Theology and Development of Vestments and

Clerical Vesture in the Orthodox and Byzantine Rite

Church Traditions
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Ruvelas, Nicholas C. 2023. Theology and Development of Vestments and Clerical Vesture in the
Orthodox and Byzantine Rite Church Traditions. Master's thesis, Harvard Divinity School.

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Theology and Development of Vestments and Clerical Vesture in the Orthodox and

Byzantine Rite Church Traditions

Nicholas Ruvelas

A Senior Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Divinity, Harvard Divinity School, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Advisor: Charles Stang

Teaching Fellow: Kythe Heller

04/03/2023

Class of 2023
 Ruvelas 2

Abstract
From the time of the tabernacle, and the first calling of Aaron and his sons to the

priesthood, God has instituted specific ways to “set apart” his ministers from the “lay” people

around them, and to prepare them for a life of service in God. Following the theological and

typological priesthood established by God in the Old Covenant, the vestments, clerical, and

monastic clothing of the Orthodox Church trace their origins to both this Biblical example, and

to the political world of the late Roman Empire. Establishing the origin, theology, and usage of

these garments that “set apart” those who serve the Lord, this paper seeks to answer the question

of “why?” “Why” do Orthodox clerics and monastics wear this clothing, and what does it mean?

Is it just for ostentatious displays of finery or is there a deeper mystical and theological meaning.
 Ruvelas 3

Introduction
“Give me my robe, put on my crown; I have Immortal longings in me.”1

When one attends an Orthodox or Byzantine Catholic divine service, whether it be in

Athens Greece, or Athens Georgia, the liturgy will always be served by clergy in distinctive

vesture. Whether it be the deacon, chanting the litanies with his orarion held aloft, the priest, in

his, or the bishop presiding over all in his great sakkos. These vestments, often richly

embroidered with religious and decorative patterns, are not just an ostentatious display of

worldliness, but carry deep intrinsic theological and administrative purpose. Only worn by clergy

when they are performing their liturgical duties, vestments stand in stark contrast to the plain

black cassocks worn by clerics as their daily outerwear. Each rank and position in the minor and

major clerical orders of the Orthodox Church can immediately be identified, by the trained eye,

by the vestments they are wearing. Looking at the iconographic art of the Byzantine tradition, the

learned observer may even be able to discern the time period in which the icon was created, by

the type and color of the vestments shown. Bishops, for example, coming from the first

millennium of the Church, lack a distinctive vestment that was only developed in the 13th century

CE. Coming in a variety of colors, from black on solemn Lenten presanctified liturgies, to a

verdant green on Palm Sunday and Pentecost. These liturgical colors are part of the living

material theology of vestments in the Eastern Orthodox Church tradition. Tracing the origins of

vestments, from the sacerdotal priesthood of the Hebrews, to Roman civic and religious figures,

and later to medieval and early modern innovations and theologies, the story of these garments

mirrors the history and journey of the Orthodox Church. Much like the exterior architectural

splendor, and the interior iconographic art within many of the world’s great churches, the

1
Shakespeare
 Ruvelas 4

vestments of the clergy are an inseparable part of the material and mystical theology of the

Orthodox Church, and other Churches within the Byzantine liturgical tradition.

Vestment Traditions in the Hebrew Bible

When looking at vestments and their development as a distinctive style of clothing for

religious purposes in the Orthodox Christian tradition, it is best to start “in the beginning,” in the

Hebrew Bible. Archaeological and historiographical evidence tells us that special garments for

religious leaders and purposes were commonplace in the ancient Levant, North Africa, and the

fertile crescent. It is in this area of the globe, the cradle of civilization, where the Hebrew Bible

was set, written, and compiled. In the book of Exodus, God instructs Moses to bring forth his

brother Aaron to institute the sacerdotal priesthood. “Then,” God tells Moses, “bring near to you

Aaron your brother, and his sons with him, from among the people of Israel, to serve me as

priests—Aaron and Aaron’s sons, Nadab and Abi′hu, Elea′zar and Ith′amar.”2 God has set apart

Aaron and his sons to serve him as priests, with his next commandment instructing Moses to

make them “holy garments,” for “glory and for beauty.” God lists the vestments that Moses is to

commission for Aaron and his sons, beginning with a “breastpiece,” and continuing on with “an

ephod, a robe, a coat of checker work, a turban, and a girdle.”3 (Figure 1)

The first vestment God describes is the ephod, an apron like garment that was worn over

the robe, and richly decorated with many colors and precious materials. “They shall make the

ephod,” God instructs, “of gold, of blue and purple and scarlet stuff, and of fine twined linen,

skillfully worked.” After the main body of the ephod was completed, two shoulder components

were made, so that the garment could be joined together, and a belt made of the same material

2
RSV, Exodus 28:1
3
Exodus, 28:4
 Ruvelas 5

and same colors as the main body of the garment, was crafted to hold everything together. The

ephod was also to feature “two onyx stones,” where the names of the twelve sons (tribes) of

Israel, in the order of their birth. Each one of the stones was to have six names engraved upon it.

After being engraved, the stones were to be set in gold, and placed upon the shoulder sections of

the ephod, on either side. The high priest would wear these stones upon his shoulders as “a

remembrance” for the sons of Israel.

The next vestment that God commands Moses and the Israelites to make is the

breastplate, or “breastpiece of judgement.” To be made of linen, the construction is detailed

much in the same way as the ephod. “And you shall make a breastpiece of judgment, in skilled

work; like the work of the ephod you shall make it;” God says, “of gold, blue and purple and

scarlet stuff, and fine twined linen shall you make it.”4 Upon the breastplate are to be set four

rows of precious stones, with each row containing four stones. In this way, the twelve tribes of

Israel are also remembered before the Lord. Like the onyx stones located on the ephod, the

stones on the breastplate were also to be engraved, “as signets,” with the names of the twelve

tribes. To attach the breastplate to the priest, golden rings were fashioned for the sides of the

vestment, with twined golden cords attached to them. These cords would fasten the breastplate to

the priest, where it would meet the ephod. The bottom half of the breastplate would then be

attached to the ephod, through the gold rings, with a band of blue cloth. Curiously, another item,

or set of items, appear in the passages describing the breastplate. These items, the Urim and

Thummim are presented without explanation, and unlike the other decorative aspects of the

vestment are worn on the inside, “upon Aaron’s heart.”

4
Exodus, 28: 15
 Ruvelas 6

Their names being translated to “light,” and “perfection,” What exactly the Urim and

Thummim were is not entirely known for certain, but they appear to have been some form of

oracle. Writing in The Catholic Bible Quarterly, Edward Mangan proposes a variety of solutions,

uses, and possible origins for these mysterious objects. “A favorite view,” begins Mangan,

“…has been that Urim and Thummim were identical to the twelve stones on which the names of

the tribes of Israel were engraved… the oracle was given by illumination … of the letters which

were to make up the answer.”5 Citing the first century CE historian Flavius Josephus, Mangan

next proposes that the two onyx stones on the ephod, set on the priest’s shoulders, correspond to

the items. Josephus recounts that the stones had an oracular component, and could decide the

outcome of battles, the coming of misfortunes, and other future events by either glowing brightly

for good tidings or turning their natural black onyx hue when catastrophe or loss was imminent.6

Similarities between the two objects, and Egyptian religious regalia and practices are next noted

by Mangan, corresponding to both use and even phonetics. For the Thummim, association is

made with the Egyptian Thme, translated to “truth,” a small, jeweled figure that hung around the

necks of Egyptian priests.7 For the Urim, the round breastplate of the Egyptian priestly caste is

given as an explanation. Adorned with images that often took the shape of a scarab beetle, a

representation of rebirth and illumination, the breastplate of the Egyptian priest became a

physically present representation of divine light.8 Mangan, however, remains unconvinced of the

Egyptian explanation, noting that “the (Egyptian origin) theory does not in any way clear up the

5
Mangan, Edward A. “THE URIM AND THUMMIM.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 1, no. 2 (1939): 135.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43715803.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid, 136.
8
Ibid.
 Ruvelas 7

texts of Holy Scripture.”9 Whatever the origin or exact purpose of the Urim and Thummim, they

constituted an important and vital aspect of the high priestly vestments donned by Aaron and his

successors.

Following the description of the breastplate and the ephod, God next instructs Moses on

the color and composition of the priestly robe. This robe would be worn over the head, with no

fasteners or clasps along the sides, but “And you shall make the robe of the ephod all of blue,”

commands God, “…on its skirts you shall make pomegranates of blue and purple and scarlet

stuff, around its skirts, with bells of gold between them, a golden bell and a pomegranate, a

golden bell and a pomegranate, round about on the skirts of the robe.”10 As seen in figure one,

the “robe of the ephod” was tailored to fall below the priest’s knees, with the fringe of golden

bells and decorative pomegranate motifs attached below. The purpose of this fringe, God dictates

to Moses, is not purely decorative or symbolic, but serves a real theological and practical

purpose. Aaron and his descendants have been given the awesome responsibility to serve as the

high priesthood of God, and bear the sole permission to enter into the Holy of Holies and offer

incense and sacrifice for the people of Israel. Due to this, none but they may enter into the

sanctuary. If a priest would have the unfortunate outcome of collapsing, through divine

providence or otherwise, while in the sanctuary, there would be no way for those outside to

know. “And it (robe with bells attached) shall be upon Aaron when he ministers,” God

commands, “and its sound shall be heard when he goes into the holy place before the Lord, and

when he comes out, lest he die.”11

9
Ibid, 137.
10
Exodus, 28: 31-33
11
Exodus, 28: 35
 Ruvelas 8

For the vestments of the head, God commands Moses that a linen turban be made for the

high priest, along with a golden plate, to be attached to the front. “And you shall make a plate of

pure gold, and engrave on it, like the engraving of a signet, ‘Holy to the Lord.’ And you shall

fasten it on the turban by a lace of blue; it shall be on the front of the turban.”12 The high priest

was instructed by Moses, through God, to wear this turban and golden plate at every sacrifice

and priestly function, so that Aaron and his descendants would “take upon… any guilt incurred

in the Holy offering.”13 (Figure 2) To complete the vestments of the high priesthood, a coat

embroidered in a checkered patter, and a belt (girdle) of embroidered linen would be worn on top

of the robe of the ephod, and under the breastplate.

For the descendants of Aaron, his “sons,” lesser vestments are described in the scripture

that still serve the function of setting them apart and emphasizing the special role they have been

divinely instructed to perform. It is commanded that “coats, and girdles, and caps” are to be

prepared for Aaron’s son’s and their descendants, which are to be made “for glory and beauty.”

