GRADE 11

2021

LIFE PROCESSES IN PLANTS & ANIMALS

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Textbook: Page 202 - 239

Definitions
 Cellular respiration: a chemical process which uses oxygen to break down glucose to release its
energy. The energy, which is stored as ATP, is available for metabolic processes.
 Breathing (ventilation): the physical or mechanical process of moving air into and out of the lungs.
 Gaseous exchange: gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide) diffuse across a gaseous exchange
surface or membrane in opposite directions.

Need for gaseous exchange

Most organisms need a constant supply of oxygen so that cellular respiration can occur efficiently.
This will ensure that enough energy is available for metabolic processes. Cellular respiration
produces carbon dioxide, which must be removed from the cells, because it is toxic & damages cells.
It can also combine with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers the pH in the tissues. This might
have negative consequences, like the denaturation of proteins.

Surface area : volume

A small cell or organism has a larger surface area to volume ratio. It implies that there is a lot of
surface area to allow the entry of enough oxygen to supply the processes that occur in the cell or
organism.
Do Practical Activity 1 on page 205 to see how the shape of an animal influences its surface area :
volume.

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Requirements for efficient gaseous exchange
 Surface:
Large (in relation to body size): to allow enough surface area for sufficient oxygen to diffuse in 1
direction & carbon dioxide in the other direction.
Thin: to ensure rapid diffusion of gases, because there is a short diffusion distance. The walls of the
alveoli in lungs are made up of 1 layer of squamous epithelial cells.
Moist: to prevent desiccation of the gaseous exchange surface. Oxygen diffuses faster if it has
dissolved in the fluid in the alveoli.

 System:
It must be close to a transport system: efficient transport of gases to & from the gaseous exchange
surface.
Ventilating mechanism: to move the air towards & away from the gaseous exchange surface.
Protection: for the surfaces that are thin & delicate.

Small, unicellular organisms that occur in moist habitats simply use their body surface as a gaseous
exchange surface. More complex, multicellular organisms have specialized gaseous exchange
surfaces & transport systems to ensure that oxygen is delivered to all cells & that carbon dioxide is
removed.

Applications to plants & animals

1. Dicotyledonous plants
Plants need carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis & oxygen for cellular
respiration. Stomata are modified epidermal
cells, which consist of 2 guard cells that
surround a pore. Most stomata occur on the
leaves & allow the diffusion of gases due to a
concentration gradient, that is set up as a
result of photosynthesis. The interior of the

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leaf has a higher carbon dioxide concentration than the surrounding air. Stems contain lenticels for
the exchange of gases. Intercellular spaces allow for the diffusion of gases between the internal
tissues of plants.

2. Earthworms
Earthworms use their skins as a gaseous exchange surface. It is kept moist by coelomic fluid that is
released from the dorsal pores & mucous from mucous glands. They live in moist soil. The skin is
very thin & contains many blood vessels to transport the oxygen to other parts of the body.

3. Insects
The bodies of terrestrial insects are covered with an exoskeleton of chitin. It decreases the loss of
water, but also makes it impermeable to gases. Tracheae form a branching network of ducts in the
abdomen. Tracheae branch into smaller tracheoles. Air enters the body at openings on the surface
of the body called spiracles. The spiracles have valves which open & close to regulate the flow of air
into & out of the body of the insect. Oxygen diffuses from tracheoles to the surrounding cells,
therefore no transport system is required.

respiring tissue
tracheole

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 body surface O2

spiracle CO2

tracheae

4. Bony fish
The gaseous exchange organs of fish are gills. Gills are contained in gill chambers, which are
covered with a bony flap called an operculum. Water flows into the mouth of the fish & into the gill
chambers. Each gill consists of a gill arch with a double row of gill filaments. Each filament has a
large number of gill platelets (lamellae), which are supplied with blood in capillaries. A counter-
current exchange mechanism is set up between the blood in the platelets & the surrounding water.
Water that has a high oxygen concentration comes into contact with deoxygenated blood in the gills.
Oxygen is transferred from the water to the blood, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the
water. The water & blood flows in opposite directions, so that the water always has a higher
concentration of oxygen than the blood that it is in contact with. This ensures efficient gaseous
exchange.

gill arch

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 gill filament

platelet / lamella

direction of water flow

deoxygenated
blood into gills
oxygenated blood
out of gills

5. Mammals
The gaseous exchange surface of mammals is the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs are contained in &
protected by the thoracic cavity.

