GeneralMathematics_10000128

GENERAL M ATHEM ATIC S
R AL EIG H S C H O RLI N G
IN C HA GR E OF M A TH M A TI C
E S , TH E L IN C O LN S C HO O L O F T A H
E C ER S
OLL EG E
C , NEW Y O R K C IT Y
AN D
WILLI A M D AV ID R EEV E
T E A C H E S T A I N I NG O U E N M A TH E M A TI C S N H E OLL EG E
R
’
R C RS I I T C
OF E D U C A TI ON A N, H EAD D H E M A TH M A TI C S D E P A T
OF T E R
M EN T _I N H E UN I V E S IT Y HI G H H OOL
T R SC
H E UN I V E
T IT Y M I NN OT A
RS OF ES
J u o y , u
’
G I NN AN D C OMPA N Y
B O T O N N EW YO
S HI AGO LO N DO N RK C C
A T L AN T A D A LL A OL U M BU S AN F AN C I C O
S C S R S
3 74 30
C OPY I G HT
R ,
19 19 , B Y
R AL E IG H S C H O R LI N G AN D W I LL I A M D AVI D VE
RE E
ALL R I G HT S R ESER V D
E
c ‘ t “ 0
7 17 1
th e t cuz um a n “
G NN
I AN D C OMPANY P RO
P R I ET O R S BO T ON U
S - S JL
fiR EFAoE
Th e purpo se of th i s b oo k as im pl ie d in th e in tr o ductio n
, ,
:
is as fo l l o w s to ob ta in a v ita l, m odern sch ola r ly course i n
in tr oductory m a th em a tics th a t m a y serve to give such ca r eful
tr a ining in qua nt ita tiv e th in king a n d exp r ession a s w ell
inform ed cit
izens f
o a dem ocr a cy sh oul d p ossess I t is, of
.
cou r se n ot asse r te d
, th a t thi s id e a l h as b e e n a tta in e d O ur.
ach i e v e m e n ts a re n ot t h e m e asur e of our d e sir e s to im
p r o v e th e sit u at i on .Th e r e is s t i ll a v e ry l a r e
g s a fe ty
factor of d ead w ood in th i s tex t Th e m ate r i a l purpose s .
to pr e sen tsuch s i m pl e a n d s i gn i fi cant p r i n cipl es of a lg eb r a ,
ge om e try tri g on om e try pr acti ca l d r aw i ng a nd stati stics

, , , ,
a l on g w i th a fe w e l e m en tary n oti on s of oth e r m ath e m a ti ca l

s ubj e ct s t h e wh ol e i n v olv i n g n um e r ous a n d rig or ous appli
‘
cati on s of ar i th m eti c as t h e a v e r ag e m an ( m or e a ccur a te ly

,
th e m od a l m an ) is l ik e ly to r e m e m b e r a n d to use Th e r e
.
is h e r e an atte m pt to te ach pupi l s th i n g s w or th k n ow i ng

a nd t o di sci pl i n e t h e m rig or ously in th i ng s w orth d oin g .
Th e a rg um e n t for a th or ough r e o rg an i zati on n e e d n ot

b e sta te d h e r e in g r e at d e ta i l B ut it wi ll b e h e l pf ul to
.
‘
e n um e r a te som e of t h e m aj or e rr or s of se con d a ry m ath e -
m ati e s in str ucti on in curr e n t pr acti ce a n d to i n di cate

b r i e fly h ow th i s w or k a tte m pts to i m pr ov e th e s i tuati on .
Th e f oll o w ing s e rv e to ill ustr a te its purpos e a n d pr ogr a m

1 Th e con v e n ti on a l fi rsty e a r a lg e b r a cour s e is ch a r a c
.
-
te rize d by excessi ve f orm a lism an d t h e r e is m uch d rill

’
work l arg e l y on n on e ssen ti a l s T h e ex ce ss i v e f or m a l i sm is

a .
iii
G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
gre atly r e d uce d in th is te x t an d th e e m ph as i s pl ace d on

th ose topi cs con ce rn in g w hi ch th e r e is g e n e r a l agr ee m en t ,
n a m e l y f un ct
,
ion equa tion grap h a n d for m ula
, , , . Th e ti m e
th us g a i n e d pe r m i ts m or e a m pl e i ll us tr ati on s a n d appl i ca
.
ti on s of pr in cipl es an d th e in tr od ucti on of m or e s ig n ifi can t

m at e r ia l .
2 In ste ad of cr ow di n g th e m an y d i ffi cul t
. i e s of th e
tr adi ti on a l g e om e try cou rs e i n to on e y e a r g e om e try in
,
st ructi on is spr e a d ov e r th e y e a rs th at pre ced e th e for m a l

course an d th e r e l ati ons a r e ta ugh t n l ctiv elt b y e x pe ri
,
ii u
m
f
'
m ent a e sur e m en t M a nyfor e igfi s ch ool s an d an

a .
in cr e asin g n um be r of Am er i can sch ool s pr oce e d on th is

com m on s e nse b as i s
-
. Th is g i v e s th e pupil th e v ocab ul a ry ,
th e sy m b o l ism an d th e f un d am en ta l id e as of g eom e try

, .
If th e pupil l e a v e s sch oo l or dr ops m ath em ati cs h e n e v e r ,
th e l ess h as a n e ff e cti v e org an izati on of g e om e tr i c r e l a ti on s .
O n th e oth e r h an d i f h e l ate r pur sues a f orm a l g eom e try

,
cour se h e can w or k far m or e e ff e ctiv e ly b e ca use h e can

,
con cen tr at e on t h e l ogi ca l org an izati on of s pace r e l ati on s

an d t h e f orm a l e x pr e ss i on of th es e r e l a ti on s T h e l on g e r
.
”
tim e e x posur e m in i m ize s th e diffi cul ti e s m e t in be gi n
n in g t h e tr ad i ti on a l g eom e try cours es a n d a v oi d s th e
se r i ous m i st a k e of f or ci n g d e d uct iv e l og i c a n d phi l osophic
cr i ti ci sm in th e se e arly y e a r s .
3 Th e tr adi ti on a l cour ses d e l ay th e con sid e ra ti o

. n of
m uch in te r estin g a n d v a l uab l e m a t e ri a l t h a t th e fi e l d of

s e con d a ry m a t h e m ati cs h as to offe r an d whi ch m ay w e ll
,
b e use d to g i v e th e pupil v e ry e a rly an id e a of w h a t

m ath e m ati cs m e an s a n d som e th in g of th e w on d e rf u l s co pe
of it s a
pp li ca ti on
. Th e m ate r i a l of th e s e v e n th ,e ig h t
,h and
n int h y e ars is ofte n i n d e fen sib ly m e an in g l e ss wh en com

pa r e d w i th th a t of m an y f or e i gn curr i cu l a Tr i g on om e try
.
,
P R EF A C E
con ta n n g m ani i y
y r eal pr ob l e m s furn ish es a g ood ex
e as ,
a m l e of t hi s d e l ay O t h e r e x a m l e s ar e f oun d in t
p h e
p .
use o f l ogar i th m s th e s l id e r ul e s t
, an d a r dize d gr a hi ca l
, p
m e th od s th e n oti on of f un cti on th e com m on con s tr ucti on
, ,
of
p r a ct i ca l d r a w ing th e m ot i,v at i on of pr e ci se m e a sur e
m e n t a stud y o f th e i m por tan ce of m e a s ur e m en t in m od e r n

,
l ife an d th e i n tr od uctory id e as of th e ca l cul us It appe ar s

,
.
th at th e m a th e m ati cs stud e n t sh oul d b e g i v e n a n oppor

tun it y t o u se t h ese i mpor t an t t ool s v e ry e a rly in h is s t u d y .
Th ey l e n d to th e sub j ect a pow e r an d in te r estth atd r i l l s on

f or m a l m ate r i a l can n ot possi b ly g i v e .
P a r ti cul a r e m ph as i s is g i v en to gr aph i ca l r e pr ese n ta ti on

of s t at is ti cs T h e gr ow in g com pl e x i ty of our soci a l l i fe
.
m ak e s it n e cessa ry th a t th e in te l l i g e n t g en e r a l r e a d e r
o ss e ss e l e m ent a ry n ot i on s of st ati sti ca l m et h od s T h e

p .
h un d re d s of a rticl es in th e curr en t m ag azin es so ex ten

siv e l
y r e a d d e m a n d an e l e m e n t a ry k n o wl e d g e of t h e se
thin g s in or d e r th at th e pupi l m ay n ot r e m a i n i gn or a n t of
th e com m on e v e ry d a y th i n g s of l i fe
, B r i e f ch apte r s on
.
l oga ri th m s a n d th e s l id e ru l e h a v e b e en i n tr od uce d in
or d e r t h a t a gr e ate r n um b e r of stud en ts m ay use th ese
p r a cti c a l l a b or s a vi n
g d
-
e v i ces a n d in or d e r t h atth e se d e v i ce s
m ay f un cti on in th e s tud e n ts s ub se q ue n t w or k wh eth e r
’
in e v e ry d ay l if e or in th e cl a ss r oom Actua l cl assr oom

.
e x e r i e n ce w i th th e s e ch apt e r s h as pr o v e d t h em to b e
p
r e l ati v e ly si m pl e an d g ood m ate r i al for e igh th gra d e an d -
n in t h gr ad e stud ents
-
.
4 M a th e m a ti cs n e e d s to b e r e org an ize d on th e s id e
.
of m e t h od T h e in for m ati on w e n ow posse ss of i n di vid ua l

.
difi eren ce s an d e fi e ctiv e d e v i ces in supe rv i se d stud y sh ould

m ak e th e stud y of m ath e m ati cs m or e n e a r l y a l a bo r atory
cour s e in w hi ch m or e eff e cti v e w or k can b e d on e

, .
vi G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
5 . Th e te a ch ing of a lg eb r a g e om e try an d trig on om etry

, ,
in se pa r a te fi e l d s is a n a r tifi ci a l a rr a n ge m e n t th a t d oe s n ot
p e r m i t th e e asy sol uti on of pr o b l e m s con ce rn i n g pr oj e ct s
th at corr e l ate wi th pr ob l e m s m e t in th e ph y s ica l an d b io

l ogi ca l s ci en ce s or th e m a n ua l an d fi n e a rts To r e j e ct th e .
f or m a l i s m of a lg e b ra to d e l ay th e d e m an d s of a l ogi ca l
,
un i t in ge om e try an d to pr ese n t th e s i m pl e pr in cipl e s of

,
th e v a r i ous b r an ch es of m a th e m ati cs in th e in tr od uctory

cour se open s th e d oor to a gr e ate r v a r i e ty of pr obl e m s th at
s ee m t o b e re a l a l i cati on s Th u il s th us f u l n
pp . e p p s e e e e es s
of t h e v a ri ous m od e s of tr e a tm e n t of th e f a cts of q u a n ti ty .
P o w e r is g a i n e d b e cause th e pupi l is e q ui ppe d w i th m or e

tool s in th atth e m e th od of a tta ck is n otl i m i te d to on e fi e l d
, .
6 O n e of th e m os t curi ous ch a r acte r i sti cs of Am e r i can

.
s e con d a ry m a t -
h e m ati cs i n str ucti on is th e ob scur i ty in th e
te ach i n g of th e f un cti on n oti on It is g e n e r a lly a gr ee d
.
th a tf un cti on a l thi n k i n g ( th e d e pe n d e n ce of on e m agn i tud e

upon an oth e r) con s ti tut e s on e o f t h e m ost f un d a m e n ta l
n ot i on s of m ath e m a ti cs B e ca use of th e i nte rr e l ati on s of
.
th e e q u ati on ,th e f or m ul a th e f un cti on th e gr a ph ,an d th e

, ,
g e om e tr i c r e l ati on s i n d uctiv e ly a cq ui re d th e m a te r i a l is
,
e a s i ly co rr e l at e d a r oun d t h e f un cti on i d e a as th e o g a nizing

r
a nd un if in
y gp rin ci l
p e. T h e f un ct i o n c o n ce pt ( i m pl i ci tly or
e x pl i ci t ly ) d om in an tth roug h out h e l ps to l e n d con cr e te n e ss

an d coh e r e n ce t o t h e s ub j e ct H ow e v e r it w o ul d b e f a l s e
.
,
to assum e th at thi s m ate r i a l is pr e se n te d to e stabli s h th e
p ri n ci pl e of co rr e l a t i on . O n th e con tr ary it h a ppen s th a t

,
corr e l ati on a r oun d th e fun cti on n oti on th ough i n cid en ta l

, ,
is a v a l uab l e i n strum en t for a ccom pl i sh i n g th e l a rg e r a im ,
wh i ch is to ob ta in a com pos i te i n tr od uctory course in m ath e

m ati es th at all f utur e ci ti ze n s of our d e m ocr a cy sh ould b e
r e q uir e d to tak e as a m atte r of g e n e r a l sch ol a r sh i p .
P R EF A C E vfi
7 . Th e tr ad i ti on a l r e ti cen ce of tex ts h as m a d e m ath e

m ati es unn e ce ss ar i ly di ffi cul t for pupi l s in th e e a rly y e a r s .
Th e styl e of th is b ook th oug h l ess r i g id ly m a th e m ati ca l is

, ,
m or e n e arly a d apt ed t h e pupil s m e n ta l age Th e r esul t

’
o t .
is a m i s l e a di n g l e ng th of th e b ook Th e b ook can e a si ly b e

.
ta ug h t in a sch ool y e a r of a ppr ox i m a te ly on e h un d r e d an d

six t y r e ci ta ti on s In th e ty pi ca l h igh sch ool itwill b e taugh t
.
in th e fir s t y e a r Th M i a h i h s ch oo l s t a u h t it
.
( e n n e s ot
g g
in thi s gr a d e fi v e r e ci ta ti on s pe r w e e k ) In s ch ool s wh i ch
,
.
con tr ol t h e se v e n th a n d e i g h th y e a r s th e f oll ow i ng a re
also
poss i b ili ti e s whi ch h a v e b ee n te ste d b y th e a uth or s
a n d coo e r a t
p in g te ach e r s :( 1) in th e e i gh th y e ar w ith d a i ly
r e citati on s ; ( 2 ) h a lf of th e b ook in th e e igh th y e a r a n d th e
re m ain d e r in th e n i nth y e a r w i th th r ee r e ci ta ti on s pe r w e ek
,
( it w as so use d in t h e L i n co l n S ch oo l
) ( )
; 3 th e cour se
m ay b e s ta r te d in th e s e v e n th y e a r pr ovi d e d th e cl a ss h a s
ach i e v e d g o od r e sul t s in
p r e v i ou s a r i th m et i c w or k .
S pe cifi c r e f e r en ces a re g i v e n w h e r e m ate r i a l w hi ch is

n ot of th e com m on s t ock h as b ee n t ak e n con s ci ous l y , th e
u
p p r ose , h o w e ver b e i n g chi e fly t
, o s ti m u l ate u
p p i l s a nd
te a ch e r s to be co m e f am i l i a r wi th th ese b ook s for r e ason s

ot h e r th an th e ob l i g ati on s i n v olv e d S om ethi ng of h um an
.
i nte r e stis a dd e d b yr e l atin g som e of th e w e ll k n ow n stor i e s

-
of gr e a t m a t h em ati ci a ns W e a re i n d eb te d to P r ofessor
.
D a vi d Euge n e S m i th on q ue sti on s r e l ati n g to hi stor i ca l

m a te r i a l
. In our th i nki n g w e a re pa r ti cu l a rly i n d e b te d to
P r ofe ssor s N un n S m i th B re slich an d M y e r s
, , ,
.IV e sh a ll
b e ob l i ge d to a ll te a ch e r s w h o m ay thi n k it w o rth whil e
to poi n t out such e rr or s a s s ti ll e x i st .
T H E AU T H O R S
C O N T EN T S
C HA PT E R
I . TH E E Q UATIO N
S olvi n g n e quati n a o
Tr n l ti n f n qu ti n
a s a o o a e a o
S l uti n f v rb l pr b l m
o o o e a o e s
A i m
x o s
II . LI N A E M AS U M N T
R E RE E . TH E E Q U A TI O N A PP L I D E TO
L NGT E H
D i ff r n t u i t f l n gth
e e n s O e
S qu r d p pe r
a e a
S um of tw o se gm e n ts ; ge o m e t c a dd t o n ri ii
Po lyg on s
I II . P O P E T I E O F AN G L E
R R S S
N t ti n f
o a o r di g gl or ea n an es
M ea sur m n t f n gl
e e ; th pr tr ct r
o a es e o a o
M eas uri n g gl ; dr wi g
an gl es a n an es
C m p ri n f
o a gl
so o an es
G m tri c ddi ti n
eo e d ub tr cti
a fogl an s a on o an es
P r ll l li n
a a e es
H w t c n tr uct p r ll l gr m
o o o s a a a e o a
IV . T H E E QU A TI O N A PP L I A A ED TO RE
F r m ul
o a
F r m ul f
o th a r f p r ll l gr m
or e a ea o a a a e o a
G m tri c i t rpr t ti
eo e f pr d uct
n e e a on o o s
Al g b r i c m ul ti pli c ti n
e a a o
Th ccur cy
e a f th r ul t
a o e es
V . T H E EQ U A T I O N A PP L I D VOLU M E E TO
M ea sur m n t f e lum
e o vo e
F rm ul f
o tha lum f r ct gul r p
or e vo e o a e an a a ra l le l e pi pe d
ix
G ENER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
CH A PT ER
F o rm ul a for th e v l um
o e of a cub e
Ex pon e n ts
Appli ca ti on lg b r ic pri ncipl t g m tri c fi gur
of a e a es o eo e es
VI . T H E EQ U A T I O N A PP L I E D F U N D A M N T A L AN G L E To E
R E LA T I O N S
n gl
Th um
e f l l th
s o b ut
a
p i t n n e id
a es a o a o n o o e s e
fo tr i gh t li
a s a ne
S um f l l th o agl b ut p i t i n
e an
pl es a o a o n a a ne
S uppl m t r y n gl
e ; uppl m
en a t a es s e en
C m pl m n t ry n gl
o e e a a es
V rti c l n gl
e a a es
Im p rt n t th r m r l ti n g t p r ll l li n e
o a eo e s e a o a a e s
V II . TH EQU A T IO N A PP L I D
E H T IAN L E To T E R G E
Th um
e s f th i n t ri r n gl
o e e o a es
Ri gh t tri n gl a e
E t ri r n gl
x e o f tri
a gl es o a an e
Th c e tructi
on s f tri gl on o an es
V III . P O I T I V E AN
S N EG A T I V E N U M B
D AD D I TI O N A N ERS . D
S U B T A T IO N R C
U f ig
se o s ns
G m tri c r pr
eo e nt t i n f p i tiv num b r O ri gi n
e e se a o o os e e s .
G m tri c r pr
eo e n t ti n ef n g tiv n um b r
e se a o o e a e e s
Al g b r i c ddi ti n
e a a o
S ub tr cti n ill u tr t d b y th n um b r c l
a o s a e e e s a e
Al g b r i c ub tr cti n
e a s a o
S ub tr cti n f p l y n m i l
a o o o o a s
IX . P O I T I V AN
S N E G A T IV N U M B E
E D M A N E RS . U L T I PLIG T IO
AN D I V I I O N FA C T O I N G
D S . R
G m tri c ill u tr ti n f l w f i gn
eo e s a o o a o s s
L w f i gn ill u tr t d b y b l n c d b
a o s s s a e a a a e ar
M ul ti pli c ti n f p i tiv a o nd n g t iv n um b r
o os e a e a e e s
S p ci l pr duct
e a o s
L w f i gn i divi i n
a o s s n s o
F ct ri n g
a o
C O N T EN T S
C H A PT ER
D i ti
s i b tw n i d ti ty nd q u ti
n ct on e ee en a e a on
U se of f ct ri n g i n i d ti ti
a o f c lcul ti g r en es or a a n a eas
X . G A P I C A L R E P E N T A TI O N O F S T A T I T I
R H R ; SE S CS
G AP R O F A L I N E A EQU A T I O N
H R
Pi ct gr m o a s
Pr cti c i n i n t rpr ti n g th b
a e d i gr m
e e e ar a a
H w t c n truct b
o o d i gr m
o s a ar a a
P r cti c i n i n t rpr ti n g gr ph i c curv

a e e e a es
H w th g ph ic curv i dr w n
o e .
ra e s a
N rm l di tri b uti n
o a s o
S y m m try f curv e o a e
Gr ph f c
a t t c t r l ti
o on s a n os e a on s
Gr ph a f li n r qu ti
s o ea e a on s
XI . GA I N I N G C O N T OL H FO M U L A ; G A P I A L
R or T E R R H C
IN T P T A TI O N O F F O M U LA
ER RE R S
S lvi n g
o f rm ul a o a
Gr ph i c l ill u tr ti n f m ti n pr b l m
a a s a o o a o o o e
Tr l ti g rul f pr c d ur i t f rm ul
an s a n es o o e e n o o as
Gr ph f th c n ti gr d F h r n h i t f rm ul
a o e e a e -
a e e o a
Ev l u ti ng
a a f rm ul a o a
X II . F UN TION C
Q
G r ph f
a f u cti
o a n on
S lvi n g th f un cti n
o t qu l t
e r o se e a o ze o
Directv ri ti n a a o
G r ph i n g d ir ct v ri ti n
a e a a o
G r ph i g i nv r
a n v ri ti n e se a a o
X II I . S I M I LA I T Y ; C O N T U C T I O N O F S I M I L A
R T IA N GL
S R R R ES
S um m ry f c n tr ucti n f
a o i m il r tri ngl
o s o s or s a a es
Alg b r i c pr b l m
e a n i m il r fi gur
o e s o S a es
Pr p rti n
o o o
C n tr ucti n f m
o s n pr p rti
o o l a ea o o on a
F urth pr p ti n l c n tructi n
o o or o a o s o
V rb l pr b l m
e a lv d b y pr p rti
o e s so e e o on
Pr p rti n lity f r
o o o a o a eas
x ii G EN ERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
C H A PT ER P AG E
X IV . I N DI R EC T M E A U R EM E N T ; S S C AL E D R A W I N GS ; TR I G
O N O M ETR Y
i il r i gh ttri ngl
S m a r a es
Tri g m tri c r t
ono i e a os
T bla f tri g n m tric r ti

e o o o e a os
V rb l tri g n m tr y pr b l m
e a o o e o e s
XV . T EO Y
H AN R APP L I A T I O N O F S I M U L T A N OU
D C E S
L I N EA EQ U A T IO N
R S
Gr ph i c
a l uti n so o
Alg b r i c m th d f
e a lvin g im ul t n u li n r
e o s or so s a eo s ea
qu ti n
e a o s
S um m ry f m th d a f li m i ti n
o e o s o e na o
Cl ifi d v rb l pr b l m
a ss e e a o e s
XV I . G E O M E T I C AN AL G E B A I C I N T P E T A TIO N
R D R ER R or
R OO T S AN POWE D RS
T h th r m f P yth g r
e eo e o a o as
C n tr ucti n g th
o s qu r r t f um b r e s a e oo o a n e
F r cti
a l p n nt
on a th r m
ex n o f i d i c ti n g
e s ano e ea s o n a
r t nd p w r
oo s a o e s
X VI I . LO G A I T M R H S
L g ri th m d fi n d
o a s e e
E p n n ti l qu ti
x o e a e a on s
In t r t pr b l m
e es lv d b y l g rithm
o e s so e o a s
X V III . THE SL I D E R U L E
S q u r r t f un d b y m
a e oo s n f th o li d r ul ea s o e s e e
V rb l pr b l m
e a lv d b y th li d rul
o e s so e e S e e
X IX .
Q UA D A T I E N R N ; Q UA D ATI
C U EQ U A TI O N
C T IO S R C S
H w t
o lv qu dr ti c qu ti n gr ph i c ll y
o so e a a a e a o a a
Th p r b l a
e a a o
M r p w rf ul m th d f lvi ng qu d ti c qu ti n
o e o e e o s o so a ra e a o s
M x im
a n d m in im
a a l g b r ic l ly d t rm i n d a a e a a e e e
IN D EX
I NT R O D U C T I O N
Th e m o v em ent to pr ovi de an i n tr oductory cour se in ge n e ra l

m ath e m a ti cs is a par t of a n e x te n s iv e m ov e m e n t to wa r d m ak
in g th e m a te ri a l s of study in s e conda ry e duca ti on m or e con cr e te
a n d s e rvi cea b l e Th e tr e n d of e duca ti on e x pr e sse s a de te m i
. r
na t i on tha tth e se venth e i gh th a nd n in th s ch ool y e ar s s h oul d

, ,
b e e n ri ch e d b y th e i ntr oducti on of such s i gn ifi ca n te x pe ri e n ce s

of s ci e n ce civi cs art a n d ot
, , ,
h e r k n owl edge of hum a n life a s
al l e n li gh te n e d ci t i zen s of a dem ocra cy sh oul d posse ss Th e .
“
work of th ese grade s ca nn ot b e li b e rali zed b y sh ovi n g down ”
th e con v e n ti ona l m at e ri a l a ye a r o so r Th e r e or ga n i za ti n
. o
m us t b e m or e f un da m e n t a l in or de r t o r e vi ta li ze a n d s oci a li ze
th e m a th e m a ti cs of th e se gr ad es .
C om pe te ntauth ori ti e s in m a th e m ati cs h a v e fr om ti m e to ti m e

asse r t e d fir st t
,
ha t Am e ri ca n se conda ry m a th e m a ti cs te a ch i n g
,
-
h a s b e en ch a ra cte ri ze d b y a futil e a tte m pt to i n duce al l pupil s

to b e com e te ch n i ca l coll e ge m ath e m a ti ci a n s S econdly th a t
.
,
i nste ad of givi n g pupil s an i dea of th e rea l m e an i n g of m a th e

m ati e s a nd th e wi de r an ge of its a ppli ca ti on s th e y a e f or ce d ,
r
to waste a gr ea t d ea l of fi rm on a b str act w ork in d iffi cul t

“
pr ob l e m s in ra di ca l s fr acti on s factori n g q ua d r a ti cs a n d th e
, , , ,
l ik e w h i ch do n ot l e ad to an yth i n g i m por ta ntin m a th e m ati cs

, .
An d th ir d ly th atth i s m e an i n gl ess j uggli n g of sy m b oli s m fa il

, , s
to m eetth e ne e ds of th e gr eat n um b e r of pupil s w h o go r a th e r

ea rly i nt o t h e ir ca r e e r s ; it a l s o waste s ti m e a n d e fi o t on th e r
pa r t of pupil s wi th e speci a l a b ili ty in th e sub j e ct w h o ough t ,
to ge t a n ea rly ins i gh t i n to th e s cope a n d powe r of th e r ea l

sci e n ce o f m a t h e m ati cs .
G ENER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
Q ua nti ta tiv e th i nki ng r i pl ay s l a rge a pa r t in
a nd e x p e s s o n o
h um a n e x pe ri e nce th a t pr ope r tra in i ng in th e e m atte r s will s
a lway s b e im por t a n t Th e gr owin g com pl e x i t

. y of socia l a nd
i ndus tri a l life is r e s pons i b l e fo corre spo ndi ng ch an ges in th e
r
u e of q ua n ti t
s a tiv e r e l a ti on sh i ps O l d a ppli cati on s in m a ny
.
ins t a nce s a e d i sa ppe a ri n g b utne w on e s gr owi ng outo f pr e e n t

r ,
s
day r e l a ti on s ar b e i n g i n tr od uce d to ta k e th e ir pla ce s Th e se

e .
cha nge s r e q uir e a n e w ki n d of i n t r od uct ory t e x tin m a t he m ati cs .
Acti on is f or ce d b yth e de m a n d tha tth e re S h al l b e j ustifi ca ti on

of t h e ti m e a n d effor t g ive n to ea ch s ub j e ct a nd each i t e m in
th e s ub j e ct N e w s ub j e cts w h i ch a ppe a r n e ce ssa ry in th e pr ope r

.
tra i n i n g fo ci ti ze n s h i p a e cr owd i n g th e curri cul um

r r M a th e
.
”
m at ics too m ust j ustify its pl ace in th e sun b y a th or ough
r eorga n i zati on th a t will m e e t m ode r n nee ds Th i s is w h at is.
m e a n t b y r e vi t a li zi ng m t
a h e m at i cs .
Th e pra cti ca l ad m i n i str a tor will b e i m pr e s se d b y th e fact

th at th i s pr og ra m ra i se s n o ad m i n i stra tiv e d i ffi cul t i e s Th e .
p pu il m a y b e e x pe cte d to de v e l op gr e a t e r p ow e r in a l ge b ra ,
b e ca use th e e li m i nati on of m a te ri a l w h i ch wa s te s ti m e a n d
e fforth as m ad e poss i b l e t h e e m pha s izi n g of th e topi cs con ce r n
in g w h i ch th e re is ge n e ra l a gr ee m e n t Th e suppl e m e nt. a ry
m at e ri a l w h i ch is d ra wn fr om t h e oth e r sub j ects con sti tute s a
pr e pa r a ti on fo f ur th e r study in th e se fi e l d s ; fo e x a m pl e th e
r r ,
te x t giv e s th e pupil th e oca b ul a ry th e sy m b oli s m a n d m a n y

V , ,
o f th e i deas of pl a n e ge om e try .
Th i s ty pe of i n troductory cou se s h oul d a ppe a l to th e p o

r r
gre ssi e e duca tor b e ca use of a n um b e r of oth e r fe atur e s Th e

v .
”
p r o b l e m m e th o d of teach in g is foll owe d t h r ug h
o out Ra t i
. on
al ize d d ri l l s a e pr ovi ded in a b un dan ce

r Th e cour se h as b e e n
.
use d in m i m e ogr a ph e d f or m b y e x pe ri e n ce d t e a ch e r s S cor es

.
of pr os pe ct iv e te ach e r s h a v e f un d th e tre a tm e n t S i m pl e a n d
o
e as y t o
pr e se n t I n e x pe ri e n c d t
. e ea ch e r s h a v e gon e out i nt o
d i ffi cul t s i tua ti on s a n d h a v ta ugh t th e m a teri a l wi th sa ti

e s
fa cti on P upil s foll ow ing th i s cou se h a ve m a de b e tte r pr gr ss

. r o e
I N T RO D U C T IO N
t h an pup s il foll owi n g th e trad i ti on a l c urse a n d b oth pupil s o ,
a nd t e a ch e r s m a n ife s t a de g re e of i n t e r e s t s e l dom se e n in t he
or d i na ry cl a s in m a t
s h e m a ti cs Th e te sts pr e pa r e d b y th e
.
a uth or s will sa v e ti m efo teach e r s a n d e n a b l e th e m if th ey

r ,
d e s ir e to d i a gn os e th e ir own s i tua ti on a n d t com pa r e th e ir

,
s o
r esul ts wi th th se b ta i n e d in oth e r i n sti tuti ons us i ng th e sam e

o o
m at e ri a l I f th e q ue sti on is r a i se d a s to w h a t s tude n ts com

.
l e ti n g s uch a cour s e will do w h e n t h e y e t t o c oll e e it m ay

p g g ,
b e r e pli e d th a t e nough of th e m h a v e a lr ea dy e n te r e d coll e ge

to con vi n ce th e un b i a s e d th a t th e y e x pe ri e n c n o h a n d i ca p e
Th e m or e i m por ta nt poi n t h owe v e r is th at such a cour se

, ,
e n ab l e s on e t o un de r st a nd a n d t o d e a l wi t h th e q ua nti ta tiv e
w orl d in w h i ch h e live s .
T h i s cour se in r e orga n i ze d i ntr oductory m a th e m a ti cs ,
alt h ough b ut a pa rt of a l ar ge m ove m e n t in se conda ry e duca

ti on w h i ch l ook s towa r d m or e con cr e te te a ch i n g a nd m or e
se rvi cea b l e m at e ri a l s o f st udy h as a f ur th e r h i g h ly s i gn ifi ca nt
,
as pe ct I t is a pot
. e n t a n d e n coura gi n g e vi de n ce t h a t h i gh
Sch ool teach e r s h a v e b e com e stude nts of th e ir ow n te ach i n g ,
a n d a s a r e s ul t a e r r e a ri n th e ir ow n te x tb oo k s i n t h e m i ds t
p p g
of r ea l t e a ch i n g s i t ua t i on s a s th e outcom e of i n te lli ge n t con
,
°
st ructive e x pe ri m e n tati on .
P r ob a b ly v e ry f w b o k s h a v e b e e n sub j e cte d pr e vi ous t

e o o
pub li ca ti n to s uch th or ough tes ts of tea ch ing S i tua ti on s Th e

o .
a ut h or s h a v e b e e n s h a pi n g th i s cour se f m a ny y e a r s D uri ng
or .
th e l a st th ree y e a r s th e m anuscri pt a s ori gi na lly a cce pte d b y

th e pub li s h e r s h a s b e e n ta ugh t in m i m e ogr a ph f or m to m or e
th a n a th ousa n d pupil s d i s tri b ute d in a s e l e cti on o f typ i ca l
s ch ool s am on g t
, h e se b e i n g th e f oll owi n g M i nn eapoli s C e ntra l
Hi gh S ch ool (la rge ci ty h i gh sch ool ) B re m e r J un i or Hi gh ,
S ch ool S e wa r d J un i or Hi gh S ch ool U n iv e r si ty of M i n n e sota

, ,
Hi gh S ch ool Owa tonna Hi gh S ch ool M ab e l Hi gh S ch ool

, ,
(sm a ll town) a n d th e L i ncol n S ch ool of Te a ch e r s C oll e ge

’
,
.
N um e r ous con s ul ta ti on s wi th th e tea ch e r s i n th e se s ch ool s

r e sul ted in m any va l uab l e s uggesti ons w h i ch contri b ute d dire ctly
t wa r d m a ki ng th e te x t ea s ily t
o e a ch a b l e
.
Ea ch of th e a uth or s h a s ta ught s econda ry m a th e m ati cs fo r
m ore th a n te n y e a r s in l ar ge pub li c a n d priv ate s ch ool s T h y

. e
h a ve supe rvi se d m an y tea ch e r s in tra i n i ng ; th ey h a v e ta ugh t

tea ch e r tra i n i n g cour ses a n d e ach d uri n g m osto f th i s ti m e h s
-
, a
h a d un us ua l ppor tun i ti e s fo fr e e e x pe ri m e n ta ti on T h e t x t
o r . e
m ay b e r e ga r de d b y fe ll ow te a ch e r s o f m a th e m a ti cs a s a r e por t
wh i ch sh ows in orga n i zati on a n d sub j ect m atte r th e th i n gs th a t
h a v e see m ed m ost use ful .
L OTUS D C O FF M AN
.
O TI S W C AL D W ELL
.
2 G EN ER AL M AT H EM AT I C S
to l e t th e l e tte r w r epr esen t th e n um be r of oun ces of

w e i gh t in th e b ag of ca n d y an d use t h e S i g n of e q ua l i ty
to d e n ote th e pe rf e ct b a l ance of th e s c a l es th e p re ,
in to the f oll ow in g e x pr e ss i on :w + 4 10 wh e r e w + l ,
~
d e n ote s th e w e i gh t in th e l e ft pan and 1 0 th e w e igh t in

th e r ig h t pan Th e ab b revi a ted
. state m ent ,
w + 4 = 1 0 e x pr e sse s e q ua l i ty a n d is ca ll e d an e m
, ion
i at .
Th e n um be r to th e l e f t si d e of th e e q ua l i ty S i gn is ca ll e d
th e l eft m em b er of th e e q ua ti on th e n um b e r to th e r i gh t ,
is th e rig h t m em b er .
J ust a s th e l
s ca es w ill b a l an ce if th e s a m e n um be r of
o un ce s are tak en f r om each pan s o w e , m a y sub tr a ct the

'
sa m efn um b er ,
from b oth sides o f ,
an e
qu i
aton an d get a noth er
eq uation . In th e pr e ce ding prob l e m th e wr itte n w or k . m y
a
Le t w
n um be r of oun ce s o f w i gh t
e
y
'
i n th e b ag of ca n d .
Th e n
S ub tr act n g 4 i fr om e ac h
w
m em b er of the e qu ti a on ,
T ush
, t
h e b ag of ca n d y we igh s 6 20 z .
Th e pr e ce din g pr ob l em i llustr a te s th e pr i nci pl e t

h at if
the sa m e n um b er b e sub t ra c f rom b oth m e m b ers of a n
‘
e
q u i
aton , th e r em a ind er s a re e
q ual; t h at is , an ot e h r e q ua ton i
is obta in e d .
[
S ub t i
ra cton L a w
]
X E ERCIS ES
Fi nd th e v a l ue of th e u n k n own n um b e r s in th e f oll owi ng

e q ua ti ons doi n g al l you
,
ca n
5 . x + 13 = 2 3 .
9 . c+
c 33 = 44
TH E EQ U AT IO N 3
2 . Th e im po tance r ,
of th e eq uation . Th e e q ua ton i is a
v e ry i m por tan t tool l v in g pr obl em s in th e m ath e for so
m atical sci en ces Th e e q ua ti on g i v e s us a n e w m eth od of

.
attack on a pr ob l e m e n abl i n g us to solv e m a n y pr obl e m s

,
wh ich w oul d b e v e ry di ffi cul t if not i m possi b l e ; w i th out ,
its use .
3 . M eth od of stud ying th e na ture of th e eq uation . In

m a k in g a stu dy h a l l con tin ue by con
of th e e q ua ton i We s
side rin g som e v e s i m pl e pr obl e m s in or d e r t h a t w e m ay

cl e a rly un d er st an d t h e l aw s wh i ch a re i n v ol v e d If th ese .
l a w s are m a ste r e d m C on n e cti on w i th th e si m pl e ca se s it ,
w i ll b e e as y to a pply th e e q ua ti on a s a tool for s o lv in g

th e m or e com pl i ca te d an d diffi cul t pr obl e m s I n th e n e x t .
art i cl e w e s h a l l con tin ue to i n te rpr e t th e e q uati on by

cons id e rin g a pr obl e m in w e i g hin g .
4 . Di v ision La w . Tw o l b ut un k n ow n w e igh ts to
e q ua ,
g eth e r w i th a l -
poun d w e i g h t j ust b a l an ce a 1 6
, poun d an d -
a 1 poun d w ei g h t t
-
o
g eth e r ( F i g How .
h e avy :is cab h un , g
k n own w e igh t
L et p e ual th e
q
u
i
n um be r po n d s in
of
he unk no wn
'
on e of t
w e i gh ts S uppose th at
.
1 lb b e r e mov e d fr om
.
8 3 01 1 an l e a v in g F I 2 T H B A L AN D S AL U D
p , A G. . E CE C ES M Y BE SE
p o u n ds in t h e ;l e f t o I LL U T A T S UB T A TI O N L A
TW A S R E T HE R C ND
D I V I I O N L AW TH E S
an b a l an cing t h e re
p
m a in i ng 1 6 l b in th e ri gh t pan . T h en if 2 p poun d s .
,
bal an ce s 16 lb p pound s ( one h alf of th e weig h t in th e

.
l e f t pan) m ustb al an ce 8 lb (On e h alf Of th e w e ight in .

