Developments in the use of

nonwovens in building and 14

construction
P.A. Khatwani, K.S. Desai, U.S. Thakor
Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology, Surat, India

14.1 Introduction
With the recent continuous developments in the fields of nonwoven fabric formation
technologies, their areas of applications are increasing rapidly during these days. Basi-
cally, there are three main varieties of nonwoven fabrics in use, namely, spunbond,
spunlace, and needle-punch nonwoven fabrics. Sometimes, they are also used in com-
binations with other form of fabric structures, depending upon the requirements of end
use applications [1].
In this chapter, an attempt has been made to include the developments that have
taken place in the areas of nonwoven fabrics, making them suitable for the applications
in building and construction fields. Mainly, three areas of applications, viz., roofing,
wall membranes, and pipe relining have been targeted here, having usage of nonwoven
fabrics of different varieties [2,3]. Looking to the current trend of applications of
nonwoven fabrics in building and construction fields, it can be stated that many
more new areas of applications of nonwovens may be the part of civil construction dur-
ing the days to come [4].
Some of the advantages of using nonwovens are highlighted here:
• maximal and fast adhesion to many material or its compositions;
• high durability;
• uniformity
• lightweight;
• smooth surface;
• resistance to many chemicals and moisture;
• optimum lengthening and elasticity promote prevention of destruction of damp-course mat
production (building slabs);
• can act as a waterproofing layer with appropriate coatings; and
• high parameters of stability to static punching shear.

Advances in Technical Nonwovens. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100575-0.00014-0

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
386 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

14.2 Current nonwoven materials, technologies,

and their limitations
14.2.1 Different forms of nonwoven materials
Nonwovens [5] are not made by weaving or knitting and do not require converting
of the fibres to yarn. Nonwoven fabrics are engineered fabrics that may be single-
use disposables or very durable fabrics. Today, many innovations have taken place
in nonwoven fabrics, and they are growing much rapidly as demand grows in mar-
ket, with almost unlimited possibilities for a wide variety of industries. As shown in
Fig. 14.1, they are used in numerous applications, including: baby diapers, adult
incontinence products, wet wipes, surgical drapes and covers, liquid cartridge
and bag filters, face masks, air-conditioning filters, soil stabilizers and roadway un-
derlayment, erosion control, drainage systems, insulation (fiberglass batting), pil-
lows, cushions, and upholstery padding, carpet backing, automotive headliners
and upholstery, house wraps, and disposable clothing (foot coverings, coveralls),
agricultural coverings, agricultural seed strips, apparel linings, automotive head-
liners, automotive upholstery, carpeting, civil engineering fabrics, civil engineering
geotextiles, disposable diapers, envelopes, filters, house wraps, household and per-
sonal wipes, hygiene products, insulation, labels, laundry aids, roofing, sterile med-
ical use products, tags, upholstery, wall coverings, liners for cured in place pipe
(CIPP), and many more.

Figure 14.1 Applications of nonwovens.

NPTEL.
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 387

14.2.2 Technologies used for production of nonwovens

The production of a nonwoven fabric [6,7] involves a series of individual steps. The
first step is to determine the desirable product end use properties and select the correct
raw material/fibre to match those requirements. For example, if wicking properties are
required in the product, then polypropylene or a type of polyester may be selected. If
heat retention is required, wool or acrylics may be selected. The selected fibre must be
properly prepared for the type of process to be used. The fibre is then formed into a
web structure with the correct fibre alignment, weight, and dimensions.
The next step is to select bonding method needed to obtain the types of structure
stabilization required for the end product. A flat stiff structure requires a different
bonding method than a lofty or soft flexible product. Finishing of the product may
be as simple as cutting the wide delivered fabric into narrower widths. It may also
involve applying chemical or mechanical finishes, or it may be printing or dyeing
certain types of these nonwoven fabrics.

14.2.2.1 Manufacturing steps

• fibre selection
• fibre preparation
• mat formation
• bonding or interlocking
• finishing
The various methods for bonding are:
1. adding an adhesive;
2. thermally fusing the fibres to each other or to the other meltable fibres or powders;
3. fusing fibres by first dissolving and then resolidifying their surfaces;
4. creating physical tangles or tuft among the fibres; and
5. stitching the fibres or filaments in place.