(Figure 3) Additionally, linen “breaches” or pants are to be worn when in the tent where the Arc

of the Covenant and altar are kept (and later the temple in Jerusalem when it was constructed)

during the sacrifices and rites the priesthood of Israel conducted. Described as short, running

from the loins to the thigh, the purpose of these undergarments was to “cover the nakedness” of

the priests. Nakedness and ritual purity are particularly stressed in Exodus and the other books of

the Pentateuch, with the admonition here that failure to wear the breaches would result in

bringing “guilt and death” upon the priests.

12
Exodus, 28: 36-37
13
Exodus, 28: 38
 Ruvelas 9

With the establishment and description of the vestments instituted by God in the Book of

Exodus, it is imperative to not view these garments as another set of mere clothing. The priest(s)

did not simply walk up to the temple, or the tent when Israel was in the wilderness, but had

special rites and services they conducted before they donned their vestments, and after their

duties were completed. The high priest is described as having his “sons,” the other priests, dress

him in his vestments, and then having his head and vestments anointed with oil. Furthermore,

after completing the sacrifices, God instructs the priests to mix the blood of the sacrificed rams

with more anointing oil, and sprinkle it upon the vestments of the high priest, and the other

priests assisting him at the sacrifice. “Then you shall take part of the blood that is on the altar,

and of the anointing oil,” God commands, “and sprinkle it upon Aaron and his garments, and

upon his sons and his sons’ garments with him; and he and his garments shall be holy, and his

sons and his sons’ garments with him.”14 In this way, the importance of the vestments apart from

other “daily” clothing is made evident, and their sacredness is further emphasized with the

presence of the sacrificial rams blood and the holy oil used to anoint the priests. Figure two

demonstrates this sprinkling of blood upon the altar of the Holy of Holies.

Of equal importance to the vesture of the sacerdotal priesthood, was the ornamentation

and “vesture” of the Tabernacle itself. In Exodus, God gives detailed instructions to the people of

Israel for how the Tabernacle should be built, ornamented, and carried. The Tabernacle is

described;

14
Exodus, 29: 21
 Ruvelas 10

“Moreover you shall make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twined linen and blue and
purple and scarlet stuff; with cherubim skilfully (sic) worked shall you make them. 2 The length of
each curtain shall be twenty-eight cubits, and the breadth of each curtain four cubits; all the
curtains shall have one measure. 3 Five curtains shall be coupled to one another; and the other
five curtains shall be coupled to one another. 4 And you shall make loops of blue on the edge of
the outmost curtain in the first set; and likewise you shall make loops on the edge of the outmost
curtain in the second set. 5 Fifty loops you shall make on the one curtain, and fifty loops you shall
make on the edge of the curtain that is in the second set; the loops shall be opposite one another.
6
And you shall make fifty clasps of gold, and couple the curtains one to the other with the clasps,
that the tabernacle may be one whole.”15 (figure 4)
These instructions are not just for “covering” the Tabernacle, or keeping it safe/ hidden from

human or gentile eyes, they too carry a deep theological meaning. The colors of blue, purple, and

scarlet match the colors of the vestments of the high priest and continue to emphasize God’s

glory. These are royal colors, not easily found or purchased in the ancient world. The color

purple, for example, was only produced in a limited area, and was made from small sea shells.

The instruction to adorn the curtains with images of the Cherubim emphasizes the tabernacle

being in the presence of God. In Genesis 3:24, a Cherubim is posted at the entrance of Eden with

a flaming sword after Adam and Eve are driven from paradise, to bar them from entering. Here

we see a similar function, with the images of the Cherubim guarding the entrance to the presence

of the Holy of Holies, with only Aaron and his sons being granted access through their special

covenant with God. These “royal coverings” that were commanded by God to adorn the

Tabernacle and the Holy of Holies, like the priestly vesture, reinforce to the people the

sacredness of God’s presence and his chosen servants.

Just as in the Hebrew Bible and elsewhere in the ancient world, vestments and adornment

play a central role in Eastern Orthodoxy. Vestments, architecture, sacred art, and furnishings are

more than just ascetic accoutrements to impress worshippers and visitors, they are an essential

15
Exodus, 26: 1-7
 Ruvelas 11

component of Orthodox worship, ecclesiology, and material theology. While it would be a

stretch to explicitly link the vestments and temple adornment of the Old Covenant with the

vestments and church adornment of Eastern Orthodoxy, the theology and reasoning behind both

is one and the same. Vestments are meant to both “set apart” the clergy that wear them, and lift

the people who are attending worship, and even the clergy themselves, into a higher spiritual and

numinous state. Through the instructions left by God in the Old Covenant, Orthodox Christians

recognize the importance of Church ornamentation and beauty in our worship. If not explicitly

derived from the Hebrew Bible and the Old Covenant priesthood, just where and how did

Orthodox Christian vestments originate? Moreover, what are the ranks of clergy in the Orthodox

Christian tradition, and what vestments and clerical attire do they utilize in their ministry and

daily life, and what theological symbolism may or may not be behind them?

Clergy and Laity Within the Orthodox Church

The corporeal membership of the Orthodox Church, or Church Militant to borrow a

Western Christian term, is comprised of three groups or “ranks” of people. The blessing and

privilege to wear vestments and clerical clothing is, in certain cases, available to all members of

the church, not just the clergy or monastics proper. The laity, who make up the majority of the

population, are those individuals that do not hold a rank in the minor or major orders of the

clergy, and who are not monastics. It would be a mistake, however, to call the laity of the

Orthodox church “un-ordained,” as Metropolitan John Zizioulas, former professor of patristics at

Edinburgh University states in his article “Ordination, a sacrament? An Orthodox Reply.”

“Baptism, and especially confirmation (chrismation)…involves a ‘laying on of hands,’ Zizioulas

writes, “…and inevitably and immediately leads the baptized person to the eucharistic
 Ruvelas 12

community in order to assume their particular ordo there.”16 In Orthodox Ecclesiology, every

member of the Church has their own “ministry.”

In situations where there are not enough ordained or tonsured minor clergy to serve as

readers and altar servers, children and adults will serve in the role. In services and roles that do

not require entering the sanctuary, girls and women are also permitted to serve and assist. Known

as “acolytes” in some cases, they have no official clerical or monastic ministry. In female

monasteries, due to the absence of men besides the priest and other major clergy, female

monastics are permitted to serve as altar servers and enter the sanctuary. Monastics, are those

men and women who take vows to live in monastic communities or as solitary hermits. Finally,

the clergy are those individuals who have been elevated by tonsure and the process of the “laying

on of hands,” to the clerical ministries of the Church. The clergy are again broken down into two

groups, themselves containing different ranks and titles. The first group is the minor clergy,

consisting of the order of reader/ lector, and the sub-deacon. The first rank of the clergy, reader,

is ordained by the bishop outside of the Divine Liturgy, usually at its conclusion. With the minor

laying on of hands, called “cheirothesia” in Greek, and the tonsure, consisting of the cutting of

the candidate’s hair in the shape of the sign of the cross, the candidate is raised from a lay

person, and joins the ranks of the clergy.17 The new reader is entrusted with his ministry, to read

the Psalms, Epistles, and other scriptural texts outside of the Gospels, and to assist in the serving

of the Divine Liturgy in any way that he is asked. Usually this is by taking on a role as a more

senior acolyte or altar server. Similarly for the subdeacon, the ordination is done with the minor

laying on of hands, and the recitation of the appropriate prayers and admonitions by the bishop.

16
Zizioulas, John. “Ordination- A Sacrament? An Orthodox Reply.” The Plurality of Ministries 74 (1974): 38.

17
Fr. Danylo, Bohdan, J, Dcn. Sybirny, Volodymyr, The Mystery of Ordination, St. Basil Seminary Press, Stamford, 3.
 Ruvelas 13

The ministry of the sub-deacon consists of assisting the bishop during the divine services, and

outside of them where necessary and appropriate. Usually this is done by taking the role of head

altar server during the Divine Liturgy and other major worship services, and by assisting the

bishop in vesting, divesting, and travelling to the church or monastery where the bishop will be

serving.18 The sub-deacon is also granted additional responsibilities and privileges, such as being

able to open the royal doors that separate the altar area from the church, and to touch the altar

table itself.

The ranks of the “major clergy,” are made up of the ministries of deacon, priest, and

bishop. The name and function of these religious ministries, or “orders,” is traced back to

apostolic times by the Eastern Orthodox tradition, and have their names taken from roles

described in the New Testament. For a member of the minor orders to be raised to the diaconate

and other major orders, they must undergo separate ordinations with the “major laying on of

hands,” or cheirotonia in Greek. Each ministry of the major clergy has their own ordination

service, with their own vestments and ordination prayers. Unlike the minor orders, whose

ordinations occur outside of the context and celebration of the Divine Liturgy, the ordination of

the major orders takes place during the liturgy. The deacon, taking his name from the Greek

diakonos or “server,” is the lowest rank of the major orders and can not conduct services, vest, or

participate in any sacramental and ecclesiastical activities without the blessing and permission of

a priest or bishop. The deacon’s primary role is to serve, as is in his title. He calls the people to

prayer during the divine services with the recitation of litanies, or lists of prayers, that call on the

faithful to pray for the church, the people present, the sick, the bishop, and the whole world.

Deacons also assist the priest and bishop in the celebration of the liturgy and services, and will

18
Ibid, 8.
 Ruvelas 14

assist the bishop in vesting, and in the handling of liturgical objects. Similar to the diaconate, the

priestly ordination occurs during the Divine Liturgy, within the sanctuary of the altar. The bishop

once again performs the major laying on of hands, the cheirotonia, and recites the appropriate

prayers. For the ordination of a bishop, more steps and prayers are required. While the presence

of only one bishop is necessary for the ordination of the minor orders, the deacon, and the priest,

at least two bishops are required to ordain another bishop. Canon one of the Apostolic Canons of

the Orthodox Church, a 4th century CE document that lists eighty-five canons for the governance

of the Church, explicitly states, “let a bishop be ordained by two or three bishops.”19 The

importance of ordination, and the laying on of hands, stems from the Apostolic era, particularly

in the book of Acts. In Acts chapter six, seven men are chosen from amongst the believers and

are made deacons, through the laying on of hands. “These,” meaning the diaconal candidates,

were “set before the apostles, and they prayed and laid their hands upon them.”20 It is through

this laying on of hands by the apostles that the Orthodox Church claims apostolic succession,

meaning a direct and tangible link to the apostles. Without the theology of apostolic succession,

Orthodox Christian clergy, monastics, lay altar servers, and chanters would not be able to be

ordained, don vestments, or participate in the divine services, it is an essential component of

Orthodox ecclesiology and material theology.