4 G ENER A L M AT HEM AT I C S
th er igh t pan ) . B y th e use of th e e

q ua t on ti
h e dis cuss i on
m ay b e wr i tte n in th e f oll ow in g br i ef f or m
Thi i t n l ti
s s a ra s a on of th e fi r st
e n ce o f
se n t th e p ob r l em .
r
S ub t a ctin g 1 fr om
e a ch me mb r e ,
D ivi di n g e ac h m em be r of th e e qu tia on b y2,
Th i s pr ob l em illustr a te s th e pr i n ci pl e th f
at i b oth m e m
b er s o f an e
q u i
at on a re d iv ided b y th e sa m e n um b er ( e x cl ud
ing di v i s i on b yze r o , to b e e x pl a in e d l a te r ) , th e qu otients a r e
e ual ; t
q h a tis a n oth er , e q ua t on i is ob ta i n e d .
[
D ivision La w
]
X
E ERC IS ES
Fi n d th e v a l ue of th e un k n own n um be rs ,
do in g a ll y ou
ca n or all y :
1 . 2 x + 3= 9 .
2 . 3 x + 4 = 16 . 14 k + 7 = 7 9 .
1
3 . 2 a + 5 = 17 . 36 4 4 -
9 .
3b + 7 = 28 .
5 . 5 r + 7 .
-
62 . 11 m + %
6 .
7 . 2 y+ 1 = 8 . 11 y = 33 .
8 . 5 y + 3 = 15 .
9 . 2 3x + 4 = 50
. .
10 . 6 n + 4 = 49 . 15 .
11 . 9 6 + 8 : 116 .
5 . Additi on F i g 3 th e a ppa r atus is so a rr a ng e d

La w . In .
th at th e 2 poun d w e i gh t a ttach e d to th e str i n g whi ch

-
ov e r th ul l y u l l u w a r d on t h e b ar at B Th i s
p s
a se s e p e p s p .
TH E EQ U ATI ON 5
a rr an g e m en t m a k e s th e pr ob l e m difi e ren t fr om th e tw o
wh i ch w e h a v e con sid er e d If the re w e r e n o pul l e y attach
.
m en t th e w e i gh t pu ll i n g d ow n w a r d in th e l e f t pan w oul d
,
b e 5 x poun d s S in ce th e r e is a lif ti n g f or ce of 2 l b a tB
. .
,
th e d ow n w a r d pul lin g f or ce in th e l e f t pan is 2 l b l e ss .
th an 5 c c poun d s or 5 x 2 poun ds ; th i s b a l an ce s th e 18 lb
,
.
in th e r i gh t pan H en ce th e e q uati on wh i ch d e scri b e s th e

.
s ituati on in F i g 3 .
ll Pu ey
is 5 x If
th e r i g b e outso
st n
as t o r e m ov e th e up
w ar d pul l of 2 lb .
,
th en a 2 poun d
-
w e i gh t m ust b e
a dd e d to t h e r i ght
'
pa n to k e ep th e
s ca l e s b a l an ce d for ,
r e m ov in g th e up
FI G 3 I TH I C A E H E S C A L E S I LL U S T A T E
N S S T R
w ar d pul l of 2 l b
. .
H E ADD ITI O N L AW
.
T
g a v e u s a d ow n
w ar d pul l in th e l e ft pa n of 5 3: p o un ds T hi s is 2 l b m or e . .
th an w e h ad w i th th e pull ey atta ch e d h en ce th e n e cess i ty ,
of addin g 2 lb t o th e r i gh t pan
. .
B yth e use of th e e q uati on th e pr e ce din g d i scuss i on m ay

tak e th e f ol l ow i n g br i e f f o r m
T h i s e x pre sse s th e
o ri gi n l c n di ti
a o on s .
Addi n g 2 to b oth m em be r s, 5 r
iv ing b th m
D id o em be r s b y5 , x 4 .
Th i s pr obl em i l l ustr ates th e p r in ci pl e th at if th e sa m e
num b er is a dde d t
o b oth m em b er s o f an e u i
aton, th e sums a re
q
e
qua l th atis, an ot h e r eq uati on is ob tai n ed [Addition Law] .
6 G ENERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
X
E ERC IS ES
Fi n d th e v al ue of th e
"
un k n own n um b er in
“
ea c h pr ob l e m ,
d oi n g a ll you ca n or a lly
1 : 5 10 . a . ih m —
s5 = ri
2 . 2 x 9 c
3 . 3 a; 12 13 .
7t 2
4 . 3a : 8 17 . 14 h 5 21 .
5 . 12 y 4 46 . 2g
6 . 4t 16 z 16 .
05 . x 3:
194
1
7 45
-
14 ? 2 90 — : 61
3
.
.
s . _
11 y -
9 79 . 3x ~
9 17—
9 . a. 9 31 :
10 . 4g 3
11 . 7t 26 . c —
rr z i a
6 . S ol v ing a n eq uation ; ch eck ; root.Th e pr oces s of

fi n din g th e v a l ue of th e un k n ow n n um b e r in a n e uat
q i on
is ca ll e d solv ing th e e qua tion To i ll ustr ate .
L t e y 3 8 b th qu ti n e e e a o .
3 3
T he n y z 5, an d th e e qu ti a on is sa id t o be so lv ed .
T o test, rre ctn es s of th e r esul t r e pl ace

or che ck , the co
th e un k n o wn n um b e r in th e or igi n a l e q uati on by 5 ob -
,
~
ta in in g 5 4 3 8: S i n ce b oth m e m b e r s of th e e q uati on
—
r educe to th e sam e n um b e r th e r esul t y 5 is corre ct , .
W h en a n um be r is put in pl ace of a l ite r a l n um be r it

is said to b e sub sti tuted f or th e li te r a l n um b e r .
W h en b oth s id es of an e q uati on r e duce to th e sam e

n um b e r for ce rta i n v a l ues of t h e un k n o w n n umb e r th e ,
e q uat i on is sa id to b e sa tisfied Th us 3 sa tisfi es th e e q ua .

,
ti on y 2 5 .
TH E EQ U AT IO N 7
A
'
b e r th at s ati sfi e s i is root of th e
“ “
num e q ua ton
”
an a
e q ua i on
t .
Th us , 5 is a r oot of th e e q uaton z i 3 8 .
HI TO S w rd r t fi r t pp r in th lg b r
R C I AL N O T E . Th e o oo
”
s a ea s e a e a
of M h m m d ib n M u
o aAb u J f r Al K hw ri m i ( b utA
e sa . a a a z a o . D .
T h r t f n qu ti n (lik th r t f
e oo o a pl n t) i h i dd n un til
e a o e e oo o a a s e
“
f un d S B ll A S h rt H i t ry f M th m ti c p
o . ee a
’
s o s o o a e a s,
”
.
X
E ERCIS ES
S olv e th e foll owi ng e q uati ons a nd c e ck t

h he r e sul t ”
1 . 5 .
' '
2 . 6 . 7x
3 . 2 x 7 .
4 . s . 7m
monom ial ; or der Of ter m s Th e pa r ts of an

Te m s ;r .
.
ex pr essi on sepa r a te d by plus an d m in us s i g n s a re
ca ll e d th e te rm s of a n um b e r T h us 2 a and 3 b are th e .
,
te r m s of th e n um b e r 2 a + 3 b A on e te r m n um b e r is ca lle d .
-
a m onom ia l .
X
E ERCIS ES
4 . 8 50 —
7 93 4 2 -
33
5 . 8x + 2 a; —
7 c :
—
7 6 . 2c
c+ 8 c :
Th ese pr ob l em s i ll ustr ate th e pr i n cipl e (to b e discusse d
m or e f ull y l ate r ) th a t th e v a l ue of an e x pr e ssi on is un
‘
ch ang e d if th e or d e r of its te r m s is ch a n g
'
e d r ov ide d i
p ,
e a ch t e rm ca rr i es w i t h it th e S ign at its l e f t If no sign .
is e x pr e ss e d a t th e l e f t of th e fir st te r m of an e x pr e ssi on ,
th e pl us s i gn is un d e r stood .
8 S im ilar a nd dis sim il ar ter m s T e r m s wh i ch h av e a

. .
com m on l i te r a l f actor as 2 x 3 ft a n d 5 x a r e éim ila r te rm s

’
.
, , , ,
Th e i r sum is a on e te rm e x pr ess i on ; n a m e ly 10 x W h en
-
, .
8 G EN ERA L M AT H EM AT I C S
r
te m s do n ot li te r a l f actor a s 2 3:a nd
h a ve a com m on ,
3 y th e y a re ca ll e d dissim il a r te rm s Al g e br a i c e x pr e ss i on s
,
.
a re s i m pli fi e d by com b in in g s im i l a r te rm s C omb i n ing .
s i m il a r te r m s in e i th e r th e r i g h t or th e l eft m e m b e r of an
e q ua t i on g i v es us th e sa m e e q uati on in s im pl e r for m .
w rd l g b r fi r t pp r b ut
H I S T O R I C A L NO T E . Th e o a e a s a ea s a o
A D 830 in
. . Ar b i n w rk c ll d Al j b w l m uk b l
an a wri tt a o a e -
e r a
’
-
a a a,
”
en
“ “
b y Al K hw ri m i Al j b fr m wh i ch l g b r i d riv d m y ” ”
-
a z .
-
e r, o a e a s e e , a
b tr n l t d b y th
e a t
s a eti nd r f r t th f ct th t th m
e r es ora on a e e s o e a a e sa e
n um b r m y b e dd d t ub tr ct d fr m b th
a e id a f th e o or s a e o o s es o e
“
qu ti n ; l m uk b l m ”
e a o h p c
t a f c mp i
-
nd a m a a ean s e r o ess o o a r s on , a so e
wri t r y it w u d in c
e s sa cti w i th th c m b i n ti n
as f se on n e on e o a o o
s im il r t rm i n ta t rm
e s o on e e .
Th m th m ti c l i n t r t f th Ar b
e a e n h i gha In th v nth
a e es o e a s ra . e se e
c n tu y r li gi u
e r nth u i m h d b n d d th
e o n m di c t
s ri b
e s as a a e e se o a es
i nt c n qu ri g fl uri h i ng n ti n En rm u f rtun d m n d d
o a o e n , o s a o . o o s o es e a e
m th m ti c l m n i pul ti n
a e a C t r ci t
a rum r f m rch t
a a o . an o es a o o a e an
wh nnu l i c m
ose a w b ut v n m illi n d ll r
a n ndo C h ri ti
e as a o se e o o a s a a s an
d ct r f m di ci n w h
o o o n u l i c m e w b ut fi fty th u n d
e o se a n a n o e as a o o sa .
Th f rtun s g v th m th n c ry l i ur ti m f cultur
e se o e a e e e e e ss a e s e e or e
a nd l rn i n g Am n g th m ny b k tr n l t d w th Gr k
ea . o e a oo s a s a e as e ee
“
g m try Eucli d El m n t B ll A S h rt H i t ry f ”
S
’ ’
eo e ,
s e e s . ee a s o s o o
M th m ti c
a p 16 2
e n d M ill r
a H i t ri c l In tr ducti n t
s,
”
.
, a e
’
s s o a o o o
M th m ti c l Li t r tur
a e a p 83 a e a e,
”
. .
X E ER C IS ES
So lve th e foll owi ng e q uati on s a nd c ec h k th e re sul t s
1 . 2 r 7: a; 3 .
S ub tr a ct x fr mb th m
o o em be r s and
p r oce e d a s us ua l .
5 x —
3a + 2a :
16 y —
8 y+ 3 y 5y —
2 y + 14 .
20 —
4x z 38 —
1 0 1r .
5 r
+ 3
10 G ENERA L M AT H EM AT I C S
This l
m u tip i cati onl pr wh en an
in cipl e is con v en i e n t
e q uati on con t a i n s fr acti on s It e n ab l es us to ob ta in a .
i on con tain ing n o f r acti on b ut conta inin g th e

'
Secon d e q ua t
sa m e un kn ow n n um b e r T o i l l ustr a te this
.
Le t x 7 .
M ulti plyi ng b oth m em b e s r b y 3,
3 =3
x
§ x x 7 .
R e ducin g to s i m pl f rm
e st o , : 21
a .
ORA L EXERC IS ES
Fi nd th e va l ue of th e un k nown n um b e r in e ach of th e
foll owi n g e q uati on s
ac
°
5
0
b
“
7
2 w
3
Th e pr e ce din g l ist of pr ob l e m s s h ow s th at it is d e s ir abl e

to m ul ti ply b oth m e m b e r s of th e e q uati on b y s om e n um b e r
th at w i ll g i v e us a n ew equa tion w ithoutfr a ctions Th e sa m e .
pr in cipl e h ol d s wh e n th e e q ua ti on con ta in s tw o or m or e
fracti on s w h os e d en om in ators are d iffe r ent as is i l l ustr ate d ,
b y th e f oll o w i n g pr ob l e m
Fi n d :
if a
l i
S o ut on .
yso;
2 0 7” 2
M ul ti pl yi n g b
?
i
S mp lifyi n g , 5 x 4x 40
wh e n ce it 40 .
TH E EQ U AT IO N 11
Th e f act th a t 4 a n d 5 w i ll di v id e i nte gr a ll y ( a wh ol e
n um b e r of t i m es) i n to th e n um e r ators g i v e s us a n e w e q ua
'
ti on wi th ou t fr acti on s O bv i ous ly th er e are an un li m i te d

.
n um be r of n um b e r s for e x a m l e 40 6 0 80 e t wh i h
.
( p c, ) , c , ,
.
w e coul d h av e us e d b ut it w as a d v an tag e ous to us e th e

'
Sm a ll es t n um b e r in wh i ch 4 a n d 5 a r e con ta in e d in te gr a lly ;
n a m e ly th e le as t com m on m u l tipl e of 4 an d 5 wh i ch is
, ,
2 0 Th e ob j e ct of th i s m ul ti pl i ca ti on is to ob tai n an e q ua
.
ti on in wh i ch th e v a l ue of th e un k n ow n n um b e r is m or e
.
e as i ly f oun d t h a n in th e pre ced i n g on e Th is di scussi on .
m ay b e sum m a r ize d by th e f o ll owin g r ul e
If th e g i ven e qua tion con ta in s f r a ction s, m ultip lye v ery term

in b oth m em b ers by th e lea st com m on m ultip le ( L G M ) of .
den
th e om in a t
or s in or der t
o a in a n ew e
ob t
qu i
at on w h ich does
n
otc onta in fr a ction s .
X
E ER CIS ES
Fi n d th e f v a
l ue of th e un k n own n um be r in ea ch pr ob l e m ,
an d c e c h k
°
:
a at
3 6
'
3
14 2
2 .
14
5
2r 3r
+
3 4
=
y+ § y 6
v v = 7
2 3 6
26 4 1 -
5 :
1
12 G EN ERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
10. Defi nition of th e eq uation ;

,
r oper ti es of th e eq uation
p .
Th e f or eg oin g pr obl e m s w e r e us e d to S h ow th at a n e qua

tion is a statem e n t th a t tw o num b er s a re e qual . It in di cate s
th at tw o e x pre ss i on s stan d for th e sa m e num be r It m ay .
b e r e g a r d e d a s a n e x pr essi on of b a l an ce of v al ue s b e
'
tw ee n th e n um b e r s ou th e tw o s id e s of th e e q ua l i ty S ig n .
S om e un k n ow n n um b e r whi ch e n te r s i n to th e di scussi on
of t h e pr ob l e m is r e pr es en te d by a l e tte r An e q uati on
.
is wri tte n w hi ch e n ab l e s one to fi n d th e v a l ue of th a t

un k n o w n n um b e r .
An e q uati on is li k e a b a l an ce in th at th e b al a n ce o f
v a l ue is n ot di s turb e d s o l on g as li k e ch ang e s are m ad e
on b ot h s id e s Th us in e q uati on s w e m ay a dd th e sam e
.
,
n um b e r t o b ot h sigl es or sub tr a ct th e sam e n um b e r fr om

,
b oth S i d es or w e may m ultip ly or divide b oth s i d e s by th e

,
sam e n um b e r e x ce pt di v i s i on b ze r o ; th li y i
( y ) e e q ua t s
m a in ta i ne d d ur in g all th e se ch an g es .
O n th e oth e r h an d th e e q ua li ty is d e str oy e d if m or e is
,
a dd e d t o or s ub t r a cte d fr om on e si d e th an th e oth e r or i f
on e s i d e is m u l tipl i e d or di v id e d by a l a rg e r n um b e r t h an
is th e oth e r S i d e .
1 1 Tr an sl ation of an eq ua tion Th e l i st of pr obl e m s in

. .
th e pr e ce d in g e x e r ci s es m ay appe a r a b s tr act in th e s e n se
th at th e e q uati on s d o n ot appe a r to b e conn e cte d in any
w ay e ith e r wi th a con cr e te s i tuati on of a v e r b a l pr ob l e m ,
or w i t h our pa st e x pe r i e n ce H ow e v e r s uch a li st n e e d
.
,
n ot b e r e g a r d e d as m e an in gl e s s . J ust a s a n En gli sh s en
te n ce w hi ch e x pr e sses a n um b e r re l a ti on m ay b e w ri tt en
“ ”
in th e sh o rt h an d f orm of an e q uati on so con v e r se ly
, , ,
a n e ua t
q i on m a
y b e tr an s l a te d i nto a pr obl e m ; f or e x
am l e t h at i 5 2 x 2 0 m b int r r ted
p , e e q u on ay e e p e
a s f ol l o w s : Fi n d a n um be r such th at 3 ti m es th e num
b e r pl us 5 e q ua l s 2 ti m es th e num b e r pl us 2 0 Th e .
e q uaton i3 : 5 m ay b e r eg a r d e d as r a is in g th e q ue sti on
25 —
W h a t n um b e r dim ini sh e d b y 3 e q ual s 5 O r , a g ai n , ’
x + x = 14 0 m ay b e con s id e r e d as t h e tr an s
25 4 7+ x + 2
%
l ati on of th e f o l l owing pr obl em W h at is th e a l titud e of :
a r e ctangl e wh ose b a se is ti m es as l on g as th e a l ti tud e
an d wh ose pe r i m e te r is 140 ft? .
X
E ERCIS ES
S ta te ea c h of th e foll owi n g in th e form of a

q ue s i
t on or a
ve rb a l pr ob l e m :
1 . iii 7 r
2 . 2 c
r 5 2w.
3 . g it
4 . 7 y + 8 = 112 .
5 . 2 w + 3 w + 4 x = 18
c=
2 2
6 ~
d
7
. .
”
12 . Dril l in th e "
l geb r a Th e f oll ow in g
sh orth and of a .
e x e r ci se s g i v e pr act i ce in tr an slatin g num b e r e x pr e ssi on s

a nd r e l ati on s fr om v e rb a l i n t o sy m b o li ca l l an gu ag e
a e i nt e gra l w h ol e n um b e r s w h i ch
1 C n cu ti e n um b
. o se v er s
( r
)
foll ow e ach oth e r in counti ng ; thus 1 7 and 18 45 a n d 4 6 a e , , ,
r
e xa m pl e s of con s ecut iv e num b e r s B egin a t . 5 a n d coun t s
forwar d B e gi n at : 3 a nd count b ackwa rd G ive f ur con

. a . o
se cut i e i n te ge r s b e gi n n i n g wi th 1 8 ; e n di n g wi th 18 b e gi n n i n g
v
w i th an ; e n di n g wi th G iv e tw o con se cutiv e v e n i n te ge r s
as . e
b e gi nn i n g wi th 2 G iv e tw o con s ecutiv e v e n i n te ge r s e n d
a . e
in g wi th 2 c .
2 Th e pr e s e n t a ge in y ea r s
.
,
f a pe r son is de n ote d b y
,
o as .
I n d i ca te in y m b ol s th e f oll owi n g :
s
(a ) th e pe r son s a ge f our tee n
’
ye a r s a go ; (b ) h is age fourte e n y e a r h e nce ; (c) h is a ge w h e n s
twi ce as ol d a s n ow ; (d) 6 0 de cr ea se d b y h is a ge ; e h is a ge
()
de cr e as e d b y 6 0 ; (f ) h is a ge i n cr e ase d b y n e h a lf h is ge o a .
14 G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT I C S
3 . A b oy h as a ma b r les and bu ys b mo re . H ow .
m an y h as
'
he W h a t is th e sum of a a n d b
4 . A b oy ha v ing 6 ma b r l e s l ose s 0 ma b r le s . H ow m a ny
h as h e
‘
7
5 .
() a Th e h om e
te am m a de 8 po n ts in a b as e tb a ga m e i k ll -
a nd th e vi s i i t n g tea m m ad e 3 po n ts i
B y h ow m a n po n ts d id . y i
h om e e a m wi n f h om e s cor e d h
th e t ?
( )
b I th e t
ea m po in t
s
to th e vi s i tor s
i nts b y h ow m a ny poi nts did th e h om e
’
n po ,
te a m w in (0) S ub sti tute n umb e rs f h in th e l as t q ue s ti on or
tha twill S h ow th e de f ea tof th e h em e tea m ( )

d I f i 5 ,w h at . t
m ust b e th e v a l ue of n w h e n th e ga m e is a tie 9
6 W h a t is th e 5 th pa t o f n ? g o f y ? g f t?
. r o
7 T w o n um b e r s d iffe r b y 7 Th e s m a ll e r i Ex pr e ss s
‘
. . 8 .
th e l a r ge r n um b e r .
8 D ivi de 100 i n to tw o pa rts so tha t ne p r t is

. o a a .
9 D ivi de
. i n to tw o par ts so th at one pa rt is 5
a .
10 Th e d i ffe r e n ce b e tw e e n tw o n um b e r s is d n d th e l a r ge r
. a
on e is l Ex pr ess th e s m a ll e r on e
‘
. .
1 1 W h a t n um b e r d ivi ded b y 3 w ill g iv e th e q uoti e nt ?

”
. a
:
12 A m a n s h ouse w O th h doll a r s w as d e str oy e d b y fi e
’
. r r
, , .
H e r e ce ive d i dol la si nsura nce W ha t w a s h is total l oss 9

‘
‘
r
13 A S c c y e a r s old a n d B l ack s 5 yr Of b e i n g th r e e t
I i eS
r
p
.
a s ol d Ex pr e s s B s a ge
.
’
.
14 A h as m ti e s a n d B h a s n ti e s I f A s e ll B 5 ti e s h w
‘
. . s ,
o
m an y will e ach th e n ha v e
15 A m a n h as d d oll a r s a n d s p n d s c c n t ; H ow m any
. e e s
ce n ts doe s h e ha v e l e ft?
16 A r o m is l fee t l on g a n d w f e e t wi de H ow m a n y f e e t
. o .
of b or d e does such a room re q ui r e ?

r -
17 Th e l e n gth of a re ct an gl e c x ce e ds its wi dt h b y c teet

- ‘
‘ '
. .
I t is w f ee twi de e l e n th f h s ide
°
() S t
ate th eac ; (b ) F m d
g
a . o _
th e d is tan ce a roun d t h e Te ct
a ngl e
TH E EQ U AT IO N
18 . W h at is th e cost of 7 pe ncil s a t ce nts ea ch 0
19 . W ha t is th e cost of 1 s h ee t of pa pe r if 6 s h ee ts ca n be
b ough t for 1 0¢
-
20 . I t ta k es '
tw o b o ys 5 da . to m a ke an a utom ob il e tri p .
W h at pa rt can th ey do in 1 d If it ta k e s th e m
a . d da y s ,
w h at pa r t of th e tri p do they tra v e l in 1 da ? .
2 1 I f a m an driv e s a ca a t th e r a te of 31 m i pe h our
. r . r ,
h ow far ca n h e driv e in 3 h r in 5 h r .in h h our s .
'
2 2 I f a m a n d riv e s n m il e s in 3 h
. h w m a ny m il e s doe s r ,
. o
h e go pe h our r
23 A t
. a n k is fill e d b y a pi pe i n m m i n utes H ow m uch of .
th e ta n k is fill e d in 1 m in
2 4 Th e n um e r ator of a fr a cti on e x ce e ds th e d e n om in a tor

.
by 3 .
()
a Wri te t h e n um e r a tor b
( ) Wri t e t h e fr a
.cti on .
R e ad th e fr acti on .
2 5 A pai r of gl ov e s costs d d oll ar s W h a t is th e cost if th e

. .
pri ce is r a i se d 7 ¢ if l owe r ed 7 ¢
2 6 Wri t
. e t h e sum of c a n d 1 7 ; f 1 7 a n d
a Wri te th e
o (I) .
d iffe re n ce of c a n d 1 7
a f 17 a n d c o a .
2 7 A cl a ss pr e si de n t w as el cte
. d b y a m a j ori ty of 7 v ote s
e .
I f th e un s ucce ss ful ca n d i da te r ce ve d k v ote h ow m a ny v ote s

e i s,
we re ca s t
13 . Al geb r a ic l uti on
so . M an y pr obl em s m ay b e lv e d
so
by e i th e r r i thm e ti c or th e use of th e e q uati on

a . W h en
th e sol uti on of a pr obl e m is ob ta in ed by th e use of th e
'
eq ua tio n it is com m on ly ca l l e d an a lgeb r a i c solut
, ion .
Th e fo ll ow i n g pr ob l e m s i ll ustr ate th e i m por tan t steps

in th e a lg eb r a i c s o l uti on of a pr ob l em B y w ay of con tr as t .
an a r i t h m eti c sol uti on is g i v en for th e first pr obl em .
1 D ivi de a pol e 2 0 ft l on g i n to tw o pa r ts so th at on e pa r t
. .
s h a ll b e f our t i m e s a s l on g a s th e othe r .
16 G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
Am r m m '
r xcu . S O LUTI ON
Th e s horte r pa rt i s a ce rta in l e n gt h .
Th e l ng r p rt i f ur ti m th i l ngth
o e a s o es s e .
Th e wh l p l i th n fi ti m
o e o e l ng th h t r p t
s e ve es as o as e s or e ar .
Th e p l i 2 0 ft l n g
o e s . o .
Th e h rt r p rt i
s o e f 2 0 ft 4 ft
a s O .
, or .
Th e l ng r p rt i 4 x 4 ft 16 ft
o e a s .
, or .
He n c th
e p rt 4 ft n d 1 6 ft l n g r p ctiv l y
e a s ar e . a . o es e e .
ALG B A I S E R C O LU TI O N
n um b r f f t i th h rt r p rt e o ee n e s o e a .
4 n um b r f f ti n th l n g r p rt n e o ee e o e a ,
4 n 5 l n gth f th p l
n , or n e o e o e .
5 n = 20
n =4
4 11 = 10
H e n ce th e pa ts r a re 4 ft . a nd 1 6 ft . l on g r e s pe ct iv ly
e .
2 . A r e ctan gul a r r
ga d e n i s th r e e ti m e s a s l ong as it is wi de .
I t ta kes 80 yd . of fe nce to i n cl o e it Fi nd th e wi dth an d

s .
l en gth
AL G B AI
.
E R C S O LUT I O N
Le t x n um be r of f t in th Wi dth
ee e .
T he n 3r n um be r o f f t in th l n gth
ee e e ,
a nd r
. 3 x x 3 x d i sta n ce a o r u d th g rd n
n e a e .
T he n 8x 80 .
: 10
1 z .
3J ::30 r .
H e n ce th e w dt i hi s 10 yd . and th e l e n gt h i s 30 yd .
14 . i
Th e m po ta ntsteps in th e r
l geb raic sol ution of v erb al a
(or story) pr ob l em s B e f or e pr oce e d in g to th e sql ution of

.
m or e d iffi cul t pr ob l e m s it is i m por tan tth a tw e o rg an ize th e

st e ps th atare in v olv e d Th e pr e ce d in g l i tof pr ob l e m s i ll us
. s
tr ate s th e f o ll ow in g m e th od for s ol v i ng a ve rb al pr ob l e m
I n e v e ry r bl r f r e g i v e n as k n o wn
( )
a
p o e m ce ta in a cts a
a n d on e or m or e a s un k n o wn a n d t o b e d et e r m i n ed R e ad .
th e pr obl e m so as to ge t th e s e f a cts cl e a r l y in m in d .
18 G EN ER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
6 .foll owi n g puzzle w as pr opose d to a b oy : Th i nk
Th e '
of a n um b e r m ul t i ply it b y 4 add 12 sub tract 6 a nd d ivi de

, , , ,
by Th e b oy ga v e h is fi n a l r esul tas 13 W h a t w as h is .
ori g i na l n um b e r ?
7 Th e s um of on e ha lf one th ir d a n d one f our th of a

.
, ,
n um b e r is 5 2 W h a t is th e num b e r
.
C O N SE C U T I V E N U M B E R P R O B L E M S
-
Fi nd tw o con s ecutiv e n um b e r s w h ose s um is 2 23

8 . .
9 Fi nd th r e e con s e cutiv e n um b e r s w h os e s u m is 1 80
. .
10 Fi n d tw o con se cutiv e odd num b e r s w h ose sum is 2 04

. .
11 Fi n d th r ee conse cutive e v e n n um b e r s w h ose s um 18 15 6

. .
12 I t is r e q ui r e d to d ivi de a b oa r d 7 0 in l on g i n to fi v e pa r ts
. .
s uch t h a t th e f our l on ge r pa r ts s h a ll b e a nd 4
"
l on ge r r espective ly th a n th e s h orte st par t Fi nd th e l e n gth s .
of t h e d iffe r e nt pa r ts .
13 A b oy in a m a n ua l tr a i n i n g s ch ool is m a ki n g a b ookcase
.
-
.
Th e d i sta n ce fr om th e top b oar d to th e b ottom is 4 ft 7 in . .

,
i n s i de m e asure H e wi sh e s to put in th ree s h e lve s e ach 1 in

.
, .
th i ck so th at th e f our b ook s pa ce s will d i m i n i s h succe s s iv e ly

,
b y 2 in fr om th e b ottom to th e top Fi n d th e space s

. . .
E M S IN V O L V IN G G E O M E TR I C R E LAT I O N S
PR OB L
14 Th e l e n gth of a fi e l d is th r e e ti m es its wi dth a n d th e

.
,
d i sta n ce a r oun d th e fi e l d is 2 00 rd I f th e fi e l d is r e ct a n gul a r .

,
w h at a e th e di m e n si on s
r
15 A r oom is 15 ft l on g 14 ft wi d e a nd th e w a ll s con t
. . ain ,
.
,
4 6 4 sq ft Fi n d th e h e i gh t of th e r oom
. . .
7
16 Th e pe rim e te r of (d i st
. a n ce a r oun d a s q ua r e e q ua ls 6 4 ft
) .
Fi n d a si de .
“
N O E S uch g m t i c t r m tri n gl r ct n gl qu r ” ”
T . eo e r e s as a e, e a e, s a e,
etc . ccur i n th i li t f pr b l m ( 14
, as o s f m ili r fr m i th
s o o e s a re a a o ar
m ti c H w v r th y will l t r b
e . o e e d fi n d m r cl
, e ly t m t
a e e e e o e ose o ee
o th r n d e ee s.
17 . Fi nd i des of a tri angl e if th e se con d s i de is 3 ft

th e s .
l on ge r th an th e fir st th e th ir d s i de 5 ft l onge r th a n th e fir st
,
.
,
an d t h e pe ri m e te r is 2 9 ft .
18 Fi n d th e s i de of a n e q uil a te ra l (a ll s i de s e q ual ) tri an gl e

.
if th e pe r i m e te r is 2 153ft .
19 Th e pe ri m e te r of a n e q uil a te r a l pe n ta gon 5 s i ded fi gur e

(
.
.
) -
is 145 in Fi n d a s i de
. .
2 0 Th e pe rim e te r of a n e q uila t
. e ra l h e x a gon (6 s i de d fi gur e ) -
is 192 ft Fi n d a s i de
. .
2 1 Fi n d th e s i de of a n e q uil ate ra l de ca gon (10 s i de d fi gur e )

.
-
if its pe ri m e te r is 1 73 in .
2 2 W h a tis th e s i de of a n e q uil a te ra l dode ca gon (12 s i de d

.
-
fi gur e) if its pe ri m ete r is 2 88 in ? .
2 3 A li n e 6 0 in l on g is d ivi de d i nto tw o pa r ts Twi ce th e

. . .
l a rger par t e x ce eds fi v e tim es th e sm a ll e r part b y 15 in H ow .
m a n y i n ch e s a e in each p
r a r t?
2 4 Th e pe r im e t
. e r of a q uad ril a te r a l AB C D
(4 s i de d fi gur e ) «
is 34 in Th e s i de C D is twi ce as l on g as th e S i de AB ; th e
.
.
s i de AD is t h r ee ti m e s as l on g as C D ; th e s i de B C e q ua l s th e
s um o f t h e s i de s AD a n d C D Fi n d th e l en gth of e ach s i de
. . .
M I S C E LL AN E O U S P R O B L E M S
ivi de
D a m on g A B a n d c s o tha tA s s h a r e
’
25 .
, ,
m a y b e th r ee ti m e s th a t of B a n d C m ay h a v e o n e ha lf of ,
w h at A an d B h a ve toge th e r .
2 6 Th e pe r im e t
. e r of a r e cta n gl e is 132 in Th e b a se is .
doub l e th e a l ti tude Fi n d th e d i m e n s i on s of th e r e cta n gl e

. .
2 7 A a n d B ow n a h ous e w or th
. a n d A h as i n v e s ted
twi ce a s m uch capi t al a s B H ow m uch h a s e ach i n v e ste d

.
2 8 A r egul a ti on f ootb a ll fi e l d is 5 6 % yd l on ge r th a n it i
. . s
wi de a n d th e sum of its l e n gth a n d wi dth is

, .
y d Fi nd .
its d i m e n s i on s .
20 G ENER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
A m an four tim es as m a ny ch i ckens as h is ne i gh b or
h as .
Afte r s e lli ng 14 h e h as 33; ti m es as m an y How m a ny h ad

1
,
.
ea ch b e for e t h e sa l e
30 I n e l ecti ng a pr e s i de n t of th e a thl e ti c b oa r d a ce rta i n

.
h i gh sch oo l ca st 1019 v ote s fo th r ee can di date s Th e fir s t

r .
r ece ive d 143 more th a n th e th ird a nd th e s e con d 49 m or e ,
th a n th e fir st H ow m an y v ote s d id each ge t
.
?
3 1 A b oy h a s
. a n d h is b r oth e r h as Th e fi r s t
sa v e s 2 0 ¢ e a ch d a y a n d t h e s e con d s pe n ds 1 0¢ each d ay I n .
h ow m a ny day s will th ey h a ve th e sam e am oun t
32 O n e m a n h as se v e n ti m e s as m a n y a cr es a s a noth e r
. .
Afte r th e fir s t sol d 9 A to th e s e con d h e h ad 36 A m ore

.
, .
th an th e s e con d th e n h a d H ow m a ny did e a ch h a v e b e for e

.
th e s al e
33 . To fi n d th e w e i gh t o f
lf b all a m an puts 2 0 golf
a go
b a ll s i n to th e l e ft s cal e pa n of a b a l a nce a n d a 2 poun d w e i g h t -
i nto th e ri ght; h e fi nds th at too m uch h b ut th e b a l a n ce is

r estore d if h e puts 2 oz i nto th e l e ft sca l e pa n W h a t w as
. .
th e we i gh t of a golf b all ?
34 Th e n um b e r of r e pr e se n t
. ativ e s a nd se n ators togeth e r
in th e U n i te d S ta te s C ongr e ss is 5 31 Th e n um b e r of re p e
. r
se n t at i e s is 5 1 m
v or e t h an four ti m e s th e n um b e r of s en ator s .
F ind th e n um b e r of each .
35 A b oy a n a ppr en ti ce a n d a m as t
.
,
e r w ork m a n ha v e t
, he
un de r st a n di n g t h atth e a ppr e n ti ce s h all r e ce ive twi ce a s m uch
as t h e b oy a n d th e m as te r w ork m a n f our ti m e s as m uch as
,
th e b oy H ow m uch d oe s e a ch r e ce iv e if th e tot
. a l a m oun t
r e ce iv e d fo a pi e ce of work is $ 105 ?
r
36 A fath e r l e a v e s
. to b e d ivi de d a m ong h is th r e e
ch il dre n so th at th e e l de st c
,
h il d r ece iv es $ 2 000 m ore tha n
th e se con d a n d twi ce a s m uch a
,
th e th ir d W ha t is th e
s .
sh r e
a f ea ch
o
TH E EQ U AT IO N
37 . A fe n ce 5 ft . h igh
i n ch b oa r ds r unn i ng is m a de out of 6 -
l ength wi se Th e n um b er of b oa rds n e ce ssa ry to b uil d th e

.
fe nce up to th e r e q uir e d h e i gh t is 5 a nd th ey a e so pl ace d r
a s t l ea v e O pe n s pa ce s b e t
o wee n th e m If e ach of th e se open .
s paces coun t i ng fr om th e b ottom upwa rd s is h a lf of th e one

,
’
n e x t a b ov e it w h a t m us t b e th e d i s ta n ce s b etwe e n th e b O Et dS ‘
I
‘
th a t is w h a t will b e th e wi dth of ea ch of th e ope n s pa ce s

,
38 I pa i d $ 8 fo a n a d v e r ti s e m e n t of 8 li n e s a s f oll ows
. r ,
2 4 ¢ a li n e fo th e fir s t i n se r ti on 1 0¢ a li n e fo e a ch Of th e
r ,
r
ne x t fi e i n se r ti ons a n d 2 95 a li n e a f te r th at
v ,
Fi nd th e .
num b e r of i n s e r ti on s .
39 Th e a nnua l i n com e of a fa m ily is d ivi de d a s f oll ows

.
O n e te n th is use d fo cl oth i n g on e th ir d f g r ce ri e s a n d on e
r ,
or o ,
fifth for re nt T h i s l ea v e s $ 6 60 fo oth r x pe nse s a nd fo

. r e e r
th e s a vi n gs a ccoun t H ow m uch is th e i ncom e .
15 . Ax iom s . T h us far w e
.
hav e u se d th e four fo ll ow in g
’
law s in so lv in g e q u at on s i
I . I f th e sa m e num b er be a d ded to e
q ua l n um b er s, t
he
sum s a r e e ua l
q . A
[ d i
diton L a w
]
II If th e sa m e n um b er be sub t
r a cted fr om e ua l n um b er s,
.
q
th e re ma inder s a re e
qual .
[
S ub tra ction La w]
III q . If
b e m u ltip l
ei ed b y th
ua l n um b er s
e sa m e n um b er ,
th e pr oduct
s a r e e ua l
q [M ultipli i
ca ton La w
] .
I V If equa l n um b er s b e divided by th e
. sa m e num b er
( ex cluding div ision b yzero) , th e quotients a re e

qual .
[
D ivision
Law]
S tate m en ts li k e th e four l a w s abov e wh en assum e d to ,
b e tr ue are cal l e d a xiom s U s ua l ly ax i om s are s tate m ents

, .
so s i m pl e t h a t th ey see m e v id ent A S i m pl e illustr ati on -
is s uffi ci e n t to m ak e cl e a r th e v a l idi ty of th e a
x i om F or .
ex am pl e if tw o b oy s h av e th e sam e n um b e r of m a rbl e s
,
an d 3 m or e a re giv e n to e a ch t h en our e x pe r i en ce te ll s ,
us t at a h g a in on e b oy w ou l d h a v e j ust as m an y as th e
ot h e r Thi s ill ustr ate s th e v a l id ity of th e ad di ti on a x i om
. .
H e re af te r th e pr ece din g l a w s w i l l b e ca ll e d Ax iom s I II , ,
III an d IV r e spe cti v e ly

,
.
16 Ax iom V
. In th is ch apte r w e h a v e a lso m ad e fre
.
q u e n t u se of a n oth e r a x i om I n s o lv in g a v e r b a l
pr obl e m .
w e ob ta in e d th e n e ce ss a ry e q u ati on by fin ding tw o e x pre s

s i on s wh i ch d en ot ed t h e s a m e n um b e r an d th e n w e e q uate d
th ese tw o e x pr ess i on s T his step im pl i es th e f oll ow in g
.
ax i om
If two n um b er s a r e e ua l to th e s a m e n um b er
q ( or to e
qual
num b er s ,
) the n um b er s a re qua l [
E A
e .
q ua li t
y xiom
]
I ll ustr ate th e t utr h of Ax i om V by s om e fam i lia r
e x pe r i e n ce .
T h e f ol l ow in g ex e r cis es te st an d re v ie w th e a x om s i .
X
E ER CIS ES
Sol v e th e foll owi ng e q ua ti on s a n d ch eck B e ,

. ab e l to st
ate
a t e v e ry s te p in t h e sol uti on th e a x i om use d .
1 . 12 t —
15 -
30 .
S ol ut
i on . 12 t 15 30
15 15 ( Ax i o m I)
Ad di n g 15 to b ot h m em be r s,
‘
12 t 45
D ivi di ng b ot h s i de s b y 12 , t $
3
, or 3 ( Ax i o m IV
)
a r 1
2 °
2 4 3
S o ut l
i on . M ul ti ply i n g b oth ids es qu ti n b y th l
of th e e a o e e a st
co m m o n m l
u ti pl e of th e d e n o m in tr
a o th t is,b y12 a s, ,
12 y 12 2/ 12
(Ax i om III )
—
T he n 6 y + 3 y= 4 .
By r i
e d uc n g th e fr a ct on s of i th e fi r st e qua ti on l w t t rm to o es e s
we ob i
ta n th e se con d e qu ti a on , w hi ch d oe s no t c n t i n fr cti n
o a a o s.
C om b i ni g n s i m il r t r m
a e s, 9 y= 4 .
D ivi d i n g b o th i d
s f th
es o e e qu ti
a on b y 9,
Ax i om I V
( )
3 . 12 x + 13 = 73 . 8 . 17 8
i 8r —
12 r = 33 . 9 . 17 x + 3 x —
9 oc = 88 .
5 . 2 1 t+ 1 5 = 1 2 0 . 10 .
6 . 28k 11 . 2 02 y
7 . 2 0 y+ 2 y —
18 y = 2 2 . 12 . 34x
.
13 .
14 . m m + 12 6 m 58 .
15 . 6 7
°
68 .
16 . a : :
a
17 . 8y 87 .
18 . 2 s + 7s —
3s
3x ac a :
+
4 2 s
28 . l 5 = 3x -
3 .
S ol uton i . Addi n g 3 to b ot h
m em be r s,
18 3r . .
D ivi di ng b oth m e m b e r s b y 3,
6 a) .
N o te th a t i n th e p r e ce d n i g
p r bl
o em th e un kn ow n a ppea s r
i n th e ri ght m em be r .
29 .
—
3 .
30 . x + 10 = 2 x —
9 .
31 . 2 x —
2 i — r -
5 x —
17 i .
24 G EN ERA L M AT H EM AT I C S
15
b
S ol uton i . M ulti pl yi ng b oth

34
16
8
r :
. .
m em b e s by x, 3a
M ultipl y b th m o em be r s b y3r .
H e n ce 3
Note tha t i n th e p r i
e ce d n g
4 z
pr b l k n wn r
o em th e un o o ccu s in 13
th e de n o m in t r a o . 2 z
SU MM ARY
17 Th i s ch apte r h as ta ugh t th e m ea n i ng of th e f ol l ow
.
ing w or d s an d phr a se s : e ua t
q i on m e m b e r s of a n e uat
q i on , ,
e q ua ti on is satis fi e d s ub sti tutin g ch eck r oot of a n e q ua

, , ,
ti on v e rb a l pr ob l e m a lg e br a i c sol uti on of a v e rb a l pr obl e m

, , ,
e rm m on om i a l l i te ra l n um b e r si m i l a r te rm s di ss i m il a r
“
t , , , ,
te r m s or d e r o f te r m s a n d ax i om
, , .
18 Ax iom s . In s ol v i n g e q ua ti on s th e f o ll ow i n g a x i om s
.
a re us e d:
I . I f th e sa m e n um b e r or e q ua l n um b er s be a d ded to e
q ual
n um b e rs , th e sum s a re e q ual . A
[ ddition Axiom
]
II If the sa m e n um b er or e a l n um b er s be sub t
.
q u ed
r a ct f r om
e
q ua l n um b ers, th e r em a in d e r s a r e e
q ual .
[
S ub traction Axiom]
III . If e
qua l n um b e r s b e d ivided byeq ua l n um b er s
( exclud
ing divisi on byzero) , th e quotien ts a re eq ua l .