14.2.2.2 Nonwoven manufacturing process

Manufacturing of nonwovens can be described in simple terms as a series of
manufacturing steps consisting of forming a fibrous web, entangling or bonding the
fibres in the web to impart mechanical integrity to the structure, and finishing/convert-
ing the fabric to impart some special properties to the fabric that the customer specifies.
The manufacturing steps are described in the following.

14.2.2.3 Web formation

The characteristics of the fibrous web are a key determinant of the physical properties
of the final product. Fibre length determines the choice of methods for forming webs.
Initially, the methods for the formation of webs from staple-length fibres were based
on the textile carding process, whereas web formation from short fibres was based on a
wet laid process similar to papermaking. These technologies are still in use, but
388 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

methods based on forming a web directly from filaments immediately they exit an
extruder like. Spunbond/spunmelt/spunlaid technologies have also been developed.
Fibrous webs have little mechanical strength, and a further manufacturing process is
necessary to form a fabric with useful properties. There are number of processes used
to accomplish this, which are described as follows.

14.2.2.4 Web bonding

Needle-punching is a process of bonding nonwoven web structures, mechanically
interlocking the fibres through the web. Barbed needles, mounted on a board, punch
fibres into the web and then are withdrawn, leaving fibres entangled. The needles
are spaced in a nonaligned arrangement are designed to release the fibre as the needle
board is withdrawn. The density of needles influences the quality of nonwoven fabrics.
Stitch-bonding is a method of consolidating fibre webs with knitting elements with
or without yarn to interlock the fibres. There are a number of different yarns that can be
used. Home furnishings are a market for these fabrics. Other uses are vacuum bags,
geotextiles, filtration, and interlinings. In many applications, stitch-bonded fabrics
are taking the place of woven goods because they are faster to produce, and hence,
the cost of production is considerably less.
Thermal bonding is the process of using heat to bond or stabilize a web structure
that consists of a thermoplastic fibre. All parts of the fibres act as thermal binders,
thus eliminating the use of latex or resin binders. Thermal bonding is the leading
method used by the cover stock industry for baby diapers. Polypropylene has been
the most suitable fibre with a low melting point of approximately 165
C. It is also
soft to touch. The fibre web is passed between heated calender rollers, where the
web is bonded. In most cases, point bonding by the use of embossed rolls is the
most desired method, adding softness and flexibility to the fabric. Use of smooth rolls
bonds the entire surface of the fabric, increasing the strength, but reducing drape and
softness.
Chemical bonding is the process of bonding a web by means of a chemical and is
one of the most common methods of bonding. The chemical binder is applied to the
web and is cured. The most commonly used binder is latex because it is economical,
easy to apply, and very effective. Several methods are used to apply the binder, and
they include saturation bonding, spray bonding, print bonding, and foam bonding.
Hydroentanglement is a process of using fluid forces to lock the fibres together.
This is achieved by fine water jets directed through the web, which is supported by
a conveyor belt. Entanglement occurs when the water strikes the web and the fibres
are deflected. The vigorous agitation within the web causes the fibres to become
entangled.

14.2.2.5 Finishing and converting

Finishing and converting are the last operations performed on the fabric before it is
delivered to the customer. Finishing includes operations such as coating and lami-
nating, calendering, and embossing to impart particular surface properties; corona
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 389

and plasma treatments to change the wetting properties of the fabric; wet chemical
treatments to impart antistat properties, antimicrobial properties, flame retardant prop-
erties, etc. After finishing the fabric, it is usually cut to the width the customer specifies
and it is then rewound which is ready for shipment. This is known as converting.

14.2.3 Comparison among the different types of nonwoven

fabrics on the basis of their limitations
On comparing the three basic types of nonwoven fabrics, it can be said that the spun-
bond technology is used only in case of man-made fibres, while spunlace and needle-
punch technologies are used for all types of fibres. Technology-wise, thermal bonding
is used for bonding the web of fibres in the case of spunbond nonwoven fabrics, while
pressurized jets of water and needles are used to bond the web of fibres in the cases of
spunlace and needle-punch nonwoven fabrics, respectively. Also, spunbond and spun-
lace technologies are used for the production of nonwoven fabrics having GSM of less
than 150, while needle-punch technology is preferred for production of nonwoven fab-
rics having GSM of more than 150.
Looking to these points of comparison, suitable technology has been selected for
the production of nonwoven fabrics, depending upon the end use applications. Even
a mix of technologies can be considered in case of applications related to building
and construction fields.