Clerical and Monastic Clothing

Before delving into the ranks and vestments of the clergy, a distinction should be made

between vestments proper and clerical clothing, along with the subset of monastic clothing.

Unlike vestments, which are only to be worn during religious services and the performing of

19
Percival, Henry R, The Apostolic Canons, http://www.voskrese.info/spl/aposcanon.html translation, 1899. 1
20
RSV, Acts 6:6
 Ruvelas 15

official clerical duties, clerical clothing is to be worn as the “everyday” outerwear of the clergy.

From the lowest monastic to the highest order of bishop, each rank of the clergy and monastics

are blessed to wear at least some form of clerical clothing. The most basic and foundational of

this type of garment is the cassock, or anteri. The cassock, usually in black but permitted in other

colors, especially if the clergyperson in question is married, is a long robe that falls to the ankles.

It is fastened together on the side with a button and gathered at the waist with an attached belt.

(figure 5) It is also fastened at the neck with a button or clasp, and usually has a high collar. The

collars, wrists, and edges of the cassock are often ornamented with piping, but this is not

required. For monastics, a simpler and unadorned cassock is usually the norm, with

ornamentation reserved for “secular” clergy. Cassocks may also contain pockets on the sides of

the garment, and one or two chest pockets on the front. When an inquirer into monasticism is

blessed by the abbot/abbess to become a novice, and receives their monastic tonsure, they are

then given the cassock to wear, and are officially given the title of rassophore, or “cassock

wearer.” For monastics, both male and female, this cassock becomes their everyday clothing that

they wear both on the grounds of the monastery, and when going on business out in the world.

For non-monastic clergy, they receive the blessing to wear the cassock at their first tonsure,

when they enter the minor orders as a Reader or lector. Within Eastern Orthodox Christianity,

there are minor regional variations of the cassock. In the “Byzantine” tradition, comprising the

churches of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, the Balkans, and their respective

diasporas, the cassock is a looser fitting garment, that is fastened with a button in the front of the

neck. In the Eastern Slavic tradition, comprising the Churches of Russia, Ukraine, Poland, the

Czech Lands (former Czechoslovakia), Japan, Korea, and their diasporas, the cassock is tighter

fitting and cinched more closely at the waist with a button or clasp. Additionally, the collar is
 Ruvelas 16

higher and is fastened to the side of the neck, rather than the front. (figure 6) Seminarians, or

students studying to become clergy, are also permitted to wear the cassock while at seminary,

whether they are tonsured as monastics, in the minor orders, or simply laymen. While it was

common for Readers and other members of the minor clergy to wear the cassock as daily

outerwear in ages past, this practice has largely fallen out of use in the 21st century. Now, it is

only common for the minor orders to wear their cassocks on the grounds of the church they are

serving, or when performing their clerical duties elsewhere. For members of the major clergy,

the cassock remains a part of the traditional and “appropriate” daily outerwear, as an inner

garment. The second type of cassock is known as the exorasson, or “outer cassock.” This

garment is a more voluminous and flowing version of the cassock, that is fastened at the neck,

and loosely fastened by a button at the waist. Unlike the raso, or “inner cassock” worn by

monastics and all ranks of the clergy, the outer cassock is reserved only for the major orders of

bishop, priest, and deacon, and for monastics during the divine services. (figure 6) In some

Orthodox traditions, such as Greek Orthodoxy, the Psaltis, or chanter, will also wear the outer

cassock, but over their plain street clothes. Typically black in color, the interior of the outer

cassock can be colored in red or purple. This contrast in colors is often exhibited by the Psaltis

or clergy member turning the exterior of the sleeves inside-out. There is also subtle regional and

ecclesiastical variation in the design of the exorasson, with “Russian” or eastern Slavic variants

being cut to a tighter fit, and being made of a heavier material. “Greek” or “Byzantine” style

outer cassocks are cut for a looser fit, and made of a more lightweight material, to better

facilitate the warmer climate of the Mediterranean.

The origin of the cassock as a distinct article of clerical clothing can be traced back to

multiple sources but is primarily a product of Late Antique Roman administrative fashion and
 Ruvelas 17

hierarchy. One item of clothing, the tunica developed over time from an unadorned

undergarment in the early and middle Roman era, to a heavier and embroidered garment in Late

Antiquity. Writing in her work Roman Clothing and Fashion, Alexandra Croom describes the

tunica as “the most basic item of male clothing, worn by everyone from slaves to emperors.”21

Known in the pre-Roman Greek speaking world as the chiton, this terminology has sometimes

been applied to the cassock in the Orthodox world well in to the modern era.22 Initially stretching

from shoulder to the knees, and fastened at the shoulders, the tunica formed the bottom layer of

the often multilayered and complicated full Roman male dress. What an individual’s tunica

looked like however, and what they wore it with, again primarily depended on their class,

wealth, and standing within the Roman world. Wealthy Romans, and those of high stature, would

wear tunicae that were belted around the waist, and decorated with stripes of varying width and

color that indicated their position. For the enslaved and lower classes, the garment would be

much less ornate and oftentimes was not even fastened, as evidenced by frescoes discovered

throughout the Roman world. (figure 7) The tunica could be made of a variety of materials,

including linen, and wool, and could be dyed a variety of colors depending upon station, class,

and wealth. In the later Roman period, the tunica began to change in status from an

undergarment to a main or primary garment and increased in length. The fourth century CE arch

of Constantine, for example, depicts the emperor and his soldier’s wearing tunicae that now

stretch to below the knees.23 Clothing in the late antique Roman world was never devoid of

symbolism or meaning. To the untrained eye, tunicae or other so called “secular” clothing work

by clerics may appear to just be utilitarian or mundane in nature, but every stitch and seam was

21
Croom, Alexandra Roman Clothing and Fashion, 38.
22
West, Krista Garments of Salvation, 110.
23
Ibid, 47.
 Ruvelas 18

permeated with the theological symbolism of a highly religious and superstitious society.

Writing in his work “Garments Pleasing to God: The Significance of Domestic Textile

Designs in the Early Byzantine Period,” Henry Maguire captures the feeling and belief of the

time period;

“The designs on early Byzantine domestic textiles were more than mere conveyors of messages;
it was not only information that they projected, such as social rank or status…The designs that
will be discussed in this paper were…weapons in a war against invisible enemies whose power
was everywhere. They appeared at all social levels… An early Byzantine tunic can still be
recognized without difficulty as a garment, even if fashions have changed over the centuries
since it was made, and a silk can still be appreciated for its sumptuary value. But the motifs that
appear woven into its fabric may strike the twentieth-century observer as pure decoration, while
to the original wearer they were not just ornaments but also guarantees of his or her own well-
being and safety.”24

It is from this late tunica, and its descendants through late antiquity that the cassock can most

probably be traced.

The origin of the exorasson, or outer cassock, is much less certain than that of its tighter

fitting cousin. While certainly bearing similarities between the older Roman and Greek layered

style of dressing, with the tunica being the undergarment as the cassock is the undergarment for

the exorasson, there is no conclusive link to an article of clothing that matches this voluminous

outer garment. Indeed, in the world of Orthodox Christian vestments and clerical clothing, the

exorasson is a relative newcomer. Writing in her work The Garments of Salvation, Krista West

dates the outer cassock to as late as the 15th and 16th centuries, with evident influence from

Persian and Islamic vesture. “While the exorasson features elements of very ancient garments,”

West writes, “…evincing oriental and Persian influence, it does not appear to come in to

24
Maguire, Henry, Garments Pleasing to God: The Significance of Domestic Textile Designs in the Early Byzantine
Period, 215.
 Ruvelas 19

Orthodox Christian usage until much later.”25 This “oriental” element, as West puts it, most

likely derives from contact with Islamic societies, such as the Ottoman Empire, that came to

dominate and conquer much of the Eastern Orthodox world. Under Ottoman rule, Christian

clerics and laity were all expected to wear a certain style of dress and headgear, which came to

be typified by the exorasson in the case of Orthodox clergy. Another form of the outer cassock

that has developed in the last few centuries is the so called “cassock vest,” or kontorasson. The

vest, made from the same material as the exorasson, has a “v” cut, or open collar and is buttoned

down the chest. The development of the kontorasson occurred over a long period and involved

several steps. “Over time,” West says, “the heavy weight of the exorasson (sic) was mitigated by

first shortening the garment to knee length or to the waist and then eventually losing it’s

distinctive yet cumbersome sleeves.”26 Requiring the cleric or monastic to be fully vested in both

outer and inner cassock, a burdensome wardrobe that can contain up to twelve yards of total

fabric, and weigh over eight pounds, to go about their daily business, has contributed

significantly to the rise in popularity of the kontorasson. Like the inner and outer cassock, there

exists significant variation in the fabric and construction of the cassock vest. In colder climates,

or in the winter, the cassock vest will be worn over the anteri like a jacket or coat, when wearing

of the full exorasson is not done. In the summer, the vest will be of a much lighter material, that

will not interfere in the movement or work of the monastic or clergy person.

Both types of cassock are now usually tailored in black, with some exceptions as detailed

previously for married clergy, but this does not seem to have always been the case. Clergy and

monastics in the earlier eras of Orthodox Christian history wore many colored tunica and

25
West, 115.
26
Ibid, 117.
 Ruvelas 20

cassocks. In figure nine, an icon of St. John of the Ladder’s vision of monks ascending a ladder

to heaven while being tempted and pulled down by demons, we can see that as late as the 12th

century, barring any classicizing elements the artist may have used, most of the monastics

pictured still wore cassocks/ tunica of colors other than black, and wore a different outer garment

to the exorasson of the 15th /16th century onward. Most of the monastics depicted in figure nine

appear to be wearing undyed cassocks, with a few in green. Also of particular significance, the

hem of the cassock had reached the ankle by the 12th century. With the wider availability of

black dye, and the continued standardization of clerical dress and appearance, black has become

the standard for the 21st century Orthodox church, and has taken on the theological meaning of

subjecting the cleric or monastic’s will to that of the church, and of Christ. By donning “the

black,” the cleric ignores his own sense of style or preference, marking a symbolic “death” to the

world and their worldly desires.