[
Divis ion Axiom]
IV If e qua l n um b er s b e m ultip lied b y th e
. sa me n um b er or
a l n um b er s, th e s a re equa l M ica tion Axiom

e
qm p r oduct .
[ ult
ipl ]
V . If tw o n um b ers a re e
qu al to th e sa m e n um b er or to equa l
n um b er s, the n um b ers a r e e ua l q .
[
E q ua lit
y Axiom
]
19 . If an e q uaton i con tain s f r acti on s , a s e con d e
q u a ton i
i n v olv in g th e sam e un k n o w n m ay b e O bta i n e d by m ul ti
ply i n g e v e ry te r m of th e g i v e n e q ua ti on by th e I .
C H AP TER II
LINEAR MEAS UREMENT . THE EQ UAT ON I AP PLIED TO
21 . Length , th ei m portant ch a r a cteristic of lines If in .
d r a w in g an obj e ctw e layth e r ul e r on a s h ee t of pape r a nd

p as s a s h a rpe n e d
p e n ci l a near t h e e d g e as poss i bl e th us
s
,
ob t ain i n g wh a t is f am ili a r to us as a s t ra i h t l ine w e a r e a t

g ,
on ce concern e d w it h th e l e n g th of a pa r tof th e str a i gh t l i n e

dr a w n In fa ct l eng th is th e i m por tan t ch ar acte r i sti c of a
'
.
,
lin e In an e x a ctse n se a l in e h as l eng th on ly n otw id th n or

.
,
th i ckn e ss Th us A
.
, B
I
th e e d g e of a tabl e
F I G 4 A L NE S EG M EN T . . I
h as l en g th on l y ;
‘
th e thi ck n ess an d w id th of a cr ay on l in e are n egl e ct ed ; t he

w id e ch a l k m ar k s on a tenn i s cour t a re n ot bound a ry
lin es b ut a re m ad e w id e to h e lp us se e th e r e al b oun d a ry
,
lin e s wh i ch are th e outside e d g es of th e ch a lk m ar k s

, .
Th e par t of a l in e wh ose l e n gth w e wi sh to d e te rm in e

‘
is a l ine segm ent or br i e fly a segm ent as AB in F ig 4 , , , . .
A l in e seg m e nt h as a d efi n i te b e g in n in g poin t an d a
”
d e fin i te en din g poi nt Th e w or d poin t is use d to m e an.
m e r e l y pos i ti on n ot l e n g th br e a d th n or th i ck n e ss
, ,
Th e ,
.
p os i ti on of a
p o i n t i s s h o w n b y a S h or t cr oss l in e ; th a t is ,
a oin t is d eter m in ed by tw o inter secting lin es

p .
1 il r vi i lf i
Th e pup S h oul d now p o d e h m se w th a u e on e e dg e of w h ch rlr i
r i r i l r
i s g ad uate d to n ch e s a nd f a ct on a pa ts of a n n c a n d th e oth e toi h r
uni ts of th e m e t c sca e ri l
He sh ou d a so ob ta n a pa . l l i
of com passe s ir
a n d som e s qu r a ed pa p r rul d t th
e m tri c c l
e o e e s a e .
26
LIN EAR M EA S U R EMEN T 27
X
E ERCIS E
G ive e xam p es l of lin e s e gm e n ts h

t a t ca n b e se en in th e
l
c as s oom r .
22 . M ea sur em ent of l ength In F i g 5 th e l e ng th of th e . .
l i ne seg m en t AB is t o b e d ete rm in e d O n e e d g e of y our .
r ul e r grad ua te d (di v id e d ) in to in ch es an d fr acti ons of

is
a n in ch as is sh ow n in F i
g 5 P l a ce th e di v i si on m a r k ed . .
ze r o on y our r ul e r a t A w i t h th e e d g e of th e r ule r a l ong,
A B
F IG . 5 . Ho w A L INE SE G M NT E M AY B E M EA S U R E D
th e se g m en t AB , an d r ea d th e b er of inch es in th e lin e
n um
se g m ent AB ; th at is ,
find wh at r eadin g on th e r ul e r is
o
p pos i te th e poin t B .
In th e pr e ce d ing pr obl e m we com par e d th e un k n ow n

l ength of th e lin e seg m en t AB w i th th e w e ll estab lis h e d -
an d w e l l k n own-
se g m en t
f oun d th e l i n e , th e in ch , an d
s eg m en t t o be 2
2
1
ti m e s as l ong a s th e i n ch
—
H e n ce t h e .
le ng th of th e lin e se g m en t is 2 5 in W h en w e d e te r m in e .
th e l e ng th of a l in e seg m ent w e are m ea sur ing th e l in e

s eg m en t T h e s eg m en t w i th wh i ch w e com par e th e g i v e n
.
li n e is ca l le d a unitsegm en tor a unit of m ea sur em ent H en ce .
to m e asur e a l i n e se g men t is to apply a stan d a r d un i t s e g

m e n t to itto fi n d out h ow m an y ti m e s th e un i t seg m en t is
conta i n e d in it .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . D r aw a li n e s e gm e n t an d e x p e ss r its l e ngth m h
In c e s .
2 . M easur e th e l e ngth of y our de sk in i nch es .
3 . M e asur e th e wi dth of y our de s k in i nch e s .

23 . Different units of l ength . Th e m ost f a m il i a r in s tr u
m e n ts for m e a su in r g are th e f oot rul e th e y a r d sti ck an d , ,
se v e r a l kin d s of t a e l i n es
p Th e fr a ct i on a l par ts of th e uni t
.
are r e ad by m e an s of a gr ad ua t e d s ca l e e n gr a v e d or stam e d
p
on th e st a n d a r d un i t us e d In F i g 6 b e l o w is s h o wn a
. .
, ,
part of a r ul e r Th e Uppe r e d g e is di v id e d in to i n ch e s
.
a nd fr act i on al pa rts of an inch Wh atis th e l e n g th of th e .
sm a ll e st l in e seg m en t of t h e uppe r e d g e
Th e l o w e r e dg e of th e r ul e r is di v id e d i n to un i ts of
th e m et ri c or F r e n ch l Thi s sy stem is b a se d on th e
( ) sc a e .
0 IN C H 1 2 3
F IG . 6 . P A T R OF A RU LE B , SH O W I NG D I FF ER E N T U N IT S OF L NG T
E H
d e cim a l sy ste m v e ry g en e ra lly use d in scien

an d is n ow
tifi c w or k in a ll coun tr i es Th e stan d a r d un i t is ca ll e d th e

.
m ete r Itis di v id e d in to 1 000 e q ual pa r ts call e d m illi

m ete r s ( m m ) In th e fig ur e ab ov e th e sm a ll es t di v i si on ,
is a m illi m e te r T en m il l im e te r s m ak e a ce nti m ete r

.
In th e fig ur e AB is on e ce nti m e te r in l en g th an d you will

, ,
n ote t h at th is is ab out tw o fi fth s of an i n ch T en centi .
m ete r s m a k e a d e ci m e te r ( din ) ( ab O ut an d te n d e ci
m ete r s m ak e a m ete r in or ab out y d ) W e m ay .

,
.
sum m a r i ze t h e se f acts i n th e foll ow ing r ef er en ce tabl e

1m illim ete r i nch es
i n ch
1 ce n tim ete s r ,
10 m illi m ete sr i
1 ce n t m ete r in .
, or n e a rly gin ) .
10 c n ti m
e e e tr s i
1 de c m e te r in .
,
or n e a rly 4 in ) .
10 d ci m e tr
e e s 1 m ete r in .
, or n e a rly ft)
.
LI NEA R M EA S U R EM EN T 29
24 . Adv anta ges of th e m et c system ri . O ne of th e ad v a n
ta g es of th e s y ste m
v a l ue of th e f r acti ona l pa rt is th at th e
of t h e m e te r is m or e appa r e n t th an a corr e spon din g d e ci
m al par t of a y a r d Th us if w e say a str eet is yd .
, .
w id e th e d eci m al
,
te ll s us n othin g a b out th e sm a ll e r
di v i s i on s of a y ar d sti ck th at e n te r in to th i s n um be r At .
be st w e w ould pr oba bly say th at it is som eth in g ov e r on e

th i r d of a y a r d O n th e oth e r h an d i f w e say th at a r oad
.
,
is m w id e w e k n ow at on ce th at th e r oa d is 1 2 m
.
,
.
3 dm 8 cm 6 m m w id e
. Th i s l as t state m ent is far m or e
. . .
d e fi n i te to on e w h o h a s h ad a l i ttl e pr acti ce w i th th e .
m etr i c sy st em .
O bv i ous ly th e a d v an tag e s of th e m etr ic sy ste m lie in

th e f act th at ten li n e s eg m en ts of an y un i t ar e e q ua l to
on e of t h e n e x t l a rg e r In con tr ast to th is f act th e m ul ti .
p l i e r s of our sy s t e m th ough t h e y m a
y s ee m f am i l i a r a re , ,
a w k w ard Th us th e r e are 12 in in a foot 3 ft in a y ar d

.
, .
,
.
,
5 1, y d in a r od 1 76 0 yd in a m il e e tc
1 .
, .
, .
H I S T O R I C A L N O T E It i s . r l h
p ob a b e t a tm ostof th e sta n da d un ts r i
of l e ngt h were
riv d fr l h r de h y e om th e e n gt s of pa ts of th e um a n b od
or o th r qu ll y f m ili r b j ct u d i n m
e e auri n g T h u wa till a o e s se e as . s, e s
sa y th t h r i a m n y h n d h i gh T h
a y rd i upp d t
o se s so a a s . e a s s ose o
h v r pr nt d th l n gth f th
a e e e se m f K i ng H n y I N
e rly ll
e e o e ar o e r . ea a
n t i n h v u d lin r un i t th n m f wh i ch w d riv d fr m
a o s a e se a ea e a e o as e e o
th ir w r d f
e f t o or oo .
Duri n g th F r n ch R v l uti n th N ti n l A e m b l y pp i nt d
e e o o e a o a sse a o e
a c mmi i n t
o o d vi y t m th tw uld lim in t th in c n n
ss o e se a s s e a o e a e e o ve
i n c of
e ei ti ng w ight n d m ur Th pr nt m tric y te m
ex s e s a eas es . e e se e s s
i th w rk f th i c m m i i n
s e o o s o ss o .
T h i c m m i i n tt m pt d t m k th
s o t n d r d un i t n t n
ss o a e e o a e e s a a o e e
m illi nth p rt f th
o d i t n c fr m th aqu t r t th n rth p l
o e s a e o e e a o o e o o e
m ur d n th
eas m ri di n f P ri
e o S in c l t r m eur m n t h v e a o a s . e a e ea s e e s a e
r i d m d ub t t th
a se so ctn e f th c m m i i n d t rm i n
’
o as o e ex a e ss o e o ss o
’
s e e a
ti n f th i d i t n c w
o o n w d fin ths m tr n ts a fr cti n f
e, e o e e e e e o as a a o o
th rth qu dr n t b ut th di t c t th f i g t mp tu
e ea
’
s a a , as e s a n e, a e reez n e er a r e,
b etwe en two tra ns v ers e p a r a lle l l in es r uled on a ba r f
o p la tin um ir id ium
-
w h ich is k ep t a t th e I nt
er n a t iona l B uq a u f Weigh ts
o a n d il l e a s ur es , a t
S ev res, n ea r P a r is .
25 . Application of th e m etric sca e.l Th i s a rti cle is ih

te n d e d to g i v e pr acti ce in th e use of th e m etr i c sy ste m .
X
E ER CIS ES
1Wi th a rul e r w h os e e dge is gra dua te d i n to

. ce n tm i ete rs
m easur e th e se gm e n t
s AB a n d C D in F ig 7 . .
A R
I I
C D
F IG . 7
2 . M easur e th e
l e n gth a n d wi dth of y ur o de s k wi th a ce n t i
m e te r r ul e r C h e ck th e r e sul ts wi th th se
. o of Ex s 2 . and 3,
Art 2 2 . .
3 . Esti m ate th e
l en gth f th e r oom in m ete r s a n d th en
o
m ea sur e th e r oom wi th a m e te r s ti ck I f a m e te r s ti ck is n ot
.
a v a il a b l e use a y a r d s t
,
i ck a nd tr an s l ate i nto m ete r s .
4 T ur n to s om e st a n da r d te x t in ph y s i cs f e x a m pl e
.
( o r ,
M illika n a n d G a l e pp 2 a n d 3) a n d r e por tto th e clas s on th e

,
.
m e tri c sy s t em .
5 R e fe r to a n e n cy cl ope d i a a n d fi n d out w h a t you ca n

.
a b out t he “ stan da r d y a r d k e pt a t Wa s h ington .
26 P r a cti ca l difii cul ty of precise m ea s ur em ent In spi te

. .
of t c
h e f a t th at m e asur i n g l i ne se g men ts is a f ami lia r
p r o ces s a n d s e e m s v e ry s i m pl e it is v e ry difli cult t o m e as

,
ur e a lin e w i th a h i gh d e gr ee of a ccur acy Th e f oll o w i n g .
sour ce s of e rr or m a y e n t e r in to th e r e sul t i f w e use a

y ar ds ti ck :( 1) th e y ar d sti ck m ay n ot b e ex actly str a igh t;
2 i b a l it l oo l on g or t oo s h ort; 3 i
( ) t m a
y e t e t
( ) t m a y
S l i p a l it tl e s o th a t th e se con d posi ti on d oe s n ot b e g in a t
LIN EA R M EA S U R EM EN T 31
th e e x a ct pl ace wh e r e first en d e d ; (4 ) th e e d g e of
th e
th e yards tick m ay n ot a l w ay s b e a l on g th e lin e s eg m e n t;
_
5 h e gr a d ua te d sca l e use d for r e a din g f e e t i n ch e s an d

( ) t , ,
fra cti ona l par ts of in ch e s m ay n ot b e corre ct Nor do w e .
e l im i n ate th e se e rr or s b y using oth e r m e as ur ing d e v i ces .
F or e x a m pl e a tape lin e ten d s to str e tch b ut con tr acts i f

, ,
w e t whil e a ste e l ta pe is aff e cte d b y h e a t and col d

,
.
Fr om th e pr ece di ng di scussi on it is appar ent th at a

m e as ur e m en t is a lw ay s a n appr ox i m ati on Th e e rr or can
.
b e d e cr ease d b ut n e v e r wh olly e li m in ate d

-
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . S uppose you h av e m ea sur e d a di sta n ce (sayth e e dge of y our

des k ) wi th gr e atca r e a n d h a v e f oun d itto b e e q ua l to 2 ft 7 gin . .
I s th i s th e ex ct l en gth of th e de s k
a J ustify y our a n swe r .
2 I f you we r e to r e pe atth e m ea sur e m e nt wi th s till gr ea te r

.
car e m a ki n
, g use of a fi n e gra dua t e d sca l e is it lik e ly t
r -
,
h at
you woul d fi nd e x a ctly th e sa m e r e sul t
as b e for e
3 I f you w e r e a sk e d to m e asur e
.
th e l e n gth of y our cl a ssr oom w ha t ,
w oul d you use ? W hy ?
27 . Th e com pa sses . A pa i r of com

s
pa se s ( F ig . 8) is in str um en t
an
th at m ay b e use d i n m e a surin g lin e

se g m e n ts S in ce th e use of com
.
as se s gr e atl y d cr e as e s s om e of t h e
p e
F 8 A PA I R
com m on e rr or s in m easuri n g th a t
IG . .
C OMP A S S E S
h a v e b een poi nte d out an d is con ,
se q ue n tly v e ry use f ul in m an y f or m s of d r aw i ng whi ch

r eq ui re a h i gh d e gr ee of accur acy it w i ll b e h e l pful if th e
,
st ud en t l e a rn s to us e th e com pa sse s fr e e l y .
28 . M ea suring a line s egm ent w ith th e com pa sses . To

m e a su e th e r lin e se g m entAB in F ig 9 . w i th th e com passe s,
pl ace th e s h a rp poin ts of th e com pa sses on A an d B . T urn
F IG . 9
th e sc r e w wh i ch cl am ps th e l eg s of th e com pa sses . Th e n
pl a ce th e po in ts on th e m a r k s of t h e r u l e r an d coun t th e
num be r of inch e s or ce n t i m e te r s b e tw een th e m

’
X
E ERCIS ES
Wi th th e com passe s m ea sure AB in F ig 9 in i n ch e s

1 . .
, .
2 Wi th th e com pa ss e s m e asur e AB in F ig 9 in ce n tim e t

. e rs ,
.
3 M ul ti ply t
. h e r e sul tof Ex 1 b y W ha tdo you ob se rve .
4 Esti m ate th e num b e r of ce nti m ete r s in th el e n gth of th i s

.
a
p g e M eas ur
. e th e l e n gth o f th i s pa ge wi th th e com passe s a n d
com par e wi th y our e s ti m at e .
29 S q ua red paper S q uar e d pape r is an oth e r i m por tan t

. .
d e v i ce whi ch is often use f ul in m e asur in g l in e seg m en ts .
S q uar e d pape r is rul e d e i th e r A B

W
to in ch e s an d f r a cti on s of an
i n ch ( used by th e en g i n e e r) or
to th e un its of th e m e tr i c sca l e .
A sam pl e pa r t of a S h e et is
sh ow n in F i g 1 0 Th e m e th od
. .
of m e a sur in g w i t h sq ua r e d pa
p e r is
p r a cti ca lly th e s a m e as
m e as ur ing w i th t h e com passes F m . 10. H ow A LI N E SE GM T EN
an d r ul e r Th us to m e asur e
.
M AY B E M EA S U RE D BY TH E USE
,
OF S Q U AK E D P ” ER
th e li n e gm en tAB m F i g 10
se .
pl a ce th e sh a r p poin ts of th e com passe s on A an d B .
C l am p th e com pa sse s P l ace th e sh a r p poin ts . on on e of

G EN ER A L M AT
1
34 H EM A TI C S
to b e -
b ut th i s is of a un t; i ,
h e n ce CD e q ua s l
un tsi . Th is m e an s t h at C D is tim e s as l on g as
th e lin e MN . O f cour s e th e 4 is on ly an ap r ox im
p M ion ,
b ut it is r eas on ab ly cl ose .
X
E ERCIS ES
I
1 . I n F ig 12 m e asu e to tw o de c m a p ace s t
. r i l l hb se gm e nts
C D, D E, a nd E C C om pa e th e e s ul ts of
. our r r y w ork with
th at of th e h r m em b e rs of
’
ot e
th e c a s s l .
2 . I s th e r e sul t ob ta i ne d by
th e h od of Art 30 m or e
m et .
a ccur a te th a n th e r esul t oh
a in e d b y us
t i n g 1 cm a s a un i t .
a nd cl a i m i n g accur acy t o onl y
on e d eci m a l pla ce
F IG. 12
31 . Eq ua l line s egm ents .
W h en th e e n d poin ts of on e se gm en t as a in F ig , . 1 3, coin
cid e w i th ( e x actl y fi t upon ) th e en d s of a n oth e r se gm en t ,
as b t h e s e g m e n ts a an d b a re sa id to b e
, a
e q ua l T h is f act m ay b e e x pr es se d by
.
th e . e q ua tion a b .
32 Uneq ua l segm ents ; ineq ua lity If

F IG . 13 E . QUA L LI N E
. .
SE G M NT E S
th e en d p i
o nts of tw o s e m e n ts , g as a an d 6,
cann otposs i b l y b e m ad e to coin cid e th e se gm en ts are sa id to ,
b e une qua l Th i s is wr i tten a

. b ( r e ad a is n ote q ua l to
Th e sta te m en ta b is ca ll e d a
a n ine ua lit
q y I n F i g 14 se g . .
m e n ta is l e ss th an se g m en t6
( wr i tten a b ) a n d
'
se
g ,
m e n t c is gr e ate r th an se
g
m en t 6 ( wr i tten 0 F IG . 14 . .
U N Q U A L LI N
E E SE GM N E TS
LI N EA R M EA S U R EM EN T 35
In th e pr e ce din g e q uati on an d in e q ua l i ti es w e n ee d to
r em em b e r th at th e l ette r s a , b , an d 0 stan d for th e l en g th ’
of g m en ts Th e y r epr esen t num b er s wh ich can b e

th e se .
d ete r m ine d by m easur in g th e seg m en ts .
33 Ra ti o Th i s a r ti cl e w il l sh ow th at r atio is a f un d a
. .
m en ta l n oti on i n m e as ur e m en t .
IN TRODU CTORY E ERCIS ES X

(Ex s . 1 4
—
r f rt
e e o F ig 15 )
.
1 . . M ea sur e th e se gm e n t a accu a te r ly to tw o de c m a i l pl ace s .
2 . M ea sur e th e s e gm e n t 6
a ccu a te r ly to tw o i
de c m a l
l
p ace s .
3 . W h atpa r tof b is a
4 . Fi nd th e quoti en tof 6 F IG . 15
d ivi de d b y a .
Th e q uoti e n t of tw o n um b e r s of th e s am e ki n d is ca l l e d
th e i r r a tio Th e r ati o is com m on ly ex pr e sse d as a fr a cti on
. .
“
B e f or e for m in g th e fraction th e tw o q uan ti ti e s m us t b e
ex
pr e s se d in r
te m s of th e s am e un i t; for e x am p e , th e l
ra ti o r ati o to 5 in h at
"
of 2 ft to 5 th e Of 2 4 in
‘
. Hi . Is . t
is, 31
3
. Th e i
un t of m e asu e r is 1 in ; O b V lO lI S ly th e r e is
no rati o betw een q uanti ti e s of diff e r e n t kin d s ; for ex am
pl e t h e,r e is n o r ati o b e tw e e n 7 al an d 5 cm
g . .
It sh ould n ow b e cl e a r th at e v e ry m e as ur e m ent is th e
‘
d e te r m inati on of a r ati o e i th e r e x a ctor appr ox i m ate T h us .

,
wh e n w e m e a sur e th e l en g th of th e cl a ssr oom an d say it is

10 m lon g we m e an th a t it is te n ti m e s as l on g as th e
.
,
-
sta n d ar d un i t t h e m e te r ; th at is th e r ati o is J Q
, , .
T
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . ra te in C h i ca go in a r ece nty ea r w a s 16 to 1000

Th e dea th
o ul at i on E x pr e s s th i s r ati o a s a fr acti on
p p . .
2 An a ll oy con s i sts of Ooppe r an d tin in th e r a ti o of 2 to 3

. .
Wha tpar t of th e a ll oy is coppe r W h at pa r t is tin

3 A s ol uti on con s i sts of a l coh ol a nd wa te r in th e ra ti o of
.
3 to 6 W h a t pa rt of th e sol uti on is wa te r
.
4 Th e ra ti o of w e i gh ts of e q ua l v ol um e s of w a t
. e r a n d cop
e r is giv e n b y th e fr a ct i on
i H ow m an ytim e s h ea vi e r is
p
coppe r th an wate r
5 Wat
. e r con s i s ts o f h y d r oge n a n d ox y ge n in t h e ra ti o of
1 to Ex pr e ss th i s r a ti o a s a deci m a l fra cti on .
34 . S um of tw o segm ents ; geom etric a ddition. It is

poss ibl e to a dd tw o i n e l se
gm e nts by th e use of com passe s .
Th us in F i g 16 if th e seg m en ta is l aid off on th e n um be r

, .
sca l e of s q ua r e d pape r f r om po i n t A to po in t B and if in
turn 6 is l a id off on th e s a m e lin e f r om B to C th en th e ,
F IG . 16 . GE OM E T R I C ADD ITI O N OF LI N E SE GM NT
E S
sum of t h e se line s can be r e ad ofi a t on ce . In F i g . 1 6 th e

sum is g m en t AC is th e sum of a an d 6
cm . Th e se .
V e ry O fte n in con structi on w or k w e are n ot con ce rn e d

ab out e i th e r th e l en gth of th e seg m en ts or th e ir sum In
.
th at case l ay off th e se gmen ts a s a b ov e on a w or k in g lin e

an d indi cate th e sum of a an d b as a +b . Addi ti on pe r
f orm e d by m e ans of th e com pas ses is a g e om etr ic addition .

LI N EA R M EA S U R EM EN T
X
E ERC S ES I
1 . I n F ig 1 7 fi n d th e . s um of a , b, a nd c on a w ork in g
l ine . i
I n d ca te th e sum .
2 I n F ig 1 7 add th e se g
. .
m e n ts a , b , a n d con th e s ca e l
lin e of a s h ee t of s q ua e dr
pape r . Ex pr e s s th e
val ue of
F IG . 17
a b c in centi m e t ers .
3 O n a w o k in g li ne dr a w r
on e li n e to i n di cate th e n um
b e r of yar ds of f e nci ng
n e e de d for th e l otin F ig 18 . .
4 I n F ig 1 9 th e
. ho e . w l
s e gm e nt is de n oted b y 0 .
S ho w ri
b y m e asu n g on
s q ua r e d pa pe r t h atc l a ) .
5 In F ig 1 9 w h a t r e la
. .
ti on e xi st s be t wee n 0 a nd
e ith er or 6 ?
a W h y ? F IG . 19
35 . 4 an d 5, a b ov e i ll ustrate th e foll ow in g
,
tw o a x om s i
VI . Th e w h ole is e
qual to th e sum of a ll i ts p a r ts .
V II . Th e w h ole is gr ea ter th a n an
y on e f its p a rts
o .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . D r a w th e se gm e n ts a cm ; 6. cm ; . 0 c m.
D ra w th e s um a +b + c.
2 . Le ta , b , a nd 0 de n ote thr ee li n e s e gm e n ts. D ra w a li ne

segm e n t to r epre se n t 2 a 3b c; to repr e sent 4 a b 2 o;
to re pre se nt a 3b 4c .
38 G ENE R A L M ATH EM ATI C S
3 . I n F ig 2 0,
. if a, b , a n d c are th ree conse cutiv e segm e nts on a
r i gh tli n e s uch tha t 0 s h ow
st a ,
a , 4 .
b y meas uri n g tha t b b c a .
F 20 IG .
4 S h ow w ith outm eas ur in g th a t

.
a b b c W ha t a x i om d oe s th i s fa ct ill us tra t
. e Q uote
th e ax i om .
36 . Order of term s in a dditon i Th e f act th at we get th e

.
sam e wh en w e lay off a

sum s eg m e n t a a n d th en add b
th at w e d o wh en w e l ay off 6 fir s t an d th en a dd a is a
g e om etr i c illustr ati on of th e tr uth of th e com m uta tive la w .
Th is l a w a sse rts th at th e v a lue of a sum does not ch a nge ,
w hen th e order of th e a ddend s is ch a ng ed In th e fir st ch ap .
te r w e ill ustr at ed t h is pr incipl e by a f a m ilia r ex pe r i ence

fr om a r i thm e ti c as 2 5 4 2 4 5 , .
X E ERCISES
Il l us tr a te th e v a li d i ty of th e com m uta tiv e la w b y a fact

"
1 .
from y our e v e ry da y e xpe ri e nce .
2 . Add in th e m ostad va n ta ge ous w ay,us i n g th e com m utativ e

l aw :376 .
4 12 12 4 ; 2 1 87 46 9 2 13 ; 36 14 2 16 4 .
37 . Diff erence of tw o line segm ents . Th e d iffe r en ce of
tw o li n e se g m e nts m a y l
a so be foun d w i th th e com passe s .
To fi nd o ut h o w m uch gr e ate r
th e se g m en t c is th an th e seg
m en tb w e l ayofi th e g m en t0 se
on a w o r ki n g lin e ( F i g 2 1) f r om .
4 to C th en l ay th e se g m en t
,
6 b ack w ar d f r om C tow a r d A F 21’

G OM T I S A IG E E R C U B TR C
“
. .
,
L S GM NT ON O F I NE E E S
Th en th e diffe r en ce be tw een
th e s e g m en ts 6 an d c is ex pr esse d by th e se g m en t AD In .
e q ua ti on f or m th i s m ay b e wr i tte n AD c b Ill ustrate .
th is m eth od by com pa r in g th e l e n gths of tw o pen cil s .

L I NEAR M EA SU R EM EN T
1 . Tra nsfer th e li ne se gm e nts of F ig 2 1 to s q uar e d paper .
an d e x pr e ss th e d iff e r en ce b e tween a a n d b in ce nti m e te r s .
2 . S ub tra cta li n e se gm e nt cm l ong fr om on e 6 cm l ong . . .
3 . I n F ig 2 2 th e li ne se gm en tAB e q ua l s th e li n e se gm en t
.
MN S h ow b ym easur i n g tha t N
.
4 . i m pl e r if w e
Ex 3 is
. s
wri te th e fact in a l ge b ra i c
form usi n g th e sm a ll l etter s Thus
,
.
,
a c b o . H ow ,
w oul d
ou s h ow t h at b
y a
5 W h at ax i om of th e fir st ch apte r
. is ill ustrate d b y Exs 3 .
an d 4 Q uote th e a x i om .
6 . If a 3 cm .
,
6 2 cm .
,
a nd 0 = 1 cm .
,
con st uct a r li ne
r r
se gm e nt e p e s e n tn g i 2 a 3b 0 r eprese n ti ng 5
; 2b a o .
7 . If a, b , a nd 0 repr e se ntth e l e n gth of th ree r e spe ctive se g
m e nts, r
cons t uct 3 a +2b —
o; 4 a +2h —
2 o; 5 a —
2 b + 30 .
8 . H ow l on g w oul d ea c h of th e se gm e n ts con st ucte d in r

Ex 7 b e if
. a = 5, an d
38 . Coefli cient r ith m eti ca l f actor in th e te r m

. Th e a
is call e d th e coefiicien t of th e li te r a l f a ctor so W hen n o .
coeffi ci ent is wr i tt en as in as w e und e r st, an d t h e ccciii ,
ci en t to b e 1 Th us x m e an s 1 st Th e coeffi ci ent of a
.
,
.
l i te ra l num be r i n di cates h ow m any ti m es

th e li te r a l n um b e r is to b e use d as an
F 23 IG .
a dden d ; t h us 5 x m ean s ,
a n d can b e e x pr esse d by t h e e q uati on 5

Wr i tten in th i s form w e see th at th e use of a coeffi ci en t
is a con v en i en t m e th od of a bbr e v i atin g G e om e tr i cally a .
coeffi ci en t m ay b e in t e rpr et e d as f oll ow s : L e t x b e th e

l e ng th of th e seg m ent in F ig 2 3 Th en th e 5 in 5 x indi . .
' '
cate s th at th e l in e se g m e n t 2: is to b e l ai d off fi v e tim es

40 GENERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
con se cuti e lv y on a w orkin g li ne 5 x ex pr e sse s th e sum .
ob t ain e d by t hi s g e om e tr i c addi ti on F in d th is sum U su . .
”
a l ly th e te rm coe ffi ci e n t m e an s j ustth e a r i th m e ti ca l f actor
in a te r m th ough in a m or e g en e r a l s e n se th e coeffi ci e n t
,
of an
y f a cto r o r n um be r in a t
, e rm is th e p r oduct of a ll the ,
ot h er factor s in th at te r m Th us in 3 a hy th e coe ffi ci en t .
,
of i S ab , of by is 3 a , of a b i 3
y s y s .
EXERCIS E
G ive th e coe ffi ci e n t i n e ac h of th e foll owi n g r

te m s :3 6 ;
5 ah ; x ; 7 m ; 8 30 ;
39 . Pol ynom i al s . An a lgebr a i c n um be r consi sti ng of tw o

or mo re te m s r ( e ac h called a ni mw m ia l ) , as 5 a; 3y 2 z,
”
is a
p ol
ynom ia l . Th e w or d po lyn om i a l
d e r i v e d f r om is
a
p hr as e wh i ch m e ans m a ny ter m ed A poly n om i a l of tw o
.
te rm s as 5 33 + 3 a is
, , a binom ia l A pol yn omi a l of thr e e
.
te r m s as 2 a + 3 6 + 4 c
, , is a r inom ial
t .
X
E ERC IS E
C l as s ify th e foll owing r

e x p es s on s i on th e b as i s of th e
n um b er of r
te m s
( )
a 2 7n + 3n (c) 6 x + 2y .
(b ) 6 90 . d
( ) a + 2h + 3 .
40 Al geb r a i c a ddition of
. i m pl e pr ob s i m il a r term s . In s
l em s w e h a v e f r e q uen tl y add e d s i m il a r te r m s W e sh al l .
n ow r e v i e w th e pr ocess by m e a ns of th e f ol l ow in g e x am pl e
in or d e r to se e cl e ar l y th e l aw to b e use d in th e m or e
com pli cat e d a ddi ti on s :
Add 4 x + 3x + 2 x .
S ol uton i . 4 x can b e con s de i r ed a s th e sum o f f our se m e n t

g s e ac h
x i l
un ts on g .
Th r f r e e o e
G ENE R A L M ATH EMA T I C S
1 Ti ckets we re sol d a t c ee nts ; A sells 12 ; B 15 ; C 36 ;

.
. , ,
a n d D 14 ,
Th ere w e r e 1 12 ti ck e ts sol d a t th e gate F in d th e
. .
'
tot a l r e ce i pt
s .
2 Ex p e ss as on e t
. r e rm 3 7 -
.
N O T E A d t pl ce d b tw n tw
. o um b r n d h lfw y up i n
a e ee o n e s a a a
“
dic t m ul ti pl i c ti n n d i r d
a es ti m a
”
D n t c nf u
o a wi th s ea es . o o o se
th d cim l p in t
e e a o .
3 C a n you ad d 3 7 + 14 2
. 5 4 b y th e s h or tcuta b ov e ? -
4 I n di ca te w h i ch of th e f ol l owi n g Sum s ca n b e wri tt

. e n in
th e f or m of m on om ial s : 3x + 5 x ; 4 x + 7 x + 3 ;
3a + 2 b + 4 .
5 . Add as in d ica te d :(a) 3 x + 2 0m + 1

(b ) () c
(d) (e)
6 . Th e s c oo fee t W h il e tra i n i ng a
h l s run n i n g tr ack
’
is f .
,
b oy r un s a r oun d it fi e tim e s on M on da y s ix n Tue s da y te n v ,

o ,
on W e dn e s da y se v e n on Th ur s da y s ix on Fri d a y a n d n i n e on
, , ,
S a tur day m or n i n g H ow m a n y f e e tdoe s h e run dur in g th e wee k

.
4 1 S ub tra cti on of sim i l a r m onom ia l s

. Th e l aw in sub .
tracti on is s i m il a r to th e l aw in ad di ti on an d m ay b e
i ll ustr ate d as f oll ow s
S ub tra ct 2 : fr om 5 c a a .
S ol ution .
2 x x + x .
S ub t a ct n g r i e qu l n um b r fr
a e s om e qu l a n um be r s,
5 1 —
2 :
1
H e n ce 5 x —
2 x z 3x .
Th e pr e ce din g e x a m pl e ill ustrate s th e l a w th at the dif eri

w o sim ila r m onom ia ls is a m on om ia l h a ving a coefi cien t
ence of t
e
qual t
o th e d ifferen ce o f the coefiicient f the given m onom ia ls
s o
a nd ha ving the sa m e liter a l f a ctor .

LIN EA R M EA SU R EM EN T
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . r
S ub t act 3 b fr om 14 b .
2 . Wri te th e differ e nce s of th e foll owi ng pa ir s of num b e r s as
m on om ial s 3 z ; 17 /c
’
I Ox Im z; 13 33 5 12 z— 5 k ; 2 68r
E 33 ;
— — —
.
‘
0 2 7 r ; 1 03 a
.
g .
%
—
%0i08 a ; e —
g
f e ; t —
t
.
Th e f oll owi ng e x e r cis e s r e q uir e b oth a dd i ti on a n d s ub
tr acti on Wri te e ach r e sulta s a s i ngl e te r m :

. 4 11; 6x 2 x ;
13 x % a —
.
42 . Tria ngl e ; perim eter . If thr e e poin ts, as A , B, an d
C ( F i g are conn e ct
. e d by l ine se g m en ts , th e figur e
for m e d is a tr ia ngle Th e
'
.
thr ee poin ts are ca ll e d v er

“
tices ( corn e r s) of th e tr i an gl e ,
and t h e thr ee s id e s a b an d A
, ,
e a re th e sides of th e tri .
F “ 24
an gl e Th e sum of th e h
t r ee s id e s , as a +b + e
( th e
distan ce r
a oun d) , is th e p erim eter of th e t i an g r le .
X
E ERC IS ES
1 . A y ar d h a s th e form of an e q ua l s i d -
ed
( q uil
e ate ral
)
t ri a n gl e each s i de b e i n g :r ods l on g H o w
,
a . m a n y r od s of
f nce will b e n ee de d to i ncl ose it?
e
2 W h at is th e su m of th e s i de s
.
o f a tri a n gl e (F ig 2 5 ) w h ose s i de s .
a e r f e et 2 :f ee t a n d 3 :fe et
,
a ,
a
l ong ? Ex pr e ss th e sum as a ce r
it
'
a in n um b e
'
df tim es
é
r
i
F 25
it
.
IG .
3 W h at is th e sum of th e th r ee s i des 3 6 4 b a n d 6 b of a
.
, ,
tri a n gl e Ex pr e s s th e r e sul t as on e te r m .
4 W ha t is th e pe ri m ete r of a tri a n gl e w h ose s i de s a re 2 x

.
,
8 x a n d 9 : L e tp b e th e pe ri m e te r ; th e n wri te y our a n s we r
,
a
to th e pr e ce di ng q uesti on in th e f or m of a n e q ua ti on .
43 . P ol ygons . A fig ur e , as AB C D E ( see F i g . f or m ed
by conn ectin g poin ts a s , A, B C D an d E,
, , ,
by lin e
s eg m en t s is a polygon , .
Th e G r ee k phr ase fr om
“ ”
wh i ch th e w or d polyg on
is d e r i v e d m e ans m a ny cor
n er ed P ol yg on s h a v in g 3
.
,
4, 5 , 6 , 8, 1 0, n s id es
a re ca l e d t l
ri a ng le,
qua dri
la ter a l, pentagon, h exagon ,

oct agon , decagon , ”190” F 26 A P OLY G O N
‘
a IG . .
r especti v e ly . Th e sum of
th e s id es of a po lyg on is its pe r i m ete r W h en all th e .
s id es of a
po lyg on a re e q ua l it is s a id t o b e e uila t
q er al .
X
E ERCIS ES .
1W h at is th e pe ri m ete r of each of th e poly gons in F ig 2 7

. .
I n e ach case e x pr e ss th e r esul t in th e f or m of an e q ua ti on ;

th us for th e fir st q uadril a te r a l p
,
12 x .
F IG . 27
2 S h ow b y e q uati ons th e pe ri m e te r p
. of th e po ly gons
F ig 2 8
. .
3 S h ow b ye q uati ons th e
.
pe ri m ete r of a n e q uil ate r al

q ua d ate a ril r l w h ose s i de is
11 ; 9 ; _s ; a) ; h; z ; 2 6 ;
a +5; a +d; x + 7
'
c+
c y . 'F I G . 28
LIN EAR M EA S U R EM EN T 45
4 . N a m e th e d ifi e r e nt fi gur e s w h ose pe rim ete r s m g tb e i h

r
e x p e ss e d b y th e f ll owi n g e qua ti ons
o
p = 5 s, p = 7 s, p = 9 s, -
p = 12 3 , p = 2 0 s,
p = 6 3, p = 8 s, .
p zJ l O s
—
, p = 15 s , p z z ns .
5 . Assum e th a t al l
fi gur es in Ex 4 a e e q uil a te ra l
th e . r .
Fi nd out h ow m a n y of y our cl as sm a te s ca n g iv e th e na m e of
eac h poly gon .
6 . h at a t l ea st S IX of th e poly gon s in Ex 4 a re
Assum e t .
n ot e q uil a tera l S k e tch th e fi gur e s of w h i ch th e g ive n e q ua

.
i
ton s m a y b e th e pe ri m te r s e .
7 . W h atis th e pe ri m ete r of e a ch figure of Ex 4 if . s 2 in .
if s 3 cm ? if . 4 yd ? if s 5 ft ? . s .
8 . D ete r m i n e th e v a l ue of in th e e q uati on s p 3 s s, p 4 s,
p 5 3,p 6 p 3,a n d p 1 5 if in ea ch 8 cas e th e
pe ri m e ter is 12 0 in .
9 . W h a t is
q uil ate ra l h e x agon m a de wi th a
th e s i de of a n e
str i ng 144 in l ong (U se all th e stri n g )

. .
10 S h ow b y sk tch e s poly gon s wh os e pe ri m e ter s a e ex

”
. e r
pr es se d b
y p = 8 + 6 ; b yp = 4 + 1 2 ; b y p = 6a6 + 6 ; a a
b yp =4a + 2 b ; b yp : 3 a + 2 b .
11 . Fin d th e v al ue of th e pe ri m e te r s in Ex 10 . if a = 3
an d h = 2 ; if a = 5 an d b : 3;
12 . If : 2 nd
a a
'
=
y 3, fi n d th e v a l ue of th e f oll owi n g
i on :3 w + y;
.
e x p e ss r s S ac — y; 3 x
—
2 y; 2 33 —
354 4 x
2 25. x —
y; 2 2 7 x .
y .
S UM M AR Y
44T h i s ch apte r h a s taugh t th e m e an in g of th e foll ow
.
ing w or d s a n d phr ase s : lin e se g m ent poi n t m e as ur em e n t , ,
of l e n g th un i t se g m en t stan d ar d un i t r a ti o m e tr i c sy ste m
, , , , ,
coin cid e in te rs e ct e ua l se g m e n ts un e q ua l se g m e n t s com

q , , , ,
m utati v e l a w coeffi ci e nt poly nom i a l b i n om i a l tr in om i al