14.3 Recent developments in materials, technologies,

and applications
14.3.1 Recently developed nonwoven fabrics
Today, different varieties of nonwovens are being designed and developed to meet the
requirements of building and construction fields. Natural and man-made fibres or their
combinations are used for the production of nonwoven fabrics [8].
Coconut coir is an invaluable gift of nature. This unique material has been used to
make materials of our daily needs, household articles, handicrafts, and many others.
Lignocellulosic natural fibres exhibit properties, such as biodegradability and recycla-
bility, either by composting or by incineration, which are desirable to be considered as
characteristics of sustainable materials.
Nonwoven coir (felt) is innovative. Felts are obtained in the form of rolls of 4 ft
wide. The thickness of the nonwoven felt varies from 4.25 to 4.78 cm with an average
thickness of 4.5 cm. Felt is lightweight, with an average weight of 1100 g/cm2. For
manufacturing a good quality corrugated sheet, the uniformity in distribution of coir
throughout the felt is necessary.
Nonwovens made of polyester and glass fibres are also designed and developed for
different applications in building and construction fields. Impregnated with resin, a nee-
dle felt nonwoven is also suitable as a structural reinforcement material. Laminates made
390 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

with glass or polyester nonwovens are in use for many different polymer-based mem-
branes. These are the most preferred types of nonwovens to be used for CIPP relining.
Waterproofing is one of the major issues in the area of infrastructural developments.
The protection to buildings and their occupants from external climatic conditions and
from the effects of condensation is the biggest concern in any infrastructural develop-
ment. To deal with this issue, different kinds of wall membranes are used, and still, a
lot of research is going on for the improvement of the same.

14.3.2 Production technologies

Needle-punch production technology is the most preferred technology to be used for
the production of nonwoven fabrics having applications in most of the building and
construction fields. Sometimes these nonwoven fabrics have been coated with the
polymeric materials as per the requirements of end use applications.
The lightweight flexible sheet materials suitable for use as breather membranes in most
forms of wall construction are manufactured from high-density polyethylene or polypro-
pylene, PTFE (Teflon), or a combination of both. A flexible membrane coated or lami-
nated to an outer base fabric controls the moisture permeability through the fabric.

14.3.3 Areas of applications, in particular, civil

constructional applications
14.3.3.1 Roofing
Natural coir fibre composites roofing product manufactures from coir and bamboo
combined with synthetic resin or other suitable binder is an alternate for corrugated
roofing products, a venture to develop technology to manufacture corrugated roofing
sheets. Since coir felt is highly porous material and simultaneously flexible, woven
bamboo mat is used along with coir felt in the manufacture of corrugated sheets.
The prepared corrugated sheets are tested for water permeability, which is to be consid-
ered as one of the important properties for the products to be used as roofing material,
as well as bond integrity and physical mechanical properties. The corrugated sheets
passed all the tests except the impact resistance test. Exposure study indicates that
roofing sheets are suitable for use in place of conventional roofing sheets.
The roofing industry is being revolutionized with the use of fiberglass technology
and nonwoven media in various roofing applications, helping to shed the deficiencies
of organic felt-based roofing membranes while offering an economical solution to
higher-end roofing membranes. Commercial and residential roofing mat technologies
provide products to various roofing markets, ranging from three-tab and laminated
shingles, base, cap, and low-slope roofing applications.
In a so-called ‘inverted roof’ construction, a needle-felt nonwoven can be used for
protection purposes. Impregnated with resin, a needle-felt nonwoven is also suitable
as a structural reinforcement material. Separating layers are laid underneath synthetic
roofing material to prevent damage or deterioration. Damage may occur due to the sur-
face roughness of the underlying construction, and the (PVC) film of the synthetic
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 391

