An Overview of Forensic

Taphonomy
David O. Carter, PhD
Assistant Professor of Forensic Science
Department of Entomology
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
 What is forensic
taphonomy?
taphos = grave, burial.
-nomy = system of processes, rules, knowledge.
A response to witness statements.
Use of taphonomy:
Identify the deceased
Determine the cause and manner of death
Estimate postmortem interval
Locate clandestine graves
Pathology Botany

Anthropology Palynology

Archaeology Mycology

Entomology Ornithology

Microbiology Meteorology

Geoscience Molecular Biology

 Taphonomy Timeline
PREHISTORY PRESENT
Empirical Ecology

Empirical Taphonomy

Experimental Taphonomy

Forensic Taphonomy
Notable early forensic taphonomists

Alexandre Lacassange—France

Étienne Rollet—France

Edmond Locard—France

Jean-Pierre Mégnin—France

Johann Casper—Germany
3rd edition published
Haglund and Sorg 1997
Identify the Deceased
 Friction Ridges
Friction ridge pattern = ridges + furrows

Glands release sweat through the pores

Begin to form between 10th & 12th week of pregnancy

Fully formed by 24th week

Are permanent and unique

Can be well preserved when desiccated

 Fingerprint detail

Level 1
Ridge Flow: direction that ridges flow

Level 2
Ridge Events: breaks, splits and endings within the ridge
pattern

Level 3
Ridge Dimensions: size attributes and spatial location of
ridges and pores.
 Level 1: Ridge Flow
Ridge Flow is determined by the
configuration and direction of ridges.
This defines the “pattern type”.
Three patterns:
Arch
Loop
Whorl
 Level 2: Ridge Events
1) Ridge ending

2) Bifurcation

3) Dot

4) Short ridge

5) Enclosure
 dot

bifurcation
Ridge
ending

Short ridge

enclosure
Level 3: Ridge Dimensions
Each ridge has a unique
Width, shape, edge contour

Pores vary in
Number
Shape
Placement
Fingerprint Comparisons
Compare known to unknown

Compare to fingerprints stored in AFIS and IAFIS

AFIS
Automated Fingerprint Identification System
Can differ from agency to agency

IAFIS
Integrated AFIS
US National System
 Forensic Biochemistry
Genetic analysis Serology
Autosomal DNA ABO typing
Mitochondrial DNA Rhesus factor
Y-STR Saliva
Semen
Cause and Manner of Death
Cause of death
Event or disease process that led to death (e.g. gunshot, blunt
force trauma)

Manner of death
Natural
Accidental
Suicide
Homicide
Undetermined
 When is an autopsy done?
(in Nebraska)
1. When Manner is:
Accidental
Suicide
Homicide
Undetermined

2. When the doctor wants it.

Gunshot wounds
Should be used for exclusion.
 Forensic Chemistry
Toxicology Controlled Substances
Blood alcohol Powders
Vitreous humor Pills
Cardiac blood Liquids
Femoral blood Plants
Organs Spores
Postmortem Interval
Postmortem Interval (PMI)
The time elapsed since death.

One 100% accurate estimate:

Maximum PMI equals the time elapsed since the
person was last seen alive and found dead.

A collection of direct and indirect methods aim to

narrow that estimate.
 Postmortem Interval
What is used to estimate PMI?
Rate methods: based on process that begins or
ends at death; e.g. rigor mortis, maggot
development.
Accuracy tends to decrease as PMI increases.
Concurrence methods: sequencing events that
occurred at known times around death; e.g. phone
records, emails, receipts, stopped watch.

Why narrow the PMI estimate?

Can help identify people
Can help accept or reject alibi
Can help reconstruct series of events
Direct Estimates of PMI
 Algor mortis
Believed that body cooled 1.5 degrees F per hour after
death.
Thermometer inserted 3-4” into the rectum.
Must know:
Temperature at death
Duration of temperature plateau

Algor mortis is not acceptable for estimating PMI

 Livor mortis
Livor mortis usually observed between 20 and 120
minutes postmortem.

Believed that livor mortis becomes fixed at 10-12 hours

postmortem.