, , , , ,
r
t i an g le v e rte x lyg on v e rti ces of a polyg on pe rim
, of a po , ,
et e r s id es of a t
, r i an g le polyg on q ua dr il ate ra l pentag on , , , ,
h ex ag on octag on d e cag on n gon e q uil a te r al

, , ,
-
, .
45 Ax iom s Th e fol l ow m g ax i om s w er e il l us tr ate d

. .
VI . Th e w h ole is e
q ual t
o th e sum o f a ll its p a rts .
5
V II . Th e w hole is greater th a n an
y of its p a rts .
46 . Th e foll ow i ng in strum ents h av e b een use d in m easur

ing line gm ents : th e rul er th e compa sses an d squa r ed p ap er
se , , .
4 7 Th e f ol l ow i n g sy m b ol s w e r e use d
. m e an i n g does
not eq ua l ; m e an i n g is less th a n ; m e an i ng is g r ea ter
th a n ; and a d ot as in 3 5 m e an in g tim es or m ultip lied by

, , , .
’
48 A poi n t is d e te r m in e d by tw o in te r se ctin g l i n e s
.
,
.
49 Th e m etr i c sy ste m h as ce r ta in ad v an tag es ov e r our

.
Eng lis h sy ste m .
5 0 Th e pr actica l d iffi cul ty of pr e ci se m easur in g h as

.
be en poin te d out F i v e poss i b l e e rr or s w e r e en um e r ate d

. .
M e asur em en t i m pli es th e d e ter m in ati on of a r ati o .
5 1 Th e sum of tw o se g m en ts w as f oun d w i th th e com

.
pass e s A l a w .w as di sco v e r e d to s e rv e a s a s h ort cut in
al g e br a i c a ddi t i on .
52 Th e diffe r e n ce of tw o s e gm en ts w as f oun
. d w i th th e
com pas se s an d th e l aw for a lg e br a i c sub tr a cti on w a s s ta t ed .
53 Th e Addi ti on an d S ub tr acti on l a w s of C h apte r I

. .
w e r e i l lustr ate d g e om etr i ca ll y .
5 4 Th e pe r im ete r of a fig ur e m ay b e e x pr esse d by an
.
e q uat on i .
55 . Th e ch apte r h as taugh t h ow to fi n d th e v a l ue of an
a lg e br ai c b e r wh en th e v al ue of th e
n um un kn ow n s ar e
giv e n f or a
‘
part i cul a r case h ow to fi n d th e

va
'
l ue of 3 x + 2 y wh en re L 1 fand y t2
'
' * '
— —
.
-
.
C H AP T ER III
P ROP ER T ES OF I ANGLES
56 . Angl e . If a r ig h t line
st a , as 0X in e i th e r of th e
d r a w in gs F ig 2 9 r otate s in a pl a n e ab out a fi xe d poin t
of .
, ,
as O in t
,
h e di r e cti on i n di cate d by th e a rr owh e a d s ( coun te r
cl ock w is e ) un til it r each es th e pos i ti on 0 T it is s a id to ,
T F IG . 29 . I LL U S T R A TI NG THE DE F I N ITI O N OF ANG L E

“
r
tu n t hr ough th e an
g le X O T . Th us , a n a n le
,
g is th e a m oun t
f
o ur ning m a de
t by a lin e r ot
atin g a b out a fix ed p io n t in a
p l a ne
(fl a t sur a ce f ) . Note th at as th e r otati on con tin ues,
th e an g l e in cr e ases .
57 . V ertex . Th e fix ed p o nti 0 F
( gi 2 9 ).is ca ll e d th e
”
ex of
v er t th e an g l e (Th e pl ur a l
. of v e rtex
47
58 . Initi a l s i de ; r i
te m n a l s de i . Th e l in e 0X ( Fig 2 9) .
is ca l l e d th e initia l s i de of th e an g le . Th e l in e G T is ca ll e d
th e ter m ina l s id e of th e angl e .
59 . S ym b ol s for y m b ol for ang l e is A;

"
a ng e l Th e s
” ”
for a n gl es a ,Th us angl e X O T is wr i tten AX O T
.
, .
6 0 S i ze of a ngl es Fr om th e d e fi n i ti on of an ang l e g i v en
. .
in Ar t 5 6 w e see th at it is possibl e for th e lin e 0X to s top

.
r otatin g ( F ig 2 9) s o th at th e ang l e m ay con tain any g i v e n

.
am oun t of r ot at i on (tur n in g ) .
EXER C IS E
D r a w fr e e h a n d a n a n gl e m a d e b y a li n e 0 X w h i ch h as
r ot ate d on e f our t h of a com pl e te tur n ; on e h a lf of a com pl e te
tur n ; th r e e f our th s o f a com pl e te tur n ; on e com pl e te tur n ;
o n e a n d on e f ou t h com pl e te tu n s
-
r r .
6 1 R i gh t a ngl e ; str a i gh t a ngl e ; perigon

. If a l in e .
r otate s ab out a fi x e d poin t in a pl an e s o a s to m a k e

T on e f our t h of a com pl e te tur n th e an gl e f or m e d ,
is ca ll ed a r ig h t a ngle (r t 4 ) ( se e F i g 30 . .
,
0
(a ) i
R gh tAn g l e (b ) St a ri gh t Ang l e (c) P e rigon
F IG . 30 . TH R EE S PE I A LC ANG L E S
If th e lin e m a k es on e h a lf of a l
com p e te tu n , th e r an gl e
form e d is ca ll e d a str a igh ta ngle ( st 4 ) ( se e F i g 30 (b ) ) if . .
,
th e lin e m a k e s a com pl e te tur n th e a n gl e f or m e d is ca ll e d ,
er igon se e F i g 30
a
p ( .
,
X E ER CIS ES
1 Dr a w fr e e h a n d an a n gl e e q ua l to 1 ri gh t a n gl e ; 2 ri gh t
.
a ngl e s ; 3 ri g h t a n gl es ; 4 ri gh ta n gl e s .
2 D ra w fr ee h an d a n a n gl e e q ua l to 1 s tra i gh t a ngl e ;
.
2 s tr a i gh t an gl e s ; 1 % s tr a i ght a n gl e s ; 2 5 str a i gh t a n gl e s .
X
E ERCIS ES
Q
1 . ra w a n a cute a ngl ; a n ob tuse a ngl e ;

D e a r e fl e x a n gl e .
2 P oi n t out in th e cl a ssr oom e x a m pl e s

.
, ,
o f ri gh t a n l
g es ;
o f ob tus e a ng l e s .
(10)
F IG . 34 . I LL U T A TI NG
S R TH E VA R I O U S K IND S OF A NG L ES
3 . I n th e d ra wi n gs of F ig 34 de te r m i n e th e n um b er of a cute
.
l
a n g es ; of ri g h ta n gl e s ; of ob tus e a n gl e s ; of r e fl e x a n gl e s .
6 3, Nota tion for Th e r e a re thre e com m on

rea ding a ngl es .
m e th od s by w hi ch on e m ay d en ot e a n g l es : 1 D e s ig n at
( ) e
th e angl e for m e d by tw o l in es 0 X
”
an d G T a s t he a n gl e X O T or the
an gl e T O F i H ere th
( g e.
fir st an d l ast l ette r s d en ote poi n ts

on t h e l i n e s f orm in g th e an g l e a n d ,
th e m idd l e l e tte r d e n ote s th e poi n t

of in t e r se ct i on (th e v e r tex ) In r e ad .
” F 35 IG .
ing a n g l e X O T w e r e g a r d 0X as
th e in i ti a l S id e an d GT a s th e te r m in al s id e ( 2 ) D e n ote th e .
an g l e by a sm a l l l e t te r pl a ce d as a: in Fig 36 In wr i tin g . .
eq uati on s th i s m e t h od is th e
m ostcon v en i en t ( 3) D e n ote .
th e e n gl e by th e l e tte r wh i ch
‘
is wri tte n at th e poi n t of in

F 36 IG .
te r se ction of id e s of
th e tw o S
”
th e an gl e a s a n g l e A ( F ig
, Th i s l astm eth o d i s use d
.
on l y wh e n t h e r e i s n o d oub t a s to wh at an gl e is m e ant .
P R OP ER T I ES OF A N G L ES
X
E ERCIS E
In th e dra wi n gs of F ig 37 b e l ow se le ct th re e a n gl es a n d
.
, ,
illustr ate th e th r e e m e th ods of n ot

ati on de scri b e d a b ov e .
F IG . 37
64 . C ircl e . If a lin e 0X b e ta k e n as th e in i ti a l
'
of a n an g el ( s ee F ig 38) . an d th e l in e be r otated
l
com p e te tu n r (a pe ri
'
g ) on y ,
an po nt,
asi '
P,
on th e l i ne wi l l 0X
tr ace a curv e d l i n e
w hi ch w e ca ll a cir cle .
Th us a cir cle is a
,
closed cur v e, a l l oin ts

p
f
o w hich lie in the
sa m e l ane a nd a re
p
e
q ua ll
y dista n tfrom a
fixed p oin t . F IG .
,
38. TH E C I L
RC E
65 . C enter ; circum f erence Th e fi x e d point 0 is th e

.
center of t h e cir cl e Th e l en g th of th e curv e ( cir cl e ) is

.
l
ca l e d th e cir cumf erence ( di stan ce r
a oun d) of th e ci cl e r .
66 . Ra di us ; dia m eter . A lin e dfa w n f r om th

e ce n te r
of a cir cl e to an
y poi n t on th e ci cl e is r a r a dius Th us
.
,
OP is a r adi us of th e ci cl e in r F ig . 38 . A lin e conn e cti ng
tw o po in ts on th e cir cl e an d pa ssi n g thr ough th e cen ter of

r l
l
th e ci c e is ca l e d a dia m eter .
Fr om th e d e fi n i ti on of r a di us g i v en ab ov e it is cl e a r
th at in a g i v e n ci r cl e or in e q ua l cir cl e s on e r a di us h as
th e s a m e l en gth as an y oth e r Th us w e ob ta in th e foll ow.
in g im portan t g e om e tr i c r e l ati on R a dii of th e sa m e cir cle ,

“ ”
or o f equa l cir cles a r e equa l ( Ra dii is th e plur a l of .
67 . Arc; to intercept ; central a ngl e . An arc is a

p rt
a
of a r
ci cl e . If tw o r adii ar e dr a wn fr om th e ce n te r of th e
r
ci cl e to tw o d iffe r en t po in ts on t h e ci r cl e th e y cut ofi an ,
”
ci r cl e Th e sy m b ol Th us AB is
"
arc on th e . for . arc is ,
”
r e ad th e ar c AB . Th e an gl e f or m e d at the ce n te r of th e
ci r cl e is sa id to in ter cep t th e ar c . Th e an g le at the ce n ter
is ca ll e d r a l a ng l e
a cen t .
68 . Q uadra nt; sem i circl e An arc e q ua l to . on e fourth

of a cir cl e is ca l l e d a qua dr a n t An ar c e q ua l . to on e h a lf
of a c l e is cal l e d a sem icir cl e .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . H ow d oe s a d i am ete r com pa e r in l en gth wi th a rad ius

2 . y q ua dra n ts in a se m i cir cl e ?
H ow m an in a ir l
c ce ? In
wh at con n ecti on h a ve w e m e n ti oned th e i dea r
ex p e s se d b y th e
w ord q ua drant
P R OP ER T I ES OF A N G L ES 3
69 . Degree sl atitude a nd l ongi tude Th e us e th at is

of .
m a d e of th e ci r cl e in g e ogr aphy is n o d oub t f am i l i a r to

a ll of us Th e p rim e m r idia n th at passe s thr ough G r e en
. e ,
wi ch En gl an d ( se e F ig
,
is th e zero m e r idi an
. We .
e a k of l ace s ly i n to th e w es t o f G r e en w i ch a s b e in g
sp p g
in w e st l on g i tud e an d of th ose l y in g to th e e as t of
G r ee n w i ch as b e ing i n e a st l ong i tud e ( se e F i g S i nce .
ittak es th e e a r th tw e n ty f our h our s to m a k e on e com pl e te

-
r otati on ,th e sun appar en tly passe s ov e r on e tw e nty f ourth -
F IG. 39 . L A TIT U D E AN D L O NG IT U D E
of th e ent ei r d i stan ce a r oun d th e e a r th e v e ry h our T h us .

,
po nti
s ly in g a di stance of on e tw en ty f our th of a com pl ete -
tu n r r t difi er in tim e by an h our

a a
p .
In or d e r to ca rry th e com putati on s f ur th e r th e e n tir e

cir cl e is di v id e d in to thr e e h un d r e d an d S ix ty e q ua l a rts
p ;
e ach of whi ch is ca ll e d a d e r e e o f l ong i t

ud e In
g .
or d e r t o e x r e ss f r a cti on a l
p pa rts of th e un i t e ach d e gr ee
is di vi d e d i n to s i x ty m in ute s an d e a ch m in ut e i nt o
S ix ty s econd s W i th th i s agree m en t th e l on g i tud e

of a
pl a ce is d e te r m i n e d .
T h e posi ti on of a pl a ce n orth or south of th e e q uator is in

dicate d by th e n um b e r of d e gr ee s of n or th or south l ati tude .
4 G ENER A L M ATH EM A T I C S
.
X
E ER C IS ES
1 W h at is th e
.
g r e a te s t l on gi t
a pl a ce ca n h a v e
ud e th e
gr ea te s t l ati tude
2 H ow m a n y s e con ds a e th e r e in a de gr e e of l n gi tude
. r o
in a de gr ee of l a ti tude 0
(f W h at I th e l e n gth o f a d e gr e e a c on th e e a r th s ’
s
r
Surf a ce of a m i n ute a c of a S econ d a c

r T y to fi n d out r r
h w a ccur a te ly th e offi ce r s of a S h i p k n ow th e l oca ti on of

o -
th e s h i p out in m id ocea n -
.
.
'
4 H ow w oul d you r a d 2 5 14 w e s t l on g i tude
e
°
33
°
n or th l a ti tude
5 C om pa r e th e m e th od of l oca ti n g b y l a ti tude an d l on gi tude
.
to th e m e th od use d in l ca ti n g a h ouse in a l a r ge ci ty
o .
6 Fi n d out in w h a t l on gi tude you liv e

. in w h a t l ati tude
70 . Am ount of rota tion deter m ine s th e size of a n a ng e . l

If w e re m e m b e r th a t a n an
gle is form e d by r otatin g a li n e
in a pl an e a b ou t a fi x ed poi n t, it w i l l b e cl ea r th at th e
F IG . 40
i
s ze of gl e d e pe n d s on l y on th e am oun t of turn in g
th e an ,
n ot u on t l ngt h s id e s S i e S id e s m a
p h e e of th e n ce th y .
b e e x ten d e d i n d e fi n i te ly a n a n g l e m ayh a v e S h or t or l on g
,
S id e s In F i g 4 0 th e an gl e A is gr e ate r th an an g l eB b ut
; .
,
th e S i d e s of a ngl e B a r e l on g e r th an th e S id es of a n g l e A .
71 M ea surem ent of a ngl es ; th e protr a ctor

. I n m an y .
i n stan ce s th e pr oce ss of m e a sur ing an g l e s is as Im portan t

as t h at of m e asur in g distan ce s An an gl e is m e as ur e d .
wh en w e fi n d h ow m any ti m e s it con ta i n s an oth e r an g l e

se l e ct e d as a un i t o f m e asur e .
P R O PER T IES OF A N G L ES 55
T h e p rotr a ctor ( F i g 4 1) i n str um en t d ev i se d for

“
. Is an
m e asurin g an d con str ucti n g gl e s Th e pr otr actor com

an .
m ouly con s i sts of a se m i ci r cl e di v id e d i n to on e hun d r e d

a n d e igh ty e q ua l par ts Ea ch of th ese e q ua l pa r ts is ca ll e d
.
a d e gr ee of a rc In th e ge og r aph y w or k r e f e rr e d to in
Art 6 9 th e un itfor l ong i tud e a n d l ati tud e w as th e d egr ee
.
,
of ar c . In th e m e asur e
.
m e n t of an g l e s w e s h a ll
con si d e r a un i t corr e
spon din g to a un t ofi

ar c an d ca l le d a degr ee
If r igh t lin es are

st a
d r a wn f r om e a ch of
th ese poin ts of di v i s i on
on t h e s e m i ci r cl e to th e
F 41 T P OT A TO
IG . . HE R R C R
ce n te r 0 on e h un d r e d
,
a n d e i g ht y e q ua l angl es are f orm e d e a ch of wh i ch is a ,
degr ee of a ngle Thus th e unit of an g ul a r m e a sur e

,
is th e d egr ee A d e gr e e is di v id e d i n to S ix ty e q ua l parts
.
,
e a ch of w hi ch is ca l l e d a m inut 1'
e
(
7 Each m i n ute is di v id e d in to s i x ty e ua l
q par ts e ach ,
of wh i ch is ca ll e d a s e con d O f cour se th e m i n ute

and t h e s e con d gr a d ua ti on s a re n ot s h own on th e pr o
tr actor . W hy n ot?
EXER C IS ES
1 H ow m an y d e gr e e s in a ri gh ta n gl e
. in a s tr a i gh t a n gl e ?
in a pe ri gon
0
2 A de gr ee is w h a t pa r t of a ri gh t a n gl e
. of a s t r a i gh t
a n gl e O f a pe ri gon
3 W h ata n gl e is for m e d b yth h a nd sof a cl ock a t3 o cl ock

. e
’
cl ock ? a t 9 cl ock ? a t 12 o cl ck ? a t 4 o cl ock ? a t

’ ’ ’
a t6 O O o
’
7 o cl ock ? a t 11 o cl ock ?
’ ’
4 . G ive a iw h en th e h ands of a cl ock form a

tm e of day
ri gh t a n gl e ; a stra i gh t an gl e .
5 W h a t is th e cor ect w ay to r ea d th e f oll owin g angl es

. r
15
°
17 ' °
5 0
'
6 . H ow m an y de g ree s
r e in th r ee ri gh t angl es in
ar e th e
f our sta i gh t angl e s in on e th ir d of a ri gh t a ngl e in tw o
r
th ir ds of a str a i gh t a ngl e in on e fifth of a ri gh t a n gl e ? in

a:str ai gh tangl e s in y ri gh ta ngl e s in 2 a: ri gh t angl e s
7 O r d i na ry scal es fo we i gh i n g s m a ll ob j ects a e som e ti m e s
. r r
m ade wi th a cir cul a r face lik e a cl ock face Th e d ivi s i ons of .
th e s ca l e i n di cate poun ds I f th e e n tir e fa ce r e pr e s e n ts 12 l b

. .
,
w h atis th e a n gl e b etwe en tw o succe ss ive pound m a r k s

8 W h at is th e a ngl e b e twe e n tw o s uccess iv e oun ce m a rk s
.
on t h e face of th e s ca l e in Ex 7 .
72 . M ea suring r aw ing angles Th e pr otr actor

ang es l ; d .
m ay b e use d to m e as ur e a gi v en an g le Th us to m eas ur e .
,
a g i v e n a n gl e x pl a ce t h e pr otr actor so th at th e ce nte r of

th e pr otr a ctor ( poin t 0 in F i g 42 ) f a ll s upon th e v e rtex .
an d m a k e t h e str a i gh t e d g e of th e pr otr actor co in cid e

.
w i th ( f all upon ) th e in i ti a l s id e of th e g i v en an g l e an Now ,
b se r v e wh e r e th e te r m i n a l s id e of th e g i v e na n gl e in te r s e ct
q s
( c r osses
) th e rim of t h e p r ot racto r R e a d th e n um b e r of.
d egree s in th e an g l e f r om th e scal e on th e pr otr actor .
1 . D ra w thr ee di ffe r ent a ngl e s, on e acute , on e ob tus e , a n d

on e refl e x B e for e m ea suri ng e sti m ate th e n um b e r of de gr ee s in
.
,
ea ch a n gl e Fi n d th e num b e r of degree s in ea ch an gl e b ym ea n s
.
of th e pr otra ctor C om pa r e th e r e sul ts wi th th e e sti m a te s

. .
2 D ra w fr e e h a n d a n a n gl e Of of of
°
of 90
°
.
of of Test th e a ccuracy of th e first four a ngl es b y

m ea n s of th e pr otr act or .
58 G EN ER A L MATH EM AT I C S
'
S e cur e r r
l arge r i bl d f i
'
aS ot a cto as a a n as t n t on
p p oss e e
an or din a ry d r a w in g b oa r d Attach th e b oar d to a cam e ra

.
tr ipod ( if th i s is n ot to b e h a d a r ough tr i pod can b e ,
m a d e) M ak e a s l en d e r poi nte r wh i ch m ay b e a ttach e d at

.
th e ce n te r of th e cir cl e w i th a pin s o th atitm ays w i n g fr ee l y

a b outt h e pin a s a pi v ot P l ace tw o i n e x pen s i v e ca rpe n te r s
’
.
l e v e l s on th e b oar d an d th e i n strum e n t is r e a dy for use

, .
Thus to m e asur e an an g l e AB C ( suppo se it to b e an

,
an gl e f or m e d by t h e in te r se cti on of an a v en ue B A an d a , ,
st r e et B C ) fir st put th e b oar d in a h or izon ta l pos i ti on

, ,
ak e it st an d l e v e l Th l h r of t h e cir cl e
( m ) e n
p ace t e ce.nt e
ov e r th e v e rte x of
th e an g l e to b e m e as
ure d a n d s i gh t in
th e di r e cti on of e ach
s id e of t h e an gl e ,
n otin g ca r e f u ll y th e
r e a din g on th e pro
tr actor T h e n um be r
.
of d e gr ee s t hr ough
wh i ch th e poin te r
is tur n e d in pas s i ng
f r om th e pos iti on of
B A to th at of BC
is th e m e asu re of
an gle AB C .
74 Transit
. . W h en
it is i m portan t to F IG . 43
. TH E T R AN IT S
se cur e a h i gh e r de
gr e e of accu a c r y th an is poss i b l e w i th in str um en t

th e
d escr i b e d in Art 73 .
, w e u se an i n str um e n t ca ll e d a tra nsi t
( F i g . Th i s instr um en t is n e cessary in s urv eym g
-
'
.
Thre e e sse nti a l pa r ts o f th e tr an s i t a re ( 1) a h or iz onta l

PR OP ER T I ES OF ANG L ES 59
gra d uate d ci rcl e for m eas urin g angl es in th e h or izonta l .
p l an e ( se e D in Fig 2
( ) a
gra d ua t e d c i r c l e C .f o
‘
r ~
, ,
m e as ur i n g an gl e s in th e v e r ti ca l ( up a n d d ow n ) pl an e a n d - -
3 e l e SC O pe AB f or S i gh ting in t h e di r e ct i on of t h
( ) a t ,
.
, e
S id es of t h e an gl e F or a f ul l e r d escr i pti on of th e tr an s i t
.
se e a t ex t b ook in tr ig on om etry or surv ey in g .
HI S T O I A L N O T E T h divi i n f th circl i nt thr h un dr d

R C . e s o o e e o ee e
an d i ty d grs x nd ch d gr
e i nt i ty m i n ut n d ch
e es a ea e ee o s x es a ea
m i n ut i n t e i ty c n d i du t th B b y l ni n C j i ci t
o s x se o s s e o e a o a s . a or es
C n t r n d th r
a o a m wh t o f l l w :At fi r t th B b y l n i n
e s so e a as o o s s e a o a s
r ck n d th y r thr h und d n d i ty d y Th i l d th m
e o e e ea as ee re a S x a s . s e e
t d i i d th cir cl i n t thr
o v e e hun dr d nd i ty d gr
e o ch d gr ee e a s x e ee s, e a e ee
r pr ntin g th d ilyp rt f th upp d y rly r v l uti n f th

e e se e .
a a o e s os e ea e o o o e
sun r un d th
a o rth Pr b b l y th y w r f m ili r wi th th f ctth t
e ea . o a e e e a a e a a
th r di u c ul d b
e a ppli d t th circl
s o ctl y i
e a ti m nd t h t
e o e e ex a S x es a a
as a r ul t ch es cut ff c n t i n d i ty d gr
ea a re nd in t hi w y
O o a e S x e e e s, a s a
th divi i n int
e o i xty qu l p rt m y h v b n ugg t d T h
s o s e a a s a a e ee s es e . e
d ivi i n f th d g
s o o i nt i ty qu l p rt c ll d m i n ut m yh v
e e ree o S x e a a s a e es a a e
b n th n tur l r ul t f n c i ty f
ee e a a gr t r pr ci i n T hu th
es o a e ess or ea e e s o . s e
se x a g i m l y te m m yh v
es a srigi n t d Th B b yl ni n ign i
s a a e o a e . e a o a S s
b li v d t b
e e e ci t d wi th th
o d ivi i n f th cir cl e i n t ix qu l
e a s so a e e s o O e o s e a
p rt n d th t th i d ivi i k n wn t th B b yl n i n
”
a s, a w a s m s on as o o e a o a s se e s
“
c rt i n
e a fr m th i p cti f th i p k in th wh l f r y l
o e ns e on o e S x s o es e ee O a o a
c rri g r pr
a a e n t d in
e dr wi n g f un d in th r m i n
e se e f Ni n v h
a a o e e a s o e e .
H n y B ri gg tt m pt d t r f rm th
e r s a y t m b y divi di n g th
e e o e o e s s e e
d gre i nt n h un dr d m i n ut i n t d f i nt i ty n d l th ugh
ee o o e e es s ea o o S x , a a o
th i nv n t r f th m tri c y t m
e e o s O i d t h v pr p d th
e e s s e a re sa o a e o ose e
d ivi i n s o f th ri gh t gl i nt n hu dr d qu l p rt n d t
o e an e o o e n e e a a s a o
sub d i i d v d ci m ll y i n t d f th
e e d ivi i n i n t n i n ty p rt w
a , s ea O e s o o e a s, e
h v ctu lly cl u g t th ld yst m H w v r th r i

a e a a n o t nd e o s e . o e e , e e s a e
en cy m n g w ri t r t d ivi d
a o ch m i n ut d ci m lly ; f
e s o m pl e ea e e a or e x a e,
52
°
i n t d f 52 10 s ea S C j io H i t ry f El m n t ry
° ’
ee a or , s o O e e a
M th m tic
a e 19 17 Edi ti n pp 10 43 n d 16 3
a s,
”
o , .
, , a .
75 Com pari son of angl es. In or d e r to m ak e a com par is on

.
b e tw e en tw o an g l e s w e pl a ce on e o v e r th e oth e r S O th atth e ,
v e rte x and th e i n i ti al Sid e of on e coin cid e w i th th e v e rte x an d

th e i n i ti a l s id e of th e oth e r If th e te r m i n a l s id es coi n cid e .
,
th e g l es are equ l ; i f th e te rm i n a l S i d es do n ot coin ci d e

an a ,
th e an g l e s are un e q ua l a ss um in g of cour se in b ot
—
h case s , , ,
th at e ach of th e tw o an g l e s com pa r e d is l es s th an In
th e e x e r cis e s an d ar ti cl e s th at f ol l o w w e con s id e r n o an gl e
gr e ate r th an
EXERCIS ES
1 C om pa r e a n gl es
.
y a n d z in F ig 4 4 a n d ar ra n ge th e m
at, , ,
.
,
i n or de r as to s ize .
H IN T M k . tr ci g f
a e a ch n th i n p p r
a n n d t yt fi t
o ea ch o a e a r o ea
o n th th r
e o e .
F IG . 44
2 . C on s tructa n l
l to a giv en a n gl e AB C L aya th in
a n g e e q ua .
s h e e tof pa pe r ov e r t h e a n gl e AB C a n d m a k e a tr a ci n g of it C ut .
outt h e tra ci n g a n d pas te itto an oth e r pa r to f th e pape r Th e .
a n gl e t h us s h own is e qua l to th e a n gl e AB C .
3 T yto d ra w fr e e h a n d tw o e q ua l a n gl e
. r s .
Te sty our d r a wi n gs b yth e m e th od f EX 1 o . .
4 D r a w fr e ha n d on e a n gl e twi ce a s
. e
la rge a s a noth e r Test y our dra wi n gs wi th

.
th e pr otr a ctor .
76 . Adj a cent l
ang e s ; ex terior s i des .
An gl e s :
a an d
y in F ig . 45 a re tw o a n gl e s
F IG . 45
w h i ch h av e a com m on v e r te x an d a com
m on s id e b e tw ee n th e m Th e an gl es a: a n d y are s a id t
. o be
a dj a cen t a n les
g T h u s a dj a cent a n les a re an gl es t
.
g , h at h a v e
th e sam e v e r te x an d h a v e a com m on s id e b e tw een th e m .
Th e s id es OT an d CR a re ca ll e d th e exter ior side s .

P ROP ER T I ES OF AN G L ES 61
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . In di cate w h i ch a n g es l in F ig 4 6 ar e a dj acent P o n tout

. . i
th e com m on ve rtex a nd th e com m on S de in ea ch pa of i ir
j
a d ace n t a n g e s l .
D ra w l j
°
2 . an a ng e of 45 ad a ce n t
to a n a n g e of l a n a ng e l of 30
°
j
a d a ce nt to an a ng e l of an
a ng e l of 35
°
j
a d a ce nt to an a ng e l
of
°
80
3 . D o you i
n otce a n yth i ng pa teri
ul arly s gn i ifi ca ntin a ny of th e parts
of EX 2 .
D r aw l j
°
4 . an an g e of 30 ad a ce nt
to an ang e l
W h at seem to
of s
b e th e r e l a ti on b e tw ee n th e ir e x t
e ri or
s i des ? D oe s th i s r e l ati on n eed to

F IG 46
e x i st in or de r t h at th e a ngl es S h all
.
b e a dj ace n t W h at tota l am oun t of tur n i ng is r epr e sente d

77 . Geom etric a ddi ti on a nd sub tracti on of a ngl es . Ex s 2 .
an d 4, ab ov e , su ggest a m et h od for a d din g an

y tw o g i v en
an g l es . Th us , to add a g i v en an gl e y to a g i v en an g l e x ,
F IG . 47 . GE OM E T I CR A DD ITI O N OF ANG L E S
F ig . g l e y is pl a ce d ad j a cen t to ang l e x an d th e re
4 7, an ,
sul tin g an gl e is ca l l e d th e sum of x an d y Th e a n g l e s m ay .
b e tr an sfe rr e d to th e n e w posi ti on e i th e r b ym e an s of tr acing

ape r or m or e con v e ni ent l y b y m e a n s of th e pr otr actor
p
-
.
, ,
X
E ERCIS E
Add tw o a ng e s l b y pl aci ng th e m j
ad ace n tto eac h ot e h r .
We m ay a so l fi n d th e diffe r e n ce b e tw ee n tw o a ngl e s .
In F ig 48 th e tw o . g i v e n a ng l e s are so a n d y P l a ce th e .
sm a ll e r an gl e , y , on th e l a rg e r r so th at th e v e rti ce s a n d
, ,
F IG . 48 . GE OM ET R I C S UB T A TI O N
R C OF AN G L ES
on e i rof s id e s coincid e Th e par t r e m a in i n g be tw ee n th e

pa .
oth e r tw o sid e s of a; an d y w i ll b e th e diff e r en ce be tw e en

x and y Th us in F i g 4 8 w e obta in 4 x 4 y= 4 AO C
.
,
.
—
.
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . D r a w th r e e q l a ngl es y a nd z so th a t y
un e ua at
, , ,
:d
a an
x z . D ra w an a n gl e e q ua l to w+
y+ z ; e q ual to y
—
ac+ z ;
e q ua l to y a : z .
D ra w
l 6 0 a n d d ra w a n oth e r of 2 0 a dj ace n t
° °
2 . a n a n g e of
to it W h a t is th e ir s um
. F ol d th e 2 0d e gr e e an gl e ove r th e
6 0 d e gr ee a n gl e (s ub tra cti on ) a n d ca ll th e d iff e r en ce
—
W h at so .
is th e e q uati on w h i ch give s th e v a l ue of a:
78 . At a g i v en poin t on a g i v en
C onstruction pr ob l em .
l i n e to con stru ct b y m e an s of r ule r an d com pas se s an

an gl e e q ua l t o a g i v e n a n gl e I n this con str ucti on w e .
m ak e use of th e f ol l ow in g S i m pl e g e om e tr i c r e l ati on b e
tw e e n ce n tr a l a n gl e s a n d th e i r i n te r ce pte d a r cs :I n th e
sa m e cir cl e or in e
qua l circl es e ua l cen t
q r a l a n l es
g in ter cep t
P R OP ER T I ES OF A N G L ES 63
e
q ual a r cs on th e c
i r cle . F or e x a m
p e, l i f th e cen tr a l ang l e
con ta ins n m e tee n a n gl e d e gr ees , th e n th e in te r ce pte d a rc
con ta i n s n ine te e n ar c d egr ees .
T h e stud e n t m ay pos s i bly see th at th i s g e om e tr i c r e l a

-
ti on is i m pl i e d in our d e fi n i ti on s of Ar t 71 H ow e v e r . .
,
th e tw o f oll ow i n g pa r agr aph s w i ll a ssi s t h im in un d e r

Stan di n g its appl i ca ti on .
M a k e a tr acin g of th e cir cl e an d th e an g l e AB C in .
F i g 4 9 (a) an d pl ace B upon E in F i g 4 9 ( b) Th e

.
, , ,
.
angl es m ust co in cid e b e cause t h e y are g i v en e q ua l Th en .
th e ci r cl e wh ose ce n te r
is B ( cir cl e B ) m us t
coin cid e w i th th é cir l
cle wh ose ce nt e r is E
( i l
c rc e E ) b e caus e th e. .
r adi i of e q ual ci rcl e s

a re e q ua l T h en A w i ll
.
F IG . 49
fa l l on D an d C on F ; ,
th at is th e arc CA w il l fall on th e arc F D an d th e a rcs

, ,
a re th e r e f or e e q ual .
It is e as y to se e th at th e f oll ow in g sta tem ent is als o

true I n th e sa m e cir cle or in equa l cir cles eq ua l a rcs on th e
.
cir cle a re inter cep ted by equa l r a l a ng les

cent . F or C ir cl e B
id es w ith
.
can b e pl ace d on c c e E S O t at ar e C A co n c
ir l h i
a rc F D, h ese ar cs are
i
s n ce t e q ua l and s o t g i v en
h at B ,
[
fal l s on E A w i ll fa l l on D a n d C on F Th enth e an gl e s
.
,
.
m ust coin cid e an d are th er e f or e e q ual .
Th e tw o pr e ce di ng g e om e tr i c r e l a ti on s m a k e cl e ar why
th e pr otr a ctor m ay b e use d to m eas ur e an g l es as w e did
in Art 71 Th e m e th od use d th e r e is b ase d upon th e id e a
. .
th at e v e ry ce n tr a l an g l e of on e d e gr e e i n te r cept
.
s an arc
of on e d e gr e e on t h e rim of th e pr otr actor ; th a t is wh e n ,
w e k n o w th e n um b e r of d e gr e e s in an a n gl e a t th e ce n t er
64 G EN ER A L M ATH EM A T I C S
of a r
k n ow th e n um be r of d egr ees in
ci cl e w e th e ar c
in te r cepte d by its s id es an d v i ce v e r sa , .
T h e id e a can b e ex pr es se d th us :A cen tr a l an
g le i s
m e asured b y the a rc in ter cepted by its sides
( wh e n an g ul a r
d egr e e s an d a rc d egr e e s a re us e d as th e r espe cti v e un ts i
of m e asu re) .
H ow m any d egr e es of an are a re i nte r cepte d b ya ce nt a l r

an g l e Of of of of n ?
°
W e are n ow r e ad y to pr ocee d w ith our pr obl em :At

a g i ven o in t on a g i v e n lin e t c n tr uct b y m e an s of
p o o s
r ul e r and com passes an ang l e e q ual to a g i v en ang l e .
F IG. 50 . C O N T U TI NG
S R C AN AN G L E EQ U A L TO A G IV N AN G LE
E
Constructi on
L e t D E F i n F ig 5 0 b e t
. he g . iv en ang e a n d l l et P
iv
b e th e g e n po n t on th e g e n n e AB i iv li .
i r w circl W i th P
W th E a s a ce nte a n d E R a s a a d us d a r r i a e . as
a c nt r n d wi th th
e e m r di u ( ER) d w n th r ci cl P l c
a e sa e a s ra a o e r e . a e
th e sh p p int f th c m p
ar o tR n d cut n
o th r ugh 11
e o a sse s a a a a re o 1 .
W i th S c n t r n d th
‘
m
as a r di u cut n
e e tNa e sa e a s a a re a .
T h AB P C i th r quir d n gl
e Wh y? s e e e a e .
EXER CIS ES
/
C h e ck th e corr e ctn ess

y our con structi on for th e pre
’
1 . of
cedi n g d ir e cti on s b y m ea s uri n g wi th a pr otr actor .
2 H ow m a ny way s h a v e w e for con str ucti n g an an gl e e q ual

.
to a giv e n an gl e
81 . Construction prob l em . How to bisect a giv e n lin e
se g m en t AB .
Con tructi on s . Le tAB b e th e g iv en
lin e se gm e n t (F ig . W i th A as
a ce n te r
r d i u gr t r
a nd wi th a a s ea e
A
th n } AB d
a 1 rc b v d es r c ib e a s a o e an
b l w AB IV i th B
e o c nt r .nd as a e e a
wi th th m r diu e b f r d
sa e a s as e o e e
s cri b rc b v n d b l w n d
e a s a o e a e o a
i nt r cti n g th fi r t rc t C d D
e se e s a s a an .
Dr w C D
a Th n E i th p int f
. e s e o o F IG . 53 . Ho w TO
'
B I S EC I ‘
b i cti n f
se AB o or .
A LI N K SE G M NTE
82 . Perpendi cu lar b i sector . Th e lin e CD in Fig . 5 3 is

l
cal e d th e p erp en dicul a r bisector of AB .
EXER CISES
1 . H ow m ay a li n e b e di vi de d i nto four e qua l pa ts r in to

e i gh t e q ual par ts
2 D r a w a tri a n gl e a ll of w h ose a n gl e s a e a cute (acut
. e r
a n gl e d t ri angl e) C on struct th e per pe n di cula r b i se ctors of

.
ea ch of t h e th r ee S i de s of th e tri an gl e .
3 C ut out a pape r tri an gl e a n d f ol d it so a s to b i se ct

.
ea ch s i de .
4 D r a w a tri a n gle in w h i ch on e a n gl e is ob tus e (ob tus e

.
a n gl e d t ri a ngl e) a n d dra w th e pe rpe n d icul a r b i e ctor s of th e s
th r ee S i des .
5 ; D r aw a tria n gl e in w h i ch on e a n gl e is a ri gh t a n gl e a n d
con str uctth e pe r pe n d i cul a r b i se ctor s of t h e s i de s .
6 D ra w a tri a n gl e AB C
. B i se ct e ach s ide a n d conn e ctea ch .
p o in t of b i se cti on wi th t h e op os i t
p e v erte x .
83 . M edian . A line j oi n i ng th e v e rtex of a r

t i an gl e to
th e m id poin t of th e -
o
ppos i te s id e is ca ll e d a m ed ia n .
'
PR OPER T I ES OE AN G L ES 67
X
E ER CIS E
D ra w a tr ia n gl e ; con s t uct it r
s m ed an s i .
84 . C onstruction
rob l em Fr om a g i v en poi n t out p .
s id e a g i v en l in e to d ro
p a e r e n di cu l a r to t h a t l in
p p e .
C n t ucti n L t AB b
o s r th giv n lin
o . nd P th giv n p i t
e e e e e a e e o n
( F ig . IVith P c nt r '
d as a e e an
wi th r di u gr t r th n th di
a a s ea e a e s
t n c fr m P t AB d cri b
a e o n o es e a “
a re
cutti n g AB tM nd R IVith IIa a . I
an d R c nt r as d w i th r di u
e e s an a a s
g r t r t
ea eh n J; AIR d cri
a b rc es e a s
e i th r b v b l w (pr f r b l y b
e a o e or e o e e a e
l w ) th li n AB C n n ctth p i n t
o e e . o e e o
O f i n t r cti n E wi th P
e se T h n th
o . e e
li n P D i p rp n di cul r t AB
'
e s e e a o , as
r q uir d T t th ccu cy f y ur
e e . es F e a
54 H w
_ O ra o o IG . .
’
o To DR P
w rk b y m urin g n gl t D
o e as P P ND I U LA
a an e a . ER E C R
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . W hy i s it p r e fe r a b l e ri
to d e s c b e th e a cs in F ig 5 4 b e r . l ow
th e li ne AB
2 D r a w a tri a n g l e AB C all of w h ose a n gl e s are a cut
. e a nd
dr a w pe r pe n d i cul a r s fr om e a ch v e r te x to th e O ppos i te s i de s .
85 . Al ti tude . An itude
alt of a t ri angl e is a li n e d r a wn
fr om a v e r te x pe rpen di cul a r to th e O pposi te S id e .
X
E ER C IS ES
1 r w a tri an gl in
. D a ne a n gl e is ob t use a n d dr a w
e w h i ch o
th e thr e e a l ti tude s .
2 D r a w a tri an gl e in w h i ch on e a n g l e is a ri g h t a
. n gl e a n d
dr a w th e th r e e al ti tude s .
3 W h e n do th e a l ti tude s fa ll i n s i de a tri an gl e
. uts i de o
86 . To b i sect a giv en a ngl e . S uppose an gl e AB C to

b e th e g iv en a n gl e F
( g i . W i th th e v ertex B as a
ce n te r and w it h a v i
con en en t ra di us d r a w an a re cu ttin g
BA an d B C at X an d Y re
s
pe ctiv ely W i h
t X an d
. I
"
as ce n t e r s a nd w i t h a ra dius
g r e ate r t h an
% X Y d r a w a r cs
m e e tin g a t D J oi n B a n d D . .
Th en B D IS th e b l secwr O f F IG . 55 . Ho w To E I S EC T
Z AB C . AN A NG L E
X
E ER CIS ES
l . B i s e ct a n a ng e l and c h e ck by fol di ng th e pa pe r so th a t
th e c re a se will b i se ct th e a ngl e .
2 B i s ct a n a n gl f Of f
°
. e e O f 90 o O
3 D ivi de a giv e n a ngl i n t

. o f ur e qua l
pa r t e o s .
4 D r a w a tri a n gl e w h os e a n gl e s a e a ll acute a n d b i s ct
. r e
ea ch f th e a ngl e s
o
5 D r a w a tri a n gl e in w hi ch on e a n gl e is b tuse a nd b i e ct
. o s
e ach of t h e a n gl e s ; do th e sa me fo a tri a n gl e in w h i ch n e r o
a n g l e is a ri gh t a n gl e .
87 . P a ra ll el l ines . AB an d CD in "
Fig . 56 h a v e h ad
th e sa m e a m oun t of an g ul a r r o ta ti on fr om th e in i ti a l l in e
EF Th us th ey h a v e th e
.
,
s a m e di r e ct i on a n d are sa id
to b e p a ra l l l Th e sy m b o l e .
for p a r a l l e l is II T h u s .
,
“
AB II C D is r e a d AB is par
”
a ll e l to CD .
88 Correspondi ng angl es ;
A A LL L LI N
.
: nd
F IG 56 P R E ES
Angl e s
. .
transv ersa l . a a
y in F ig 5 6 . a re ca ll e d cor r espond ing a n g le s . Th e l ine EF

P R OP ER T I ES OF A N GL ES
is ca ll e d a r a n sv er sa l
t . I t is cl e a r th a t th e lin e s ar e ar~
p
a l le l ly w h en th e corr e spon di ng ang l es are e q ua l a n d
on
th at th e corr espon di ng a n g l es a re e q ua l on ly wh e n th e
lin es are pa r a l l e l .
EXER CIS ES
1 D r a w fi gur e s to ill us tra te th

. i m por ta nce O f th l s t e e a
stat e m e n t in A t 88 a b o v e r .
,
.
2 P oi n toutth e pa r a ll e l li n e s you ca n fi nd in th e cla ss r oom

. .
89 . C onstruction prob l em . H ow to draw a li n e pa r a ll e l

to g i v en l ine
a .
C on truction Ch
s p int P . o o se a o
out i d ths giv n li n AB i n F i g 5 7

e e e e . .
Dr w a lin thr ugh P a e t f rm o so a s o o
a c n v n i n t n gl
o e : wi th AB C ll
e a e a . a
th p i n t f i n t r cti n D At P
e o o e se o .
,
u i ng D P
s i n i ti l li n c n truct n
as a e, o s a
an gl y q u l t
e n gl
e
( h wn )
a o a e at as s o
b y th e m e t h od of Art 78 . . T he n PR
an d AB a re pa r ll l
a e b e ca use th e y
h a ve h a d th e sa m e a m oun t o f r ota F IG . 57 . Ho w TO D AWR
i
t on fr om th e i ni ti l li n
a e P I) .
P A A LL L LI N
R E ES
X E ERCIS ES
1 . li n e
C on s t uct a r
t a giv e n li ne th r oug h a g iv e n pa ra ll e l o
po i n t outs i de th e li ne .
2 A ca r pe n te r wa n ts a str a i gh te d ge b oa r d to h a v e par a ll e l
.
-
e n ds He m a k e s a m a rk a cr os each n d wi th h is s q ua r e W h y
. s e .
will th e e nds b e pa ra ll e l ?
3 I n F i g 5 7 if a n gl e w h atis th e n um b e r f de gree s
'
. . a; o
in A y G iv e a r e a son fo y our a n s we r r .
4 T w o pa r a ll e l li n e s a re cut b y a tr an s v e r sa l so a s to form
.
Fi nd :
‘
tw o corr e spon d i n g a n gl e s and 3 w

( a nd a
th e s i ze of e ach a n gl e M a k e a d a w in gto ill ii st ate y our w ork . r r .