roofing material may deteriorate, due to the fact that the underlying bitumen can extract
the plasticizers (softening agents) from the PVC film. In most constructions, a polyester
fleece is sufficient for fire protection. If this cannot guarantee an adequate external fire
protection for the construction, also in regard to airborne sparks, then it is recommended
to use glass fibre fleece. When the application of a liquid roofing material is utilized in
the construction, a polyester nonwoven is used to strengthen the entire construction.
Separation fleeces are available in different qualities and dimensions. The following sep-
aration fleeces can be used:
• polyester (drillable): 120e300 g/m2
• glass fibre: 120e180 g/m2
Felt cushioning material has been developed for EPDM and PVC roofing systems,
which allows the new membrane to go directly over bituminous roofs in roof replace-
ment applications. Single-ply roofing has become a standard replacement for, and major
improvement to, ‘built-up bituminous roofing’. It has become the roofing system of
choice around the world for flat roofs on commercial and industrial buildings while mak-
ing in-roads in residential applications under roof decks and on flat roofing surfaces.
As shown in Fig. 14.2, scrims made from polyester and/or glass fibres, and also
scrim laminates made with glass or polyester nonwovens, are in use for many different
polymer-based membranes. Scrims can often be found in roofing membranes made
from PVC, PO, EPDM, or bitumen [9e12].

Figure 14.2 Scrims made from different fibres.

Colback Nonwoven Fabrics.
392 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

14.3.3.2 Wall membranes

These membranes are used for controlling the movements of heat, air, and moisture
through the concrete structure as well as largely in timber frame construction applica-
tions in Europe and North America, thus giving protection from the environment and
improving the energy efficiency of buildings. Different systems and materials have
been used to obtain the required internal conditions, but the optimum results are ob-
tained using the textile membranes. These may also be called as waterproof breathable
fabrics, which are used as a shelter from wind and rain, and prevent condensation
buildup. These kinds of fabrics are also used in applications of temporary construc-
tions like domes/tent, etc.
Waterproofing membrane systems are available as either postapplied or preapplied
products for use in either positive-side, negative-side, or blind-side applications
[13,15].
• Positive-side waterproofing systems: postapplied to the surface of the element that is directly
exposed to moisture, typically the exterior side of the foundation wall. They are available in
numerous materials and forms.
• Negative-side waterproofing systems are postapplied to the surface of the element opposite
the surface exposed to moisture, typically the interior of the foundation wall. They are gener-
ally limited to cementitious systems.
• Blind-side waterproofing systems are preapplied to the area where the concrete element will
be placed that is directly exposed to moisture. They are typically either a waterproofing sheet
or an impermeable clay-based material.
Waterproofing membranes can be categorized into four types:
• Fluid-applied systems: uses include urethanes, rubbers, plastic, and modified asphalts.
• Sheet-membrane systems: used in foundation wall applications and include thermoplastics,
vulcanized rubbers, and rubberized asphalts. The thickness of these systems varies from
20 to 120 mils.
• Bentonite clays use composite sodium bentonite systems with HDPE liners and geotextile
fabrics, which are more common and more effective than the traditional systems.
• Cementitious systems use Portland cement and sand combined with an active waterproofing
agent. These systems include metallic (metal oxide), crystalline, chemical additive, and
acrylic modified systems.
The membranes made from PTFE have lots of open spaces, allowing the water
vapour to easily pass out, but at the same time, liquid water is repelled because
the forces holding water molecules together are much stronger than the force
it takes to squeeze it through the PTFE membrane, thus making the fabrics
waterproof.
Some polyurethane (PU) membranes are ‘microporous,’ such as PTFE, and they
have microscopic holes used to transport out vapour, but keep out liquid water, and
some PU membranes are ‘monolithic’ (no microscopic holes). Such membranes
with no microscopic holes transport water molecules by diffusion. The water cannot
get in from outside, as the PU membrane has a solid surface without holes for water
vapour to pass through.
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 393

1 2 3 4 56

1. External cladding
2. Tyvek underlay
3. OSB or plywood
4. Insulation (Tyvek butyl
tape embedded)t
5. DuPont AirGuard Control

6. Internal lining

Cross-sectional view

Figure 14.3 DuPont AirGuard Control.