Livor mortis is not acceptable for estimating PMI

 Rigor mortis
Estimates:
Becomes noticeable 3-4 hours postmortem
Full rigor by 12 hours postmortem
Lapsed by 36 hours postmortem

Rigor mortis is not acceptable for estimating PMI

 Vitreous humor
Measure of the concentration of potassium (K) over time

31% accurate, most often overestimates PMI

Most accurate within 24 hours postmortem

Vitreous humor is not acceptable for estimates of PMI

Forensic Anthropology
Indirect Estimates of PMI
 Degree Days

Step 1:
maximum temperature + minimum temperature
2

Step 2:
subtract ‘base temperature’

base temperature = the lowest temperature at which that organism will grow.
 Accumulated Degree
Days
Sum each degree day

Some taphonomists use Accumulated Degree Hours in an

attempt to increase precision.
 Forensic Entomology
Using the development of insects to estimate PMI

Using the succession of insects to estimate PMI

Key to understanding this use is through understanding

the Degree Day
 Needed for Forensic
Entomology
Species of blow fly (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Age of blow fly

Temperature at crime scene

Growth rate of blow fly species

Egg 1st stage 2nd stage 3rd stage pupa

ADDs 374 418 572 1012 3014

Hours at 22 17 19 26 46 137
°C

Grassberger and Reiter (2001) Forensic Sci Int 120:32-36

 Gravesoils
Probably the best way to estimate PMI once maggots
have migrated.

Based on concentration of chemicals in gravesoil and

accumulated degree days.

At present, gravesoil PMI estimates use base temperature

of 0 °C.
Not certain if this is correct.
 nutrient concentration
600

500
ppm nutrient g-1 soil kg-1 cadaver

400 ammonium
potassium
300
chloride
calcium
200

100

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Accumulated degree days

Vass et al. (1992) J Forensic Sci 37:1236-

1253
 Volatile Fatty Acids
16
14
1285 ADDs = no more
-1 soil kg-1 cadaver

12 VFAs
10 propionic
8 n-butyric
mmol VFA g

iso-valeric
6
4
2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Accumulated degree days

Vass et al. (1992) J Forensic Sci 37:1236-

1253
Vass’s rule of thumb for PMI

For pre-skeletonized bodies

1285 degree days = end of volatile fatty acid release

1285 ÷ average temperature (°C) on day of discovery =

approximate maximum PMI

Consider average temperature of 22 °C:

1285/22 = 58.4
58.4 days = maximum PMI
 Newest PMI equations
• Aboveground Decomposition
1285 x (decomposition/100)
0.0103 x temperature x humidity

• Belowground Decomposition
1285 x (decomposition/100) x 4.6 x adipocere
0.0103 x temperature x soil moisture
ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen

Ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen is
protein
peptide
amino acids
ammonium
• An increase in NRN occurs after 320 ADDs regardless of death in winter
or summer

Gravesoil NRN can remain elevated for 1 year.

Gravesoil pH can be significantly lower for 1 year.

Locating Clandestine Graves
 Hunter et al. 1996

Dupras et al. (2005)

Dupras et al. (2005)
Dupras et al. (2005)
Similarities between Crime Scene
Investigation and Archaeology
1st responder is responsible for success

One chance to recover information: destructive process

Documentation is critical

Reconstruction based on physical evidence

Enhancement used to locate objects

Ground Penetrating Radar, resistivity, thermal imaging, etc.

Reports produced
 References
Dupras TL et al. (2005) Forensic Recovery of Human Remains:
Archaeological Approaches. CRC Press.

Gunn A (2009) Essential Forensic Biology. 2nd Edition. Wiley-

Blackwell.

Houck MM, Siegel JA (2010) Fundamentals of Forensic

Science. 2nd Edition. Academic Press.

Hunter J et al. (1997) Studies in Crime: An Introduction to

Forensic Archaeology. Batsford.

James S, Nordby JJ (2009) Forensic Science: An Introduction to

Scientific and Investigative Techniques. 3rd Edition. CRC Press.
 David O. Carter, PhD
Assistant Professor of Forensic Science
Department of Entomology
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA

dcarter2@unl.edu