5 . I n F ig 5 8 i f AB II C D ,
. w ha t oth er l
a ng e s b es i de s :
a a nd y
a re e q ua l rr
co e spond ng a ng i -
l es ?
6 . I n F ig 5 8, ZR
“
. Ay : . B i se ct
4 x a nd A y a n d s h ow th at th ese
b i se ctor s are parall e l to e ach oth e r .
90 Paral l el ogra m
. . If on e pa ir
of p r l l
a ae l l in e s cr oss ( in te r se ct
)
an ot h e r pa i r th e four sid e d
,
-
fig ur e th us f or m e d is call ed a
F IG 58
h a t is a
.
a ra l lel ogr a m ; t a ra l
p p ,
lelog ra m is a
q ua dri la ter a l w h os e
pp
o osi te s ide s a re
p a r a lle l.
91 . How to r a ll el ogr a m If w e r e m em be r
construct a pa .
th e m e th o d use d in Art 89 for con str uctin g on e lin e pa r a ll e l

.
to an oth e r it w i ll b e
,
e as y t o con str uct a

a r a l l e l ogr a m Th us
p .
,
d r a w a w or ki n g lin e
AB ( F i g . D raw
AR m a k in g a con v en
ien t a n g l e w i th AB .
Thr ough anypoi nt as F 59 H w O N T U T A IG . . o TO C S R C

,
P A A LL LO G A M R E R
P on AR d r a w a l i n e
,
P V par all el to AB Thr oug h anypoi n tM on AB d r a w a line

.
M T pa r a ll e l to AB Th e fig ur e AM S P is a pa r a ll e l ogr am
.
,
for its O pposi te S id es ar e par a ll e l .
92 R ectangl e
. If on e of th e in
.
te rior ang l e s of a par a ll e l ogr am is a

r i gh t a ngl e th e fig ur e is a r ecta ngle
,
F 60 IG.
( F i g . Th u s a r e cta ng le
,
i s a
a r a llelog r a m in w h ich one i nterior a ng le is a r igh t a ngle

p .
P R OPER T IES OF A N GL ES 71
X
E ERCIS E
S h ow th at all th e a n g es l of a r ectan gl e are ri ght a ngl es .
HIN T . Ex te n d th e S i dES
‘
Of th e r e ctan g el .
93 . S q ua re . If al l th e S id es of a re c
tan gle are e q ua l , th e fig ur e is ca ll e d a
s
q ua re
( F i g .
F IG . 61
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . G iv e
l r e ctangl e s ; of sq ua re s
e x a m p e s of .
2 C on s tr ucta r e ct
. a n gl e h a vi n g t w o a dj a ce n t S i de s e ua l to
q
5 cm a nd 8 cm r e spe ctive ly (use com pa sse s a n d str a i gh t
. .
e dge o n ly
) . a
3 C on struct a r e ctan gl e h a
. v
In g th e tw o ad j a ce n t s i de s e q ua l
to th e li n e s egm e n ts a n d b in F a 62 IG .
F ig 6 2
. .
4 . C ons truct a s q ua e r w h ose

F 63
S i de is 7 cm . l on g .
IG
5 . C on str uct a s qua r e a s i de of w h i ch is a un ts i l on g (us e

l In e a in F ig .
S U MM A R Y
94 Th i s ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e an i ng of th e f oll ow

.
in g w or d s an d phr as e s : a n gl e v e rt ex v e rti ce s in i ti a l S id e , , ,
of a n a n g l e t e r m in a l S id e of an a ngl e r igh t an gl e s t
, r a igh t , ,
an g l e pe r i g,on a cut e a n g l e ob t
, u se angl e r e fl ex an g l e, , ,
cir cl e ce n te r cir cum f e r en ce r a dius di am e te r r a dii a rc

, , , , , , ,
in te r cept cen tr a l angl e q ua d r an t s em ici r cl e l ati tud e l on

, , , , ,
g itu d e d e gr ee , of l at i tu d e d e gr e e of l on g i tu d e m i,
nut e , ,
secon d S i ze of an a n gl e pr ot
, r actor d egr ee of arc d egr ee
, , ,
.
of ang l e ad j ace n t a n gl e s e x t
, e r i or sid e s of an angl e fi e ld
, ,
pr ot r a ct or t r a ns i t pe r pe n di cul a r b i se ct
, , or pe rpe n di cul a r t o ,
a li n e a l t i tud e of a tr i a ngl e m e di a n of a tr i an gl e b is ector

, , ,
of an an g l e pa r a l l e l lin e
,
corr espon di n g a ng l es tr a n s v e r sa l
s, , ,
a r a l l e l ogr am r e ctan g l e an d s ua r e
p , q , .
95 . Th e f oll ow ing sy m b ol s h a v e b e e n i n tr od uce d :A for

an le rt é for r ig h t a ngl e ; é fo r a ng les ; a re ;
A for
g ; .
a
l for is p erp end icul a r to ; II for is p a r a llel to ;

. . for d eg r e e
or deg r ees ; for m inute or m in utes ; for se con d o r se co nds .
96f oll ow ing n otati on s h a v e b ee n di scus s e d :( 1) no

. Th e
ta tion for d e n oti n g an d r e a din g an gl es ; ( 2 ) n ota ti on for
d e n otin g a c r cl e by its cen te r
i .
Th i s ch apte r h as pr ese nte d th e i m por tan tm e th od s of

97 .
1 C l ass ify i n g an g l e s
. .
'
2 M e as ur in g a n g l e s
. .
3 C om pa r in g a ng l e s
. .
4 D ra w in g a n gl es con tai n in g a ny a m oun t of tur n in g or

.
an
y nu m be r o f d e gr e es .
5 Addin g a n d sub tr actin g a n gl e s

. .
6 M e asur i n g an g l es out of d oor s

. .
98 . h In th i s
r th e pupil h a s be e n taugh t th e f oll ow
c apte
ing f un d am e n ta l con s tr ucti on s
1 To d r a w a ci r cl e
. .
2 To d r a w an an g l e e q ua l to a g i v e n an g l e
. .
3 To d r a w a l in e pe r pe n di cu l a r to a g i v e n lin e at a
.
g i v e n poin t .
4 T o dr a w th e pe rpe n di cul ar b i se ctor s of th e s id e s of

.
a t r i an gl e .
5 To d r a w th e m e di an s of a tr i an gl e
. .
6 To d r a w a li n e pe r pe n di cul a r to a g i v e n l in e f r om a
.
gi v en point outs ide th e li n e .

.
7 To d r a w th e a l ti tud es of a tr i an gl e
. .
C H AP T ER IV
THE EQUAT ON AP P I LIED TO AREA
107 . M ea suring area s . If w e d e te rm in e th e a m oun t of
r
a ea in cl os e d w i th in polyg on, as in th e tri an gl e AB C
a
in F ig . 64, w e ar e m e as ur ing th e a r ea of th e tr i an g l e As in .
r g l en g th th e pr ocess is
m e as u in ,
on e of com pa r is on W e com par e

.
th e a r e a of th e g i v e n polyg on
w i th som e stan d ar dize d ( d e fi n e d
F 64 IG
e d ) un i t of a r e a an d
. .
a n d acce pt
d e te rm in e h ow m an y un i ts are con ta in e d in th e polyg on ;

th at is w e d e t
, e rm i n e t h e r a ti o be tw een th e a r e a of th e
giv en polyg on an d a stan d ar d un i t of ar e a .
108 Unit of a rea

. T h e un i t of a r e a is a s q ua r e e ach
.
O f wh os e s id e s is a s t an d a r d un i t of l e n g t h S uch a un it .
in v ol v e s l en gth an d w id th Th us w e m ay .
,
m e a sur e a r e a a n d e x pr ess th e r e sul t in

s q uar e f ee t s q ua r e in ch es S q ua r e m e t
, e rs
, ,
sq ua r e ce n t i m ete rs e tc , .
l em
F 65 U ” ”
109 Pra cti ca l m eth od of estim a ting area IG : ° N 0
A A
. .
H M RE IN T E ET
A pr actrcal w ay to e sti m a te th e a r e a of a m SY T M o S E
polyg on is to tr an sf e r it to S q ua r e d pape r
by m ean s of tracin g pape r an d th en coun t th e n um
b e r of s q uar e un i ts in cl ose d w i th in th e fig ur e If th e .
b ounding line s cut th e sq ua r es it be com es n e ce ss ary to ,
a
pp r ox i m a te In s u
.c h a pp r ox i m a ti on s w e sh o u l d b e car e f ul ,
b utw e s h ould n ot go be y on d r e as on ab l e li m i ts of accur acy .
74
TH E EQ U AT IO N A PPLIED TO A R EA 75
X
E ERCISES
1 . Th efi gur es in F ig 6 6 we r e tra ns ferred b y m eans of

S ix .
traci n g pa pe r Esti m ate th e a r e as of e ach of th em b y coun ti ng

.
th e s q ua r e s Ex pr e ss th e a r ea s e i th e r as sq ua r e cen ti m et
. e rs
or a s S q ua r e m illi m e ters .
H I N T O n m l l qu r q u l 4 q m m
. e s a s a e e a s s . .
F IG . 66 . ES TI M A TI N G A A B Y
RE S ME AN S OF S QUA D P A P
RE ER
2 . r we re r ul e d m uch fin e r woul d you ge t a

I f th e pa pe ,
m or e a ccur a te e s ti m a te G iv e a n a r gum e n t fo y our a n s we r r .
3 D o you th i n k th a t a ny of y our r esul ts are accur at

. e ?
4 Wri te a par a gr aph in

.
p r e ci se te r m s s uppor t i ng y our ,
a n s we r t o EX 3 . .
110 . Ar ea of a recta ng e . l
C AS E I . Th e s id es of th e re c
tan g l e th at h as b e e n tr ans
F 67 H w F N D H A EA IG . o To I T E R
fe rr e d to th e sq uar e d pape r of
.
A R T ANG L OF EC E
F ig 6 7 are integ r al m ul tipl es

.
of 1 cm U s in g 1 sq cm as a un i t th e r e ar e tw o r ow s of
. . .
,
6 G EN ER A L M ATH EM A TI C S
i
un ts, an d f our uni ts in a r ow . C oun ting , w e s ee h at th e
t
r
a e a e q ua s l 8, or 2 x 4 . Th e l a w in thi s cas e is :Th e a rea
e
qua ls th e b as e tim es th e itude
a lt . In e
q uaton i f or m his
t
la w m ay b e w r i tte n A b x a .
'
111 . Area of a recta ng e . l C AS E II . Le t us s uppose h at t

We a re gi v en a
r wh ose sid e s are n ot integra l
S
q ua e m ul tipl e s
of 1 cm : for e x a m pl e a r e ctan gl e w h os e b as e
.
, ( l eng th )
is cm a n d w h os e a l t
. i tud e ( w id th ) is cm If w e .
a s sum e t h at th e pr ece din g l aw h old s th e n w e ough t to ,
g et x Sq . cm . In ste ad
of
pu tti n
g th e r e cta n g l e on th e ki n d
of s ua r e d pape r use d in C ase I ,

q
l e t us d raw it a g a in , b y m e an s
of r i g pape r on sq ua r e d pape r
t ac n ,
th at is r ul e d to a sm a l l e r un i t ,
th e m i ll i m e te r as in F i g 6 8 S i n ce
, F 68 . .
ro .
th e r e ar e 23 m m in cm an d . .
13 m m in .cm if w e te m por a r il y a d opt th e sq uar e

.
, ,
m i ll i m e te r a s a un i tof a r e a th en th e s id es of th e r e ctan gl e ,
a re a s in C ase I i n t
, e gr a l m u l tipl e s of th e un i t of l ength
,
( in t h i s ca se th e m illi m e te r ) H e n ce th e r e a re 1 3 r o w s .
of un i t s wi t h 2 3 in a row or 2 99 s q m m B ut th e re ar e , . .
1 00 sq m m i n 1 s q cm ; h e n ce di v id i n g 2 99 by 1 00 th e
. . . .
, ,
r es ul t is sq cm wh i ch is pr e ci se ly th e s am e n um b e r
. .
,
as th at obta i n e d b y assum in g th e l a w of C as e I .
112 Area of a rectangl e

. C AS E I II T hi s pr ocess of . .
te m por a r i ly a d opti n g a s m all e r squar e can b e con tin ue d .
If for e x a m pl e th e b as e of a r e cta ng l e is
, , cm an d .
th e a l ti tud e cm w e m ay i m ag in e th e r e ctan g l e to b e
.
,
d r aw n upon sq uar e d pape r stil l fi n e r rul e d th at is r ul e d , ,
to of a m i ll i m e ter Fr om h er e th e r eas on ing is th e .
sam e as in C ases I an d II .
'
T H E EQ U AT IO N A PPLI ED TO A R EA 77
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . F i nish th e reas on ng i
fore goi ng pa ra gra ph
of th e .
2 Th e b as e of a r e cta ngl e is Bi cm a n d its a l ti tude is 5 13

.
;
cm . .
S h ow tha tth e a r ea m ay b found b y coun ti n g s q ua re es .
3 Th e b a s e O f a r e cta n gl e is 5 % cm a n d its a l ti tude is 2 % cm

. . .
I Vh a t un i t w oul d you te m poia ily a dopt to fi n d th e a r ea ?

’
r
Ex pr e ss th e a r ea in s q ua re ce nti m e te r s .
Th e pre ce din g r ci se s S h ow th a t i f th e sid es of a

ex e
r e ctan gl e i n v ol v e fra cti ons wh i ch m ay b e e x pr esse d a s ,
e x act d e cim a l pa r t s of a un i t t h e pr ob l e m is th e sam e ,
as in C ase II .
113 . S econd m eth od for fi nding r I t is

a ea of a rectangl e .
poss ib l e to sh o w th at th e tr an s fe r o f a r e cta ng l e to th e
s ua r e d a er b m an s of t r i g r w u ry
q p p y e a c n a
p pe a s nn e ce ss a .
S uppose w e are g i v e n a r e c D
tan g l e AB C D ( see F ig 6 9) .
wh ose b a se is 4 cm an d .
wh ose a l ti tud e is 3 cm W e .
w i s h to fi n d th e a r e a D r a w .
a pe rpe n di cul a r li n e t o t he 1
l in e AB at th e en d of e ach
un i tse g m e n t; th a tis a tt he ,
p o in ts E F , an d G
, ( r e v i e w
F 69 IG
th e m e th od of Ar t
.
Al so con s truct pe rpen di cul a r s to th e lin e AD a t th e poin ts

H a nd I Th en e ach s m a ll sq uar e is a un i t of m e a sur e
.
( yb d e fi n i ti on
) a n d th e figur e is di v id e d i n t
, o thr e e r ow s
of un i t s w it h f our i n a row B y coun tin g th e ar e a e q ua l s

.
,
1 2 ( th at is b a se tim es a ltitud e)
, .
X E ER CIS ES
1 . Th e b as e of a .
r e cta n gl e
l on g a n d its al ti tude
is cm .
,
is cm .S h ow h o w to fi nd th e ar ea of th is r e cta n gl e b y coun t
in g, b ut wi th outth e use O f s q ua r e d pa pe r .
2 . Apply th e la w A b x a . W ha t a dva nta ge h as th i s l aw

o ve r th e m e t h od of Ex 1 .
114 F orm ula An e q uati on wh i ch e x pr esses som e pr a e

. .
ti cal r ul e fr om a r i th m e ti c th e S h op th e tr a d es th e s ci e n ce s
, , , ,
th e b us in e s s w orl d e tc is ca ll e d a f or m ula
, T h us A: a x b
. .
,
is a pr a cti ca l f or m ul a for fi n d in g th e a r e a o f a r e ctan gl e .
“ ” ”
Th e pl ura l of f orm ul a is f or m ul as or f or m ulae .
115 . F orm ul a for th e r is

area of a sq ua e. r Th e s q ua e
a speci a l case of a r e ct an gl e ; t h a t is it is a r ectangl e in ,
w h i ch a = b Th e f orm ul a can b e d e v e l ope d by th e s a m e

.
m e th o d as for a r e ct an g l e T h e on ly di ff e r en ce in th e .
r e as on in g is th at in e v e ry case th e r e are as m any r ow s of

s q uar e un i ts as t h e re are s q ua r e un its in a r ow ( W hy 2) .
Hence th e f orm ul a for th e ar e a of a s q ua r e is A b x b .
This f orm ul a m ay b e w ri tte n A b2 wh e r e b2 m e an s b x b , ,

“
an d t h e f orm ul a is r e ad A e q ua l s 6 sq uare
. .
1 . By th e m e th od of i q
coun t n g s uar es fi n d th e a ea r of a
s q ua r e w h ose s i de is 2 5 cm 1
, . l ong .
2 Apply th e f or m ul a A 6 to th e s q ua r e in Ex 1 C om 2
. . . .
p a r e r e s ul ts .
3 Fi nd th e ar ea of a s q u
. ar wh ose S i de is 5 ft ; f e t; e . a e
9:i nch e s ; y y ar ds ; m m e te r s ; mm ; m . .
4 H ow m an y fe t of wir e fe n ci n g a e n ee de d to i n cl ose a
.
.
e r
S q ua r e l ot wh os a r ea is 4 9 00 s q ft ?
2 3
e b q ft 4 q yd . . s . . 3 s . .
TH E EQ U AT IO N A PPLIED TO A R EA 79
5 Expr e ss b y a n e q uati on th e
. r
a ea A of a re ctangl e th at
is 8 in l on g a nd 5 in wide ; 8 in
. l ong a nd 4 . . in wi de ; 8 in
. .
l ong a nd 35 in wi de ; 8 inf l ong a nd 6 } in wi de

.
2 . .
6 Ex pr e s s b y an e q ua ti on th e a r e a A of a r ect
. a n gl e 12 in .
l on g and of th e foll owi ng wi dth s :6 in ; 8 5 in ; 1

i n ; 1 02 in ; .
2 . . .
a : i n ch es ; y i nch e s .
7 A m an te l is 5 4 in h i gh a n d 4 8 in wi de Th e gr ate is
. . . .
32 in h i gh a n d 2 8 in wi de Fi n d th e a r ea o f th e m a n te l a n d
. . .
th e num b e r of s q ua r e til e s con ta in e d in it if ea ch t il e is 3 in .
on a s i de .
8 H ow m a ny til es 8 in s q ua r e a e ne e de d to m a k e a w a lk
. . r
6 0 ft l ong an d 4 ft wi de
. .
9 Ex pr ess b y e q ua ti on s th e a r e a s of r e ctan gl e s 1 in l on g
. . .
a n d of t h e foll owi n g wi dth s : 12 in ; 9 in ; h i n ch e s ; n i n ch e s ; . .
9: i n ch e s ; i n ch es a .
10 Ex pr e ss b y e q uati on s th e a r eas of r e ct
. a n gl e s o f wi dth w
a nd O f t h e f oll owi n g l e n gth s : 8 ; 1 0 ; 12 5 ; ; ; l; b ; z as a .
11 I n e ach ca se wri t
. e a n e q ua ti on fo th e oth e r di m en s i on r
of t h e r ect a n gl e ha vi ng give n (a) al ti tude 8 in a n d a r ea

,
.
32 s q in ; (b ) a l ti tude 5 ft a n d a r ea 7 sq ft ; (0) b a s e 9 ft
. . . . .
a nd a r e a 30 s q ft ; (d b a se 6 in a n d a r e a 2 7 S q in ;
) . .
(e ) b as e
. . .
3 in an d a r e a A s q ua r e i n ch e s (f) b a s e 5 in a n d ar ea A s q uar e
. .
i n ch e s (g) al ti tude i n ch e s a n d a re a A s qua re i n ch e s (h ) b as e

a
6 i nch e s a n d a r e a A s q ua r e i n ch e s .
116 . F o mu r
l a for th e a rea of a pa ra ll el ogram F i g 70 . .
sh ows a a r a ll e l ogr a m th a t h as b e e n tr an s f e rr e d to t h a t
p .
pos i ti on by m e an s of tr a ci n g a
p pe r W e w i s h t o fi n d it s .
ar ea Th e lin e AB is pr od uce d ( e x te n d e d ) an d pe rpe n dic

.
,
ul ars a re d r oppe d f r om D an d C to th e l in e AB ( see Art 84 .
for m e th od of con struction s) th us f or m in g th e tri an g l e s

‘
,
AF D in sid e a n d B F C ad j oin in g th e g i v e n par a ll e l ogr am .

0 G EN ER A L M AT H EM AT I C S .
X
E ER CIS ES
(Exs 1 .
-
7r f r t
e e o F ig 70)
.
1 . Esti m a te b y count th e num b e r of s q ua r e i

s in t
un t he
trian gl e AE D .
2 . Es tim a te th e n um b e r of s q ua r e un i ts in th e t ri a n gl e E F C .
3 . C om pa r e th e
r e ul ts of Ex s 1 a nd 2
s . .
4 I f th e a r e a of th e tri angl e B F C e q ua l s th e a r ea of th e
.
tri a n gl e AE D w h a t is th e r e l a ti on b e twe e n th e a r e a o f th e
,
r ecta ngl e C D E F a nd th e a re a of th e paral l e l ogram AB C D ?

.
F IG . 70
. How To F ND
I THE AR E A OF A P A A LL LO G A M B Y
R E R
ME AN S OF S QUA D P A P
RE ER
5 . W h a t is th e for m ul a for th e a r e a of th e re ctangl e C D E F ?

Wri te th e for m ul a .
6 W h at s ee m s t b e th e r e l a ti on b e tw e e n th e b a s e of th e
. o
p a r a ll e l ogr a m a n d th e b a s e o f th e r e cta n gl e W h a t e vi de n ce
h a v e you to supp r t y our a n swe r ?

o
7 W h a t is th e r e l a ti on b e twe e n th e a l ti tude of th e pa r a l
.
l e l og a m a n d th e a l ti tude of th e r e cta n gl e
r G ive th e e vi de n ce .
8 W h a t s e e m s to b e th e f or m ul a C x pr e ss i n g th e a r ea of
.
a pa r a ll e l ogr a m
9 Wi th out us i n g s q ua r ed pa pe r con str uct a pa r a ll e l ogr a m

.
s e r ul e r an d com pa sse s a n d f oll w t h m e th od of A t

( u o e r .
D ivi de th e parall e l og a m in to tw o pa r ts a tri a n gl e a n d a

'
t
r — . r
82 G EN ER A L MAT H EMAT I C S
6 . Es tim a te th e r of sq ua r e un its in tri an gl e AB C
n um b e .
7 Esti m a te th e num b e r of sq ua r e un i ts in tr ia n gl e OB B
. .
8 C om pa r e th e r e sul ts of Ex s 6 a n d 7 W ha t r e lati on
. . .
d oe s th e tri a ngl e b e a r to t e pa rall e l ogram ?

h
9 W ha t se e m s to b e th e r e l ati on b e tw ee n th e b ase of th e
.
tri a n gl e a nd th e b ase o f th e par a ll e l ogr a m W hy

10 W hat is th e r e l a ti on b e twe e n th e a l ti tude of th e t
. ri
a n gl e a n d t h e a l ti tude of th e pa r a ll e l ogr a m Expl a i n w h

’
v .
11 W h a t is th e for m ul a
.
th e n fo th e a r ea of a ny
r
a ra ll e l ogr a m
p
12 W h a tappe a r s to b e
.
th e f or m ul a for th e a r ea
of a t ri an gl e ?
F 73 H w
IG . FIND H A A
. o To T E RE
13 C on s tr uct a pa ra l
. A T I ANG L or R E
l e l og a m AB C D C on s tr uct
r .
th e d i a gon al A C (a li n e j o i n i n g oppos i t e v ert i ces) With a .
s h a r p kn ife cut out th e pa r a ll e l ogr a m a n d out a l on g th e
d i agon a l s o a s to f or m tw o tria n gl es Try to m a k e on e tria ngl e

.
coin ci de wi th th e oth e r .
14 W h a t con cl us i on does th e e vi de n ce of Ex 13 suppor t

. .
Th e pr e ce din g e x e r cis e s f urn is h e v id e n ce to s h ow that

the a r ea of a tri a ng l e is e qua l to o ne h a lf th e pr oduct of
i ts b a se an d itude
a lt . T h is l aw m ay b e wr i tten in th e
f orm of th e f ol l owi n g f or m ul a
ab
2
0
1 19 . Ar ea of a tra pezoid . A q uadr il ateral h av ing '
’
on ly
tw o id es par all e l is call e d a tr ap ezoid ( F ig
s . Th e
pa r a ll e l s id e s a re s a id to b e its b ases In F i g 74 . . th e uppe r
THE EQ U AT IO N A PPLI ED TO A REA 83
b as e of r a pe zoid is b , t
th e t he l ow e r b as e is a an d , th e
a l titud e is h To fi n d th e a e a
. r d r a w th e di ag on a l B D .
t
Th e
“
ar e a o f th e tr i an g l e leiB D f it . Why ?
2
Th e r
a ea of th etr iang l e B OD
g h . W hy ?
T h er e f or e th e are a of r
th e t apezoid a
% ; +b W hy ?
N ote th at a
% an d b
g a re s i m i l ar te mr s . W hy In th e
fir st ter m a is th e coeffi ci e n t of
g and in th e s e con d te m r
b is th e coe ffi ci e n t; h e n ce , a dd in g coe ffi c e n ts, i as w e m ay
a l w ay s do in addin g
'
s im il a r te rm s, th e ar e a
of r
t apezoid is ( a b)
3 .
We can on l y indi cate

th e sum of th e tw o
F IG. 74 . Ho w To F ND I ' ir E
r AR P; A o 1.
‘
A T R AP E Z O I I)
(
b ase s un ti l w e m eet an
act ua l pr ob l e m Th e p a r en th esi s m e an s th at a + b is to
.
b e th ough t of as on e n um b e r Th e l a w is:Th e a r ea of .
a trap ezoid is e
qual to on e h a lf th e p r oduct of i ts a ltitude by
th e sum f
o its b a ses . Th i s l a w m ay b e wr i tte n i n th e f or m
of th e f oll ow ing f orm ul a :
Fi nd
1 . th e a re a o f r
th e t a pe zo d i w h ose al ti tude is
an d w h os e b a se s a re 8 in . an d in r e spe ctiv e ly
. .
"
2 . Th e al titude of a ra ll e l ogra m is 3 : 2 a nd its b ase

pa a ,
is 4 in .Wri te a n a l ge b r a c e x pr e s si on r e r e sent
i
p i n g its ar ea .
Find th e v a l ue of -
a wb e n th e a r ea is 2 8 sq in
, .
~
. .
3 . l ti tude f a tri a n gl e is 1 0 i a nd th e b as e is
Th e a o h .
,
3 : 2 in Wri te a n a l ge b ra i c n um b e r r e prese n tin g th e a r ea

91 .
.
Fin d th e va l ue f w h e n th e a r ea i 5 5 s q in o a; s . .
4 A m a n ow n s a ci ty l ot wi th th e f or m
.
a n d d i m e n s i on h own in F ig 75 H e wi s h e s
s s . .
x
“
t se ll h is n e i gh b r a s tri p AE F I) h a vi ng a
o
g o
fron ta g D F e q ua l to 10 ft I f th e pr ope rty

e .
is w or th $ 5 600 h ow m uch s h ul d h e r e ce iv e ,
o
fo th e tri p
r s
5 O f w h a t ki n d s of poly gons m a y th e
.
F 75 IG
foll owi n g e q ua ti on e x pre ss th e a r e a
.
"
s s
(a ) 515
2
.
(h ) . 1 y(a :
( )
b . 1 z 3am .
(0 )
-
l 2
( : a
(d) A 5 (
'
a
( )
e A d
'
(a
(f )
0” 2
6 . Fi nd th e v al ue of . i in Ex 5 . whe n : a 3, y 2, a 4,
b 1, a nd c 5 .
7 . Wha t quad rila te ra l s con ta i n ri gh t a n gl e s

8 . I n w ha tr e s pe ctd oe sth e s q ua r e d i ff r fr om th e r ct
a ngl e e e
9 . H a vi ng giv e n a s i de con structa s q ua re u in g on ly r ule r , ,

s
a n d com pa s se s .
H INT . Re vi w th e e m h
e t od for con st uctin gr a r
pe pe n d cu i l rt a o a
li n e se gm e n t
(Art .
10 .
p d oes q ua r e d i ffe r fr om a r h om b us
a s
11 . Is a r h om b us a pa ra ll e l ogra m ? I s a pa ra ll e l ogra m a
r h om b us ?
12 . C on st uct a r rh om b us wi th rul r a n d c m p se giv en a

e o as s,
si de e q u l to 5 cm a n d
a .
g iv n teh e i n cl ude d a n g l e b e tw e e n tw o
ad j a ce n t s i d e s as
H N th c n tructi r ll l li n ( Art
'
I U T . se e o s on for pa a e es .
86 4 G EN ER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
X
E ERCIS E
S im plify th e f oll owin g :(a) 2 a; 3y 4 z (b ) (2 x y) (3 x y) ;

()
0 1 3
4 x 3 x my .
'
12 2 . Product of a pol ynom ial a nd a m onom ial . Th e

form ul a for th e tr apezoid s ugg ests th e possib ili ty of d r a w
ing a r e a s to r epr e se n t th e pr od uct of a sum bi n om i a l by
a m on om i a l Th e pr oce ss is ill us tr ate d by th e f ol l ow i n g
.
ex e r cises .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 Ex pr e ss b y m ean s
. of a n e q ua ton i th e r
a e a of a r ectan gl e
of d i m e n s i on s 5 a n d x F ig Th e r of th e
3 (se e . a ea
w h ol e r e cta n gl e e q ual s 5 (x D
W h y ? I f a per pe ndi cula r b e e r e cte d
at B (se e Ar t 80 for . h od)
m et ,
th e
r e ctan gl e is divi de d i n to tw o re c
ta n gl e s Th e a r e a of D O B A e q ua l s
. C
5 5” Wh y? Th e a r ea Of AB E F F IG . 78 . I LL U S T A TI NG THE
R
e q ua s l 15 . W h y ? I t is n ow eas y PR OD U C T OF A P OLY N OM I A L
AN D A M O N O M I AL
to fin d th e ent ire a rea D C E F .
S i nce B OEP D C B A + AB E N,
5 (:
I: 15 .
2 . S h ow fr om F ig 79 th at a
.
(a: g) ax a
g .
S ho w b y F ig 80 that d (x
3 . .
y )
z ax a
g az .
F IG. 79
‘
F IG . 80
4 . D ra w r to r e pr ese nt bm b n b
an a ea e .
5 . D ra w an a r e a to r e pr e se n t 2 m 2 y a a 2 az .
6 . R e pr ese nt 2 a 4y 6 z b y an a r ea .
7 . S k e tch a r e cta n gl e w h ose a r e a e q ua l s 2 am 2 a

y 6 a z.
EUC LID
H I S TO RI C A L NO TE . Th e w rd o
ge om e t y r com e s fr om a G r k ee
p hr a se w h i ch m ean s to m e a s ur e th e rly Egypti n h d h Th e

ea r t . ea a s a
se ri u n d f
o s r li b l m
ee or a e a e eth d f m uri g th
o l n d ft r ch
o eas n e a a e ea
o v rfl w f th Nil T h
e o o e e . e ea rl y h i t ry f g m try pp r t r t s o o eo e a ea s o es
on th i pr cti c l b s i a a as s .
Th l d t c ll cti n f g m try pr b l m i h i r ti c p pyr u

e o es o e o o eo e o e s s a e a a s
w ri tt b y n Egy pti n pri t n m d Ah m

en a t d t c n i d r b ly
a es a e es a a a e o s e a
ea rli r th 1000
e an d th i i b li v d t b i t lf c py f
B C . .
, an m s s e e e o e se a o o so e
th r c ll cti th u nd y r ld r ’
o e o e on a o sa ea s o e .
Ah m c m m nc es th t p rt f h i p py r u wh i ch d
o e es l wi th a a o s a s ea s
g eo m t r ye b yg ivi n g m n u m ri c l i n t n c f th c
so n t n t f
e e a s a es o e o e s o
b rna Si n c w
s . d n tk w th
e eh p f th b rn w cann t
o o no e S a e o e a s, e o
ch ck the ccur cy ef h i w rk
a H w v r h e g v pr b l m
a o n s o . o e e , a e o e s o
pyr m i d a Th d t s .nd r ul t giv e gr

a a a cl l y w i th th dim n es s en a ee o se e e
i
s on s o f th i ti ng pyr m i d
e ex s a s .
G m try t k d fi n i t f rm
eo e oo ci n c wh n Eucl i d ( b ut
e e o as a s e e e a o
“
300 )
B C w. r t h. i E l m nt
o e f G m tr ys Th pr f f h
e i e s o eo e .
”
e oo s o s
t tw r
ex c ll
e e t th t th
so bex k r pl c d ll th r t t f
e en a e oo e a e a o e ex s o
th eti m d h eh ld an i fl u nti l p i ti t th i d y Th
as e an n e a os on o s a . e
f rm f Eucli d i pr ctic ll y th
o o m s m t Am ri c n g m
a a e sa e as os e a eo
tyt t
e r d i E gl
e x s, a n d b y till n y th y n tud yi g Eucli d
an o s s sa e a re s n
(m e ani ng g m try) eo e .
W k w littl e no f Eucli d s rl y lif H m y h v tudi d in

e o
’
ea e . e a a e s e
th ch
e s l f un d d b y th gr t ph il ph r P l t n d Ari t tl t
oo s o e e ea os o e s a o a s o e a
Ath i n Gr c
e n s, H b c m h d f th m th m ti c ch l
ee e . e e a e ea o e a e a s s oo
a t Al n dri
ex a Egypt d pr c d d t c ll ct
a, d rg i ,
i t
an o ee e o o e an o a n ze n o a
se t f r m th k n wn g m tri c pri nci pl

o e o H i id t h v i i t d
eo e es . e s sa o a e ns s e
on th k wl dg f g m try f it w n k Thu w r d f
e no e e o eo e or s o sa e . s, e ea o
“
h i t lli g th y uthful P ri c P t l m y
s e n e o Th r i n r y l r d t n e o e , e e s o o a oa o
g m try
eo e At th r ti m
. th t ry g
an o wh n l d w h h d
e e so e s o oe s, e a a o a
j u t b gun g m try
s e k d t t d I g in b y l rni g ll th i
eo e as e , a o a ea n a s
“
Eucli d m d h i l v giv th b y m pp r i c
” ”
s tuff ? a e s s a e e e o so e Co e s, S n e,
sa i d h h m u t m k pr fi t ut f wh t h l r
e, e s a e a o o o a e ea ns .
Eucli d r g n i d h i t t o a t f rmze ch i n f r n i n g b gi
s ex so a s o o a a o e a so , e n
n i ng w ith b vi u um pti
o d pr c di g t p b y t p t r ul t
o s a ss on s a n o ee n s e s e o es s
o f c n i d r b l d iffi cul ty T h
o s e a tu d
e t h ul d r d b ut h i w rk i . e s en s o ea a o s o n
“
B ll A S h rt H i t ry f M th m ti c H i t r y f El m
’ ”
C j i
’ "
a s o s o o a e a s . a or s s o o e en
t ry M th m ti c d M ill r H i t ri c l I tr ducti t M th
.
’
a a e a s an e s s o a n o on o a e
m tic l Li t r tu
a a ' furth r u c f i nf rm ti n b utEucli d
e a re a re e so r e s o o a o a o .
90 G EN ERA L M ATH EMAT I C S
X E ERCIS ES
S ke tch r ecta ngl e w h ose ar ea wi ll b e th e pr oduct o

f
’
a.
(a b ) (c d) .
2 Fi nd th e ge om etric pr oduct of (c t) (m n)
. .
3 P e rf or m th e m ul ti pli ca ti on (2
. m) (m n b y m ea n s of
)
a ge om e t ri c fi gur e .
Fi nd th e pr oduct S k etch th e a r ea
repr e sen te d b y th i s pr oduct .
5 Fi n d th e pr oduct (
. b) ( : y z
) us i n g a ge om e t
a riac ,
fi gur e .
12 6 . Al geb raic product of tw o l

po yn om ia l s . Th e fig ur es
d rawn in th e pr e ce di n g e x e r cis es in di cate a s h ort cut in
th e m ul ti pli ca ti on of tw o po lyn om i a l s
p yTh us, . a ol n om ial
is m ultip lied by a p olynom ia l by m ul tip lying ea ch te rm of

on e
p ol n om ia l b
y y ev er
y t f
er m o th e oth e r a n d a d din
g th e
1 U s in g th e pri n ci pl e of Art 12 6 ,
. . r
e x p e ss th e foll owi ng
i nd i cate d pr oducts as poly n om i al s
( )
a (g)
( (
b
l i
T i -
s
'
(h ) 2 b
( (
C r t (2 x
)
.
( )
d
( ) 1
( )
e
o> o x + o cy + E
k
( )
( 1)
2 . O ne i de of a re cta ngl e
s is 4 yd an d th e oth e r is 6 yd
. .
H ow m uch wi d e r m ust it b e m ade s o as to b e 1 % tim e s as

\
la r g e as b e for e
{L } N
1
.
'
THE EQ U ATI ON AP P L I ED TO . A R EA 91
3 . M ul ti ply th e foll owi n g as i n d icated a nd c h e ck th e re sul t