Companies manufacturing these membranes for different applications:

• Wall waterproofing: DuPont:
Since the initial discovery in 1955 that led to Tyvek [14], DuPont has been a recognized
global leader in selective barrier technology. Lightweight and durable, DuPont Tyvek has
introduced new dimensions of protection, security, and safety in a wide variety of industries.
Tyvek brand protective material is a family of tough, durable spunbonded olefin sheet
products that are stronger than paper and more cost-effective and versatile than fabrics.
Tyvek has a higher strength-to-weight ratio than paper, absorbs little or no moisture, is strong
and rip-resistant, and is made of environmentally responsible material. Both bright white and
silky smooth, Tyvek has a distinctive look and feel that enhances graphic images and
instantly sets it apart from all other materials.
DuPont AirGuard Control: As shown in Fig. 14.3, it is an internal membrane for instal-
lation behind plasterboard linings, etc. When all joints are taped, it provides a barrier to
convective heat losses as well as providing limited vapour control. It reduces air leakage
with a durable vapour control barrier and is designed to reduce uncontrolled air leakage
and minimize convective heat loss in roofs, walls, and floors.
DuPont AirGuard Smart AVCL: As shown in Fig. 14.4, this is a strong and light-
weight flexible AVCL with variable vapour resistance. The main feature is that its abil-
ity to resist the passage of water vapour varies according to the surrounding
environment. It adapts to the presence of the moisture by reducing its vapour resistance
and thereby allowing the moisture to migrate back into the building interior. It is
airtight and water resistant, and adapts its vapour resistance as humidity levels change,
giving buildings maximum protection against structural damage caused by humidity. It
helps preserve structures by allowing trapped humidity to escape during the drying-out
phase, and then acting as a traditional AVCL once structures are dry and moisture
levels have stabilized. It also provides an effective barrier in winter.
394 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

+27ºC

–22ºC

Figure 14.4 DuPont AirGuard Smart AVCL, in summer.

As shown in Fig. 14.4, in summers, the humidity is high on the outer side, and the
water vapour resistance of the product is low. Thus, any excessive moisture inside the
building can migrate out, ensuring that the material is dry.
As shown in Fig. 14.5, in winter, the humidity is lower on the outside, and in this
case, the product will present an effective vapour control layer to the passage of water
vapour by diffusion. The membrane’s vapour resistance goes high and thus reduces the
amount of moisture entering the building envelope, and therefore reduces the intersti-
tial condensation.

0°C

+22°C

Figure 14.5 DuPont AirGuard Smart AVCL, in winter.

Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 395

• Shower Waterproofing:
RedGard fabric membrane: As shown in Fig. 14.6, it is a membrane [16] that is
applied to the substrate to provide a durable protective layer for tile installation in areas
such as showers and bathtub areas. They are waterproof and vapour proof, thus ideal
for use in areas prone to wetting to improve the durability of walls.

14.3.3.3 Pipeline relining

The CIPP technique [17] is used for lining or relining of pipes. This technique was
invented by Eric Woods in the early 1970s, the liner being pulled in to the pipe or
inverted and then cured under pressure. Over the years, techniques and installation
methods have developed; however, the end result is a new pipe inside an old pipe.
A CIPP liner can be designed to withstand the total load imposed on the host pipe
by external groundwater pressure, internal service pressure (if any), and ground and
traffic loading, thus achieving ‘a pipe within a pipe’ structural solution. In some cases
where the host pipe is structurally sound, a thinner lining can be designed as a
nonstructural lining solution to address infiltration, for instance.
CIPP Lining techniques can be used to renovate most gravity pipelines and culverts
and pressure pipelines used for utility services such as water, sewage, and gas, as well
as other process effluents pipelines, eg, food and drink industries, oil and gas, etc. In
general, circular pipes from 100 to 2700 mm diameter can be lined depending on the
curing methods available. In addition, noncircular pipelines such as egg-shape and
other ovoid and box culvert sections can be lined.
Prior to lining with a CIPP technique, the pipeline must be removed from service for
the duration of the installation, curing, and recommissioning processes, and over-
pumping, diversion, or tankering may be required to achieve this. The pipeline must
then be cleaned usually by high pressure water jetting or manually (size dependent)
to remove any debris, corrosion, or other materials from the pipeline as a close ‘fit’
to the host pipe is essential to ensure structural integrity and maintain water tightness
where appropriate. Any intruding or defective lateral connections also must be
removed and may need repairing prior to the lining process commencement. If a pipe-
line is deformed by more than 10% of its diameter or height, the defective section(s)

Shower Membrane Bathtub surround

Figure 14.6 RedGard fabric membrane.