There is another garment in Eastern Orthodox tradition, that sits in a nebulous area

between vestment and clerical clothing, the mandyas, or mantle. Originally a loose-fitting coat or

poncho like garment, that was worn over the tunica of monastics, the mandyas has morphed into

an item now more closely associated with the episcopacy, and has been largely replaced in the

monastic tradition by the exorasson. The monastic style of garment has not completely

disappeared in the monasteries however, and one can find both garments in use side by side by

both male and female monastics. As West cites;

“Prior to the development of the exorasson, the plain black mandyas was the outer garment
worn over the zostikon (cassock) for attendance at divine services and at communal meals in
monasteries. Even in to the early decades of the 20th century the mandyas was still the preferred
garment in many monasteries, only gradually giving way to the use of the exorasson.”27

27
Ibid, 115.
 Ruvelas 21

Icons depicting monastic saints, such as Anthony the Great of Egypt and St. Makarios, will

depict this earlier monastic vesture, of mandyas over the cassock. Returning to figure nine, the

“Ladder of Divine Ascent,” the monastics depicted can also be seen wearing the mandyas over

their undergarments. As attested by iconographic evidence, the monastic mantle, like the

cassock, was not always required to be dyed in black. Figure nine also depicts mantles of many

varying colors including green red and even shades of purple. Ecumenical Patriarch Germanos in

715 CE described the monastic wearing of the garment as “the mantles are in the likeness of the

mantles worn by the divine apostles.”28

Related to the monastic mantle, and befitting their status as monastics themselves, the

mandyas of the episcopacy, or of the bishops, differs markedly from that of the simple monk or

nun. Coming in a variety of colors, depending on tradition, and decorated lavishly with “rivers”

of gold, scarlet, and other regal colors, the episcopal mandyas stretches behind the bishop in a

train, and must be held by a member of the minor or major clergy when the bishop is walking or

moving around the church or monastery. This train can range in length from three, to even five

feet, and creates a magnificent figure and appearance. Further embroidery and ornamentation is

also displayed upon the shoulders and bottom of the mantle. These decorations, called tablia, are

richly ornamented with images of crosses, angelic hosts, and golden patterns. In some traditions,

such as the eastern Slavic and Greek, the bottom tablia of the episcopal mantle are decorated

with the monogram of the bishop that is wearing it. The edges of the episcopal mandyas, along

with horizontal stripes down the length of the garment, are decorated in gold or other regal

colors, and are referred to as potamoi, meaning “rivers” in Greek. The theological significance

of these rivers is the message of the Gospel of Christ, which flows out from the grace of the

28
Germanos of Constantinople, On the Divine Liturgy, Crestwood, NY, St Vladimir’s seminary Press, 69.
 Ruvelas 22

bishop, through his authority granted by Apostolic succession, to the assembly of the faithful and

the larger world.29 The episcopal mantle is only fastened at the top and bottom of the garment

with two buttons, and is intended to drape or hang open, revealing the outer cassock of the

bishop beneath it. This also gives the appearance of a “sheath” or “cocoon”, as West puts it,

having the bishop appear as protected or “contained” from the assaults of the “powers and

principalities” of the demons, a further representation of Maguire’s statement of typological

meaning in late antique textiles and clothing. Additionally, the episcopal mantle is associated

with the prophets and teachers of the Old Testament/ Hebrew Bible. In the book of 1 Kings,

chapter nineteen, verses nineteen to twenty-one, the prophet Elijah bestows his mantle upon

Elisha, after being instructed by God in the previous verses to do so, calling the younger man in

to his service and on to the path of the prophet. “So he departed from there, and found Elisha the

son of Shaphat,” the scripture reads, “who was plowing, with twelve yoke of oxen before him,

and he was with the twelfth. Elijah passed by him and cast his mantle upon him.”30 Elijah’s

mantle, a symbol of his authority and place as a prophet, is passed on to Elisha, In this way,

following a typological exegesis of the passage, the episcopal mantle in Orthodoxy becomes a

symbol of the bishop’s authority over the Church, and links the prophets of the Old Covenant

with the apostles, who are intimately linked with the episcopacy through apostolic succession, an

essential requirement for the office of Bishop in the Orthodox Church.

The color of the episcopal mantle, and the tablia and potamoi is varied by tradition to

tradition in the communion of the Orthodox Church. For the Byzantine or “Greek” tradition, the

majority of episcopal mantles are dyed burgundy or other shades of red. In figure ten, depicting

29
West, 108.
30
RSV, 1 Kings, 19:19.
 Ruvelas 23

the current archbishop of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, Elpidophoros, this

burgundy/ red mandyas can be seen, with gold embroidered potamoi and tablia. His eminence’s

tablia are designed with a decorative peacock motif on the upper level, with the bottom tablia

bearing the monogram of his episcopal rank and name in Greek. This feature is highly unusual

for a bishop in the Greek tradition, as monograms are usually something that is featured in the

eastern Slavic tradition. In the eastern Slavic or “Russian” tradition, the colors of the episcopal

mantle help denote the rank and station of the bishop. Simple bishops, and some archbishops

wear a burgundy or purple mandyas, usually with a shorter train and less elaborately decorated

potamoi and tablia. The color of light blue is reserved for Metropolitans, or those bishops that

head an independent local church, and a verdant green color is used for the Patriarch of Moscow,

the head of the Russian Orthodox Church communion.31 Another notable difference in the

“Russian” tradition of the episcopal mandyas is the color of the potamoi. While always

appearing as a shade of gold in the “Greek” tradition, the potamoi of those bishops who descend

from the east Slavic tradition always appear in stripes of red and white, with the red stripe being

bordered on both sides by white. In figure eleven, the Patriarch of Alexandria, Theodoros, is

pictured with current Patriarch of Moscow Kyrill, who is wearing the “Russian” style patriarchal

mantle in green, with the potamoi and tablia pictured. The episcopal mandyas is not worn during

the celebration of the Divine Liturgy, the main worship service of the Orthodox Church, but is

instead worn during specific occasions. For the service of matins, or preparation, before the

beginning of the liturgy, the bishop will enter the church vested in his mantle and both inner and

outer cassock. In the Byzantine tradition, he is led to the side of the solea, or raised floor of the

church in front of the altar, to a special throne that is set up for episcopal visitations. Here, vested

31
West, 108.
 Ruvelas 24

in his mantle, he will perform his assigned readings, and bless the congregation before heading

in to the altar sanctuary and getting ready to vest for the liturgy. In the eastern Slavic tradition,

the bishop will instead be seated in the center of the church, or on the solea (if present) upon a

special rug decorated with eagle motif called an orlets. Here the bishop will perform the same

duties as his Byzantine counterpart, still vested in his mantle and cassocks. Other times the

bishop will appear in his mandyas are smaller services such as vespers, or for special blessings,

like the blessing of the five loaves that occurs after the completion of the Divine Liturgy, or other

appointed time outside of the liturgical service.32

The final items of monastic clothing are called the paramandyas and the analavos.

Unlike the anteri, exorasson, and the monastic mandyas, monastics are not permitted to wear

either of these garments without first advancing through the monastic ranks. The first rank of

monasticism, when a novice officially joins the monastery, is the rassophore,(wearer of the

cassock) as previously described. Following a time of great prayer, obedience, reflection, and

service within the monastery, the abbot, or head of the monastery, may decide to elevate the

rassophore to the second rank of stavrophore, or “cross bearer.”33 Once the monastic, male or

female, has attained this rank they are given the paramandyas. Also known as the “little

schema,” as opposed to the “great schema” of the analavos, it is a square piece of fabric that is

embroidered with the Holy Cross and other religious imagery. This item of clerical clothing is

worn in a way so that it is hidden from view, over the anteri or inner cassock and under the

exorasson. Usually crafted in black and red cloth, the paramandyas is attached to the body with

cords that are tied around the back of the monastic’s body. (figure twelve) The theological

32
Ibid, 109.
33
The Editor, “The Meaning of the Analavos of the Great Schema,” The Catalog of Good Deeds, St. Elisabeth
Convent, 05/23/2017, https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/blog/2017/05/the-meaning-of-analavos-of-great-schema .
 Ruvelas 25

significance of the paramandyas is to remind the monastic that they too have their own cross to

bear, and, as the paramandyas states in figure twelve, to remember that they now spiritually

“bear the marks” of Christ’s passion on their own bodies, being “dead to the world” of the

secular, and fully in the spiritual battle of monasticism. Once the abbot has determined the

stavrophore has spiritually advanced sufficiently, they may be given the opportunity to advance

to the rank of schema monk/nun. This last step is not taken lightly, as to become a schema

monastic and don the analavos, is to become “as an angel in the flesh,” and to attain the “highest

degree of spiritual perfection” that is possible for a human being.34

As befitting the stature of a schema monk, the analavos is an intricate and majestic

garment. Unlike the paramandyas of the “little schema,” the “great schema” of the analavos is

worn over the outer-cassock to be visible to all. The garment is worn loosely draped around the

monastic’s neck, over the shoulders, and reaches about halfway down the back and down to the

knees in the front. The analavos is tied to the monastic by a special cloth cord that is decorated

and tied with many small crosses. This cord, sometimes known as a polystavrion, (meaning

“many crosses) is tied under the monastic’s arms and wrapped around the body. This wrapping,

and the many crosses that decorate the cord, are a reference to the “yoke” of Christ, to which the

monastics freely bear through their vows, and reminds the monastics of Christ’s passion, in

carrying the cross to Golgotha.35 The decoration of the great schema, while similar in style to the

paramandyas is much more elaborately decorated and much greater in size than the smaller

garment. Coming in a variety of colors, from basic black and white, to purple, red, and shades of

blue, the exact design and coloring of each analavos will vary from monastery to monastery, as

34
Ibid.
35
West, 123.
 Ruvelas 26

each location and abbot will adhere to their own rules or typicon.36 Figure thirteen details an

analavos with cord and shows the full decoration of the garment. Like the small schema, the

great schema is decorated with the Holy Cross at Golgotha and bears the instruments of the

passion. These include the lance, nails, hammer, scourge, and reed which Christ drank the

vinegar from a sponge. The pillar on which Christ was scourged is also shown on the analavos,

along with the ladder and tongs that Joseph of Arimathea used to remove Christ, and the crown

of thorns that was placed upon Christ’s head. A rooster, like on the paramandyas, is also shown,

representing the thrice denial of Peter before the cock crowed, as relayed in the four Gospels.

(Matthew 26:74; Mark 14:68 Luke 22:60; John 18:27)37 The writing on the great schema,

sometimes shown as abbreviations or as the full text, references fourteen phrases and

affirmations that demonstrate the power of the Holy Cross. Written or abbreviated in Greek or

Slavonic, they include phrases such as “the King of Glory,” “Jesus Christ conquers,” “Honored

trophy, the dread of demons,” and “the light of Christ shines upon all.”38 The phrase on the

bottom of the great schema reads “the tree of life,” and references the Orthodox hermeneutic of

the Holy Cross, normally an instrument of death, as the new symbol of eternal life. As with other

items of clerical and monastic clothing, there are slight regional variations to the analavos. The

most prominent being, in the eastern Slavic tradition, the addition of a hood called a koukoulion,

which is attached to the great schema, and worn by the monastic when vested. As with the

specific color and design of the analavos, each monastery will use its typicon to determine when

certain articles of clerical clothing should and can be worn.39 It is very unusual, for example, for

abbots to require monastics to wear their full attire of inner and outer cassock with mantle or

36
Ibid, 123.
37
“The Meaning of the Analavos of the Great Schema.”
38
Ibid.
39
West, 123.
 Ruvelas 27

schema when cooking or doing other chores. Similarly, it remains the abbot’s discretion as to

whether monastics tonsured into the great schema are allowed to wear it when leaving the

monastery.