2 x
(a: 2y
2 2
S ol ut
ion . 2 x
(x 2 g 2 x 2 x y .
C h e ck . Let x 2 an d y 3 .
+ 2 y + y) = 4 (2
2
2 x ( x ,
6 68 .
4 25g i 2 - -
'
:
y
t
z
8
_
24 36 68 .
NO TE . Avoi d l tti ng x
e 1, for i nth i s ca se 2 x, 2 x
2
,
2 1
3
, etc a re
.
e ac h e qua l to 2 . W h y?
4 . M ul ti ply th e foll owi n g a s i n di ca te d a n d ch e ck th e r esul ts
()
a 4 a; (c
c 2g
( )
b
(c)
( ) (
d m n + 2 a ) (m
() (
e 0 4 9c . 0 3y.
)(
t
o 1 0 x 20g 30 z) .
12 7 . Geom etr ic sq ua e r of a b inom ia l T h e pr od uct of

.
( + 3
y) ( g; +
y) , or
( 23 +
y) , is an .
2
i n te r e stin g spe ci a l ca se
of th e pr e ce din g l aw s Th e pr od .
uct m ay b e r e pr ese n te d by a s q ua r e
e ac h of wh ose S id es is x
( + y se e
F ig . Th e s
q ua e r is com pose d of
f our p r ts o f awh i ch ,t w o
par ts ar e
e q ua l S in ce th e se tw o pa r ts are r e pr e
.
se n te d b yS i m i l a r a l ge b r a i c term s t h ey ,
m ay b dd e d ; th us, = 2
e a x
y+ y
x x
y .
LL U S T A TI NG
H en ce th e ar e a of r wh os e
“121?q
a sq u a e F IG o 82 I R
“
.
T A B"
s id e is + y is
x 34
2
+ 2 xy+ y Th e 2
.
sa m e pr od uct is ob ta i n e d b y apply
ing th e l a w for th e pr od uct of tw o po lyn om i a l s ; th us,

a : y
2
1 + my
In a lg e b r a ic t r
e m s we m a
y sa y th a t th e s ua r e
q f
o th e
sum f
o w o n um b er s
t e
q ua ls th e s ua r e
q f
o th e fir st p lus, w ice
t
th e pr oduct of the t
w o n um b ers, p l us th e s
q u
a re o f th e se cond .
U se Fig . 82 to s h o w wh at th is l a w m e an s .
1 . B y m ea n s of fi gu r e s r
e x p e ss th e foll owi ng s q ua r e s as
polyn om i a ls
:
°
2
()
2
a
0 6
(e
0 (
(g) (3 9 9
( e ) (a: 2 ) h
2 2
( ) (
b m n
) .
( ) (2 x y)
o> o+ o
2
< o <m + s e> c w + 3 w
2 .k etch s q ua re s that
S ar e ed
s ugge s t b y th e f ollowi n g
tri n om ia l s :
()
2 2 2
a a + 2 ab + b .
() e m + 8 m + 16 .
2 a 2
b
( ) x + 2 ox + tl . f
() x + 10 at + 2 5 .
2 2 2
(c) k + 2 hr + r .
(g) 49 + 14 x + x .
3 . I nd ca te i w ha t n um b e r h a s b e e n m ul t p i li e d i
b y ts e lf to
pr od uce
2
()
c x + 61 + 9 .
3 2
(b ) i + 4r + 4 . d
( ) 6 + 1 O If + 2 5 .
'
4 . W fa ctor s in th e tri n om i a l s of Ex 3
h a tar e th e .
'
5 Th e f oll owi n g li s t f e q uati on s r e vi e w th e f un da m n t
. o al e
a x i om s a s ta ug h t i n C h a pter I S olv e ea ch e q ua ti on a n d ch eck .
b y th e m e th od s of C h a pte r I .
() a
( )
b
()
c
z z m m
3
(9 7 ‘
s
1
+ 7 _
s + 11 0
L
L 7i
_
94 G EN ER A L M ATH EM A TI C S
wh at is m or e se r i ous w e are dis h one stly cl a i m ing for
,
th e r e sul t an accur acy wh i ch it d oes n ot h a ve O n th e .
ot h e r h an d w e a re n ot d oing sci en ti fi c w or k wh en w e
,
ca r e l e ss ly r e j e ct fig ur e s th at con v e y in f or m a ti on .
T h e f oll ow i n g facts are a m on g th ose wh i ch be a r on our
p r o bl e m .
n A rt 2 6 w e po i n t e d out t h at a nyn um be r ob t a i ne d
:
( )
a I .
-
by m eas ur e m en t is a n appr oxi m a ti on Th e appli ca ti on of

th e a r e a f or m ul as in v o lv e s th e m e asur e m e n t of l in e se g
m e n ts . He nce an ar e a is an appr ox i m a ti on Thi s f act .
a l on e is suf fi ci e n t to m ak e us e x ce e di ng l y cr iti ca l of th e
r esul t s q ft a s a n a b sol ut
. . e ly a ccur at e m e as ur e
of t h e a r e a of th e cl ass r oom fi oor .
b
( ) I f w e m e a sur e th e l en g th of a r oom w i t h a r e l i abl e
tape m e as ur e an d r e cor d th e r esul t as d oes

n otm
\
e an t h a t w e r eg a r d th e r esul t as a b so l ute ly accur ate .
If th e s ca l e is gr a d uate d to h un d r e d th s of a f oot it me an s ,
th at ft is th e r e sul t n e a r est to th e true v a l ue Th e

. .
ey e t e l ls u s t h at ft is too h i gh an d . ft is .
too l ow b ut th at th e r esul t m ay b e an ywh e r e b e tw een

,
th ese . Th us th e l en gth of th e r oom l i e s an ywh e re b etw e en

,
ft an d
. ft S i m il ar l y th e w id th m ay b e
.
,
an y w h er e be tw e en ft an d ft Th e stud ent
. .
sh o uld pr act ice m e asur i n g obj e cts w i th a y ar d stick or a

m e te r s ti ck till th e poin t of th i s par agr aph is cl ea r to h im .
T e st q ue sti on :How d oe s ft diffe r f r om ft ? . .
M ul tipl y i ng th e sm a l l est pos si b l e l ength ft) .
h e cl a ssr oom b y th e sm a l l e st w id th
'
of t
e t a pos s i b l e a r e a of 5 24 6 1 3075 s
g q ft By m ul ti pl y in g
. . .
th e gr e ate st l en gth ft) by th e gr e ate st w id th

.
ft) w e ge t 5 2 5 071375 sq ft S ubtr actin g th e

. . . .
sm all est ossi b l e a r e a f r om t h e l arg e st possi b l e a rea g i v es

p '
us a r an g e of o v e r o f a s q uare f oot In sh ort t he

'
r . o -
.
,
THE EQ U AT ION A PPLIED :TO A R EA .
95
re sul t m igh t b e w r ong by pr acti ca lly on e h alf of a s q uar e

.
.
foot W e are n ot actual ly sur e of th e th ir d fig ur e fr om th e

. .
l e ft
. a 4 or a 5 We sh a l l b e r e ason a bly n ear .
t h e tr uth r e cor d th e re sul t s im ply as s

q ft, . .
a n um be r r oughly h alfw ay betw een th e l arg est and

sm a ll es t possi bl e a r e as .
It can th us b e S h ow n th at th e pr od uct of tw o approx i

.
m ate f our pl ace n um b e r s is n ot to b e r eg a r d e d a ccur ate

-
to m or e th an f our pl a ce s .
130 Ab b r ev i a ted m ul ti pli ca tion

. It is appa r e n t in th e .
p r e ce din g di scus si on t h a t it is a w as t e of t i m e to w or k
out a l l t h e par ti a l pr od ucts in m ul ti pl i cati on It is e asi e r .
( wh e n t h e h ab i t is on ce e st a bli sh e d
) to w or k out on ly
th e pa r ti a l pr od ucts wh i ch g o to m ak e up th e S i g n i fi cant
par t of th e an s w e r .
T hus, x m a y ta k e f ll wi ng f rm
o o o s
ABB R E V I A T E D F OR M U UA L M ETH OD
S
B y m ul tipli c ti n w a o e get
Th e diff e r e n ce is a cc id en ta lly on ly a l ittl e m o e r t anh

Sq . ft I t can b e
. s h ow n b y th e m e th od use d in th e
cl assr oom p rob lem ( Art 12 9
) . th at 16 2 8 is ily in th e
e as
r ange of pr ob ab l e ar eas ; th at is w e are , not actua l l y sur e

ab out t h e f our th fig ur e f r om th e l ef t .
H r ft r ll rti cl
e ea en d x r ci
a m rk d wi th
a es a e e se s a e a n aste ri k m
s ay b e
o m i tt d w i th ut d tr y i ng th
e o qu c f th w rk
es o e se en e o e o
Th e a bbr e vi ated m et h od w ri tin g on ly th e

i
con s s ts of
s ign i fi can t part s of t h e us ua l m e th od ( se e n um be r s to l e f t

of t h e lin e ) Add 1 uni t wh e n th e n
. th e r igh t is
th e fi gil r e 5 or l a rg e r Th e m e th o d wi ll
. ar a w k w ar d
un til s uffi ci ently pr acti ce d .
A s im il a r discussi on con ce r n i n g a ccur acy could b e g i v en

for di v i si on In addi ti on or s ub tr acti on it is e as y to
.
se e t h at th e sum or diffe ren ce of tw o num be rs cann ot b e

r eg a r d e d as m or e accur a te th an th e l ess accur ate of th e
tw o n um b e r s I ll ustr a te th e truth of th e l as t sta tem en t
. .
W h il e th e di s cussi on of thi s v e ry im por tan t topi c h as

be en by n o m e an s com pl e te pe rh aps en ough h as be en ,
sa id t o f ulfil l our pu rpos e wh i ch is t o m ak e t

, h e stud en t
e x cee din gly cr i ti ca l of r e sul t s in v ol v in g th e S i gn i fi can ce of
d e cim al pl aces .
EXERCIS ES
*1 Assum i ng tha t th e dim e ns i on s of a h a l l a e m e as ur e d

. r
with a r e lia b l e ste e l ta pe an d tha t th e d i m e n s i on s are r e cor de d

as ft a n d . ft r e spectiv e ly S h ow b yth e m e th od us e d
.
,
in A t 1 2 9 th at th e diffe r e n ce b e tw ee n th e s m al l est a nd th e
r .
la rge st pos s i b l e ar e a of th e h a ll is actua lly ove r four fifths of

a s q ua r e f oot .
*2 B y m ea n s of th e a b b r e viate d m ul ti pli ca ti on m eth od

.
wri te th e pr oduct of an d of an d
*3 M ul ti ply b y th e usual m eth od a n d com pa r e th e sh or t

.
cut r e s ul t wi th th i s r e sul t .
*4 W h i ch r e sul t is th e m or e a ccura te
.
MM AR Y SU
131 Th i s ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e an in g of th e f oll ow

.
ing w or d s an d phr as e s :a r e a m e as ur i n g a r e a un i t of ar e a
, , ,
rh om bus tr apezoid C o m m utati v e La w of M ul tipli cati on

, , ,
p ar ti al
pr od ucts pa r enth e s i s f o
,
rm ul a f orm ul as , ,
.
C H AP T ER V
THE EQ UATION AP P LIED TO V OLUME
137 S olids
. . Th e d ra w in g s in F i g 83 r epr ese nt geo .
r
m e t i c s olid s . A so lid is com m on l y th ough t of as a n O bj ect
th at occupi es a por t i on of space It is se par ate d fr om .
lq
O b i ue P a a rl R e ctangul a rP r l
a a
l el epipe d l elepiped
S ph e r e F r ustum of 8.
F IG . 83 . FA M I L I A R S OLI D S
th e rr oundi ng space by its surface In g e om etry w e

su .
st ud y on l y t h e f or m of th e sol id a n d its S ize W e are .
n ot in t e r est e d in col or w e i gh t e t c A s olid diff e rs f r om

, , .
th e fig ur e s w e h a v e b een stud y in g in th a t it d oe s n ot l ie
a ltog e th e r in a pl an e; b utin v ol v es a th i r d di m en si on W h at .
figur es in tw o dim en si on s are sugg este d by th e sol ids in

F ig 83 F or ex am pl e th e sq uar e is sugg este d by th e cube
.
,
.
98
TH E EQ U AT IO N A PPLIED TO VOL U ME 99
138 . C ub e . Th e cube w hi ch areh as six faces all of
s q uar e s T w o f ace s in t
. e rse ct in an edg e H ow m an y edges .
h as a cube H ow m an y corne r s How is a corn e r f or m e d

139 Ob liq ue parall el epiped Th e f a ce s of an ob li q ue
. .
‘
p a r a ll e l e pipe d a re al l
p a r a ll e l ogr a m s H ow m an y f ace s .
h as it? H ow m an y v e r ti ce s ? H ow m an y e d g e s ?
140 . Rectangul ar pa ral l el epiped . Th e face s of a r ec
tan gul ar pa r al l e l epipe d a re r e ctan g l e s .
M ea surem ent of W h en w e
vo l um e ; uni t of v ol um e .
d ete r m in e th e a m oun t of space in cl ose d w ith in th e sur face

of a sol i d w e are m e as ur in g t h e v olum e of th e s ol id T o .
m e as ur e t h e v ol um e of a sol id w e com pa r e th e soli d w i th

a cube e a ch of wh os e e d g e s e q ua l s a un i t of l en gth Th e .
v olum e is e x pre sse d n um er i cal ly by th e n um be r of tim es

th e un i t cub e g oes in to th e sol id Th e un i t cub e is call e d .
th e un it of v olum e .
142 . F orm ul a for th e v ol um e of a recta ngul a r paral l el e

piped . In F ig . 84 a r e ctan g ul a r p r ll e l epi pe d
a a is sh own
w hi ch IS 5 cm . l on g , 3 cm wi d e ,
.
an d 4 cm . h igh . Th e un i t cub e
is r
rep esentd by K S in ce th e
e .
b ase of th e solid (th e face

on wh i ch it st an d s
) is 5 cm .
l ong an d 3 cm w id e a l ay e r of .
,
3 x5 un itcub e s could b e pl ace d

upon it S in ce t h e solid is 4 cm
. .
high itcontain s 4 l ay e rs of un it
,
h at is 4 X 3 X 5 0 1 6 0 F 84 H W
cub e s ? t , FN H a
’
, IG. . O TO I D T E
un i t cube s Th us th e v olum e V OL UM
.
A R T ANGU LA E OF EC R
P A A LL L P I P D R E E E
of a r e ctan g ul ar par a ll e l epipe d
is obtai n e d by m ul ti pl y in g th e l ength by th e w idth by th e

h e igh t Th i s l aw m ayb e e x pr e ss e d by th e form ul a V : lw h
. .
X
E ERCISES
1 Fi nd th e v ol um e of a r e cta ngul ar pa ra ll el e pi ped if its

.
d i m e n s i ons are l : 63 in h 42 in a n d w 5 6 in
.
,
.
,
.
I f in th e pr e ce din g d i scuss i on th e edge s of th e r ec

tangul a par al l e l e pi pe d h a d n otb e e n giv e n as in t
r e gral m ul t i pl es
of t h e un i t cub e it w oul d h a v e b e e n n e ce ssa ry te m por a r ily to
,
ad opt a sm a ll e r un i t cub e S h ow that th e f or m ul a V : lw h

.
h ol ds w h e n l cm h cm an d w .
,
cm .
,
.
H N IF ll w th m th d ugg t d in A t 1 11
T . o o e e o s es e r . .
*3 S h ow b y m ean s of a ge ne r a l d i scus s i on th at th e form ul a

.
w oul d b e true if l h w 32 ,
—
H N IS Ex 3 A t 112
T . ee .
, r . .
143 V ol um e of. an ob liq ue parall el epiped F i g 85 sh ow s . .
in a g e n e ra l w ay th e m e th od use d in a m o r e a d v an ce d
m at h e m ati cs cou se t r
o S h ow th atth e f or m ul a V : lw h h ol ds
F IG . 85 . M OD E L I L L U T A TI NG n w o F N
S R o T I D TH E V OL U M E or AN
O B L I QU P A A LL L P I P D E E
E R E
e v en
for an O b li q ue par a ll e l epipe d . P ar all e l epipe d III is a
r ectangul ar par al l e l epi pe d , an d w e k n ow f orm ul a h ol d s

th e
for it . P a r al l e l epiped II is a r i ght par a ll e l epipe d (it h as
U o o b
0 e
,
5 . If r e gold b ea te n i nto gol d l ea f will cove r

1 cu in of . .
pu
Sq ft of surface w ha t is th e th i ckness of th e gol d l ea f
. .
,
6 An ope n t
. a n k is m a de of ir on
i in t h i ck Th e outer . .
di m en s i on s a re a s f oll ows :l n gth 3 ft ; wi dth 1 ft 9 m ;

3 e , .
,
.
h e i ght 2 ft I f 1 cu ft of ir on we i gh s 4 60 l b fi nd th e we i gh t
,
. . . .
,
of t h e ta n k .
7 I n a a i n fa ll of 1 i
. h ow m a ny ton s of wa te r fa ll upon
r ll .
a n a cr e o f gr oun d if 1 cu ft o f wa t e r w e i gh s lb . . .
144 . F orm ul a for th e v ol um e of v ol um e of a cub e . Th e

a cub e is com put e d in t h e s a m e w ay as th a t of a pa r a ll e l e
pp i e d .T h e c u b e is a S
pe ci a l ca se in t h e s e n se t h a t th e
l eng th w id th a n d h e i gh tare al l e q ual H en ce i f 8 e q ual s an

, , .
,
e d g e of a cub e t h e v ol um e m ayb e e x pr esse d b yth e f or m ul a

,
.
V:s x s x s Th e f or m ul a V : s x s x 8 m ay b e w r i tte n
.
m or e br i e fly V : 8
3
( r e a d V eq u ls 8 c
a u b e 8
3
b e i n g an
ab b r e v i ate d f or m of s x s x s T h e f or m ul a m ay b e tr an s .
l ate d in to th e f oll ow i ng l a w :Th e v olum e of a cub e equa ls '
th e cub e of an edg e .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . Fi n d th e v ol um e of a cub e w h ose e dge i s

3
;
i 1
ll .
i in ;
. in .
2 . Fi nd th e v ol um e of a cub e w h ose e dg e is 1 f in ; :
1
. cm ;
.
3 ln ; 1 m ;
. . m .
145 . Eq ua l fa ctors ; ex ponents ; b a s e ; pow er .Th e pr od »
ucts of l di m e n si on s an d th r e e
tw o e q ua e q ua l dim e n
s i ons h a v e b een r e pr e s e n ted b y t h e a r e a of a s q ua r e an d

th e v ol um e of a cub e r espe cti v e l y Hen ce th e n otati on .
”
a s ua r e an d h e pr od uct of f our e q ua l fac
"
q 8 cub e T .
tor s cann ot b e r e pr ese n te d g e om e tri ca lly th ough you m ay ,
alr e a d y h av e h e a r d pe opl e t a l k v ag ue ly a b out t h e f ourth .
dim e n s i on Ho w e v e r th e pr od uct of f our e q ua l al g eb r aic

.
,
factors say s x s x s x s is as d e fi n ite as 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

, ,
TH E EQ U AT IO N A PPLI ED To VOL U ME 103
in ar i thm etic Thus w e ex ten d th e pr ocess in d e fi ni tel y in

.
,
”
al g e br a an d wr i te 8 x s x s x s 8
4
( r e ad s f our th ) or
( r e ad b fif th ) etc
"
, .
Th e te r m 6 is obv i ousl y m uch m or e conv en i ent th an

5
6xb x b x b x b Th e 5 in b is ca l l e d an exp on en t It
5
. .
is a sm a ll num b er w ri t
t o t
en t he r ig h t a nd a little a b ov e
h er
a not num b er t
o s h ow h ow m a ny tim es th a t num b er is to
b e used as a fa ctor . In 5 3
( m e an in g 5 x 5 x 5) th e 3 is
he
t ex
p on en t
, th e n um ber 5 is th e b a se, an d th e p od uct r
of 5 x 5 x 5 i h
s t e
p we
o r Thus, 1 5 , or 5 ,
2 3 . is th e t ir d h
po w e r of 5 W h e n n o e x pon en t is wr i t
. te n , as in v,
. th e
e x pon e n t is un e stoo d r
d to b e 1 Th us in 2 r y b oth x an d .
, .
ach to b e use d on l y on ce a s a f act r T h m

y are e o e e an
.
.
s if th e te r w e r e w r itten 2 x y
i 1 1
n h
i g s te s a m e a m .
X E ERCIS ES
1 S ta t
. e cl e a rly th e d i ffe r e n ce b etwe e n a coe ffi ci e nt a n d an
e x pon e n t I ll ust rate with a ri thm eti ca l num b e r s

. .
2 Le tti n g a
. 5 g iv e th e m ean i n g an d th e v al ue of e ach
,
of t h e foll owi n g n um b e r s
i “
(a ) 3 a (0 ) 2 a
.
()
e 4 a
( )
g 5 a
() 2 a
“
. . . .
”
( )
b a d
( ). f
() a h
( ) a
2
j
() 3
.
‘
. a . a
2
.
3 . Wri te th e foll ow i ng pr oducts in b ri e fe st form

1 1 1 1 3 3
0
0
y y y y y;
.
o o o o 1
(It c
c;
g g
o -
1
0
2§ -
4 -
4 -
5 o
3 i3 3 - o
x o
w y - -
y y -
.
4 . Fi d n th e v a l ue of
3
2 ; 8
9 ;
5 . L ettn g m i 2 an d n 3, fi n d th e val ue of th e foll ow

ing poly nom i a l s m
2
2 mn “
n ; m
a
3m
g
n 3m a z ”
n ;
8
6 (2 m + 3 m + 2
6 . Fin d th e va l ue of foll owi ng n um b ers w h ere z 3
th e
“
,
() a 2 z; b z ; ( ) () ( ) ( )
c 2 z ; d 2 z ;
()e
2
3 z ; f
() ( )
3 z
’ 3 3
;
?
( )
s (3 z
)
7 . i a: 1
L e ttn g , y 2, z 3, a nd u 4, fi n d th e va l ue of
th e foll owi n g
w+ y+ z + u
146 . Ex ponents im portant bj ect of e x po . S in ce th e su
n en t s is f un d a m en tal to a cl e a r un d e r sta n din g of tw o v e ry

im por tant l ab or sav ing d e v i ce s n am e ly th e S lid e rul e an d
-
l og a ri th m s wh i ch w e S h a ll pr e sen tly stud y it is n e ce ssa ry

, ,
to stud y th e l a w s of e x pon en ts v e ry ca r e f ul ly .
147 Product of powe rs h av ing th e sa m e ex ponents Th e

. .
l aw to b e use d in th is type m ay b e ill ustr ate d by th e
pr ob l e m , M ul tipl y a
2
by a3 . Th e ex pr es s i on a
2
m e an s
e x pr e s s i on
3
a a, or a a, an d th e a m ean s a a a , or d a a .
Hen ce a
2
a
3 m e an s aa a aa , or, in s h or t a5 , .
X
E ERCIS E
In ea c h cas e g iv e or ally th e p r oduct in b ri e fe st form

( ) a 32 -
3 3
. i
( ) q
( ) x m
2 -
.
8 8
b
( ) 6 o
6 .
( )
r 5 -
5 -
ac -
x .
”
(0 ) 5 2
k
( ) b -
c -
b .
( )
s 4b 2
o -
5b a
o .
3 2 2 2 8
(d) 10 10 -
.
( 1) b -
b .
( t) a
ye -
x yz .
2 xyz
2
( )
2
e ic
s -
(v .
( )
m e -
e -
2 -
2 .
( )
u 2
( 5cy) .
(f ) v
2 s z ?
12 -
12 . c -
o .
( ) 2 ai
( y)
(g) (0 ) a : (w) (3 x y)
2 z
.
c :
: :
4
( )
2
h c -
.
(p ) m -
r .
( )
x 3 5 -
2
Th e ex e r ci se ab o v e sh ow s th at th e p roduct o f two or
m or e fa ctor s h a ving the sa m e b ase is a num b er w h ose b a se

is th e sa m e a s th a t of th e fa ctors a nd whose ex
p on ent is th e .
m
su i the exponents of the factors ; th us b 2
, b 3
b 5
b l0
.
106 GEN ER A L M ATH EM ATI C S
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . Fi nd
ra i c num b e r w h i ch will ex pr ess th e sum
a n al ge b
of t h e e dge s of th e s oli d in F ig 86 . .
2 I f th e s um of th e e dge s of th e soli d in F ig 86 is 1 72 w hat

. .
,
a re t h e a ctua l dim e n s i on s of th e s oli d 2 x +3
3 Fi nd . an a l ge b r a i c e x pr e s s i on
for th e tot al s urfa ce of t h e s oli d i n

F ig 86 Al so f
. th e v ol um e
. or .
4 W ha t is th e tota l sur face a n d ol

. v
F 86 IG
um e of th e soli d in F ig 86 if
.
e q ua l s 1 0 . as
5 Expr ess a l ge b ra i ca ll y th e s um of th e e dge s of th e cub e

.
in F ig 87 . .
6 . I f th e s um of th e e dg e s of th e cub e
in F ig 87 . is 1 12 , w h at is th e l e n gth of
on e e dge
7 . Ex pr e s s a lgeb ra i cal ly th e tota l su rface A x +2 B
an d v ol um e of th e cub e in F ig 87 F 87 . ro .
8 W ha t is th e tot
. a l s ur face of t h e cub e inF ig 87 if : 2 . a
9 Th e e dge of a t
. et ra h e dr on (F ig 88) is de n ote d b y .
2 3: Ex pr e ss a l geb r a i ca lly th e s um of all

th e e dge s of th e tetr ah e dr on .
N E A t tr h dr n i
OT . fi gur ll f wh
e a e o s a e a o o se
e dg qu l n d wh f c
e s a re e a qu l qui l t r l
a o se a e s a re e a e a e a
tri n gl
a es .
F 88 ro
10 Fi nd th e l en gth of a n e dge of th e te tra
.
. ,
h edron in F ig 88 if th e sum of th e e dges is . cm .
11 F ig 89 s h ow s a fr us t
. um of a p y
. ra
m id Th e uppe r a n d l owe r b as es are e q ui

.
late ra l pe nta gon s ; th e s i des are trape zoi ds

wi th th e edge s de n ote d as in th e fi gur e .
Fi nd th e sum of al l th e edges If . e
e q ual s 2 w ha t is t h e sum of th e e dges

, F 89 IG .
1 08 G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
H I S T O R I C A L NO T E . Th e id ea of i
us n g e xpon e n ts to m a th e rk
po e w r t wh ich qu n ti ty w r i
o a a r as a s e d w a s du e to R e n é De s ca te s,
th e F r nch ph il ph r ( 15 96
e It i i n t r ti n g t r d f th
o so e s e es o ea o e
s truggl f c nturi
e n th
or p r t f m th m tici n t ob t i n
e es o e a o a e a a s o a
so m i m pl m th d f wri tin g p w r f n um b r Thu w r d

e s e e o o a o e o a e . s, e ea
'
o f th H i n du m th m ti ci n B h k r ( 1114
e a e
) u i n g th i i ti l
a a as a a s e n a s
o f th H i d u wrd
e n qu r n d li d o s d n ti g th
s c nd da e a so as e o n e se o an
th ird p w r f th un k n wn n um b
o e o i n pr b l m
e w h i ch h g v
o e1 s o e s, e a e a
p r cti
a c l tti n g wi t
a hsem ny r f r nc t f ir d m l n d g ll nt a e e e es o a a se s a a a
w rri r
a In th f ll wi n g c n turi
o s . egr tv i ty f ym b l f
o o e es a ea ar e o s o s or
p ow r u
e s are d f m pl rc circl tc un til w c m t
se , or e x a e, a s, es, e .
, e o e o a
F r n ch l wy r F r n c i V i et ( 15 4 0
e a e , wh
a wr t n m th
o s a o o e o a e
m ti a p ti m
es a s a V i t did m uch t t n d r di
as e . th n t ti n f e a o s a a ze e o a o o
a l g b ra Thu i n th m tt r f p n n t b m pl y d A qu d
e . s, e a e o ex o e s e e o e
"
a
“
r tu
a s,A cub u
”
t r pr nt d s, i n t d f i ntr d uci g
”
o e e se
2
33 a n 35
3
, s ea o o n a
n w l t
e tr f e ech p w r F r m th i p i n t i t i
or ea nl yo tp t e . o s o s o a s e o
D c rt m th d
’
es a es s e o .
Th b i gr ph i e f th thr
o a m th m ti ci n B h k r
es o V i t nd
e ee a e a a s as a a, e a, a
D c rt
es a c di n gl y i n t r ti n g
e s a r e ex Thu y u m y j y r d in g
ee e es . s, o a en o ea
o f Bh k as y n c p t d l g b r in v r in w h i ch m ny f th
ara s
’
s o a e a e a e se , a o e
“
pr b l m dd r l v l y n d d r Lil ti (h i d ught r) ”
o e d t
s are a e sse o o e a ea av a s a e
b y w y f c n l ti n wh n h f rb d h
a o o so a m rri g
o e e o a e er a a e.
Y u m yr d f V i t b i n g um m n d t th c urt f H n r y IV
’
o a ea o e a s e s o e o e o o e
o f F r nc t a lv pr b l m wh i ch i nv lv d th 45 th p wer f
e o so e a o e o e e o o x .
Th pr b l m h d b n
e o e nt ch ll
a g t l l m th m ti ci n
ee se as a a en e o a a e a a s
i n th m pir
e e V i t pp r d i n e . f w m m n t n d g v th ki n g
e a a ea e a e o e s a a e e
tw c rr ct
o o l uti n N t K i n g H n y k d V i t t d ci ph r
e so o s . ex e r as e e a o e e
th e S p n i h m ili t r y c d
a s c nt i n i n g v r i h un dr d unk n wn
a o e, o a o e s x e o
ch r ct r
a a wh i ch w p ri di c lly ch ng d K i n g H n ry g v th
e s, as e o a a e . e a e e
ci ph r t V i t w h
e o ucc d d i n fi n di n g th
e a, luti n t th y t m
o s ee e e so o o e s s e ,
w h i ch th F r n ch h l d gr tly t th ir pr fi t d u i n g th
e e e w ea o e o r e ar .
O y u m y r d f D c rt
r o a m mb rea f th n b ili ty w h
o es a e s, a e e o e o , o
f un d th y r f h i rm y lif c di ngly irk m f h cr v d

o e ea s o s a e ex ee so e, or e a e
l i ur f m th m ti c l tudi
e s e or a H r i gn d h i c m m
e a a n m s es . e es e s o l ss1o
1 6 2 1 an d g v h i ti m t tr v l n d tudy I n 1 637 h wr te b k “
a e s e o a e a s . e o a oo ,
D i c ur n M t h d I n th i t th m d c n i d r b l dv n c
”
s o se o e o s . s ex e a e o s e a e a a e
tow r d th a y t m f p n nt n w u d Th t t h w th t h
e s s e o ex o e s o se . e ex s o s a e
r liz d th cl r l ti n i ti n g b tw n g m try n d lg b r
ea e e ose e a o ex s e ee eo e a a e a .
e
“
H i fte n c ll d th f th r f m d rn l g b r ”
s o a e e a e o o e a e a .
15 1 . Th e v ol um e lid is d e te rm ine d by apply ing

of a so
th e un i t cub e to se e h ow m an y ti m e s it is con ta in e d in th e
soli d .Th e pr oce s s is e sse n ti a lly com pa r i s on Th e un itcube
.
is a cub e e ach of wh os e e d g e s is on e un i t l ong .
15 2 Th e f ol l ow i n g f or m ul as h a v e be e n use d
.
v = lmb ,
v : 8
3
.
15 3 . Th e pr od uct of factor s h a v in g a com m on base

e q ua sl a n um be r wh ose b ase is th e s am e as th e factors
an d wh os e e x on e n t is t h e s u m o f th e e x on e n ts of the
p p
factor s .
15 4 T h e q uoti e n t ob ta in e d by di v idin g a po w e r b y
.
a n ot h e r po w e r h a v i n g th e s am e b ase is a n um b e r w h ose
base is th e com m on b ase of th e g i v en pow ers a n d wh ose
ex pon e n t is ob t a in e d by s u b t r actin g th e ex pon e n t of th e
di v is or f r om th e e x pon en t of th e di vi d e n d .
C H AP T ER VI
THE EQ UATION AP P LIED TO FUNDAM ENTAL

ANGLE RELATIONS
155 .F unda m ental a ngl e relations In C h apte r III w e.
discuss e d th e diffe r e n t ki n d s of an gl es an d th e m eth od s of

con structin g th em In th i s ch apte r w e sh a ll stud y s om e
.
of t h e fun d am e n ta l r e l ati on s b e tw een angl es an d see h ow

th e e q ua ti on is a ppli e d to th em .
15 6 Rel ation of ex ter ior s i des of suppl em entary a dj a cent

.
an gl es D r a w tw o ad j ace n t an gl e s of 6 4 a n d of 75
° °
.
an d of 1 5 7 a n d
°
Wh a t is th e sum of e ach pai r 9
W h at is th e r e l ati on of th e ex te r i or si d e s of e ach pa i r ?
F IG . 93
157 . Im portant geom etri c r el a ti on .Th e pr e ce d in g a rti cl e

il l ustr ate s th e f oll o win g :
g e om e tri c r e l ati on If th e sum of
tw o a dj a cen t a ng les is a r a ig h t a ngle,
st th eir er ior
ex t si des
f or m a stra ig h t lin e .
X E ERCIS ES
1 S h ow th a tth e geom etri c r e l a ti on s t

. ate d in Ar t 15 7 a gr ees .
wi th th e de fi n i ti on of a s tr a i gh t a n gl e (Ar t .
2 I n F ig 9 3 r e a d th e n um b e r of de gr ee s in an gl e s X OA
. .
,
X 0 3 , X O C , X 0 Y, X 0 1) , X 0 E .
3
0 W ha t is th e sum of A X OA a n d AAOB ?
'
5
0 Ex pr ess A K OB as th e s um of tw o a n gl es .
Ex pr ess L AOB a s th e d iffe r e n ce of tw o sin gl e s

1
0 .
Ex pr ess L X OE as th e sum of th r e e a n gl es
3
0 .
158 . S um of al l th e angl es ab out a point on one side
of a st aigh tr line . Draw a lin e AB an d ch oose a point

P on it . Draw line s P R,
P S, and P T as s h ow n in
F ig ‘
. 94 an d fi n d th e s um
of th e f our
gl es f or m e d
an .
Estim ate fi r st an d th en
m e as ur e with th e pr o A
tr acto r W h at se e m s to
.
F 94 ro
b e th e corr e ct sum ? Ex
.
p r ess th e s um o f th e a n gl es 93
y z an d w by m e an s of
, , ,
an e uat
q i on G i v e .a w ord st at e m e n t for th e e q ua ti on .
15 9 Im porta nt geom etr i c rel a tion Art 15 8 i ll us tr ates

. . .
th e truth of th e g e om e tr i c r e l ati on th at th e sum o f al l th e

‘
r a i h t lin e ht
an
g les a b outa p oint on on e si de o f a st
g is r a ig
a st
a ngl e
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . Fi nd v al ue of a:
th e an d t h es ize of each a n gl e in F ig 95 . .
2 I n th e fol l owin g e x a m pl e s each e x pr e s s i on r epr e s en ts one

.
of t h e a n gl e s i n to w h i ch all th e a n gul a r space a b out a poin t

on o n e s i d e of a s t ra i gh t li n e h a s b ee n d ivi ded Wri te an .
eq ua ti on e xpr essi ng th e sum of all th e an gl es solve fo ax ,

r ,
1 14 G EN E R A L M ATH EM AT I C S .
4 . Th e fol low i ng e xa m pl e r pre

e x pres s ion s in th e
‘
s e s en t the
a n gl e s i n t
o w h i ch th e a ngul ar space a b out a poi nt in a l
p an e
h as b e e n divi de d Fi n d th e s ize f e a ch an gl e
. o .
( )a at, 2 3:
+ 35 ,
12 5 at .
( )
b 2 33, 72 3x, 4 x
( )
c 10 3 : 20 5 ,
35 5 x, 8m 49 .
( )
d 5 x, 3x 27 % 7x 2 0,
’
( )
6 so 1, 7 ( c : )
as ,
2 3 : 16 9 .
f
( ) 3 2 3, 11 7 + 15 x, 27 .
(g) 14 a : 4 8, 2 8 a : 106 2 -
, 6 o
r.
Th e firsttw o ex e r cise s in this a r ti cl e sh ow th at th e m

s u
f
o a ll th e an
g les a b out a po n t in
i a .
p l ane is
16 1 . Left side of an angl e ; rig h t side of an angl e If . in

an d in a t t
F ig . 9 8 w e imag in e r lv e s ou s e st
g h e ve rte x of
AAB O an d l ookin g O H o v e r th e a n gu a l r space , sa

y in th e
dir ecti on B D th e n th e s id e B C ,
is ca ll e d th e left sid e of th e an gl e
( be ca use it li e s on our l e f t a n d
) ,
th e s id e B A is ca l l e d th e r ig h t
side of th e an gl e .
16 2 . l ette r in g an
Nota tion . In
gl e s a n d fig ur es it is often d es ir
ab l e t e an gl e s or l in e s t
o d e n ot h ath a v e ce rtain ch a r a cte r isti c
lik en es se s by th e sam e l ette r so as to id en tify th em m or e
e as i ly .I t is cl e a r th at to use l for th e l e ft s i d e of on e
a n gl e a n d t h e s am e l for th e l e ft s id e of an oth e r a n gl e
in th e s am e dis cus s i on m igh t b e m 1sl e ading In ord er to
'
.
‘
b e cl e ar fth e refore w e l e t l1 stan d for th e l e ft sid e of on e

'
angl e 12 stan
, d for th e l e ft s id e of a secon d an g l e an d
.
.
L
I3 stan d for th e le ft sid e of a th ir d an g l e e tc Th e n th e ,

.
” “ ”
thr ee sid e s w ould b e r e a d I s ub on e
"
l sub tw o l sub
"
- -
, ,
et
c.
F U ND A M EN TA L A N G L E R EL A TI O N S 1 15
163 . Im porta ntg eom etric re at l

i on . Tw o g l e s x 1 an d
an ,
in F ig . 99, a re d r a wn so th atth e ir sid es a re pa r a ll e l l e ft
to l e ft an d r i gh t to
r igh t . H ow do t h ey
s e em r e in
to com pa
s i ze C h e ck y our
e st i m a te by m easur
ing w ith a pr otr act or .
G i v e a n a rg um en t
s h ow in g t h ata I 95 2 E1 G
.
. 99
Thi s a rti cl e s h ow s
th at if two a ngles h a ve th eir si d es
p a ra lle l leftto l ef ta nd r ig h t
o ri h t
t g , th e an
g le s a re e
qu al .
X
E ER CIS E
raw fre e ha nd tw o ob tuse a n gl es so tha t th e ir s i des will

D
l ook pa ra ll e l l e ft to le ft a nd ri gh t to ri gh t (Th e a n gl e sh oul d . s
b e appr ox i m ate ly e q ua l A e th e y . r
H N ~ T k tw
I T .
p i t f a v rti c n d in ch c im gi n
e -
o o n s or e es a ea a se a e
y ur lf t n di n g t th p i n t Dr w th l ft id t y ur l ft n d
o se s a . a e o . a e e s eS
'
o o e a
th ri gh t i d
e t y u r ri gh t A um th dr wi n g c rr ct n d pr v
s es o o . ss e e a o e a o e
th n gl
e a qu l es e a .
16 4 Im portant geom etric rel a tion Tw o an g l es, 15 an d

. .
y in, F i g 100, h av e be en d ra w n so th atth e ir s id e s are par

.
al le l l eft to r i gh t an d r igh t to l e ft Wh at r e l ati on . se e m s
to ex i stb e tw ee n th e m M e as
ure e ach w i th a pr otr actor .
G i v e a n argum ent sh ow i ng
l r
th at a; +
y
Th is a r ti cl e sh ow s th a t if
two g les ha ve th eir sides p a r
an
a l le l left t o ri h t a nd ri
.
g ght to
left, th eir sum is a str a ig h ta ng le .