396 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

CIPP liner Refrigerated truck

Figure 14.7 Wet out process.

must be re-rounded before lining proceeds. Similarly, large areas of damage may
require attention and localized repair before renovation of the full length is progressed.
Water infiltration through defective joints and/or other defects may need to be
addressed to ensure that the lining does not fail during the curing process.
The CIPP liner is made of a nonwoven polyester needle felt or glass fibre, although
for pressure pipes, it is normal to provide a woven product to ensure extra strength to
withstand the internal pressures within the pipeline.
A coating made from PU, PE, or PVC protects the liner during transportation and
installation procedures.
The factory prepared liner is impregnated with a polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, or
silicate resin, which has been mixed either in a vat or through static mixers, often using
a vacuum pressure method and roller to ensure the full thickness and full length of the
liner is saturated.
A calculated amount of catalyzed thermosetting resin mixture is impregnated into
the felt during a process called wet-out, as shown in Fig. 14.7, depending on the curing
type, ie, hot water, steam, ultraviolet (UV), or ambient cure. The felt acts as both a
resin carrier and adds flexible strength to the finished liner. Upon completion of the
wet-out, the CIPP liner is transported to the installation site within a refrigerated truck
to ensure that curing is not triggered by premature heat.
Such liners usually have a shelf-life of 2e3 weeks, while liners for UV curing can
be stored in cool, light-excluded containers for up to 6 months.
To install a CIPP liner [18], inflation or inversion techniques, as shown in Fig. 14.8,
using air or water pressure may be used. A liner is either pulled or winched into place
and inflated with compressed air or water or by inversion. For the latter, the liner is
inverted into the host pipeline using air pressure through a drum, liner gun/shooter,
or historically, from a water scaffold tower using static water pressure to push the liner
through the pipeline. The height of the scaffold tower is determined by the water pres-
sure required for the liner to reach the furthest point of lining. The installation length
can vary from short sections over a joint or defect for a localized repair to full-length
linings typically 30e200 m, although lengths of up to 900 m have been installed in a
single operation.
An important part of the process is the curing of the liner with resin. Early forms of
ambient curing required the liner to be left under pressure overnight; however, there
were risks with pressure loss and possible collapse as well as issues regarding the
time factor and production rate. Hence, improved curing techniques have been
developed.
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 397

Lining tube Refrigerated truck

Inversion tower

CIPP liner Host pipe

Figure 14.8 CIPP inversion process.

Hot water: A boiler varying in size circulates hot water through the liner. These
boilers vary from small 90 kw to large 3 million BTU, depending on the volume of
water required to be heated. Curing temperatures vary depending on the resin, but
are in the order of 85
C for polyester and 65e70
C for epoxy resin curing.
Steam: Instead of using a hot water boiler, a steam boiler or generator is used. The
advantages of steam are that the curing time is much faster; however, the liner used
must have a coating resistant to steam. With some use of other resins, steam curing
can also make the finished product stronger that those cured with hot water.
UV light: UV technology has developed over recent years and is the favoured
method of installation and curing for CIPP lining in countries such as Germany. As
shown in Fig. 14.9, the liner tube material is a combination of nonwoven felt and fibre-
glass, impregnated at the manufacturer’s plant before being shipped to the installation
team in black plastic covers inside boxes to prevent exposure to sunlight. The liner is
pulled into place inside the pipe and inflated with air to allow a UV light train to pass
through the inflated liner. The light train is controlled by computer and allows UV light
to penetrate the polyester resin-impregnated liner, with the resin having a light

Host pipe
Glass fiber liner
UV light

Pulling cable

Figure 14.9 UV cured liner.

398 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

sensitive catalyst added. Once the UV light comes in contact with the lining, curing
commences. The technique is fast, and once the light train has passed a point, the lining
at that point is cured. Consequently, the operator does not have to wait until a number
of hours for curing of the full pipeline. Generally, the UV liners use higher quality
resins, etc., and are of a thinner thickness design than standard nonwoven liners,
which, in turn, can be a major benefit for larger diameter pipe renovation.
After the lining has cured, the liner is allowed to cool before the ends are cut,
removed flush with the pipe ends, and sealed if required. It is essential that the liner
is cool before it is cut in the unlikely case that shrinkage occurs after cutting. The waste
curing water or steam condensate and the trimmings cut from the liner are removed for
safe disposal.
A sample of the CIPP liner should be taken from the pipe ends or from a mould
cured in the access chamber say, for testing purposes and to verify the liner has met
its performance specifications.