The last remaining piece of non-liturgical clerical clothing is the various headgear worn

by the ordained major orders of the clergy, and all ranks of monastics. As with many clerical

garments, there is significant variation of non-liturgical headwear depending on the jurisdiction

and region the particular Orthodox Church is located. Much like the bodily forms of clerical

clothing, clerical headwear can find its origins in the civilian headwear of the Eastern Roman, or

Byzantine empire. In the final centuries of the empire, mainly the 14th and 15th centuries CE,

large and elaborate headwear became a status symbol that displayed the individual’s place in

Byzantine society, and their wealth. A stunning example of this, is the mosaic of Theodoros

Metochites, a Byzantine nobleman and statesman of the 14th century, in the church of the Holy

Savior in Chora, now the mosque of Kariye in Istanbul. In figure fourteen, Metochites is depicted

offering the church he helped found and finance to the enthroned Christ. Metochites is wearing a

large striped hat or turban, which dominates both the mosaic and his head. It was not uncommon

for the donators or financiers of churches to be depicted in mosaics in similar manner as

Metochites during the period, and earlier periods of Byzantine history. Another prominent

example being the mosaic of Emperors Constantine and Justinian offering the city of

Constantinople and the church in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. What is unusual, however, is the

presence of Metochites’, a layman, headgear so prominently displayed in the mosaic. The non-

liturgical headgear worn by the clergy, by contrast, were much simpler than those worn by

Metochites and other statesmen and nobles. Like the more elaborate hats worn by those in
 Ruvelas 28

government however, the headgear of the clergy also denoted their status and place in society. It

is from these everyday hats that modern Orthodox clerical headgear is descended.

The two most prominent pieces of clerical headgear are the skoufos and kalamafchion.

West describes the skoufos is a cylindrically shaped hat that is “surmounted by a circle of

pleats,” used for decoration and for excess fabric, that is “topped by a button.”40 Coming in

either the soft form, for more informal occasions, or the more formal “stiff” form, the skoufos is

the everyday clerical headwear for monastics and many major clergy. As with the inner and outer

cassock, the band around the skoufos is often decorated with stitching and embroidery, but this is

not universal. The more formal stiff skoufos is reserved for occasions where full liturgical dress

is not required, but a more “professional” appearance is desired by the wearer. The soft skoufos

is usually worn around the monastery or Church, where the wearer is doing active ministerial or

manual labor. Variation exists between the “Byzantine” style skoufos and the East Slavic style,

with the East Slavic rising in four distinct “peaks,” as demonstrated in figure fifteen. In the East

Slavic tradition, the skoufos may also be worn when vested for liturgical service, unlike in the

“Byzantine” tradition where it is a purely extra-liturgical item.41 The kalamafchion, similar in

shape to the skoufos is a cylindrical hat, with a wider brim at the top. Unlike the skoufos in the

“Byzantine” tradition, the kalamafchion may be worn both outside of the liturgy, and at certain

points during the liturgy, but always outside of the confines of the altar. In my own Greek

Orthodox tradition, the priest may choose to don this piece of headgear when censing the church

and the people at certain portions of the Divine Liturgy. Figure six shows an Orthodox cleric in

“Byzantine” style kalamafchion, in “street” clerical clothing. For those monastics and celibate

40
West, 120.
41
Ibid, 123.
 Ruvelas 29

clergy, a cloth is draped over the kalamafchion, as featured by Patriarch Theodoros of

Alexandria, on the left side of figure eleven. Again, there are variations within traditions with

regards to the wearing and appearance of the kalamafchion. The East Slavic tradition features a

hat that is taller and broader at the top and possesses no brim, with the monastic veil being sewn

on rather than draped as in the “Byzantine” tradition. (Figure seventeen) In a further

development, Churches in the Russian and other Slavic traditions use different colored

kalamafchion to denote ecclesiastical awards and ranks of the clergy.42 Bishops and archbishops

wear black, Metropolitan bishops, or those bishops who head a self-governing (autocephalos)

local church, wear white. A similar piece of headgear, worn by Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, right

on figure eleven, is the koukoulion, meaning “hood.” The name coming from the more

widespread monastic piece of headgear worn with the analavos, the episcopal koukoulion is only

worn by the Patriarch of Moscow in the East Slavic tradition, and by the Patriarch of Georgia.

These hats, and the other articles of clerical clothing previously described, play just as important

a role in the material theology of the Orthodox Christian tradition as liturgical vesture. Canon

twenty-seven of the Council in Trullo, considered by the Orthodox Church to be dogmatic, and a

continuation of the sixth ecumenical council, clearly states the importance and punishment for

the clergy in wearing clerical clothing;

“None of those who are in the catalogue of the clergy shall wear clothes unsuited to
them, either while still living in town or when on a journey: but they shall wear such
clothes as are assigned to those who belong to the clergy. And if any one shall violate
this canon, he shall be cut off for one week.”43

42
Ibid, 121.
43
Percival, Henry R, “The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, Their Canons and Dogmatic
Decrees,” james Parker and Company, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1900, 367.
 Ruvelas 30

It is important to note, however, that the definition and content, as has been shown, of what

constitutes clerical clothing has changed over the centuries, with this canon applying to what is

“typical” of the period.

Vestments

With clerical clothing, the monastic or clergyperson is now “set apart” from the laity and

the “secular” world. In subsuming their own tastes to serve the church, the wearing of these

antiquated and often plain garments becomes an outward sign of this “death to the world.” When

serving in the Divine Liturgy however or conducting those other religious services that require

the wearing of vestments, the clergy transform from the drab figures that walk the streets in

simple solid colors to avatars of the heavenly court. Truly a reflection of heaven on earth.

Beginning with the minor order of the Reader, the first vestment that an Orthodox clergyperson

is blessed to wear is the sticharion. From the Greek meaning a “garment with lines,” the

sticharion is a long robe or tunic that reaches to the clergy’s ankles. It is a loose-fitting garment,

cut large to be able to fit over the cassock, and has wide sleeves with ample room. All ranks of

the clergy, from the reader to the bishop will wear the sticharion as the first layer of their

vestments over their anteri, or cassock. Altar servers are also blessed to wear the vestment, but

will wear it over their normal clothes, instead of a cassock as the ordained and tonsured clergy

do. In figure eighteen, a reader, fully vested in sticharion with cassock underneath, stands ready

to exercise his ministries in the liturgy. For the minor orders, and the deacon, the sticharion is the

outermost vestment that is worn, making it larger and more ornate than the garment worn by

priests and bishops. For the deacon, the sticharion will be cut from richly brocaded fabric, in a

variety of patterns and colors depending on the liturgical season, and the personal taste of the

deacon. It was not always done this way, as Warren T. Woodfin notes in his work “The
 Ruvelas 31

Embodied Icon.” “By the middle Byzantine period,” Woodfin writes, “deacon’s sticharia were

plain.”44 The sticharion of the reader and sub-deacon is usually less ornate than that worn by the

deacon, lest the importance of the major order be outdone by the minor, and will usually be sewn

up the sides, rather than buttoned or fastened.45 Figure nineteen depicts a deacon, fully vested, in

his sticharion and other vestments, ready to exercise his ministerial duties. The sticharion of the

priest and bishop, worn under other vestments and less visible, if at all, differs markedly from

that of the minor orders and the deacon. The priestly sticharion is made of much lighter material,

and is much less ornate, usually being of a single solid color with no decoration. It is also not

fastened or sewn up the sides, being a solid piece of fabric. In this manner, it is akin to the alb of

western Christianity, worn directly over the cassock, and under more visible garments. (Figure

twenty) All forms of the sticharion will also feature a cross embroidered on the back, between

the shoulders.

The origins of the sticharion, like the cassock, lie in the civic and civilian clothing of the

late Roman and Byzantine empires. A particular garment, called a dalmatica developed in the

third century and became increasingly popular across the Roman world. Described by Groom;

“This type of tunic originated in Dalmatia and became common during the
third century, and was distinguished by its long, wide sleeves. It was worn unbelted, and in
combination with the cloak rather than the mantle… It was decorated with stripes on the body
and round the wrists but could also have roundels on the shoulder and body.”46
Figure twenty-one depicts a fourth century CE example of an embroidered dalmatica. The

garment is embroidered, much like the sticharion, with lines on the shoulders, and decorated

with embroidery on the hem and sleeves. Like the sticharion, the dalmatica was not sewn along

44
Woodfin, Warren T. The Embodied Icon: Liturgical Vestments and Sacramental Power in Byzantium, 2012, 6.

45
Percival, 84.
46
Groom, 47.
 Ruvelas 32

the sides, but remained open, lacking the latter buttons or fasteners of the modern vestment.

Figure twenty-two depicts the dalmatica folded open, in the shape of a cross. The sticharion,

when unfastened and put away for storage, may also be laid out in this manner, intentionally

evoking this cruciform shape.47 The dalmatica also formed the basis of western Christianity’s

dalmatic, which is also the vestment proper to the deacon in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and

other traditions.48

When vesting, the minor orders and the deacon must first receive a blessing from a priest

or bishop before they don their sticharion and other vestments. Each vestment has a particular

prayer associated with it that the clergy recites when putting on their vestment. For the sticharion

the prayer reads;

“My soul shall rejoice in the Lord, for He hath clothed me with the garment of salvation; He
hath covered me with the robe of gladness; as a bridegroom He hath set a crown on me; and as
a bride adorneth herself with jewels, so hath He adorned me.”49
Here, the clergy quotes from the book of Isaiah, chapter sixty-one, verse ten, equating the

sticharion with the “garment of salvation” mentioned in the scripture. In saying this prayer, the

clergy recognizes the great gift from God in being blessed to wear the vestment and serve in the

liturgy or other ministry that they are about to perform. While it would be proper for any rank of

the clergy to say this vesting prayer, it is usually only done by the major clergy, deacon through

bishop, when they are vesting for the liturgy, with the minor orders and acolytes merely vesting

after receiving their blessing. Before vesting and reading the prayer, the clergy will kiss the cross

on the back of their vestment.