F m . 100
1 16 G ENER A L M ATH EMAT I C S
X
E ERCIS E
Pra cti ce dra wi n g free h a nd a pa ir of a ngl e s w h ose s i des a e r
pa r a ll e l a ccor d i n g to th e con d i ti on s in th e th e or e m of A t 16 4 r . .
I s th e s um a ppr ox i m ate ly 1 80
°
165 . S uppl em enta r y ang es l ; suppl e m ent. Tw o an g l es

wh ose sum is eq ua l to a st a r igh t an g l e ar e sa id
to b e su
pp l e m en tar a n les
y g . Each
an gl e is ca ll e d th e su
pp l em en t of
th e h r
ot e .
16 6 . S uppl em enta ry j
a d a cent
F ro . 101
a ngl es . P l ace tw o l
supp e m e n ta ry
an g l es a d j acen t to oth e r a s in F i g 1 01 An g l e s
e a ch . . so
l a ce d are ca ll e d su l em en t a dj a cen t a n gl e s
p pp ar
y .
X
E ER CISES
1 . w h at is th e a n gl e w h ose suppl e m e nt is
I n F ig 101
.
2 I n F ig 102 are se v e r a l a n gl e s som e pa ir s of w h i ch a re

. .
,
s uppl e m e n t
a ry M a k e tra ci ngs of th e se an gl e s on pa pe r a n d
.
b ypl aci ng th e m adj a ce ntde ci de w h i ch pa ir s a re suppl e m e n ta ry .
F ro . 102
3 . w h eth e r th e foll owi ng pa irs

S ta te of an g es l a re sup
ple m e nta ry:

° ° ° °
4 0 a nd . 30 an d 35 and 55
an d
4 . Ho w m an y de g ree s a re t h ere in th e l
s upp e m e n t o f a n
l
a n g e of of of of x
°
?
2 3
5 . Wh at is th e l
s upp e m e n t of y
°
of z
°
of 3w
°
o f ?
3
118 G EN ER A L M ATHE M AT I C S
15 . If an a n g e l is i ncre ase d fourth of its by 5
°
a nd if on e
l
supp em e nt is i n cr eas e d b y th e sum of th e an gl e s thus
a i n e d is
ob t Fin d th e suppl em entary a n gl e s .
16 . C on str uct th e s upp e m e n t of al g iv e n a ng e l .
17 . Fi nd th e i
s ze o f e ac h of th e foll owi n g j
a d a ce n t pa irs of
l
s upp e m e n ta ry a ngl es
( ) g
a as , 1 12 +
310 0 . 60, 1 30
( ) 2
b x 32 , 88 (e )
() c
3 + 15 0,
g
10 . f
() 65
167 . C onstruction prob l em . To cons tr uctth e s upp e l me n ts

of tw o e
q ua l an gl e s .
Cons tuct on r i . Le tx a n d
y b e th e gi e n v ang e s l .
r
C on st uct A 2 , th e supp e l
m e nt of 4 x , a d a ce n t j to
In t he sa m e
m an n e rc o n st ructAw th e
F ro . 103 . How To O N S T U C T m :S U PPL
C R r E
l
s upp e m e n t o f Ay .
,
M EN T S or T w o G I V N AN E G L Es
C om pa r e th e su l e m e nts of A a:
an d A y a n d s h o w th t
pp a
Az z 4 w .
Th i s a rti cl e sh o w s th at th e '
supp lem en ts o f e
qua l a n le s
g
are ual
e
q .
X
E ERCIS ES
l . P r ov e r e ced in g fact b y a n a l geb ra i c m e th od

th e p .
In F ig 1 03 pr v th tif X + e z =180 n d 4 , Aw
‘
Hm . . o e a x.
°
a 1
he n
t [z Aw .
2 . Are supp e m e n t l
s of th e sa m e a n g e eq ua l l ? Why -
F U N D A M EN TA L AN G LE R EL AT IO N S 1 19
3 . S h ow th at th e b i se ctor s of tw o e
s uppl 1n e n t r a ytadj ace n t
l
an g e s a re
p p
e r e n d i cul a r to ea ch o the r ; for e xa m p e , l in F ig 104 .
s h ow tha t £ : A g 31
4 I n F ig 104 if AB O D
°
. . 60 ,
a n d A AOD fi n d th e s i ze
of A a:
a nd A y .
*5 . foll owi ng e xa m pl e s
Th e
furn i sh a re vi e w In ea ch cas e .
solv e fo th e v a l ue of th e un
r 1ww , 104
k n ow n a n d ch eck,
.
2x
(a )
{g
(S
o
sa :
4 2
f
() 3 0 + 3)+ y 4
( )
b
5 y + 15 —
11 .
” 9
;
a
z (g)
—
12 —
8 .
3 '
2 5 a: 2
) B l
@ ( )
t —
3 . l
168, Com pl em enta ry angl es . If th e

s um of tw o a ng e s l is a r ightan gl e , th e
tw o an gles a re ca ll e d com
p l em en t
a ry
an
g les . Each
gl e is ca ll e d th e com
an
p l em entof th e oth e r Th u s in F i g 1 05 .
,
.
4 x is th e com pl e m en t of Z y . .
F 1G ~ 105
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . W h atis th e l
com p e m e n t of 30
°
of 60
°
2 . Are 2 3 °
a nd ry 32 a n d 5 8
°
5 7 com p e m e nta l ° °
3 D ra w tw o com pl e m e n t a ry an gl e s of 4 0
° °
. a nd 5 0 a nd
pl ace th e m adj acen t C h e ck th e con str ucti on . .
eri or s i des
4 W h at is th e r e l a ti on e x i sti n g b e twee n th e e x t
.
of t w o a dj a ce n t com pl e m e n t
a ry a n gl es
12 0 G ENER AL M ATH EM AT I C S
5 . In F ig 106 deci de b y m ea n s of tra ci n g pa pe r
. w h i ch
pa ir s o f a n gl e s s ee m to b e com pl e m e n t
a ry
:
.
6 . W h at a re th e com p l e m e n ts of th e foll owi ng l

a n g es
3
iz y
°
? 3y ? s
7 .
°
4 0 is th e com p e m e n t of y l °
. H ow m an y de grees doe s
y r e pr e s en t
8 . Wri te th e e quati on w h i ch say s in a l ge b ra i c l angua ge
ha t913 com pl e m e n t
a ry a n d solv e fo th e va l ue of x
° °
t a nd 50 a re r .
F ro . 106
9 . I n th e e q ua t on x i °
y
°
90
°
is th e re mo r e th a n o ne
poss i b l e pa ir of v a l ues of : a nd y Ex pl a i n a .
10 Wri t
. e e q ua t i ons th at will e x pr e ss th e fact th at th e
foll owi n g pa ir s of a ngl e s a e com pl e m e n ta ry : r
° ° ° °
( ) a 113 a nd ( ) 0 x 25 a n d 113
° ° ° °
( )
b 35 a nd y . d
( ) 2 33 3 a nd 3x
11 . Writ e t h e f oll owi n g e x pr e ss i on s in a l ge b r a i c l a n gua ge
(a) Th e s um of a n gl e : a n d an gl e y a .
F ou r i s a n a n gl e i n cr e a s e d b y
( )
b t m e ,
( )
0 85 d i m i ni sh ed b
°
y tw o ti m e s a n a n gl e .
( )
d Fiv e t i m es t h e s um of a n a n gl e a n d
( )
e T h r ee ti m e s th e d ifi e re n ce b e tw ee n a n a n gl e a n d 12
°
f
( ) F ou r t i m es a n a ng l e m i n us ,
12 2 G ENERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
170 .
-
V erti ca l a ngl es . D r a w tw o in
terse ctin g r igh t lin e s AB an d CD as
st a
in F ig 1 08 Th e an g l e s 37 and z are
. .
ca ll e d vert ica l or opp osite an g l e s Note

, , .
th a t v e rti ca l an gl e s h a v e a com m on
v erte x and th at th e i r s id e s lie i n th e
'
s a m e st r ai gh t li n e b ut in opposi te dire c
ti on s Thus v er tica l a ngles are angl e s
.
,
wh i ch h a v e a com m on v e rtex a n d th eir

s id es ly i n g in th e sa m e str a igh t li n e
b ut in oppos i te dir ecti ons Are w an d . . 108 , v m m cAL
i n F i g 1 09 ve r t i ca l a n g l es ?
ANG L E S
y .
X
E ER CIS ES
(Ex s 1—
. 6 r e fe rt o F ig 108).
1 . M a k e a tra ci n g of A a:
a nd A z a n d com pa iz
re the m as to s e .
2 . C h e ck
y our e stim ate in Ex . 1 b ym e asuri n g th e tw o a n gl es
wi th a pr otractor .
3 W h a tis th e sum o f
. and L y? of Az an d Ag ?
4 .
5 . How does Ex 4 . h elp in ob ta n ng i i th e r e la ti on b et we e n

a; a n d z W h a t is thi s r e lati on
6 . S ho w th aty : :w
a a and fr om th i s tha ty w .
Th e s ix ex e r cis es ab o v e sh o w th at if tw o l ines in t
er sect
,
the i ca
v ert l an
gl es a re e
qu al .
171 . V al ue of m a th em a ti ca l th ink in g . Th e pr e cedin g

r e l ati on be tw e en v e rti ca l an g l es is of cour se so eas il y seen
th at in m ost cas es th e truth w ould b e gr an te d e v en w it h
out m e a s ur in g t h e an g l e s i n v ol v e d How e v e r th e di scus .
,
s i on in Ex s 3 6 a
“
b ov e is a n oth e r si m pl e i ll ustra ti on of
.
—
F U N D AM EN TA L AN G L E
. R E AT L IO N S 12 3
th e po wer
h e m ati ca l th in kin g wh i ch m ak es th e dis
of m at
cov ery of n e w tr uth s r es t fi n al ly on n on m e as ure m e n t th at
’
is to say on an in te l l e ctua l b a s i s
, Th i s type of thinkin g .
w i l l b e use d to an in cr eas ing ex te nt in subse q uent w ork .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . wh
U pon pr of (Ex s 3 a t d oe s th e o .
-
6, Art .
th e ge om e tri c r e la ti on con cer n i n g v e r ti ca l an g e s l

2 Fi n d :
. a nd t h e s i ze of aD
e ach a ngl e in F ig 1 09 . .
F irst m eth od . S i nc v rti c l

e e a
l
a ng e s a re e qu l a ,
F ro . 109
AAO C = AD OB .
T h en
S ub t a ct n g 4r i fr om e ac h m em b e r ,
3 at 2 x 6 .
S ub t a ct n g 2r i x fr om e ac h m em be r ,
x 6 .
i
S ub s t tut n g 6 for i r
.
,
3£
1:4 3 6 -
4 22,
9 x + 104 (for AB O C ) ,
a n d s nce i v rtic l
e a l
a n g e s a re e qu l a ,
AA0 D 15 8 .
C h eck . 22 22 15 8 15 3
S e cond m e th od . B y de fi ni ti on o f s upp e m e n tar l y a n g e s, l

+ 9 z + 104 = 180 .
Solvi ng , r 6 .
Th r m i n d r
e e a e of th e w rk i
o s th e sa m e a s h
t a to f th e fir stm e th od .
12 4 G ENER A L M ATH EM AT I C S .
1 3.Fi nd th e va l ues of th e unkn ow ns a nd e a ch of th e foll ow

in g v e r ti ca l a n gl e s m ad e b y tw o i nte r se cti ng s tr a i gh t li ne s
3 x + 15 a nd 5 5 f
( )
‘
( ) a x —
.
ii fiéi
Zi lliiit e
3”
? é
f’
d
( ) 5
18 % a nd h
( ) and
1 + 18 .
8w
a
2
g
z iv
( ) e z —
S and
Z -
l IZ
-
(i ) 3
—
a nd —
g
-
l l 1é
——
.
'
172 . Al ter nate interior -

l
ang es . In F ig . 1 1 0 th e g l es an
a:n d y f rm d
a , o e b y th e li n e s AB , C D , an d th e tr an s v e r s a l
EF , ar e ca ll e d a lter na t
e -
in teri or an
g l es ( on a lte r nate s id e s
of EF an d in te r i or w i th r espect to AB an d CD ) .
F ro . 110
X
E ER CIS ES
4 r f r t
'
(Exs 1 F ig 1 11)
—
. e e o .
1 . M easur e a nd com pa re A 9:an d A y .
2 . Th e li ne s AB an d CD an d F E a re dr a w n so th atA a : Ay .
W h at see m s to b e th e r e l ati on b e twee n th e li n es AB and CD
3 . S h ow th a t if A r A y, th en A y Az .
4 . w th at AB
Sho is pa ra ll e l to C D (see th e de fi niti on for
pa ra ll e l l i n e s Art ,
.
12 6 . G EN ER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
I n F ig 115
4 . . l
s e e ct all th e pa ir s of co rr e spondin g l
a n g e s,
al t
e na tr
e in t
e o -
ri r a n g e s,l an d in
te r ior l on
ang e s th e sam e s i de of
th e tra ns v e r sal .
174 Im portantth eorem s

. l
re a t
ing to para l l el l in es Th e f ol l ow .
i ng e x e r ci ses in cl ud e th e or e m s
wh i ch suppl em ent th e w or k of
Arts 1 72 an d 1 73
. .
P c 1 15 i -
EXER CIS ES
1 S h ow b y r e fe re n ce to th e de fi n i ti on of pa r all e l li n e s in
.
A t 87 th a t if tw o pa r al l e l li ne a e cut b y a tra n s v e r sa l th e
r . s r ,
c rr e s pon d i n g ang l e s a e e q ua l
o r .
2 S h ow th a t if tw o pa r a ll e l li n e s a re cut b y a tr a n s v e rsa l
.
,
th e a l te r na te i nte ri or a n gl e s a e e q ua l
-
r .
3 S h ow th at if tw o pa r al l e l li n es a e cut b y a tr a n s v e r sa l
‘
. r ,
th e i n te ri or a n gl e s on th e sam e s i de of th e tra ns v e r sa l a e r
s uppl e m e n t a ry .
4 Tw o para ll e l l i n e s a e cut b ya tra n s v e r s a l s o a s t

. r o
for m a n gl e s a s s h own in F ig 1 16 Fi nd : an d th e S i ze of
. . a
'
a ll th e e i gh t a n g l e s in th e fi gur e .
F ro . 1 16
5 Fi nd :
. a n d a ll t
a h e e i gh ta n gl e s in F ig 11 7 . .
6 D r a w tw o pa r a ll e l li ne s a n d a tra n s v e r sal
. S e l e ct a ll .
e q ua l pa ir s o f a n gl e s ; a ll t h e suppl em e n t a ry pa irs m
F U N D A M EN TA L AN G L E . RE LA TIO N S 12 7.
175 Outline of angl e pai rS form ed b y tw o lines cut b y

" ‘ '
a transv ersa
l W h
. en.. tw o lin e s are cut by a r
t an s v ersa l ,
as i F ig
n . 1 13,
a an d e
f
tli e a ngl e s of th e b an d f a re ca ll e d cor r espond inga n gl e s ;
an gl e i
pa r s d an d h
c an d g
an g l es c, d, e, f a re call e d in ter ior g l es ; an
an gl e s a, b , g, h a re ca ll e d e xterior a n gl e s;
gl e s of th e er ior angl e s on th e
'
th e an d and e ar e ca l l e d in t
an gl e pa ir s c an d f sa m e si de ,
of fl
th e tr an s v e rs al ;
on o
pp os ite s id es of r
th e t an s
th e an g les of th e '
d
‘
v e r sa l are ca ll e d a lt
erna te
an g l e a i rs
p inter ior an gl es ;
r
i
on o
pp osite s id es of th e t a n s
th e an gl es of th e '
v e r sa l a re ca ll e d a ltern a t
e
an g le pai r s
exter ori an g l es .
F ro . 1 18 F ro . 119
Th e uden t sh ould r em em b er
st
( )
a th a t corr espon din g an gl e s are eq ua l ,
( b) th at a l te rn ate inte r i or an gl e s ar e e q ua l
-
( )
0 th at al t e rn ate ex t e r i or a n g l e s a re e ua l
q
-
d
( ) ,
-
th at in te r i or an g l e s on th e s am e s id e of
th e tr an sv e r sa l are suppl e m e n ta ry
e-
onl
yw h en th e lines cutbyth e tra n sv er sa l a re pa r a llel (F ig 1 1 .
SU MM ARY
Thi s ch apte r h as ta ugh tth e m e aning of th e f oll ow
ing w or d s an d ph r as e s : l ef t s id e of an a n g l e rig h t s id e
,
of a n an gl e ; pa r a ll e l r i gh t t o r i gh t an d l e f t t o l e f t par
,
a ll e l r i g h t to l e f t an d l e f t t o r i gh t s u l e m n ta ry a n gl e s
, pp e ,
s uppl e m e n t suppl e m e n t a ry ad j a ce n tan gl e s com l e m e n t ar y

p
-
, ,
an gl e s com pl e m e n t v e r t
, , i ca l an gl e s a l te rn ate inte r i or ang l es
,
-
in te r i or an gl e s on th e sam e s i d e of th e tr an s v e r sa l .
177 Th e f ol l ow in g f un d a m e n ta l con s tr ucti on s h a v e be en

.
r es ent ed :
p
1 H ow to con str uct th e suppl e m en t of a g i v en an gl e
. . .
2 How to con structth e s uppl e m e n ts of tw o e q ua l g i v en

.
an gl es .
3 H ow to con s tr uct th e com pl e m e n t of a g i v e n a n gl e

. .
4 How to con s truct th e com pl e m e n ts of tw o e q ual

.
an gl e s.
5 A n e w m eth od of d r a w in g pa r a l l e l li n es
. .
6 H ow to f or m v e r ti ca l an g l es
. .
178 Th i s ch apte r h as d i s cusse d th e f oll ow i n g f un d a

.
m en ta l g e om e tr i c r e l a ti on s :
1 If th e sum of tw o ad j acen t an gl e s is a str a i gh t an g l e

.
,
th e ir e xte r ior sid e s f or m a str a ig h t l in e .
2 Th e sum of al l th e an gl e s ab out a po in t on on e s id e
.
of a st r a ight l in e is a str a ig h t angl e

3 Th e sum of al l th e an g l es in a pl an e ab out a po in t
.
is tw o str a i gh t a ng l e s
4 If tw o an g l e s h av e th e i r s id e s pa r a ll e l l e ft to l e ft an d
.
r i gh t to r igh t th e angl e s are e q ual

,
.
5 If tw o a n g l es h a v e th e i r sid es pa r a l l e l l e f t to r i gh t
.
a n d r i gh t t o l e ft t h e an g l es are suppl e m e nta ry

, .
6 S uppl e m en ts of th e sam e an g l e or of e q ual an g l es

.
ar e e q u al
C H AP T ER VII
THE EQ UAT ON I AP PLIED TO THE TRI ANGLE
179 . Nota ti on for triangl es . I t is custom ary to

d en ote
th e thr ee poin ts of i n te rse cti on of th e sid es of a tr i an gl e
by capita l lette r s and th e thr e e sid es wh i ch lie opposite
th e se r e spe cti v e s id es wi th th e corr e spon di ng sm a ll l e tte rs .
Th us in F i g 1 2 0 w e d enote
,
.
th e po in ts of in te rse cti on
of t h e s id es (th e v e rti ces)
by A, B, an d C, an d th e
s id es O ppos ite by a b an d c , , .
F o 12 0 r .
Th e s id e s m ay a ls o b e
r e ad B 0 AO and AB Th e sym bol for tr i angl e is a sm all
, , .
”
tr i an gl e ( A) Th e e x pr essi on A AB O is r e a d tr i angl e AB C
. .
T h e thr ee an gl es sh ow n in F i g 12 0 are ca l l e d in terior an g l e s

. .
180 M ea suring th e interior a ngl es of a tria ngl e W e sh all

. .
n ow con sid e r som e of t h e m e th od s of m e asuring th e in te r i or

a n g l e s of a tr i an g l e .
X
E ERCISES
T RI ANG LE AB C T R rA N G LE D E F T RrAN G LE GH I
No . or D G
E R EE S N o or
. D G
E R EE S No . or D G
E R EE S
Es tim a t
ed M ea s ur e d Es tim a t
ed M e as ur e d Es ti m a te d M e as ur ed
EQ U AT IO N A PPLI ED TO TH E T R I AN G L E 131
1 . Fill in th e tab l e on th e p re ced in g

page wi th r e fe re nce
to th e tria ngl es AB C ,
DEF ,
a nd C H ]
( ig
F .
F IG . 12 1
2 . Draw rian gl e on pape r (F ig

a t Out it out and .
tea r of f th e cor n e r s a s s h ow n in F ig 1 2 3 T h e n pla ce th e . .
thr e e a ngl e s ad j a ce n t as s h own W h at .
s ee m s t o be t h e sum of th e th r e e a n gl e s
of t h e tria n gl e Te styour a nswe r wi th
a st ra i gh te dge .
181 Th eorem. . r esul ts of Ex s 1

Th e .
F IG . 12 2
an d 2, a bov e , ill ustr ate th e g e om e tr i c

r el ati on th at th e sum f th e
o interior
a ng les o f a ri a ngle is
t a r a ig h t a n
st
g le
Th e state m en t Th e sum
F ro 12 3
i nte r i or an gl es of a tr i angl e is
.
of th e
”
a st r a igh t ang l e can b e pr ov e d by m or e ad v an ced ge o
m e tr i c m eth od s S uch a s tate m en t of a g e om e tr i c r e l ati on
.
to b e pr ov e d is ca ll e d a th eor em .
182 . M ore a dv anced m eth ods of
proof for th e preceding th eorem Th e .
tr uth of th e th e or e m th at th e sum of
th e i nte r i or
gl es r gl e
an of a t i an is 1
1 80 m ay b e i l l ustr ate d as f oll o w s :

°
F 124 ro .
D r a w a tr i angl e as in F i g 1 24 P l ace . .
a pe n ci l a tA a s in di ca t e d in th e figur e n otin g th e dir e ct

ion ,
in wh i ch it poin ts Rota te th e pen cil thr ough an g l e A a s

.
1 32 G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT IC S
s h o wn b y th e a rr ow h ea d . T h en sl id e it a l on g AB to th e
p i
os t i on i ndi ca t e d in th e R ot a te th e p fig ur e
e n cil n e x t .
th r o ug h a ng l e B a s i n d i ca te d a n d s l id e it a l on g B C to
th e pos i ti o n s h o w n T h en r ota te th e pe n ci l thr ough an g l e

.
C to th e l a s t pos i ti on s h own T h i s r otati on through .
an les A B a n d C l e a v es t h e i n t f th n c i l in w h at
g , , po o e
p e
on in r e s e ct t o its o rigi n a l
p o s it i p pos i ti on W h a t part of
a com
pl e te tur n h as it m a d e Thr oug h h ow m any r i gh t
a n gl e s h as ittur n e d T h r ough
h ow m an y str a igh t a ng l e s ?
Thr ough h ow m an y d e gr e
Th e th e Ore m th a t th e s um
of t h e i n te r i o r a n gl e s o f a tri A
g l e is 1 80 m y b e
°
p r ov e d a
F 12 5 ro
a s f o ll o w s :
.
G iv tri gl AB C ( F ig t pr v th tAA Ab AC 1 80
’ °
en an e . o o e a
P o f r o
S TAT NT EM E S R A ON E S S
D ra w
B e ca use co i g n gl rr es
po n d n a es
T h en 4 1 2 [ L A
f rm d b y tw p ll l li n cut
o e o a ra e es
bv a tr n v r l a qu l s e sa a re e a .
B c u el t r t i n t ri r
a se a e na e -
e o ah
A ]/ AB .
gles f rm d b ytw p r ll l li n
o e o a a e es
cut b y tr n v r l a qu la s e sa a re e a .
B e ca use th e s um of a ll th e
B ut A . ;
r Ag A an
g l e s a b ou t a po i tin
n ap a ne l on
o ne s id e o f a s tr a i ghtli ne is
By s ub s t tut n gi i A A for Ar ,
[ B for Ag . a nd A C fo r A
Th i s r for m l pro f f th e th r m i n a s m uch it

is a mo e a o o eo e ,
as
is i n d pe n de n t f m
e ur m n t W ri te an
o q uati on wh i ch will
ea s e e . e
x pr e ss t h e n um b e r of deg r i n th e um f th e n gl e s f
'
e e es s o a o
a tri a n gl e .
X
E ERCIS ES
I n th e foll owi n g pr ob l e m s
( )
a D r a w fr e e h a n d t h e tri a n gl e .
D h e a n gl e s pr ope rly a s giv e n

( )
b e n ot e t .
( )
0 U s i ng th e t h e or e m f A t 1o82 wri t
re d ow n t
. h e e q ua t i,on
re pre sen ti ng th e con d iti on s O f th e prob l e m .
S olv e th e e q ua ti on a n d fi n d th e v al ue of e ach a n gl e .
h e ck y our s ol ut i i r l
'
( )
e C i on b
y th e c on d t on s of t h e p o b e m .
1 Th e a n gl e s of atri a n gl e a e x 2
. and 3
r Fi n d a n d
,
as, a
t . so
th e n um b e r of de gr e e s in ch a ng l eea .
2 Th e fir st a n gl e O f a tria n gl e is twi ce th e
. c nd nd t he se o ,
a
th ir d is th r e e ti m e s th e fir s t Fi n d th e n um b e r o f d e gr e e in
. s
each a n gl e .
3 I f th e th r e e a n gl e s of a tria n g l e a
. q ua l w h t is th e re e ,
a
s i ze of each ?
4 I f tw o a n gl e s of a tri a n gl e a e ea ch e q ua l to
. w h at
r
is th e v a l ue of th e thir d a n gl e
5 O n e a n gl e of a tri a n gl e is Th e se con d a n g l e is 5 5
°
.
l a rger than th e th ird H ow l ar ge is e ach a n gl e

.
6 Th e fi r s t a n gl e of a tri a n gl e is f our ti m e s th e se con d

.
,
a nd t h e th ir d i s n e h a lf t
o h e fir t Fi n d ea ch a n gl e
s . .
7 Fi n d th e a n gl e
. f a tri a n gl e if th e fi r s t is on e h a lf
s o
o f th e s e con d a n d th e th ir d is ne th ir d of th e fir st
,
o .
8 Th e fir st a n gl
. ef a tri a n gl e is tw o fifth s a s l a r ge a s
o
a n ot h e r Th e th ir d is f our ti m s a s l a r g a th e fir st H ow
. e e s .
l arge is e a ch a n gl e ?
9 Fi n d th e a n gl es O f a tri a n gl e if th e fi r sta ng l e is 16 m r e
°
. o
th an th e se con d a n d th e th ir d is 14 m or e th a n th e se con d
°
,
.
10 Fi n d th e a n gl e s f a tri a n gl e if th e d i ffe r e n ce b e twe e n

. o
tw o a n gl e s is h e th ir d a n gl e is 43
°
a nd t
1 1 Th e fir sta n gl e of a tri a n gl e is 30 m or e th a n th e s e con d

°
.
,
an d t h e th ir d is tw o ti m e s th e fir s t Fi n d th e a n gl e s . .
EQ U A T IO N A PPLI ED TO TH E TR I AN G L E 135
12 . Fi nd th e l
ri angle if th e fir sta ngl e is twi ce
a n g e s of a t
h e s e cond a nd th e th ir d is 15 l e ss tha n tw o tim es th e fir st
°
t ,
.
13 Th e a n gl e s of a tri a ng l e a e to e ach oth er as 1 2 3

. r , , .
W ha t is th e s i ze of each
H N L t : th fi r t 2 :
I T . e ath c nd en d 3 x ths th ir d
, a e se o , a e .
14 Fi n d th e a n gl e s of a tri a n gl e if th e fi r st is 2 % tim e s th e
.
s e con d i n cr e a se d b y and t h e th ir d is on e four th of th e

s e co hd .
15 . In a ri angl e on e a n gl e
t is a ri gh ta ngl e ; th e oth e r tw o
so
l
a n g e s a re re pre sen te d b y so a n d r espe ctive ly Fi n d ea ch a n gle
I
. .
16 . y ri gh t a n gl e s m a y a tri a n gl e h a ve ? H ow
H ow m an
m a n y ob tus e a n gl e s H ow m a n y acute a n gl e s a t m os t H ow
m a ny a cute a n gl e s a t l ea s t
17 Tw o a n gl e s :
. a n d y of on e t ri an gl e a e e qua l re spe c
a r
tiv e l y to tw o a n gl e s m a n d n of a n oth e r tri a n gl e S h ow tha t .
th e th ir d a n gl e of th e fi r s t tri an gl e e q ua l s th e th ir d a n gl e of .
th e s e con d tri an gl e .
184 . Th eorem . B y solv in g Ex 1 7 w e . bta in th e th e or e m

o
If tw o a ngles f
o on e r i a n le
t g a re equa l r es
p tivel
y to tw o
ec
'
an
g les f
o h er
a n ot ri a ng le, t
t h e th ir d a ngl e f th e fir stis e qua l
o
to th e th ir d an
g le o f th e secon d .
185 . Righ ttriangl e . If on e a n g e of a l tri an gl e is a r i gh t

an gle ,
r gl e
th e t i an is ca ll e d a r i gh t tri an gl e Th e sy m b ol
.
for r igh t tr i angl e is rt . A .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . S h ow th atth e sum of th e a cute a n g es of a l ri gh ttri an gl e

is l to a ri gh ta n gl e
e q ua .
2 Fi n d th e v a l ue s of th e a cut
. e a n gl e s of a r gh t tri a ngl e if 1
on e a n gl e is tw o ti m e s th e oth e r ; if on e is 5 m or e th a n thr ee
°
ti m e s th e oth e r .
an d t
3 . Th e acut ri gh t tria ngl e a e 5 a nd
e a n g es o f a
h e n um b e r of d gr ee s in each a ngl e
l
;
e
g Fi nd n
.
r o
a
4 D r a w a ri gh ttri a n gl e 0 1 ca r db oa r d s o th a tth e tw o acute

. 1
a n gl e s o f t h tri a n gl e w ill con ta i n 30 a n d 6 0 re spectiv e ly

° °
e .
U s e th e pr otra ctor .
H N I F ir t dr w
T. ri ght ngl Th n t ny c nv ni nt p i n t
s a a a e . e a a o e e o
in on e si d f th righ t gl c n truct
e O e n gl f 60
an n d pr d uc
e o s an a e o
°
a o e
it i d till tri n gl i f rm d t yd
s s e a a e th th ird n gl
s o qu l 30 ?
e . oe s e a e e a ,
°
"
5 C ut out th e ca r db oa r d tri a n gl e m a d in Ex 4 a n d t ll
. e . e
wh at a n gl e s m ay b e con str ucte d b y its u wi th outa pr otracto r se
or tr a ci n g pa p r e .
6 D r a w on c r d b oa r d a ri gh t tri a n gl e w h ose a cut

. a e an gl e s
a e ea ch e q ua l t
r cutit ut a n d h ow h ow it m ay b e us e d
o o ,
s
to dr a w an gl e s of 45 a n d 90 r e s pe ctiv e ly
° °
.
186 Wooden trian gl es A w ood e n tr i ang l e is a tr i an gl e

. .
s ua lly a r i gh t on e ) m ad e for con v e n i e n ce in d r a win g

( u
tr i a n gl es 0 11 pape r or on th e b l a ck b oa r d ( see F i g .
T h e acute a n gl e s a re usua l l y 6 0 a n d 30
° °
or 45 an d
°
T h ese
w ood e n rig h t tr i an gl e s fur
n i sh a r acti ca l m e th o d o f
p
d r a w i n g a pe r pe n di cul a r to
a l i n e a t a g i v e n poin t on
th at lin e If n o tr i an gl e s
.
of t hi s k i n d can b e h a d
W OOD E N F G 12 7 S E T
,
F I G 12 6 I
a ca r d b oa r d w i t h tw o pe r
. . . .
T R I ANG L E S QUA R E
e n dicul ar e d g e s or a ca r d
p
b oar d r igh t tr i an gl e w i l l s e rv e th e purpose j ust as w e ll .
187 . S et sq ua r e . A set s
‘
q u a e r is m a d e up w oo d e n
of a
r gl e f a ste n e d to a str a ig h te d ge
t i an so th at it w il l s li d e
a l ong th e str ai gh te d ge ( see F i g .
To m ea sur e th e d i s ta n ce AB acr oss a s w am p (F ig

6 .
a .
w
m an a lk s in th e d ir e cti on A D ,
so th a tA B AD = to a po i n t
c, whe re A B C A I f AC 300 yd , .
w ha t is th e le ngth of AB
7 Fi n d th e n um b e r o f d e gr s in e ach
.
ee
acut e a ngl e of a ri g h tt ri a ngl e if ne a ngl e is o
( )
a f our t i m e s th e oth e r ;
( )
b th r e e four t h s of t h e oth e r ;
o an d a h a lf t i m e s th e oth e r ;
(0) t w
5 m ore th a n th r e e ti m e s th e oth e r ;
°
F ro . 12 9
( )
e 5 l es s t h a n f our t
°
i m e s th e oth e r .
8 P ractice dr awi ng a n gl e s of
°
"
. and 90 by
,
us ing woode n o car d b oa r d tri a n gl e s

r .
Ex 5 . il l ustr ates th e t uth r of th e th e o r em In a r ig ht

30 th e si de osi t
° °
ri a ng le w h ose
t a cute a n les a r e
g a nd 60 o
pp e
h a lf th eh y Th is th e or e m w i l l
°
the 30 an
g le i s on e ot
p en use .
b e pr ov e d f or m al ly l ate r I t is . v e1
y i m portan t b e ca use of
its m an y pr acti ca l appl i cati on s in con structi on w or k an d
e l se w h e r e .
189 Isos cel es tria ngl e ; b a se angl es

. A tr i an g l e . wh i ch
h as tw o e q ua l sid es is ca ll e d an isosceles tr i an gl e . Th e
an gl es ite th e e q ual s id es
O ppos ar e ca ll e d th e b a se an
g les of
th e i s osce l es tri angl e .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . Tw o e qua l a cut
e a n gl e s of a ri gh t trian gl e a e r
se nted by2 x 5 and 15 . Fi n d th e si ze of ea ch

2 . D ra w a r igh ttrian gl e AB C A
(F ig . ra w a li ne fr om
D
C LAB ; cal l th e f ootof th e pe r
_
pe n dicul ar P S h ow th a t th e
.
pe r pe n di cul ar (C P ) d ivi de s th e
A AB C in to tw o ri gh t tri a ngl es .
F ro . 130
EQ U AT IO N A PP LI ED TO THE . T RI A N G L E 139
3 . I n Ex 2 th e . an g e l a:i
l eme nt of w h a t tw o s th e com p
s W h at is th e r e la ti on b e twee n th e se tw o a ngl e s
I n Ex 2 Ay is th e com pl e m e n t of tw o a n gl e s I n di cate
.
,
.
th e m S h ow th at Ay= AA
. .
5 D r a w fr e e ha n d th r e e i sosce l e s tria
. n gl es .
190 S cal ene tria ngl e

. . A l
s ca e n e r
t i an gl e is a r
t i an gle
no tw o of wh ose sid e s ar e e q ua l .
X
E ERC IS ES
1 .r a w fr ee h and a s cal e n e tri a ngl e

D .
2 D o you th i n k th a t a ri gh t tri a ngl e w h ose acute an gl e s

.
a re 30 an d 6 0 is a s ca l e n e t ria ngl e S upport y our answe r

° °
.
3 Draw an
. ob tuse
an gl e d s c a l ene t ria ngl e .
19 1 . Ex terior angl es
of a triang e l . If th e
thr e e s id es of a tri
an gl e a re e x ten ded , on e
at e ac h v e rtex , as in
F ig 1 31, th e an l es th us
'
F IG 131 LL U S T R A TI NG TII E EX T E I O
I R R
g
. . .
ANG L S O A T R ANG E
,
E F I L
for m e d (it , y,
an d z
)
are ca ll e d exterior an gl es of th e t i an r gl e AB C .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . H ow m an y e xte ri or a ng es l ca n b e d a r wn at e a c h v er te x
of a t riangl e
2 . H ow m an y i nte ri or ang es l h as a tri n
a g e ?
l H ow m an y
e xte ri or a n gl e s
3 D r a w a tri an gl e a n d e x te nd th e s i de s as in F ig 1 31
.
. .
M ea sure th e th r e e e x te ri or an gl e s wi th a pr otr actor W h at is .
th e ir sum
14 0 GEN ERAL M ATH EM AT I C S
4 .
w a noth e r tri a ngl a n d ex te nd th e si d e s as in F ig 131
D ra e . .
C ut o u t t h x te ri o r a n
e e g l ( ta ki n g o n e a t e a ch v e r te x
)
es wi th a
pa
ir o f s c i ss or s a n d pl ce th e m n e x tto a
e ch
a th e r wi th th e ir v e r ti ce s tog th e r
o e .
Wh a t d th ir s um s e e m to b e
‘’
oe s e 1
5 F i nd th
.
um f th th r e
e exs o e e
t i n gl e s nd : i n F ig 1 32 b y
a r or a y a x, ,
a .
r ta ti ng p ncil a s i n di ca te d b y th e
o a e
i rrow h ea ds .
F IG . 132
w th atth
.
6 . S ho e s um o
f th e ex te r io r
a ngl es o f a tr ia ng l e (tak i ng on e at e ac h v e r te x ) i s 36 0
°
(tw o
r i gh t a ngl e )
st a s .
H N H w m n y d gr
I T . o a e ee s a re i n th e sum 1 :m? y n ? r ?
(S e e F ig .
S h ow tha t th e s um
1 80 = 5 40
° °
x
T he n thi s fact m ay b e r
e x p e s se d a s f ll w
o o s
( : 31 + ) 3 3 (m 11 + r
) :
( x 3
/ z
)
u
V)
n r
)
7 . T h e th re e i nte ri r angl e s of a tria ngl e a e e q ua l Fin d

o r .
th e s zei of e ach i n te ri or nd e ri or a n gl e
a ch e x t a e .
F ro . 133
8 Fi nd th e va l ue
. of th e i nte ri or a n d e xte ri or l
a ng e s in th e
tri an gl e of F ig 133 . .
14 2 G EN ER A L M ATH EMAT I C S
16 . P r ove tha t th e co ns e cutiv e a ng l es o f a

p a ra l l e l ogr a m
a re s upp lem e ntar y; tha t is, p ro ve : ga in F ig 137

. .
'17 . rov e that th e

P
O ppo i t s e a ngl e s f a pa o r
all e l og a m a e e q ua l
r r .
H N I In F ig 137 h w
T . . s o
th t £ : A
a 1 4 a
18 I f one a ngl e o f
.
A
a pa r al l e l ogra m i twi ce s F m 137 .
as l a r ge as a con se cutiv e
a ngl e w ha t is t h e s i ze of e a ch gl h p r ll l gr
n e in t e a a e o a m ?
a
,
19 Th e d i ffe r e n ce b e twe e n tw o cons e cutiv e a n gl e s of a

.
p a ra ll e l og ra m is F ind th e s ize of all f our a n gl e s in t he

e l og ra m .
S ho w tha t th e s um f
o th e i nter ior a ng l es o
f a tr ap ezoid
ra ig h
0 st t a ng l es
21 . P r ove tha ttw o

p irs a o
f
cons e cutiv e a ngl es f
o a tr ap e
zoid a r e s upp l em en ta ry .
(U se
Ifi g 138)
.
° F IG 138
In F ig 138, 4 1) is 4 0
.
22 . .
mo re tha n A A, a n d A B is 9 6
°
l e ss th an AC . Fi nd th e n um b e r
of de gr e e s in eac h an g e l .
192 . l es W e sh a l l n ow pr ocee d
Th e construction of triang .
to stud y th r e e con str ucti on s w hi ch r e q u ir e th e puttin g

tog e th e r of an gl e s a n d l in e se gm e n ts into s om e r e u i r e d
q
com b i n ati on W i th a littl e pr acti ce th e stud e n t w i ll s ee
”
th at th e pr oce sse s are e v e n s i m pl e r th a n th e th ink in g

inv olv e d in ce rtain g am es for ch i l d r en wh i ch r e q ui r e th e
v a ri ous com b in ati on s of ge om etr ic form s .
Th ase con str ucti on s a r e v e ry i m portan t i n al l kin d s of

con str ucti on w or k ; for e x a m l e in sh o w or k m ec h n i ca l
p p a , ,
EQ U AT IO N AP P L I ED TO TH E T R I A N G LE 143
d r a w ing en gin eerin g an d

, ,
su ve r y in g . Th e stu d en t sh oul d
th e r e f or e m aste r th em .
193 . Constructi on prob l em . T o con str ucta tr i an g l e wh en

hr e e sid e s are g i v en
th e t .
Con tructi on L tth giv n i d b

s . b nd c
e h wn in F ig 139
e e s es e a, , a , as s o . .
D w w rki n g li n X Y n d l y ff i d
ra a o l tte ri n g itAB W i th
e , a a o s e 0, e .
A c n t r n d wi t
as a e h r di u q u l to 6 c n truct n c
e a . a h wna s e a o s a ar as s o .
F IG . 139 . Ho w To CO NST U C T A
R I ANG L W H N
TR E E TH R E E S ID ES
AR E G IV N E
Wi th B as a ce n te r nd wi th r diu qu l to c n truct
a a a s e a a o s an ar c
i n t r cti n g th
e se e fi r t C ll th p in t f i nt r cti n C T h
s . a e o o e se o . en th e
tria n gl i c ne s o str uct d er qui r d
as e e .
X E ER CIS ES
1 . C on str uct tri an gl e s wi th th e fol l owi n g s i des

()
a a = 5 cm .
,
= 5 cm .
,
c= 8 cm .
(b ) a = 7 cm .
,
b = 8 cm .
,
c= 4 cm .
( )
c a = 7 om .
,
b = 9 cm .
,
c= 3 0m .
2 . lway s possi b l e to
I s it a con s t uct a t r
r an g e i l w hen thr ee
s i de s a r e giv e n ? a
3 C on s tr uct a
. tri a ngl e ,
us i n g th e s i des giv e n in
h
s a pe ria ngl e dr a wn b y
th e t
you for Ex 3 wi th th ose dr a w n b y oth e r

.
.
pup ls i .
(S ee if th e
tr ia n gl es will f ol d ov e r e ach oth e r ) .
5 . M ak e a w
ria ngl e b y na ili ng thr e e sticks togeth er
o od e n t .
I s it pos s i b l e to ch a nge th e s h a pe f th e tr ia ng l e wi th outb r ea k o
ing a sti ck o 1 e m ovi n g t e r r il ?

h cro n n a s e
6 A g ea t dea l of pr acti ca l use is m ade of the fa ct tha t

. 1
a t ri an gl e a 1 i gid fi gure f e xa m pl e a re cta ngul a r woode n

IS ,
or ,
a te i u s ually d ivi d e d in t
s o tw o t ri a n gl es b ym ea n s of a w oode n
g
di a gon al so as to m a k e th e gate m or e s ta b l e (l e ss a pt to sa g) .
Try t giv e oth e r e x am pl e s of th e pra cti cal use tha t is m ad e

o
of t h e st a b ili ty f th e tria n gula r fi gure o .
7 C on tr uct a n i s os ce l e s tri an g l e h a vi n g g iv e n th e b as e
. s
a nd one o f t h e tw e q ua l s i de s o .
Hm U c i n F ig 140
'
r . se th b nd u b twi c ; th t i
. in
as e a se a se e a s,
th i c s tk
a se b a e a .
8 M e asur e th e b a e a n gl e s of th e i sosce l e s tr ia n gl e d ra w n
. s
fo Ex 7 W h a t a ppea r s to b e th e r e l ati on b e twee n th e b ase

r . .
J i n gl e s o f a n i sosce l es t ria n gl e ?
9 M a k e t acings f th e b ase a ngl e s d ra w n fo Ex a nd
"
. i o r
at te m pt to fol d on e a n gl e ov e th e oth e D o th e tw o a n gl e s i 1 .
a pp a r t e o r e pr e s e n t th e sa m e a m ount f r ta ti on o o
10 C om pa r e y our r e sul ts wi th th s
. ob ta i ne d b y y our o e
cl as s m at es .
NO T E . R e su ts l ob ta in ed fr om Ex s 7 10.
—
suppo rt th f ll wi ng e o o
th e ore m Th e b a se an
gle s fan
o is os ce les r ia n le
t g a re e
q ua l .
11 . r e q uil a t
C onst uct a n e ra l t ri an gl e h a vi ng give n a s i de .
12 S tudy th e a ngl e s f a n e q uil ate r a l tr ia n gl e b y pa ir s in

. o
th e m anne r suggeste d b yEx s 8 9 S tate .