Human gaseous exchange:

Structures
Refer to the diagram on page 210 of the textbook.

1. Nose
The nostrils are openings that allow air to flow into the nasal cavity, the lining of which is ciliated
columnar epithelium. The nasal passages also contain many blood vessels & hairs. As air is inhaled
it is warmed (by warm blood in the blood vessels), moistened (by mucous) & cleaned (by the hairs &
cilia).

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Draw an annotated diagram of ciliated columnar epithelium.

2. Pharynx
The pharynx is the respiratory passage that connects the nasal passages & the trachea.

3. Trachea
The trachea is in front of the oesophagus. It is supported & kept open by C-shaped cartilage rings.
The open part of the C faces the back. The oesophagus can expand into this space when food is
swallowed. The epiglottis occurs at the top of the trachea. It is a leaf-shaped structure that is made
of elastic cartilage & that closes the trachea when food is swallowed. This prevents choking. The
trachea is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium. The lower part of the trachea is enclosed by the
lungs.

4. Bronchi
The trachea splits in to the left & right bronchus. Each bronchus enters a lung & branches out into
smaller & smaller passages, called bronchioli. The internal structure of the bronchi is similar to that of
the trachea.

5. Brionchioli
Brionchioli are small branches of bronchi. The do not have cartilage rings & are not lined with ciliated
columnar epithelium. Their walls consist of cuboidal epithelium & contain smooth muscles that can
contract & relax to regulate the flow of air.

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6. Alveoli
Alveoli are microscopic air sacs that occur at the end of
bronchioli. They occur in clusters & are surrounded by a
network of capillaries. The wall of an alveolus is made of 1
layer of squamous epithelium, therefore it is very thin. Alveoli
are lined with a layer of moisture as well as surfactant, which
ensures that the alveoli remain open. The exchange of gases
occurs in the alveoli.

7. Lungs
The lungs are contained in the thoracic cavity, the lower part of which is formed by the diaphragm,
which is a dome-shaped muscle sheet. The thoracic cavity is an enclosed chamber where pressure
can be built up. This is important for the breathing process. The lungs are surrounded by 2 pleura,
which are separated by an airtight pleural cavity containing pleural fluid. The inner pleural membrane
covers the lungs, while the external pleural membrane lines the thoracic cavity. The pleural
membranes & fluid reduce friction during breathing.

The left lung has 2 lobes, while the right lung has 3. The space between the lungs, where the heart is
situated, is known as the mediastinum. The lungs are surrounded & protected by the ribcage. There
are 2 sets of muscles (internal & external intercostals) between the ribs.

Breathing
Breathing is the process whereby air is moved into & out of the lungs. Breathing in draws oxygen-rich
air into the lungs, while breathing out ensures that carbon dioxide leaves the body. The ventilation of
the lungs is the result of changes in the volume & pressure of the thoracic cavity. The ribs, intercostal
muscles & diaphragm are involved in the process.

1. Breathing out (exhalation or expiration)

 Passive process
 Internal intercostal muscles contract
 External intercostal muscles relax
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 Ribcage moves inwards & downwards
 Diaphragm relaxes & becomes more dome-shaped
 Volume of thoracic cavity decreases
 Pressure in thoracic cavity increases
 Air is forced out of the lungs through the respiratory passages.

Inhalation Exhalation

diaphragm contracts & moves down

diaphragm relaxes & moves up

2. Breathing in (inhalation or inspiration)

 Active process
 External intercostal muscles contract
 Internal intercostals muscles relax
 Ribcage moves outwards & upwards
 Diaphragm contracts & becomes flatter & less dome-shaped
 Volume of thoracic cavity increases
 Pressure in thoracic cavity decreases to below atmospheric pressure
 Air flows into the lungs to equalize this pressure.