47
West, 87.
48
Groom, 47.
49
St. Tikhon’s Seminary, “The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” St. Tikhon’s Seminary Press, South Canaan
PA, 2010, 11.
 Ruvelas 33

The next vestment that is received by the clergy as they advance from reader to the order

of the sub-deacon is the orarion or stole. Worn by the sub-deacon and the deacon, the orarion

differs in its design and how it is worn between the minor and major orders. For the sub-deacon,

the stole is always worn wrapped around the body, and crossed in the shape of an “X” in the

front and back. Usually much more narrow than the diaconal stole, the sub-deacon’s orarion,

much like the sticharion, is not proper to be more ornate or longer than the stole of the major

clergy. Figure twenty-three shows a sub-deacon, vested in his crossed orarion. Note the sleeves

of his anteri sticking out from under his sticharion. For the deacon proper, the orarion comes in

two forms, the “single” and the “double.” In the East Slavic and some other local traditions, all

deacons begin their ministry with a “single” orarion that hangs down straight from the shoulder.

Artistic and archaeological evidence from iconography suggests that this “single” form is older

than the “double” form, as depicted in figure twenty-four. In the “Byzantine” tradition, all

deacons, regardless of rank or seniority, are blessed to wear the longer and wider “double”

orarion. As depicted in figure nineteen, this garment is wrapped around the deacon’s back and

shoulder before hanging down in the front. In the local traditions that use the single orarion, the

double is awarded as a mark of seniority or for other service in the church.50 The orarion is used

liturgically by the deacon when calling the people to prayer during the litanies, and reading the

gospel. He will keep his arm extended, with the end of the vestment in his hand, and hold it aloft

towards the altar or the people. This gesturing evolved much over time, and reached its zenith in

the late Byzantine period, and represented to the people the movement and presence of the

angel’s wings,

50
West, 89.
 Ruvelas 34

“The orarion…is integral to the deacon’s role in the liturgy…and used almost like a semaphore in giving
signals to begin a liturgical action…by the Palaiologan (14th-15th centuries CE) period, the deacon was
making such gestures a dozen or more times…the frequent waving of the end of the orarion suggested
the… movement of angels wings.”51

When preparing communion, and distributing it, the deacon will wear his stole in the crossed

manner of the sub-deacon, so that his hands may be unencumbered. There is no specific vesting

prayer for the orarion, and it is put on with the sticharion. Vested in this manner, the deacon and

sub-deacon appear as angels when moving about the sanctuary, their crossed orarion looking

again almost like wings. This theology is further emphasized by the side doors of the icon screen,

the aptly named “deacon’s doors,” having icons of the archangels Michael and Gabriel on them.

“The deacons,” writes Patriarch Germanos, “images of the angelic powers, go around with the

thin wings of linen oraria as ministering spirits sent out for service.”52

The origins of this vestment are complicated and may not derive from a single source. In

the ancient world, as we have previously seen, clothing was often awarded as a badge of office.

In this way, the orarion is seen as the typical or proper vestment for the deacon. The most

probable ancestor of the orarion and other stoles/ scarves of ecclesiastical office is the Roman

pallium. The pallium was a wide rectangle of cloth that was draped over the body, and usually

contained a decorative fringe or stripe along the edges of the garment, that denoted status or

rank. Figure twenty-five depicts how the pallium would have been worn. The name of the

vestment is also a bit of a mystery, with there being several etymologies. West provides two that

I find most convincing. The first being from the Latin orare, meaning “to pray,” reserving the

vestment as an item used for prayer, and the second from the Latin ora meaning “edge,” as the

51
Woodfin, 7.
52
Germanos, 67.
 Ruvelas 35

orarion took the wider pallium and trimmed it down to just the decorative edge of the

vestment.53

Following the sub-deacon’s ordination, if they are so blessed, into the full diaconate and

the major orders, they are presented with their next vestment, the epimanikia or cuffs. Worn by

the entirety of the major orders, this vestment has the primarily utilitarian purpose of keeping the

clergy’s cassock sleeves out of the way when they are serving the liturgy or other ministry.

Interestingly, in Patriarch Germanos’ “On the Divine Liturgy,” the epimanikia are not mentioned

as a vestment that is worn by the clergy. A reason for this omission could possibly be that the

cuffs were seen as merely an item of clothing with no theological significance at the time of

writing, the 8th century CE. There is plentiful iconographic and archaeological evidence of clergy

and laypeople wearing cuffs from late antiquity, such as the famous “Justinian Mosaic” in

Ravenna, Italy. In figure twenty-six, the emperor Justinian can be seen in the center, holding an

offering for the church, wearing golden cuffs to keep his inner garments out of the way, and for

decorative purposes. The vesting prayers for the epimanikia are broken up in to the right and left

sided cuff. For the right side, the clergy says, “Thy right hand, O Lord, is glorified in strength;

Thy right hand, O Lord, hath shattered Thine enemies, and in the greatness of Thy majesty hast

Thou overthrown Thine adversaries.”54 This prayer has its origins in Exodus chapter fifteen,

verses six and seven, and reminds the clergy that the Lord is with them, and of the responsibility

they have to their congregation. For the left cuff, the prayer reads, “Thy hands have made and

fashioned me. Give me understanding that I may learn Thy commandments.” This prayer is

53
Ibid, 63-64.
54
“The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” 12.
 Ruvelas 36

quoting Psalm 118(LXX), verse 73, and reminds the clergy that God has made them, and asks

God to aid them in learning and practicing His commandments.

The second stole, the priestly stole, is worn by the priest and bishop, and is known as an

epitrachelion. Unlike the orarion of the deacon and sub-deacon, the priestly stole is worn around

the neck, with its two ends hanging down past the clergy’s knees. This vestment is also often

richly embroidered and decorated. In earlier times, up until the 17th century, it was most common

for this vestment to be an actual rectangular strip of cloth that was draped around the neck and

allowed to hang loosely. In more modern times however, the epitrachelion is more commonly

specially made to be sewn or buttoned together, with a much thinner “yoke” that fits around the

neck.55 Figure twenty-seven depicts the priestly stole, and how it is worn. Most probably sharing

its origin from the pallium, the epitrachelion is recognized as the “proper” vestment for the

priest, signifying his role and office within the Church. Patriarch Germanos identifies the

epitrachelion with the bond that was put on Christ as he was arrested, and dragged away to be

crucified, and with the “robe of Aaron,” signifying a continuity with the Old Covenant as well as

the priest’s place in the New.56 The vesting prayer of the epitrachelion reads, “Blessed is God,

Who poureth out His grace upon His priests, as myrrh upon the head, which runneth down the

beard, the beard of Aaron, which runneth down even to the hem of his garments.”57 Here, the

prayer quotes Psalm 132 (LXX), and further identifies the priestly vocation with Aaron and the

Old Covenant, reminding the priest of his obligations to the people. So important is this vestment

for the priest to wear, that its use is imposed “under pain of heresy,” and special stipulation was

made by the Byzantine state to “swear” oaths and promises upon it rather than the Gospels, as

55
West, 67.
56
Germanos, 65-67.
57
“The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” 12.
 Ruvelas 37

was the usual practice.58 With the epitrachelion is a second utilitarian vestment, the belt or zoni.

Used to hold the priestly stole in place, the belt is worn high on the waist, and is tied with chords

in the back. Assessing a particular origin or date for the introduction of this vestment, much like

the cuffs, would be very difficult due to its utilitarian nature, and its lack of visibility in art, being

worn under other garments. Patriarch Germanos however, reveals to us an established theology

for the vestment by at least the seventh century. “The belt,” he says, “signifies that he wears the

mortification of the body and chastity, having girded his loins with the power of truth.”59 The

vesting prayer for the zoni, quotes Psalm 18 (LXX), verses thirty-three to thirty-four and further

establishes this theology. “Blessed is God, Who girdeth me with strength and hath made my way

blameless;” the prayer reads,” Who hath guided my feet like those of a deer, and hath set me on

high places.”60

Following the vesting in sticharion, stole, cuffs, and belt, the bishop or priest will then

proceed to any offikia, or ranks of office. For the priesthood, once a priest has reached the rank

of confessor, he is awarded a small diamond shaped piece of stiffened fabric called an

epigonation. Hanging from a thin piece of fabric, and draped over the left shoulder to hang on

the right side, the epigonation is also worn by all ranks of bishops. This vestment is often

elaborately decorated and embroidered with Christian motifs of the cross, or even icons of the

Virgin, Christ, or the saints. (Figure twenty-eight) this vestment most probably derives from a

“thigh shield,” or tablion, that was a civic award given in the Late Roman and Byzantine

empires, that often contained a sword, with the shield to protect the wearer’s body from the

58
Woodfin, 11.
59
Germanos, 69.
60
“The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” 12.
 Ruvelas 38

weapon slapping against it.61 Further identifying with the “sword of the spirit,” the vesting

prayers for the epigonation quote Psalm 45 (LXX), verses three and four, and read, “Gird Thy

sword upon Thy thigh, O Mighty One, and in Thy majesty and power, go forth, prosper and

reign, because of meekness, righteousness and truth. Thy right hand shall guide Thee

wondrously, always, now and ever, and unto ages of ages.”62 There is a similar award in the

Russian and East Slavic tradition called a nabedrennik, which is a rectangular shaped stiffened

piece of cloth that also hangs down from the shoulder that has the same origins and theological

meaning as the epigonation.

For the priest, the next vestment that is donned is known as the phelonion. The priestly

phelonion is a conical shaped garment that is worn over the head, and is the outer-most vestment

that a priest will wear when he is vested for the Divine Liturgy. Usually done in synthetic or

metallic brocade, and decorated and richly embroidered with gold or silver, the phelonion hangs

down to the priest’s knees in the back and is cut short in the front right below the hands to allow

more freedom of movement. In more ancient times, the phelonion was a more fully cut garment,

derived from the civilian Roman paenula, and reached all the way to the knees in both the front

and back of the priest, much like the chasuble of western Christianity.63 Figure twenty-seven

shows the priest, holding a censer, wearing the phelonion. Originally the word for a type of

everyday poncho or coat, the paenula, as St. Paul uses it in 2 Tim, 4:13, “φαιλόνην,” (phelonin),

the garment developed over the centuries so that Patriarch Germanos already in the 8th century

CE has a theological role for the vestment. “The fact that the priests walk around in unbelted

phelonia,” says the Patriarch, “points out that even Christ thus went to the crucifixion carrying

61
West, 73-74.
62
“The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” 13.
63
Woodfin, 12.
 Ruvelas 39

his cross.”64 Like the sticharion, the back of the phelonion will have a cross in the center that the

priest will kiss when vesting. Sometimes an icon may replace the cross, but it will always have to

be an icon of either the Virgin Mary or of Christ.65 The phelonion is also equated with

righteousness, and the “robe of salvation,” as the vesting prayers, quoting Psalm 132 (LXX),

verses nine and ten, state; “Thy priests, O Lord, shall be clothed with righteousness, and Thy

saints shall rejoice with gladness, always, now and ever, and unto ages of ages.”66 Prior to the

14th and 15th centuries, the bishop would wear a special phelonion that was decorated with many

crosses called a polystavrion, not to be confused with the monastic garment of the same name.

