0 60.0 37.0 47.0 63.0
10.4 22.0 116.0 113.0 47.0 39.0 59.0 65.0
0.3 0.5 - - - - 75.0 71.0
0.3 0.5 - - - - 74.0 71.0
30.6 55.6 112.0 84.0 27.0 17.0 42.0 58.0
10.9 21.9 93.0 94.0 58.0 62.0 63.0 61.0
6.7 7.0 - - - - 70.0 70.0
11.4 22.8 96.0 100.0 - - 59.0 45.0
11.3 22.3 107.0 104.0 23.0 23.0 47.0 48.0
59.1 86.0 121.0 81.0 47.0 24.0 42.0 68.0
50.0 75.6 59.0 31.0 29.0 13.0 25.0 50.0
19.0 37.3 78.0 66.0 15.0 10.0 34.0 41.0
5.0 5.7 113.0 111.0 71.0 75.0 80.0 75.0
99.0 81.0 19.0 12.0 - -
6.6 12.8 109.0 105.0 71.0 78.0 68.0 65.0
4.0 8.4 92.0 88.0 34.0 32.0 53.0 53.0
0.2 0.4 - - - - 71.0 75.0
- - - - - -
3.5 8.8 105.0 99.0 43.0 40.0 52.0 57.0
51.6 60.3

b 亚洲开发银行。1995年。亚洲和太平洋发展中国家主要指标。
c 人口政策和劳动部，国家统计局，1993年。

55
 Table 2: Economic Activity; Environment by Male/Female
Economic Activity
Women’s Female Female Adult
Share of Unpaid Economic Economic
Adult Labor Family Activity Activity Rate
Force Workers Rate Rate (%), 1995a
(age 15 and (as % of (as % of
Country above, 1990)total, 1990)male, 1995)
Female Male
Bangladesh 42.0 6.0 76.0 66.0 87.0
Bhutan 39.0 - 66.0 58.0 90.0
Cambodia 54.0 - 104.0 83.0 87.0
China, People’s Rep. of 45.0 - 87.0 74.0 86.0
Fiji Islands 23.0 20.0 39.0 32.0 82.0
India 31.0 - 50.0 41.0 85.0
Indonesia 39.0 66.0 65.0 53.0 82.0
Kazakhstan 91.0 82.0 60.0 76.0
Kyrgyz Republic - 84.0 60.0 74.0
Lao PDR 47.0 - 86.0 75.0 89.0
Malaysia 64.0 59.0 47.0 81.0
Maldives 42.0 29.0 77.0 65.0 83.0
Mongolia 46.0 - 88.0 73.0 84.0
Myanmar 44.0 - 76.0 66.0 88.0
Nepal 40.0 55.0 68.0 57.0 86.0
Pakistan 24.0 33.0 38.0 32.0 85.0
Papua New Guinea 42.0 - 76.0 67.0 87.0
Philippines 37.0 53.0 60.0 48.0 82.0
Solomon Islands - - 93.0 82.0 89.0
Sri Lanka 34.0 56.0 54.0 41.0 78.0
Thailand 64.0 87.0 74.0 86.0
Uzbekistan - - 84.0 61.0 74.0
Vanuatu 31.0 - - 79.0 89.0
Viet Nam 50.0 - 94.0 75.0 84.0
developing countries 39.0 48.0 67.0

a The World’s Women: Trends and Statistics, 1997 http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/

gender/5-1asi.htm
b UNESCO, 1995. World Education Report.
c United Nations, 1995. The World’s Women: Trends and Statistics.