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Gaseous exchange
1. In lungs: between alveoli & capillaries

alveolus
air

thin layer of moisture

oxygenated blood:
high O2 concentration
high O2 concentration

deoxygenated
blood: high CO2
concentration
diffusion of O2

red blood cell

diffusion of CO2

 Deoxygenated blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli has a high concentration of CO2 &
a low concentration of O2.
 The inhaled air in the alveoli has a high concentration of O 2 & a low concentration of CO2.
 CO2 diffuses out of the blood, through the walls of the capillaries & alveoli into the alveoli
themselves.
 O2 in the inhaled air dissolves in the layer of moisture in the alveoli.
 Dissolved O2 diffuses through the walls of the alveoli, the capillaries & the red blood cells.
 O2 binds to haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
 Oxygenated blood leaves the alveoli.

2. In tissues: between capillaries & body cells

red blood cell

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 oxygenated blood
deoxygenated
in capillary
blood

diffusion of O2: diffusion of CO2:

blood to cells cells to blood

cell

 Oxygenated blood arrives at the cells.

 Oxygenated blood has a high concentration of O2 & a low concentration of CO2.
 The cells have a low concentration of O2 & a high concentration of CO2, due to cellular
respiration.
 Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates & releases O2.
 O2 diffuses out of the red blood cell, through the blood, the wall of the capillary & into the cells.
 CO2 diffuses out of the cells, through the wall of the capillary & into the blood.
 Deoxygenated blood leaves the tissues.

Transport of gases
 Oxygen
Oxygen can be transported in the blood in 2 ways
1. In the lungs oxygen binds with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin. Most
of the oxygen is transported in this way. At the tissues oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release
oxygen so that it can diffuse into the cells.
2. Oxygen dissolved in blood plasma.
 Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide can be transported in the blood in 3 ways.
1. Carbon dioxide reacts with water in the blood plasma to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid
decomposes into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. Most of the carbon dioxide is transported as
bicarbonate ions.

H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+

This reaction can also occur in the reverse direction

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2. Carbon dioxide dissolved in blood plasma.
3. Carbon dioxide binds with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin. It is transported in the
red blood cells.

Homeostatic control of breathing

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body. This ensures highly
efficient metabolic reactions. Breathing is an involuntary action that is controlled by the medulla
oblongata, the respiratory centre of the brain. The rate of breathing is determined by the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. A high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
causes a decrease in blood pH. Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata, aorta & carotid arteries
are sensitive to these changes in the blood. (The 2 carotid arteries are in the neck & supply blood to
the head.)

If the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood becomes too high, the medulla oblongata sends
nerve impulses to the diaphragm & intercostal muscles to increase the rate & depth of breathing. The
heart also beats faster to pump carbon dioxide-rich blood away from the tissues to the lungs. Once
the excess carbon dioxide has been exhaled, breathing rate returns to normal.

Diseases & health problems

1. Hay fever
Hay fever is not a disease, but an allergy, caused by allergens in the environment, like pollen, fungal
spores, house dust mites & dust. The allergens irritate the mucous membranes in the eyes, nose &
air passages. The immune system overreacts to these substances, which are usually harmless.
Symptoms include an itchy, runny or blocked nose, watery eyes & sneezing. Hay fever is usually
treated with anithistamines.

2. Asthma
Asthma is caused by genetic & environmental factors. An attack may be triggered by an allergen,
strenuous exercise or the inhalation of polluted or cold air. Allergens include pollen, feathers, pet
hair, house dust mites & certain foods. The air passages become inflamed, swollen & produce
increased amounts of mucous. The smooth muscles of the bronchi or bronchioles contract
(bronchiospasm). Symptoms include breathlessness, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath & a

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tight chest. Medication to treat asthma dilates the air passages & reduces the inflammation. It can
be taken as medicine or with an inhaler.