Arising in the 11th century, and originally reserved for Patriarchs, or the heads of the Churches of

Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, the polystavrion was adopted by all bishops

by the 14th-15th century.67 A key piece of evidence showing the great esteem the polystavrion

was held in is a letter dating from 1370 CE from Patriarch Philotheos of Constantinople to the

Bishop of Novgorod in Russia, admonishing him for daring to use the garment.68When vesting

and serving as a priest, a rare occasion, in modern times, the bishop will still sometimes vest in

the polystavrion. (figure twenty-nine) There is minor variation between the “Byzantine” version

of this vestment and the Eastern Slavic. The Russian or Slavic vestment is cut fuller at the top,

with a stiff neck that raises the collar off the shoulders of the priest. The “Byzantine” phelonion

is cut looser and is allowed to drape loosely around the neck of the priest.

There are two vestments and two liturgical items that are reserved especially for the

episcopal dignity. The omophorion, and the sakkos, the vestments, and the miter and paterissa,

64
Germanos, 67.
65
West, 96.
66
“The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” 13.
67
Woodfin, 21.
68
Ibid, 24.
 Ruvelas 40

or staff. The first vestment, the omophorion is the “proper” vestment for the bishop, denoting his

rank and service in the church. It is a long and broad cut of cloth that is wrapped around the neck

of the bishop and allowed to hang down the front. As shown in figure twenty-nine, the

omophorion is worn over the outermost vestment of the bishop and is usually pinned or fastened

at the shoulders. The omophorion is of great antiquity and is loaded with symbolic and

theological meaning. This vestment most likely shares its origin with the orarion and

epitrachelion, in the Roman pallium. Figure twenty-six depicts Bishop Maximian, to the left of

Justinian, holding a cross and wearing an omophorion, as early as the 6th century CE. Patriarch

Germanos likens the bishop’s omophorion to both the “stole of Aaron” from the Old Covenant,

showing continuity and the bishop’s role as “high priest” of the Church, and to the Good

Shepherd carrying the lost sheep around His neck.69 This connotation with the “lost sheep” is

intensified by Germanos, who stipulates that the episcopal omophorion should be made of wool,

rather than the linen of the Old Covenant. The vestment also represents Christ “putting on”

human nature when He became incarnate. “When thou didst take upon thy shoulders human

nature which had gone astray,” the vesting prayers begin,” O Christ, thou didst bear it to heaven

unto thy God and thy Father.”70 Unlike the other minor and major orders of the clergy, the

bishop does not vest himself, but is assisted by two deacons, sub-deacons or altar servers. A

“newer” practice of the Byzantine Church, this vesting of the bishop appears to have begun

rather late. The 10th century imperial court manual by Emperor Constantine VII, attests the

bishop entering the church fully vested, with the first mention of this new episcopal dignity

appearing in the 14th century Diataxis by the chronicler Gemistos.71There also exists a “small

69
Germanos, 67.
70
West, 264.
71
Woodfin, 19.
 Ruvelas 41

omphorion” that the bishop will change in to during certain portions of the liturgy to better

facilitate his movement in his ministries, such as the reading of the Gospel. This practice is

attested in Byzantine ecclesiastical history as far back as the 5th century CE.72 This vestment is

much shorter than the regular or “great” omophorion and is hung around the bishop’s neck.

Figure thirty shows three bishops vested in both the regular and “small” omophorion.

The final liturgical and episcopal vestment is the great sakkos. A fully cut and richly

embroidered robe of brocade, tied along the sides with bells that echo the bells from the high

priestly vestments of the Old Covenant, the sakkos is truly a magnificent vestment to behold. The

sakkos can be decorated in a variety of ways, with cross or floral patterns, and even with icons of

Christ, the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints. It will also always have a cross or icon of

Christ or the Virgin Mary on the back of the vestment. Figure thirty-one shows such a sakkos

elaborately decorated with iconography of the Virgin Mary with the Christ child, surrounded by

a multitude of saints. The sakkos is the most recent of vestments that have become standard in

the Orthodox Church, and only began to be worn by the episcopacy in the 13th century CE, and

then only by the Patriarch of Constantinople, the most senior bishop in the Orthodox Church

after the break with Rome in 1054.73 The emperor, for whom the sakkos was originally derived,

is noted to have worn the impressive garment on the feats of Christmas and Palm Sunday, as well

as during his coronation.74 Likewise, the Bishops of the Church were noted for only donning the

sakkos at on certain occasions. Writing in the late 13th century, the chronicler Demetrios

Chomatenos notes that the vestment was worn only on the “brilliant dominical feasts,” of Easter,

72
Ibid, 19.
73
West, 75.
74
Woodfin, 25.
 Ruvelas 42

Pentecost, and Christmas.75 As the political fortunes of Byzantium began to wane, the

episcopacy began to take much of the political and ecclesiastical power that was once reserved

for the emperor. Due to this changing political role and the lack of an emperor figure, the sakkos

was adopted by the entirety of the episcopacy sometime after the 15th century, and the fall of

Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. Lacking the earthly authority of the emperor, the

episcopacy was raised to this highest honor, and adopted the requisite vestments. When vesting

in his sakkos, the deacon reads the vesting prayer, which is the same as the phelonion, as the

sakkos is now the outer-most episcopal vestment. Like the other vestments, the bishop will be

vested by his attendants, and does not vest himself.

Along with the sakkos, bishop’s miter, or crown, and pastoral staff were a late addition to

the episcopal vesture. Prior to the 17th century, and the temporary removal of the Patriarch of

Alexandria to Istanbul, the wearing of the miter was only a privilege of the Patriarch of

Alexandria. When this episcopal translation occurred however, the miter, depicted in figure

thirty on the bishops on the left and center, became a part of the universal episcopal vesture.76 It

is a large and ornamented crown, usually encrusted with precious stones and made of precious

metals. The lateness of the adoption of a miter to the episcopal vesture can be attested by a 13th

century Byzantine popular accusation that the current Patriarch, John Bekkos, was trying to

emulate the Pope in Rome by wearing a miter or crown on his head.77 It is important to note, that

the Patriarchate of Constantinople was under Roman Catholic “occupation” at the time, due to

the fourth crusade in 1204. In the Eastern Slavic tradition, priests may be awarded miters as a

recognition of service or accomplishment, but they lack the raised cross that surmounts the

75
Ibid, 26.
76
West, 76.
77
Woodfin, 29.
 Ruvelas 43

episcopal miter. The staff, or paterissa is also a rather recent innovation, and represents the

bishop’s authority, and his role as “shepherd” of the “flock” that is under his jurisdiction. Unlike

the crook shaped staffs of western bishops, Orthodox staffs are usually in the form of a “T,” and

feature two snakes or dragons recoiling from a cross. (See figure thirty)

The vestments of the clergy come in many different and varied colors. From black, green,

gold, purple, blue, the variety may seem random and endless at first glance, but the Orthodox

Church has a rich theology of rubrics that determine the colors that can be used, and why they

are used for specific days. Traditionally the Liturgical Calendar of the Orthodox Church does not

break down colors into individual units, like “blue” or “green” but rather in to “bright” and

“dark” days. Colors that are seen as “bright” include white, gold, blue, green, silver, and bright

red.78 By contrast, “dark” colors include black, dark red, burgundy, and all shades of purple. It

does not end there, however, as a mix of these colors, such as a light color outlined or mixed

with dark, or vice versa, will count toward as whatever the dominant color of the vestment is, be

it a “light” or “dark” liturgical day. An example of this mixing would be a deacon wearing a

“light” sticharion with a “dark” orarion. Technically, a clergyperson is only required to have two

sets of vestments, a “light,” and a “dark.” As time and tradition developed, however, new color

combinations and rubrics developed in most local churches. In the Patriarchate of

Constantinople, for example, specific colors and combinations are now mentioned in the clerical

guidelines for those priests and deacons that serve in parishes under the patriarchate. Figure

thirty-two shows the current guidelines for liturgical seasons. Of particular note is the stipulation

for blue colors on feasts of the Virgin Mary, and for green only on Palm Sunday, and feasts of

the Holy Spirit, like Pentecost. These liturgical colors do not only determine the vestments of the

78
West, 169.
 Ruvelas 44

clergy, but also the adornment, or “vesture” of the church. Altar coverings, bookmarks, curtains,

and other textiles that are present in the church will all be changed to accommodate the particular

color of the liturgical season or specific feast. As seen in figure thirty-three, the altar table is

“vested” in blue, and ready to be used for the celebration of the Divine Liturgy. It is the

responsibility of the clergy to make sure the “vestments” of the church match the rubrics.

Conclusion

The Old Covenant priesthood, and the adornments of the tabernacle, the clerical clothing

of Aaron and his sons set them apart from the people of Israel and marked them out for a life of

service toward God. From the beautifully sewn and decorated High Priestly robes made for

“glory and beauty,” to the humble and plain robes of the other priests, the theology and use of

Orthodox Christian vestments continues this tradition to the present day. It is no accident that the

envoys of Vladimir the Great, grand prince of Kyivan Rus, reported back to their lord that the

beauty they witnessed in the great cathedral of Hagia Sophia made them question whether they

were still on earth.

“Then we went on to Greece, and the Greeks led us to the edifices where they worship their God,
and we knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no such splendor
or such beauty, and we are at a loss how to describe it. We only know that God dwells there
among men, and their service is fairer than the ceremonies of other nations. For we cannot
forget that beauty.”79

It is this beauty, for God’s “glory,” that the Orthodox and Byzantine traditions make use of

vestments. To “lay aside all worldly cares,” as the Cherubic hymn intones, and to partake in the

heavenly worship of the Divine Liturgy, which serves as a foretaste of eternity.

79
"The Russian Primary Chronicle," Samuel H. Cross, Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature, Vol. 12
(London: Oxford University Press, 1930, pp. 197-201, 204-5, 210-11, 213.
 Ruvelas 45

Works Cited
“The Holy Bible,” Revised Standard Version

Croom, Alexandra. Roman Clothing and Fashion. Chalford: Amberly, 2010.

Fr. Danylo, Bohdan, J, Dcn. Sybirny, Volodymyr, The Mystery of Ordination, St. Basil Seminary
Press, Stamford.