56
 表 2：按性别分列的经济活动；环境
经济活动
妇女 女性 女性 成年人
所占比例 无偿 经济 经济
成年人劳动力 家庭 活动 活动率
劳动力 工人 率 率（%），1995 a
（15岁及 （占 （占
国家 以上，1990）总计，1990）男性，1995）
女性男性
孟加拉国 42.0 6.0 76.0 66.0 87.0
不丹 39.0 - 66.0 58.0 90.0
柬埔寨 54.0 - 104.0 83.0 87.0
中国 45.0 - 87.0 74.0 86.0
斐济群岛 23.0 20.0 39.0 32.0 82.0
印度 31.0 - 50.0 41.0 85.0
印度尼西亚 39.0 66.0 65.0 53.0 82.0
哈萨克斯坦 91.0 82.0 60.0 76.0
吉尔吉斯共和国 - 84.0 60.0 74.0
老挝人民民主共和国 47.0 - 86.0 75.0 89.0
马来西亚 64.0 59.0 47.0 81.0
马尔代夫 42.0 29.0 77.0 65.0 83.0
蒙古 46.0 - 88.0 73.0 84.0
缅甸 44.0 - 76.0 66.0 88.0
尼泊尔 40.0 55.0 68.0 57.0 86.0
巴基斯坦 24.0 33.0 38.0 32.0 85.0
巴布亚新几内亚 42.0 - 76.0 67.0 87.0
菲律宾 37.0 53.0 60.0 48.0 82.0
所罗门群岛 - - 93.0 82.0 89.0
斯里兰卡 34.0 56.0 54.0 41.0 78.0
泰国 64.0 87.0 74.0 86.0
乌兹别克斯坦 - - 84.0 61.0 74.0
瓦努阿图 31.0 - - 79.0 89.0
越南 50.0 - 94.0 75.0 84.0
发展中国家 39.0 48.0 67.0

a世界妇女：趋势与统计，1997 http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/
gender/5-1asi.htm
b 联合国教科文组织，1995 年。世界教育报告。
c 联合国，1995 年。世界妇女：趋势与统计。

56
 Economic Activity Environment
Percentage Distribution of Labour Force By Sector, Estimated Number of
1990 b Urban Women
Affected by Lack ofc
Safe Sanitation
Agriculture Industry Services Drinking Services
Water (000s) (000s)
Female Male Female Male Female Male
73.6 59.3 19.1 14.5 7.3 26.2 5,012.0 4,930.0
98.0 91.6 0.4 1.3 1.6 7.1 15.0 8.0
78.3 68.7 7.5 7.5 14.2 23.8 - -
76.1 69.1 13.3 16.5 10.6 14.4 18,842.0 -
- -
74.3 59.3 14.8 16.6 10.9 24.1 14,129.0 56,517.0
56.4 54.4 12.5 14.3 31.1 31.3 17,247.0 5,572.0
15.3 28.1 24.8 37.3 60.0 34.6 - -
27.8 35.8 22.5 30.3 49.6 34.0 - -
81.0 75.5 5.0 7.4 14.1 16.9 211.0 279.0
25.6 28.3 22.7 23.4 51.8 48.3 - -
28.1 35.3 52.0 16.0 19.9 48.7
30.3 33.5 22.0 23.0 47.8 43.5 - -
77.5 70.0 8.7 10.7 13.7 19.3 1,089.0 2,594.0
98.0 90.7 0.1 0.4 1.9 9.0 338.0 655.0
72.3 45.3 12.8 20.3 14.9 34.3 3,177.0 8,296.0
- -
30.8 54.4 13.6 16.3 55.6 29.3 - 2,789.0
- -
51.0 47.2 23.0 19.8 26.0 33.0 357.0 572.0
65.1 63.2 12.2 15.5 22.7 21.3 2,064.0 1,001.0
35.5 34.5 19.3 30.1 45.3 35.4 - -
- -
73.1 69.5 10.9 17.1 16.0 13.4 3,575.0 5,194.0

Access to safe drinking water, 1990. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines reasonable
access to safe drinking water in an urban area as access to piped water or a public standpipe
within 200 meters of a dwelling or housing unit.
Access to sanitation services, 1990. WHO defines urban areas with access to sanitation services
as urban populations served by connections to public sewers or household systems such as pit
privies, pour-flush latrines, septic tanks, or communal toilets.