14.3.3.4 Lining of lateral connections

The CIPP lining of lateral pipes are usually of 100 mm or 150 mm diameter and
5e20 m in length; however, many of these pipelines have bends varying from 45

to 90
.
The process of lining lateral pipes started as an extension of mainline CIPP lining in
the 1990s. Initially, the nonwoven liner was impregnated with a polyester resin and
dragged or pushed into the pipe. The installation operator would then use a piece of
pipe to ‘invert’ a calibration hose into the liner; this is a PVC plastic tube liner that
expands under water or air pressure to the size of the CIPP liner inside the pipe.
Once the liner is cured, the calibration hose is removed leaving the cured liner behind.
Although technology advanced and dragging or pushing a liner in place has
improved, inversion is now frequently used to put the liner into place. This gives a
much better finish and also allows pipes with bends to be relined. Polyester resins
have largely been replaced with epoxy resins and ambient curing (unpredictable, as
there is no consistency with cure times) replaced with the use of small boiler or steam
generators. The liners are now mainly inverted into the lateral using air drums or air
guns. Curing with epoxy can take from 30 min for steam-cured to 3 h for hot water-
cured systems.

14.3.3.5 Lining of storm drains at an industrial facility

This involves lining of a deteriorated metal corrugated drainpipe [19e21] that has dis-
charged on the side of a hill. Water escaping from the pipe caused soil erosion of the
embankment from the concrete retaining to the end of the pipe. As shown in
Fig. 14.10, a CIPP liner is inverted by air then steam cured. On completion, the
pipe is later coved with soil to the retaining wall, as shown in Fig. 14.11. Excavation
to install a new pipe was deemed too costly and disruptive to plant operations.
Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 399

CIPP liner

Compressed air supply

Drainage
pipe line

Figure 14.10 Air inversion of CIPP liner.

Figure 14.11 Covering of pipe with soil.

14.3.3.6 Lining of pipes with stretch-resistant liner

The liners are made from a layer of stretch-resistant woven material [22], which may
be a scrim, sandwiched between two layers of nonwoven resin-impregnated material to
form a laminate structure, which is rolled into a tube to provide a liner having concen-
tric sleeves.
400 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

At least two of the at least three layers in the liner are sealing layers made from
nonwoven fabrics, which are impregnated with curable resins. The third of at least
three layers is a support layer made from a stretch-resistant woven material, which
is preferably a stretch-resistant scrim. The three layers described earlier are arranged
in a laminate structure.
The sealing sleeves in the liners may be made from any nonwoven fabric that is able
to absorb a thermoplastic, or thermoset, curable resin. As with the support sleeve, the
sealing sleeves should be made from a material that is chemically resistant to the fluids
and materials passing through the pipe, should be made of materials that do not release
environmentally harmful chemicals into these fluids and materials, and should be
capable of withstanding typical installation pressures and curing temperatures. The
nonwoven materials may be made by techniques well known in the art including card-
ing, followed by cross-lapping and needle-punching. Felts are an example of a suitable
nonwoven material. Fibre materials that may be used to make the nonwoven materials
include, but are not limited to, polyester fibres, polypropylene fibres, polyethylene
fibres, acrylic fibres, aramid fibres, and combinations thereof. Examples of suitable
resins that may be absorbed into the sealing sleeves include polyester, vinyl ester,
and epoxy resins, as well as thermosetting polyethylene resin. The resins may also
include suitable catalysts to initiate and promote the cross-linking reactions.

14.3.3.7 Rigid drainage pipe

Tuflex India provides rigid drainage pipes [23], which have the capacity to carry runoff
water for subsurface drainage. As shown in Fig. 14.12, these pipes are used along with
nonwoven geotextile or natural filter media. Rigid drainage pipe is two-thirds perforated
and one-third closed at the bottom for effective drainage. The density of pipes depends
upon the quantum of water flow expected on the surface of the slope or pavement.

Figure 14.12 Rigid drainage pipe.

Developments in the use of nonwovens in building and construction 401

14.4 Conclusions and future trends

On the basis of the favourable results obtained during the applications of nonwovens
for different building and construction fields, many more new areas of applications will
be explored in the future to meet with the requirements of market.

Sources of further information and advice

Since the present work deals with the design and developments of nonwoven fabrics
for different civil constructional applications, developers of such products will be con-
tacted for further information.

References
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