The Editor, “The Meaning of the Analavos of the Great Schema,” The Catalog of Good Deeds,
St. Elisabeth Convent, 05/23/2017, https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/blog/2017/05/the-meaning-
of-analavos-of-great-schema .

Maguire, Henry, Garments Pleasing to God: The Significance of Domestic Textile Designs in the
Early Byzantine Period, 215.
Germanos of Constantinople, On the Divine Liturgy, Crestwood, NY, St Vladimir’s seminary
Press.

Mangan, Edward A. “THE URIM AND THUMMIM.” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 1, no. 2
(1939): 135. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43715803.

Percival, Henry R, The Apostolic Canons, http://www.voskrese.info/spl/aposcanon.html

translation, 1899.
Percival, Henry R, The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church, Their Canons and
Dogmatic Decrees, James Parker and Company, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1899.

"The Russian Primary Chronicle," Samuel H. Cross, Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and
Literature, Vol. 12 (London: Oxford University Press, 1930, pp. 197-201, 204-5, 210-11, 213.

St. Tikhon’s Seminary, “The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom,” St. Tikhon’s Seminary
Press, South Canaan PA, 2010.

West, Krista M. The Garments of Salvation: Orthodox Christian Liturgical Vesture. Yonkers,

NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2013.

Woodfin, Warren T. The Embodied Icon: Liturgical Vestments and Sacramental Power in
Byzantium, 2012.

Zizioulas, John. “Ordination- A Sacrament? An Orthodox Reply.” The Plurality of Ministries 74

(1974): 63–75.
 Ruvelas 46

Figures

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Figure 1: High Priest of Israel offering incense. Fully vested in breastplate, ephod, robe, checkered cloak, turban, and girdle. 80

80
Evans, Mary. High Priest of Israel. https://www.thefunstons.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Jewish-High-
Priest-in-His-Ceremonial-Garb-Posters.jpg Photograph.
 Ruvelas 47

This Photo by Unknown Author

is licensed under CC BY-SA
81

Figure 2: High Priest with ephod, robe, breastplate, golden plate, and turban.

81
“Breastplate,” https://ascensionglossary.com/images/b/be/Breastplate.jpg Collection, unknown, photographer,
unknown.
 Ruvelas 48

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

82

Figure 3: Hebrew Priest in linen cap, robe, and girdle, sprinkling the blood from a sacrifice upon the Holy of Holies.

82
https://echoofrestorationtruths.blogspot.com/2015/02/who-are-redeemed.html#.ZCr-N_bMJD8 Photographer
Unknown, Collection Unknown.
 Ruvelas 49

(htt)

83

Figure 4: The Tabernacle

83
“Eve out of the Garden,” https://www.deilataylor.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Framework-and-
Tabernacle-Layers-Lesson-23-1024x682.jpg Collection unknown, photographer unknown.
 Ruvelas 50

84

Figure 5: A member of the clergy wearing the Byzantine or “Greek” style cassock, holding a thurible.

84
Photographer, Nicholas Ruvelas, personal collection.
 Ruvelas 51

85

Figure 6: Member of the Major Clergy wearing Exorasson or outer cassock.

85
‘Orthodox Clergyman in Jerusalem,’
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Eastern_Orthodox_man_in_Jerusalem_by_David_
Shankbone.jpg/380px-Eastern_Orthodox_man_in_Jerusalem_by_David_Shankbone.jpg?20071224164345
Photographer David Shankbone, Private Collection.
 Ruvelas 52

Figure 7: Youths wearing a variety of tunicae, fastened, and unfastened. Pompeii, 1st century CE.86

86
Dice players. Roman fresco from the Osteria della Via di Mercurio,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pompeii_-_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-
_Dice_Players.jpg/756px-Pompeii_-_Osteria_della_Via_di_Mercurio_-_Dice_Players.jpg , Filippo Coarelli, Public
Domain.
 Ruvelas 53

Figure 8: An Eastern Slavic, or "Russian" cassock.87

87
“Under Cassock With Grapevine,”
https://i.etsystatic.com/22767257/r/il/64b7d5/3200103962/il_794xN.3200103962_s2yr.jpg , Church Goods Store,
Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 54

Figure 9: 12th century CE icon of "The Ladder of Divine Ascent," from the Monastery of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai. 88

88
“The Ladder of Divine Ascent,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_
Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg/640px-
The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg, St. Catherine’s Monastery,
Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 55

Figure 10: Archbishop Elpidophors of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, on the day of his enthronement, with staff,
mandyas, and monastic kalimafi.89

89
Nicholas Ruvelas, personal collection.
 Ruvelas 56

Figure 11: Patriarch Theodoros of Alexandria on the left, wearing the "Greek" style mantle, with Patriarch Kyrill of Moscow on
the left, wearing the "Russian" style Patriarchal mantle, in green with white and red potamoi. Cathedral of Christ the Savior,
Moscow.90

90
“Patriarch Alexei of Moscow Meets Patriarch Theodore,”
https://pravoslavie.ru/sas/image/103771/377115.p.jpg?mtime=1645539935 , courtesy of wenews.ge .
 Ruvelas 57

Figure 12: Paramandyas, showing the Holy Cross at Golgotha, the instruments of the passion, and the cock that crowed three
times in the Gospel narrative. It is surrounded by the monastic’s promise.91

91
“Paramon #11,” https://www.stjohns-monastery.com/products/paramon-11.html St. John’s Monastery Church
Supplies, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 58

Figure 13: The analavos and polystavrion cord of a "Russian" style schema monk. Byzantine style analavoi lack the hood pictured
here.92

92
“Set Canonical Russian Orthodox Monastic Great Schema Angelic with Polistavrion,”
https://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/TmkAAOSwavBh-mNv/s-l1600.jpg , Monastery Products, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 59

Figure 14: Byzantine Nobleman Theodoros Metochites in large elaborate hat, offering the Church of The Holy Savior to Christ.
14th century CE, Kariye Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey.93

93
“Mosaic in Chora Church. Metochites presents his church to Christ.”
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chora_Church_interior_March_2008.JPG/1280px-
Chora_Church_interior_March_2008.JPG , Public Domain
 Ruvelas 60

Figure 15: Russian or East Slavic style Skoufia, with peaks.94

Figure 16: Byzantine, or Greek Style Skoufia.95

94
“Russian Style Skufia,” https://www.liturgix.org/n0224 , Liturgix vestments, public Domain.
95
“Greek Style Skufia,” https://www.liturgix.org/n0220 , Liturgix Vestments, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 61

Figure 17: Metropolitan Tikhon, head of the Orthodox Church in America, wearing a white kalamafchion in the East Slavic style,
with sewn on veil.96

96
“Metropolitan Tikhon,”
https://wdcoca.org/display_image.php?ximgid=paragraph_120_1&ext=jpg&relativeimage=images/administration/
met.tikhon.jpg&archive=0&final_h=300&final_w=200&percent=100&m=1446677872, ARCHDIOCESE OF
WASHINGTON, D.C. Orthodox Church in America, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 62

Figure 18: A Reader in the Greek Orthodox Church, vested in his Sticharion, over his cassock.97

97
Nicholas Ruvelas, Personal Collection.
 Ruvelas 63

Figure 19: A fully vested deacon in sticharion, orarion, and epimanikia.98

98
Nicholas Ruvelas, Personal Collection.
 Ruvelas 64

Figure 20: A sticharion worn by a priest or bishop.99

99
“Priest Sticharion,” https://catalog.obitel-minsk.com/priest-sticharion-with-birds-embroidery-sh2-500-8-
2ind.html , Convent of St. Elizabeth, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 65

Figure 21: 4th century CE dalmatic/ tunic, Roman Egypt.100

100
“Tunic with Dionysian Ornament,”
https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/447844/888208/main-image , Metropolitan Museum
of Art, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 66

Figure 22: Dalmatica in cruciform shape.101

101
Ibid.
 Ruvelas 67

Figure 23: Sub-deacon fully vested in his sticharion and orarion.102

102
“Subdeacon Gregory,” https://images.squarespace-
cdn.com/content/v1/5913197817bffc5927a50e6c/1519526177181-
VCGW3WXWA7023SWHL1JS/_MG_2233.jpg?format=500w St. Alexis Church, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 68

Figure 24: Icon of St. Stephen showing a single orarion.103

103
Nicholas Ruvelas, Personal Collection.
 Ruvelas 69

Figure 25: Roman wearing pallium.104

104
“Mother Courage,” https://www.pinterest.com/pin/408138784950678538/ Ely Garcia Ramirez, private
collection.
 Ruvelas 70

Figure 26: Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian, 6th century CE, Ravenna, Italy105.

Figure 27:Fully vested Orthodox Priest with epitrachelion, epimanikia, sticharion, and phelonion.106

105
“Justinian,”
https://www.gibbesmuseum.org/uploads/images/timthumb/timthumb.php?w=1485&h=1000&src=/uploads/imag
es/event/Ravenna_mosaic.jpg&zc=1 Gibbs Museum of Art, Public Domain.
106
“Father Anthony Perkins,” https://smokymountainnews.com/archives/item/33118-east-meets-west-at-the-
holy-resurrection-orthodox-church , Cory Vaillancourt, Private Collection.
 Ruvelas 71

Figure 28: An elaborately decorated epigonation, with an icon of Christ.107

107
“Epigonation,” https://www.ekklesiastor.com/product-page/embroidered-palitsa-embroidered-epigonation-
orthodox-gift-idea-for-priest Ekklesiastor, Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 72

Figure 29: Icon of St. Gregory the Great, vested as a Bishop, in Polystavrion with omophorion, 15th century.108

108
“Fresco of St. Gregory the Illuminator,”
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Meister_der_Aphentico-
Kirche_in_Mistra_001.jpg/800px-Meister_der_Aphentico-Kirche_in_Mistra_001.jpg , Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 73

Figure 30: Three Bishops vested in Omophorion, sakkos, miter, and paterissa. The bishops on the left and right are in the small
omophorion, with the bishop in the center vested in the regular vestment.109

Figure 31: 17th century sakkos with Virgin Mary and Saints.110

109
“Bishop Spirydon Ordination,” https://www.goarch.org/-/bishop-spyridon-ordination-release , Kristen Bruskas,
Public Domain.
110
“17th Century
Sakkos,”https://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/en/permanentexhibition/from_Byzantium_to_Modern_Era/church/?b
xm=1700 Public Domain.
 Ruvelas 74

Figure 32: The guidelines for the colors of the liturgical seasonbs, for the Patriarchate of Constantinople.111

111
Nicholas Ruvelas, Personal Collection.
 Ruvelas 75

Figure 33: An altar fully "vested" in covering, set up for a hierarchal Divine Liturgy, featuring a bishop. 112

112
Ibid.