57
 经济活动 环境
按部门划分的劳动力百分比分布，估计人数
1990 b 受缺乏c 安全卫生
设施影响的城市妇女

农业 工业 服务业 饮品服务
水（千人）（千人）

女性男性 女性男性 女性 男性
73.6 59.3 19.1 14.5 7.3 26.2 5,012.0 4,930.0
98.0 91.6 0.4 1.3 1.6 7.1 15.0 8.0
78.3 68.7 7.5 7.5 14.2 23.8 - -
76.1 69.1 13.3 16.5 10.6 14.4 18,842.0 -
- -
74.3 59.3 14.8 16.6 10.9 24.1 14,129.0 56,517.0
56.4 54.4 12.5 14.3 31.1 31.3 17,247.0 5,572.0
15.3 28.1 24.8 37.3 60.0 34.6 - -
27.8 35.8 22.5 30.3 49.6 34.0 - -
81.0 75.5 5.0 7.4 14.1 16.9 211.0 279.0
25.6 28.3 22.7 23.4 51.8 48.3 - -
28.1 35.3 52.0 16.0 19.9 48.7
30.3 33.5 22.0 23.0 47.8 43.5 - -
77.5 70.0 8.7 10.7 13.7 19.3 1,089.0 2,594.0
98.0 90.7 0.1 0.4 1.9 9.0 338.0 655.0
72.3 45.3 12.8 20.3 14.9 34.3 3,177.0 8,296.0
- -
30.8 54.4 13.6 16.3 55.6 29.3 - 2,789.0
- -
51.0 47.2 23.0 19.8 26.0 33.0 357.0 572.0
65.1 63.2 12.2 15.5 22.7 21.3 2,064.0 1,001.0
35.5 34.5 19.3 30.1 45.3 35.4 - -
- -
73.1 69.5 10.9 17.1 16.0 13.4 3,575.0 5,194.0

1990 年获得安全饮用水。 世界卫生组织 (WHO) 将城市地区获得安全饮用水的合理途径定义为距

离住房或住房单元 200 米范围内获得管道水或公共立柱。

1990 年获得卫生设施服务。 世卫组织将获得卫生设施服务的城市地区定义为通过连接公共下水道

或家庭系统（如坑式厕所、冲洗式厕所、化粪池或公共厕所）服务的城市人口。

57
 Figure 1: Earned Income Share (%) 1994
by Selected DMCs

B an g lad e s h 2 3 .1
7 6 .9

B h u t an

C am b o d ia

C h in a P e o p le 's R e p . o f 3 8 .1
6 1 .9

F iji Is lan d s 2 1 .4
7 8 .6

In d ia 2 5 .7
7 4 .3

In d o n e s ia 3 2 .9
6 7 .1

K az ak h s t an 3 9 .2
6 0 .8

K y r g y z R e p u b lic 3 9 .5
6 0 .5

L ao P D R 3 9 .9
6 0 .1

M alay s ia 3 0 .2
6 9 .8

M ald iv e s 3 5 .4
6 4 .6 F e m a le
M a le
M o n g o lia 3 9 .2
6 0 .8

M y an m ar 3 6 .6
6 3 .4

N e p al 33
67

P ak is t an 2 0 .8
7 9 .2

P ap u a N e w G u in e a 3 4 .8
6 5 .2

P h ilip p in e s 3 0 .7
6 9 .3

S o lo m o n Is lan d s

S r i L an k a 3 4 .5
6 5 .5

T h ailan d 3 7 .2
6 2 .8

U z b e k is t an 39
61

V an u at u

V ie t N am 4 2 .3
5 7 .7

0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent

58
 图 1：1994 年选定 DMC 的收入份额 (%)

孟加拉国 2 3 .1
7 6 .9

不丹

柬埔寨

中华人民共和国 3 8 .1
6 1 .9

2 1 .4
斐济群岛 7 8 .6

印度 2 5 .7
7 4 .3

印度尼西亚 3 2 .9
6 7 .1

哈萨克斯坦 3 9 .2
6 0 .8

吉尔吉斯共和国 3 9 .5
6 0 .5

3 9 .9
老挝人民民主共和国 6 0 .1

马来西亚 3 0 .2
6 9 .8

马尔代夫 3 5 .4
6 4 .6 女性
男性
蒙古 3 9 .2
6 0 .8

缅甸 3 6 .6
6 3 .4

尼泊尔 33
67

巴基斯坦 2 0 .8
7 9 .2

巴布亚新几内亚 3 4 .8
6 5 .2

菲律宾 3 0 .7
6 9 .3

所罗门群岛

斯里兰卡 3 4 .5
6 5 .5

3 7 .2
泰国 6 2 .8

乌兹别克斯坦 39
61

瓦努阿图

越南 4 2 .3
5 7 .7

0 20 40 60 80 100
百分比

58
Figure 2: Earned Income Share (%) 1993 by Region

East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific

Female
37%

Male
63%

South Asia Female

24%

Male
76%

59
图2：1993年按地区划分的收入份额（%）

东亚、东南亚和太平洋

女性
37%

男性
63%

南亚 女性
24%

男性
76%

59