3. Bronchitis
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of the bronchi. Inflammation includes swelling and
discomfort (not always pain). It can be caused by polluted air, smoking or a viral infection. An excess
of mucous is produced, so less air can be inhaled & exhaled, limiting the amount of gases
exchanged. Symptoms include coughing up phlegm, mild fever, shortness of breath & wheezing.
Acute bronchitis is usually a complication of colds or other viral infections & only lasts a few days,
while chronic bronchitis is a long-term disease, for which there is no known cure.

Healthy Chronic bronchitis:

Inflammation & excess mucous

4. Emphysema

Emphysema is associated with smoking (tobacco & marijuana),

silica dust & other pollutants. Alveoli are damaged & destroyed.
Their walls break down, they lose part of their blood supply &
become less elastic. Alveoli become larger & less numerous.
Lung capacity is reduced, therefore the surface area for gaseous
exchange decreases. Symptoms include shortness of breath

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 (because of a lack of oxygen in the blood), wheezing & coughing
up thick, sticky sputum. There is no treatment or cure for
emphysema.

5. Lung cancer
Lung cancer is also associated with smoking. Malignant tumors form as a result of uncontrolled cell
division. The cancer cells may also spread to other parts of the body. There may be no symptoms in
the early stages of the disease. The following symptoms appear later: shortness of breath, coughing
up blood, chest pain (especially when taking deep breaths) & fatigue. Lung cancer can be treated
with surgery, chemotherapy or radiation therapy, but is it usually fatal.

6. Tuberculosis
Refer to the notes on Bacteria.

Smoking
Cigarette smoke contains about 4 000 chemicals, many of which are harmful or toxic. These include
nicotine, carbon monoxide, tar, cyanide & ammonia. The chemicals are absorbed into the blood from
the lungs. Smoking is associated with many types of cancer (lips, tongue, mouth, trachea & lung) & a
variety of heart & lung diseases (eg. emphysema).

Nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict & to increases blood pressure. Consequently the heart
has to work harder to pump blood to all parts of the body. If a woman smokes while she is pregnant
less blood & oxygen reaches her placenta & foetus. Babies of women who smoke generally have a
lower birth weight than the babies of non-smokers. Children that grow up in houses where the
parents smoke tend to develop more diseases of the respiratory system compared to children of non-
smokers. Most people find it very difficult to stop smoking, because nicotine is an addictive
substance.

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Haemoglobin has a stronger affinity for carbon monoxide than for oxygen. Therefore, in the presence
of carbon monoxide, less oxygen will be transported. Tar is a black, sticky substance that lines the
inside of the respiratory system of smokers & also stains their fingers & teeth.

Cilia in the respiratory passages are damaged & paralysed by the nicotine in cigarette smoke. The
tissue is irritated by the smoke, so responds by producing more mucous. The cilia are unable to
sweep this excess mucous, containing trapped particles, away from the lungs. It slips into the lungs &
causes coughing & possibly infections.

Artificial respiration
Artificial respiration is an emergency procedure that helps a person to breathe if they are unable to,
due to an injury or accident. It is a method to ventilate the lungs & encourage the exchange of gases
by restoring or maintaining breathing. It is usually done by mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. The air that
is blown into the patient’s mouth contains more carbon dioxide than fresh air. The carbon dioxide
diffuses into the blood of the patient, where the high concentration triggers an increase in rate &
depth of breathing. It can also be done with a ventilator in a hospital, for example during surgery or if
someone is in a coma.

Effect of altitude on red blood cells

As altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases & the air becomes less dense. There is
less oxygen available & it becomes more difficult take in enough oxygen. People who live at high
altitudes have more blood cells & a larger volume of blood than those who live at lower altitudes or at
sea level. They have a higher oxygen carrying capacity, which ensures that their tissues receive
enough oxygen.

This trend is illustrated in the graph on the next page.

Average number of red blood cells is measured in millions per mm3 of blood.

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 6.4
Average number of red blood cells

6.2

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2

5
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Altitude (m)

This has implications for people who climb mountains or participate in sport. It takes time for their
bodies to acclimatize, in other words to produce more red blood cells. Sportsmen who train at high
altitudes have an advantage over those who train at lower altitudes. Mountaineers must spend time
at different (higher) altitudes before they can climb to the top.

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