—
.
x th e th eor e m d i scov er e d .
13 To m easur e th e
. d i sta n ce AB
( g 14 1) w e wa lk fr om B towa r d M
F i .
so t h at L B un til w e r ea ch C a
M ,
c
po1n t at w h l ch 4 AC B 50
o
W h at l 1ne B
m ust w e m eas u re to ob ta n i AB W hy F m . 141

14 6 G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT IC S
X E ERCIS ES
Is th e constructi on giv e n in Art 194 a lwa y s poss i b l e .
D r aw tri a ngl e s wi th th e foll owi ng pa r ts give n
( )a a = 3 0m .
,
b = 4 cm .
,
A C : 47 O
(b ) c’
2 in .
,
AA
(c) b 1 % in .
,
c 1 % in .
,
AA 87 °
3 . C on st uct a tr ri angl e wi th th e pa ts g r iv e n in F ig 145

. .
F IG . 145
4 . C om pa r e as to s ize hape th e tria n gl e dr a w n for Ex 3

a nd s .
wi th th ose dra w n b y oth e r studen ts in y our cl ass (P l a ce on e .
tri a ngl e o v e r th e oth e r a n d s e e if th e y fi t) .
195 C onst
. ruct ion prob l em T o con s tr ucta tr 1an gl e wh e n
.
tw o an gl es an d th e s id e in cl ud e d b etw ee n th e m are g i v e n .
F IG . 146 . How To CO N S U C A T I ANG L E W H E N Tw o ANG L E S AN

TR T R D TH E
S I D E I N C L U D E D B E T W E E N TH E M AR E G IV E N
Construction . Le tAA an d AB b e th e given l

an g e s a n d li n e 0 be
th e g iv en i ncl ud ed s ide F
( gi .
EQ U AT IO N A PPLI ED To TH E T R I AN G L E 147
L a y down w rki n g lin X Y n d l y fi AB qu l t li n cu\it

a o e a a o e a o e 0 .
AtA c n t uct n n gl
b
o s r qu l t th giv n n gl A; tB c truct
a a e e a o e e a e a on s
an an gl qu l t th giv n ngl B n d pr duc th i d f th

e e a o e e a e a o e e s es o o se
an gl till th y m
es t t C e h wn Th n th A AB C i th
ee a , as s o . e e s e
r quir d tri n gl
e e a e .
X
E ER C IS ES
1 . D ra w tri an gl e s wi th th e foll owi n g pa rts give n

( ) AA LB 4 0m
“
a 0 2 .
b L = LB
( ) 2 111
'
C a .
D ra w a tri an gl e wi th th e pa rts a s give n in F ig . 14 7 .
I s th e con str ucti on of Ex 2 a lway s poss i b l e .
F IG . 14 7
C om pa r e as to i
s ze a nd s h ape th e tri an gl e dra wn for Ex 2 .
with th ose dra wn b y oth e r m e m b e r s of y our cla ss (F ol d the m

.
ov e r ea ch oth e r an d see if th e y fi t) .
SU MM AR Y
196 Th is ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e an in g of th e f oll ow
.
in g w or d s an d ph r a ses : r igh t tr i angl e ca r d boar d tr i an gl e , ,
w ood en tr i an gl e se t sq ua r e i sosce l es tr i an gl e sca l en e

, , ,
tr i an gl e i n te r i or an gl es of a tr i ang l e e x te r i or an gl es of
, ,
a t r i an g l e b ase a ngl e s
, .
Th e f o ll ow in g n otati on s h a v e b ee n g i v e n n ot ati on
for th e a n gl es a n d s id es of tr i an gl e s n otati on for r i gh t ,
tr i ang l e (rt A) . .
148 G EN ERAL M ATH EM AT I C S
197 T h i s ch apte r h as pre sen te d m e th ods of

.
1 F ind i ng th e sum of th e i n te r i or a n gl e s O I a tr i an gl e
.
.
2 Fin di ng th e s um O f th e e x te r i or a n g l e s of a tr i an gl e
.
.
3 D r a w i n g r i gh t tr i a n gl e s b y m e an s o f w ood e n or ca r d
.
b oa r d tri angl e s .
4 D r a w ing pa r a ll e l l in es b y m e a n s o f th e w ood e n tri

.
a ngl e o r t h e se t s q ua r e .
198 Th i s ch apte r h as ta ugh t th e pupi l th e f oll ow i n g

.
con s tructi on s
1 . Gi v en th ree sides o f a tr ia ng le, to con stru ct th e t

r i a n le
g .
2 . Gi ven wo
t s id es a nd the in clude d a ng le f
o a tri a ng le,
o cons t
t r uct the tria ng le .
3 . G ive n tw o an
g les and th e in clude d si d e of a r ia n le,
t g
o const
t r uct th e tria ngle .
199 . Th e f oll ow i ng th e o r e m s h a v e be en pr e s en ted in

th i s ch apte r
1 . Th e s um of th e in te r i or a n g esl of a r
t i an gle is a
r ight an gl e
st a
2 . Th e sum of th e ex te r i or an gl e s of a r
t i an gl e is tw o
r igh t angl es
st a
3 If tw o
. an gl es of on e r
gl e are e q ua l r espe cti v e ly
t i an
to tw o an gl e s of an oth e r tr i a n gl e th e thir d an gl e of th e ,
first tr i angl e is e q ua l to th e thi r d an gl e of th e se con d .
4 Th e a cute a ngl e s of a r i gh t tr i angl e are com pl e

.
m en tary .
5 In a r i g h t tri an gl e wh os e a cute an gl es are 30 a n d

.
°
6 0 th e s id e O ppos i te th e 30 d e gr e e an gl e is on e h a lf th e
°
-
hypotenus e .
6 An e x te r i or a n g l e of a tr i an gl e is e q ua l to th e sum
‘
of th e tw o n on ad j ace n t i n te r i or an gl e s .
7 Th e sum of th e in te r i or a n gl e s of a q ua d r i l ate ra l is
.
four ri g h t a ng l es
C H AP TER V III
POS ITIV E AND NEGATIV E NUM BER S . ADDITION AND

S UBTRACTION
200 . Cl ock gam e . M a ry Edi th

w e r e pl ay i ng w i th a
an d
toy cl ock Each took h e r turn a t S pi nn in g th e h an d Th e

. .
obj e ct of t h e g a m e w as to g ues s th e num b e r on wh i ch th e

h and of th e cl ock stopped A corr ect g uess coun te d fi v e
.
oi n ts If a l a y e r m i sse d a g ue ss by m or e t h a n thr e
p .
p e ,
sh e l os t thr ee poi nts If sh e cam e w i thin thr ee sh e e i th e r

.
w on or l ost th e n um b e r of poi n ts m i s se d a ccor di n g to

'
,
wh eth e r sh e h a d g ue s se d un d e r or ov e r th e corr e ct n um b e r .
Af te r fi v e g uesses th ey h ad th e f ol l ow i n g scor e s
M A Y R S ol uton i . Th e sco e r as k e pt b y th e
Wo n O
p l y r (th w rd
a e s e o s a re i n rt d )
se e a ppe a e d r
Lost H as f ll w :
o o s
Lost OJ
C
MA Y E D ITH
\
R
V n o M
F ir st s o ec r 2 F ir st sco e r
Won H
L os t 1 L ost
E D ITH S e con d sco r e 1 S e con d sco e r
Lost 1 Lost 3 W on
Lost 2 hr
T i d r (2) Th ird r
“
sco e sco e
Won 5 7 on
2 W on
Won 2 F ou rth s co e r 0 F ou rth s co e r
L o st 2 Won 1 Lost
Wh o w on th e
'
Fin l c ra s o e 1 F in l a sco e r
ga m e Ed i th w n th o e ga m e , 2 to 1 .
15 0
PO S I TIV E AND N EGAT IV E N U M B ER S 15 1
2 01 . P ositiv e i v e num b ers

a nd nega t . Al geb ra ic num b ers .
Th e a ddi ng of Scor es in m an y
fa m i li a r g am e s l ik e th e on e
ci te d ab ov e i ll ustr a te s an ex ten s i on of our id e a of coun t
In
g th at w i l l b e f oun d v e ry use f ul in our f ur t h e r s tud y of
m ath e m ati cs It is i m por tan t to n oti ce th at th e pl ay e r s

.
b eg an at zer o and coun te d th e i r scor e s in b oth dir ections .
Th us M ary b eg an w i th ze r o an d w on tw o poin ts an d th e
, ,
2 sh e wr ote m e an t to h e r th a t h e r s co e r w a s tw o a o eb v
ze or . O n th e h r h an d Edi th h a d
ot e , ze or an d l os t on e .
”
In or d e r to r e m em b e r th at sh e w as
on e in th e h ol e
sh e wr ot e 1 w i th in a ci r cl e O n th e
. n ex t t urn sh e l ost
tw o m or e a n d sh e con ti n ue d to coun t a w a y fr om ze r o
,
by w r i tin g 3 w i th in a ci r cl e Th e s am e id ea is sh ow n in
.
M ary s scor e H er se con d scor e w as 1 O n th e n e x t tur n

’
. .
sh e l os t t hr e e S h e sub tr acte d 3 fr om 1 In d o ing so sh e

. .
coun te d b a ck w a r d o v e r th e ze r o poi n tto tw o less t h a n zer o .
In wr i ting th e scor e s it w a s n e ce ssa ry to i n di cate wh eth e r

th e num b e r w as a b ov e or b elow zer o .
W e sh a ll pr e se n tly h a v e num e r ous pr obl e m s w h i ch

in v olv e pa ir s of n um b e r s wh i ch possess opp osite qua lities ,
lik e th ose ab ov e It is g e n e r a lly agr e e d to ca ll n um

.
b e r s gre ate r th an ze r o p osi tive an d th ose l e ss th an ze r o

n ega t iv e S uch n um b e r s a re ca ll e d a lg eb ra ic n um b er s
. .
Th e O pposi te q ua l iti es in v olv e d are d e s i gn ate d by th e

“ ”
w or d s posi ti v e an d n eg ati v e In th e pr e ce din g g am e
.
,
n um b e r s ab ov e ze r o ar e pos i t i v e wh e r e a s n um b e r s b el ow
,
ze r o are n eg at iv e .
202 Use of signs

. T o d e si g n a te wh e th e r a n um b e r is
.
p os i ti v e or n e g at i v e w e u se t h e pl us or t h e m in us s i g n .
Th us 4 m e an s a posi ti v e 4 and 4 m e an s a n eg ati v e 4

,
.
Th e posi ti v e si g n is n ot a l w ay s wr i tten W h en n o s i g n pr e .
ce d es a n um b e r th e n um b e r is un d e r s tood to b e a pos i ti v e
num b e r Th us 3 m e an s 3
.
,
.
Th e foll ow i ng stoc k q uot i

a ton s fr om th e C h icago D a ily
Trib une M a r ch 2 4 19 1 7) i ll us tr at a use of th e pl us an d

( ,
e
m in us s ig n s
C H I AG O
C S TO C K EX C H ANG E
C H ANG E
Am e r ic an Ra d i ator
C omm on w e al th Ed iso n
D i a m o nd M atch
S wi t f Co .
P e op l es G as
P r e st o
- -
L tei
S ea rs R oe b uck
B ooth F i sh e ri es
Th e l ast col um n sh ow s th e n e t g a i n or l oss d ur i ng th e

day; for e x am pl e Am e r i can R ad i ator stock cl os e d tw o
,
poi nts l o w e r th a n on th e pr e ce di n g day S w ift CO , .
a in e d 2 3 P e o l es G a s l ost 5 et c Th m a n f m ili r
g p , e a , a .
w i th s tock m ar k ets gl an ce s a t th e fir st col um n to se e

th e e x te nt of th e s a l es an d at th e l ast col um n to s e e
th e spe cifi c g a in or l oss To ch e ck th e l ast col um n on e
.
w oul d n e e d th e q uotati on s for th e pr e ce di n g day .
In or d e r th at w e m ay se e som e th i n g of th e i m portan ce
of t h e e x te n si on of our n um b e r sy ste m by th e pr e ce din g
d e fi n i ti on s fa m i l i a r ex am pl es of posi ti v e an d n eg ati v e
,
n um b e rs wil l b e di scus se d .
203 Geom etric r epresenta tion of positi v e num b er s Origin

.
. .
We h a v e l e arn e d in m e asur in g a l in e se gm en t th at wh en a
( i ?)
un i t say f is con ta in e d fi v e t im e S in an oth e r seg m en t ‘
th e l att e r is fi v e un i t s l on g I n g e n e r a l if it is con t i d
( . a n e ,
a tim e s t h e m e asur e d seg m e n t is a un i ts l on g

,
) W e m a
y .
a ls o sa
y t h a t th e tw o se gm e n ts r e r e s e n t th e n um b e r s 1 and
p
5 r e spe cti v e ly T hi s sug e s ts th e f oll ow in g r e r e se n ta ti on
g .
p
15 4 G ENER AL M ATH EMAT I C S
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . L oca t
e the foll owi ng po i nts on th e n um b er s ca e l : 3,
—
3, —
8, + 6 .
2 . i m a gi ne tha t e ach of th e pl ay e r s in th e cl ock

If w e
g a m e (A rt 2 00
) h a s a st
. ri n g or t a pe m e asur e grad ua t ed to
th e num b e r sca l e wi th a ri ng n it t h e y coul d ad d th e ir

,
o ,
s cor e s fr om t i m e to tim e b y s li di ng th e ri ng b ack an d for th .
In di ca te on th e num b e r s ca l e h ow th e s um of th e f oll owin g

con se cutiv e scor e s coul d b e foun d :B e ga n a t 0 l ost 1 l ost 2 , , ,
w on 5 w on 2 l ost 1
, ,
.
3 St. art i ng fr om th e m i ddl e of th e fi e l d in a ce r ta i n footb al l

g a m e t h
,
e b a ll s h if te d its pos i ti on in y a r d s d uri n g th e firs t
fifte e n m i nute s of play as foll ows : 45 15 + 1 1 10 ,
—
, ,
—
,
2 ,
2 3 W h e r e w as th e b a ll at th e e nd of th e l as t pla y
.
205 . Addition
furth er use of pos i tiv e and negativ e
and
num b e r s Th e pr e cedi n g e x e r ci se s S h o w th at pos i ti v e an d

.
n e g ati v e num b e rs m ay b e a dd e d by coun tin g th e dir e c ,
ti on ( f orw ar d or b ack w a r d ) in wh i ch w e coun t b e ing

d ete rm in e d b y th e S ign or of t h e n um b e r s wh i ch
w e are a ddin g Th us .
,
T dd
o a 4 t 5 n th n um b r c l o f F ig 149 b gi n t
o 5 e e s a e o .
, e a
a n d coun t4 to th e ri
gh t .
To a dd 4 t
o 5 b egin at 5 and coun t 4 to th e l eft .
To a dd 4 to 5 b gi ne at 5 an d coun t 4 to th e left .
TO ad d 4 to 5 b gi ne at 5 an d coun t 4 to th e ri
ght .
Th e r e su lt s a re a s f ll w
o o s
—
9;
5 4) 1 .
5 4) 1 is r ead
p ositive 5 p l us ne
ga tiv e 4 e q ua ls
positive
5 4) z 9 is r ead ne
g ativ e 5 p l us ne
ga tive 4 e q ua l s
g ive
ne a t 9 .
PO S I T IV E AN D N EGAT IV E N U M B ERS 15 5
X
E ER CISES
1 . G iv e th e sum in e ac h of f ll owi ng
th e o . Be p r epa re d to
i nte rpr e t th e r e sul t 0 11 th e n um b e r s ca l e .
( ) a 3 (g) 6 1> ( )
m 2
b
( ) (h) [
( ) n
\( )
c (i ) (0 )
4) (j ) 5) (P)
(e ) k
( ) q
( )
( f)
—
2 On h or izon ta l
r i gh t li n a s st a
'
X OK in F ig 15 0,
. a e, . con
s i de r th e pa r t 0X a s pos i tiv e a n d th e r ive
’
, pa t OX as n e ga t .
C on str uct li n e s e gm e n ts corr e s pon d

in g to th e f oll owi n g n um b e r s : 2 ,
6, 3, 5, 0 .
3 C on s i d e r O Y as pos i tiv e a n d
. OY' X '
as n e ga tiv e an d con s t ruct se gm e n ts on
th e li ne YO Y co rr e spon d i ng to 4,
—
2 , + 3, + 4 ,
4 . A b i cy cli s t sta r ts fr om a certa i n

po i n ta n d ri de s 18 m i d ue . n or th wa r d F m . 150
mi ),
t hen 12 m i . d ue sout h
war d 12 m i ) . fr om th e sta r ting poi nt?
H ow fa r is h e
5 H OW fa a n d in w h a t d ir e cti on fr om th e sta r ti n g poi nt is
. r
a tra v e l e r a fte r goi n g e a stwa r d o we stwa r d as s h own r
b yth e s e pa ir s of n um b e r : 1 6 m i th n 3m i ?s 2 m i th e n .
,
e ,
27 m i ? 16 m i ,
th en 16 m i ? 100 m i .
,
th en 52 m i ?
6 . D e n oti n g l ati tude no rth of th e e q uator b y th e pl us s i gn

and lati tude s outh b y th e m i n us s i gn giv e th e m ea n i n g of th e
,
foll owi n g l ati tude s :

7 W oul d it b e d e fi n i te t
. o sa
y th a t l on gi tude e as t o f G re en
wich is pos i tiv e a nd we st is n e ga t ive W h a t is th e m ea n in g
of t h e f oll owi n g l on gi tude s ?
15 6 G ENER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
8 . A v e ss e l strti n g in l a ti tude
a 20
°
sa il s t hen
then th e n W ha t is its la titude a fte r a ll th e
sa ili ngs
9 W h a t i th e l a ti tude f h i p s ta r ti n g in l ti tude °
. s o a s a 53
a ft r t
e h f oll wi n g ch a n ge s
e o of l a ti tude :
°
61
206 . Doub l e m eaning of pl us and m inus signs . Ab sol ute

v a l ue . Th e m an y i ll ustr a ti on s of n e g ati v e n um b er s h ow
'
th a t t here is a rea l n ee d life

in th e a ctu al con ditions of
for th e e x te n si on of o ur n um b e r sca l e s o a s to i n cl ud e
this kin d of n um b e r I t m us t b e cl e a ly un d e r s tood th at
.
r
a m in us S ig n m ay n ow m e a n tw o e n ti r e l y diffe r e n t th in g s
1
( ) I t m ay m e a n th f
e p r oce ss o sub t i
r a cton , or 2
( ) it m a
y
m ean th a t th e n um b e r is a n egati v e n um b e r . In th e l atte r
cas e it d e n otes q u a i tl y S h ow th at a si m i l a r statem en t is
.
tr ue for th e pl us s ig n .
T hi s d oub l e m e an in g d oes n otofte n con fuse us s i nce itis ,
usua lly poss ib l e to d e cid e fr om th e con te x t of th e s en te n ce
whi ch of th e se tw o m e an i n gs is in ten d e d S om e tim e s a .
aren t h e s l s 1s us e d t o he l m ake t h m i g c l r th
p p e e an n e a us ,
4 m e an s add a n e g ati v e 3 to a os i ti v
° °
p e
S om e tim e s w e w i s h to f ocus atte n ti on m e r e ly on th e

num b e r of un i t s in a m em b e r r e g a r d l e s s of s i n I n th at
g .
ca se we S pe a k of th e a b solute va lue, or num er i ca l va lue .
T h us , th e a bsol ute v a l ue Of e i th e r +4 or 4 is 4 .
2 07 . F or ces . In m e ch an i cs w e spe a k of f or ces a ctin g

in oppos i te di r e cti on s a s pos i tiv e an d n e g ativ e T h us .
, a
for ce a ctin g upw a r d is posi ti v e on e actin g d ow n w a r d , is

n e g ative .
w ay s .
fir st pl ace th e n um b e r sca l e is actua lly pro
In th e ,
duce d t h r o u gh t h e z e r o a n d d e gr e e
,
s of te m pe r atur e a re ,
re ad as pos i ti v e ( a b ov e ze r o) or n e g ati v e ( b e l ow ze r o)
'
In th e se con d pl ace th e th e r m om e te r il l ustr ates pos i ti v e

,
an d n e g a t i v e m oti on dis cusse d in th e pr e ce din g a rti cl e .
Thus wh en th e m er cur y col um n r ises its ch ang e m ay b e

, ,
con sid e r e d as posi ti v e 5 in di catin g in th is case n ot a

,
re ading on th e th e rm om e te r as be for e b ut a ch an g e ( r i se )
, ,
in th e r e ad in g ; s i m il arly 3 in this se n se in di ca te s a
°
,
dr op of 3 in th e tem pe ra tur e fr om th e pr e v i ous r e adin g

°
.
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . W ha t is th e l owe st tem pe ra tur e you ha v e e ve r s ee n
re corded ?
2 Th e top of th e m e cu
. r ry l
co um n of a r
th e m om e te r sta nds
°
at 0 at t i i
h e b e g n n ng of a n h our Th e n e x t h ou . r it ri s e s
and th e n ex t w h at doe s th e th e r m om ete r th en r ea d
3 I f th e m e r cury s ta n d s a t
. ri s es a n d th e n fal l s 5
wh atdoe s th e th erm om e te r r ea d
4 G iv e th e fi n al r ead i n g in ea ch cas e
.
A fir st r e adi n g of 10 foll owe d b y a ri s e of °
A fir st r ea di ng of 1 0 f oll owe d b y a fal l of °
A fir st re ad i n g of 2 0 foll owe d b ya fa ll of 18 ° °
A fir st r eadi n g of 90 foll owed b y a ri se of y

° °
.
A fi st r e adin g O f
r foll owe d b y a fa ll of y
15
° °
.
A fir st r e a di n g of foll owe d b y a ri se of
a
°
a
°
.
A fi r str ead i n g of foll owe d b y a fal l of

a
°
a
°
.
A fi st r ea di ng of
r foll owe d b y a fall of a
°
a
°
.
5 Th e r e ad in g at 6 P M w a s 7
.
W h a tw a s th e fina l r ead
. .
ing if th e foll owi ng n um b e r s e x pr e s s th e h ourly ri se o r
fall :
°
2
PO S I T IV E AN D N EGAT IV E N U M B ER S 15 9
6 . foll owi n g ch a n ge s to fi nd th e fi na l rea di n g th e

Add th e ,
fir st r e adi ng b e i ng
7 Th e d i ffe r en ce s in r e a din gs of a th e r m om ete r th a t w as
.
r ead hourly from 5 A M un til 5 R M we re a s f oll ows :

. . .
H ow did
th e tem pe ra tur e at 5 R M . com pa re i i
w th th a t at 5 A . M .
?
I f th e _
te m pe rature at 5 A M . . w as ma ke a tab l e s h owi ng
th e te m pe rature a t eac h h our of th e day .
209 . P ositiv e and nega tiv e a ng es l . B y r otatin g lin e AB

in a
pl an e r
a oun d A un til it ta k es th e posi ti on AC th e
gl e B AC is f or m e d ( F i g .
B yrotati n g AB in th e opp os ite dir ec

ion an gl e B AC 1 is f or m e d T o dis
t .
tin guish b e tw e en th e se d ir ecti on s

on e a n gl e m ay b e d e n ot e d by t he
lus S i gn an d t h e oth e r by t h e
p ,
Em 15 3
W e agree to con sid e r
.
m inus sign .
an an gl e pos i t i v e wh en it is f or m e d by r otating a line

coun t e r cl ock w i se a nd n e g at i v e wh en it is for m e d by cl ock
w ise r otati on Th i s is s i m pl y an oth e r i ll ustr ati on of m oti on
.
in O ppos i te dir ecti ons .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . i s e x er ci se th e s i gn i n di ca tes th e di ection of r otati on

I n th r .
C on structth e f oll owi n g a n gl e s wi th r ul e r a nd pr otra ctor sta r t ,
in g wi th th e i n i ti al li n e in th e h ori zon tal pos i ti on :

°
+ 30
182
2 Fi nd th e fi na l
.
pos i ti on of a li ne w h ich starti ng at 0X ,
h orizon tal s wi n gs s ucce ss iv e ly th r ough th e f oll owi ng r ota

( ) ,
ti on s :
3 . D o you see a s h or t cut in fin din g th e fi na l ii

pos ton Of
th e li n e in Ex 2 .
2 10 . Busines s rela t id e a of pos iti v e

i ons . F in a lly , th e
and n e g at i v e n um b e rs m ay b e f ur th e r i l l ustr a te d by th e
g ain or l oss in a tr an sacti on ; by in com e an d e x pe n di tur e
b y a d e b i t an d a cr e di t account; by m on e y d e pos i te d an d
m on e y ch e ck e d out; an d b y th e a sse ts an d li ab i li ti e s of
a b us in es s corpor at i on Th us a b a n k r upt com pany is on e
.
,
which h as n ot b ee n abl e to pr ev en tth e n eg ati v e si d e o f th e

l e d g e r fr om r unning up be y on d th e li m i t of th e con fi d en ce
of its suppo rte r s .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . Th e as se ts of a com pa n y a re a nd its l i a b ili ti es

are W h at is its fi na nci a l cond i ti on
2 A n e w s b oy h a vi ng $ 2 5 in th e b a n k d e posi ts
. on
M on da y ch e ck s out
,
o n Tue s d a y ch e ck s out on ,
Wedne day de p s its $ 5 on Th ur sday de pos i ts

s ,
o on F r i da y , ,
a n d ch e cks out on S at ur da y W h at is h is b a la nce fo . r
th e wee k
3 I f a m a n s pe r sona l pr ope r ty is w or th $ 1 100 a n d h is r e a l

’
.
e state a n d if h i s de b ts a m ount t o $ 2 76 5 wh a t is h is ,
fi na nci al sta n di ng
4 A b oy b uy s a b i cy cl e fo
. an d s e ll s itfor $ 6 r D oe s .
h e ga i n o l ose a n d h ow m uch
r
2 11 . Addition of th ree or m ore m ono mia l s . Th e fo ll ow ing

ex e r cis es w il l h e l p us to se e h o w th e a dditi on of m onom i a l s
m ay b e ex ten d ed .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . Add th e foll owi ng m on om ia l s

(a ) 2 3 (c) 41+ 2 3
< d> <

2 . In w ha t for m h as th e com m uta t iv e law of a ddi ti on b e e n
at
st ed ? A
( rt . D oe s it s ee m to h ol d w h en som e of th e
a dde n ds are n e a t
g iv e ?
l 62 G EN ER A L M ATH EM AT I C S
2 12 . Al geb raic a ddi tion

r es ul ts of . Th e th e p e ce din r g
e x e rcises S h o w th at positi v e a n d n e g ati v e n um b e s m a
y r
b e ad d e d accor din g to th e f oll owin g l a w s
1 . To a dd wo
t a lgeb r a ic num b er s h a v ing like signs
fi nd
'
th e sum f their
o a b solute va lue s an d p r efix to th is sum th eir
co mm on s ign .
2 . To a dd t
wo al
g e r a ic n um b er s
b h a ving un l ike signs find
he d
t if fer e n ce of th ei r a b s olute v a l ue s a n d
p fi
re x t
o itthe sign
f
o the n um b er h a ving th e gr ea ter a b solute v a l ue .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . S h ow tha t th e s um rs wi th lik e s i gn s is th e
of tw o n um b e
sum o f t h e ir ab sol ute v al ue s wi th th e com m on S i gn pr e fix ed .
Il l ustra te wi th a con cr e te ex pe ri e n ce .
2 S h ow th a t th e sum of tw o n um b e r s ha vi ng un like s i gn s
.
b ut th e sa m e a b s ol ute v al ue is ze r o Il l us t e wi t
xa t h som e fact
.
fr om actua l e xpe ri e n ce .
3 Fi n d th e fol l owi n g sum s pe rfor m in g a ll you ca n ora ll y

.
,
()a —
5
5d) —
7 (g) o) — i 7sm
+7 —
5 + 2 6 ga ——
:
( )
b + 5 ()
9 —
Sa ( )
h —
% a5
(m i 62 113”
-
4 l
(c ) +7 (f ) —
]2 m i
() 1
( ) —
: 2 3 vm
.
2
+5 -
16 m —
5 28 v : + 6 5:
m . v
2
Fi nd th e foll ow in g '
sum s
4 . 6
+ 10
8
4
PO S I T IV E AN D N EGAT IV E N U M B ERS 3
17 .
z
23
. v m
a
’
atm
2
2 1 21 7 a m
2 13 . Drill r
ex e cises . Th e f ol l ow in g ex e r ci se s con sti tute
a dr i l l in d e te rm in in g t h e com m on f actor of s im il a r m on o
m i al s an d apply in g th e l aw for th e a ddi ti on of s im i l a r
m on om i a l s (Art . W e n ee d to r e cal l th at th e sum of
tw o or m ore sim ila r m onom ia ls is a num b er w h ose coefiicien t
is th e sum of th e coefiicien ts of th e a dden ds a nd w h ose liter a l
‘
fa ctor is the sa m e as the sim ila r addends Th e e x e r cises

.
a re t h e sam e as a pr e ce din g se t (Art 4 0) e x cept th a t in

.
th is case th e s te p in whi ch t h e coeffi ci e n ts O f th e a dd en d s

ar e a dd ed in v ol v e s t h e a ddi ti on of pos i ti v e an d n e g a ti v e
n um be rs .
X
E ERC IS ES
In e ach i n t u
cas e
o t wi th r e s pe ct t
1
( ) po o w h a t fact or th e
foll owi g
n t e r m s a re s i m il a r 2
; ( ) e x pr e ss as a m on om i a l b
y add
in g lik e te rm s
1 . 3 g, 6 g , 2 0 g, 35 g .
S ol uton i . T h e co m m on f a cto ri s y
.
Th e s um of th e coe ffi ci e nts is 3 6) 20 35 ) 18 .
W he nce th e r q uir
e e d sum is 18 g .
5 7 x, 9 x, 12 3x
t
33, 30, .
7 b, —
12 b , 9 6, + 1 1 b , 13 b .
9 ah, l 7 ab , —
1 1 a b , + 13 a b .
0
!
8m ar
“ 12 m noc,
2
1 5 m uc
e
2
,
1 3 m nx z
.
'
z 2 g
5
g 5 u
z
b, 4 a b, 9 a h, 5 a b .
7 . 3 a m, 4 a m, 8 a m, 7 ar .
S trut
2 2
8 5 11 9 2
,
7 17 9 ,
6 19 7
9 . a z, be ,
S ol uton i . T h e com m on f a cto ri s
Th e s um of th e coe ffici nt i e s s a 14) b) 12 .
S inc e a and b a re s till un d t r m i n e e e d, w e ca n on l y i n di c t tha e at
sum t us h : a —
14 b + 12 .
IVh e n ce th e sum w i tt nr e as a m on om i li
a s
(
a b 2)z .
10 . m ac, + 5 93, —
7 :+
v, 033 .
z ” ”
11 . m y, ng ,
12 g ,
12 . 2% M, 4 %
-
ah, —
5 % ab , 6§ ab .
2 14 . Additi on W e h a v e h ad n um e r ous
of l
po ynom ia l s .
e x am pl es of t h e addi ti on of pol yn om i a ls in d e a li n g w i th pe r
im e te rs In apply in g th e pr in cipl e s in v ol v e d to po ly n om i a l s
.
h av in g posi ti v e an d n eg ati v e te rm s w e n e e d to r e ca ll th a t
in add i ti on th e te rm s m ay b e a rr an g e d or gr oupe d in any
or d e r T h us
.
,
2 3 4 3 2 4 ( C om m utati v e L aw )
5 3) 4 3 ( 5 4 )( A ss o ci ati v e Law )
16 6 G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT I C S
I n th e foll owi ng e xe rci se s add th e po ly n om ia l s

7 4 6 + 15 y 16 8w
6 + 2 b + 7c x z
—
a .
3a —
9b —
2c —
12 w
4 a + 3 l) —
5 c 3w + 4g 5 2 + 6 10
-
5 a + 2h —
3c 9x 8g + 7 z 6w
5 . 2 x + 3 y+ 4 z 8 . 6 r —
2 3 + 3t
5 x —
6g 7z —
5 r 3t
4x + 5g+ 8 2 r + 6 3 —
5 t
2 x —
5y —
2 z 33 + t
6 . 2 a + 5 b + 7c (9 1 . 2 x —
3 y+ 4 z
3a —
8b —
5 c 33 + g
—
3z
4 a + 5h —
6 c -
3 av —
4g + 2 z
3a —
2 b + 8c
10 .
—
2 x —
6 b + 13 c, 1 1 x + 19 b
11 . 12 h —
10 l + 9 m , —
2k+2 l —
4m, a nd —
5 l + 3k —
2m .
12 . 14 e
13 . 2
( x4 -
( x
9 —
5g —
4 )
z .
N TE O . H e re r i
ce ta n te m s r i ncl d in g upi ng ym b l (
are ose ro s o s
ca ll p a re n th es is T
ed . h e se i di c t th t th t rm W i thi
n a e a t b e e s n a re o e
r e d a s on e n um b e
t e at r or o n e qu nti ty O th r gr upi ng ym b l will
a . e o s o s
be g iv en wh e n n e e de d
(se e pp 1 75 ,
.
14 .
(5 a —
2b —
6 a —
4b —
S )
e ,
15 .
—
14 m —
6 n
2 15 . Degr ee of a num b e r . Th e d eg r e e of a n um be r is
in dicate d b y th e e x pon en t of th e n um ber . T h us ,
is of
th e se con d d e gr e e ; 95
3
, of th e t i h r d d e gr e e g
4
, of f ourth
th e
d gr
e ee T h e m on om i a l 3 xg r
; etc .
2 3
is O f th e fir st d e gr e e
w i th r e spe ct to x, of th e se con d d e gr e e w i th r es e ct to
p g,
and of t h e thi r d d e gr e e w i th r e spe ct to r .
2 16 . Degr ee of a m onom ia l . Th e d egr e e of a m on om i a l

is d e te r m in e d by th e sum of th e e x pon e n ts of th e li te r a l
f actors An oth e r w ay of say i n g th i s is :Th e num b e r of
.
l ite r a l f actor s in a te r m is ca ll e d th e d e gr e e of th e te rm .
Thus 1 is of th e se con d degr ee ; xg of th e thi r d d egr e e ;

3
,
2
,
an d 4 xg z
2 2
of t h e fif th d e gr e e
,
.
EXERCIS ES
D ete r m i n e de g ree of th e foll owi n g m on om i a l s

4
36 . 5 . 24 may . 7 .
3 5
m
5 xg 2 . 6
g
.
2 17 . Degr ee of a l l y n om i a l
po ynom ia l . Th e d e gre e of a
po
is d e te r m in e d by th e d e gr ee of th e te r m h a v in g th e hig h est
d e gr ee Thus .x
2 2
g + :
v + 3 , g 5 is of th e f ourth d e gr e e ,
an d 5 x
?
x
3
7 is a th i r d d e gr e e ex pr e ssi on -
.
X
E ERCIS ES
i
I n d ca te th e de g re e of th e foll owi n g poly n om ia l s
‘ 3
1 . x + 2x 4 . x
4
5 . x + 4 .
2 2 5 3 2
3 . x —
2 wy f y- -
. 6 . w + sv + a +1
2 18 . Arrangem ent A pol y nom i a l is . sa id to b e a rr ang e d

acco r din g to th e descen ding p ower s of 11: wh en th e te r m of
th e h igh e st d e gr ee in re is pl ace d fir st th e te r m of n ex t ,
l ow e r d egr ee nex t e tc and th e te r m n ot contai n in g at

, .
,
l ast Th us 2 x x 3 x wh en a rr ang e d accor ding to

.
3
,
2
th e descen ding p ow er s of 9: tak es th e f orm x 3

3x 2
a: 2 .
W h en a rran g e d in th e or d e r 2 + : 2
v + 3a + a
3
th e poly n om i a l ,
is sa id to b e arr an g ed a ccor din g to th e a scen ding p ow ers of :v .

F in d th e sum of 3a + 2 a 2 3—
4 a, —
a
2
+ 7, 5 a3
2
an d 2 a
3 —
7 2 a .
Arra ngi ng acco rdi ng t o de sce n d ing p w r o e s a n d a dd n g, i we h ave

2 a
a
3 a2 4 a
2
a + 7
5 n
a -
4 a +3
3 2
2 a —
2 a 7
3 2
5 a —
6 a —
8a l 3 - -
C h eck . O ne w ay to c ech k i s to a dd ca e r fully in r v r e e se o rd r

e , as
a ri th m ti c e .
A se con d m et hod fo che cki n g i s sh own

r b y th e f ll w i n g
o o
Le t a 2 . Th e n w e h a ve
2
2 a
3 —
3a —
4 a 4
2
a + 7 3
5 a
8
4a + 3 35
2 a
s —
2 a 7 31
3 2
5 a —
6 a —
8a l 3 — -
3
Th e e x am p e l h
c e ck s, for w e btai ne d 3 b y sub stitutin g o
2 for a in th e s um an d a l so by a ddin g th e n um b e r s ob ta in e d
b y sub sti tuting 2 for a sepa r ate ly in th e a dd en ds .
X E ER CIS ES
In th e f oll owi ng li st ar r ange th e polyn om i a l s in col um n s

e ith e r accor di ng to th e a scen d i n g or th e d e s cen di ng orde r of
s om e on e li t e r a l fa ctor Add a n d ch e ck a s in th e pr e ce d in g .
pr ob l e m .
2 2 z 2 i
1 . x +y + sv
g, x —
wg + y, —
2p .
f
2
O
l 2 6 mg, —
5 + l2 a ,
—
10 g a
' —
18 xg + 16 g 2
.
2
N 5 3x .
—
13 6 . a
g
—
2 3g.
2
,
a 2
fi 4m —
8x —
5 x —
12 , 3 x + 3 x 2 —
5 x
3
+ 8 .
a
8d 2 2
‘
U —
a + 3a —
6,
2 8
Q 3r + 2 r + 3r —
5, -
r
2
—
2 .
i
z
fl
§
2 2 2
—
rs —
r ,
—
s —
s —
5 r .
8 ne wsb oy h as H ow m uc h m us t h e r
ea n dur i ng
th e da y s o as v e nt
oi n g
? h a ve
S ta te th e rul e 85 ¢ in th e e
w h i ch you use to solve p Ob le m s of th i s ki nd I .
9 A n e wsb oy owes th r e e oth e r n e ws b oy s a tot

. a l of
How m uch m u t h e ea r n to pay h is de b ts a n d h a v e 2 095 l e ft

s
Apply y our rul e for s olvi n g Ex 8 to th i s pr ob l e m . .
10 J oh n is $ 2 5 in de b t H e nry h as $ 4 0 in ca s h H ow m uch
.
,
.
b e tte r off is H e nry th a n J oh n Apply th e r ul e ta te d fo Ex 8 s r . .
11 Wha t is th e di ffe r e n ce b e twe e n 1 2 n d 2 0

. 5 a n d 45 a
Q and 20 ? —
1 and 20 ? 5 an d 25 ? —
12 and 18 ?
12 r re teach of th e pa r ts of Ex 11 as a v e r b al prob l e m
. I nte p .
.
13 Thr ough h ow m a n y de gr ee s m ust th e li n e O R tu n

.
L
r
( g
F i 15 5 )
. t r e a ch th e p osoi ti on 0B ?
,
14 Ar ch i m de s a gr e a t m ath e m a
. e ,
tician w as b orn ab out th e y e a r

,
2 87
a nd w as s l a i n b y a R om a n sol d i e r 0
'
in 2 12 w h il e studyi n g a ge om e tri cal

fi gur e th a t h e h ad dr a wn in th e sa nd F 15 5 .
IG .
H ow ol d w as h e
15 . L ivy ,
a fam ous R om a n h i stori an ,
w s
a b or n in 59 an d
lived to b e 7 6 yr old I n w ha ty e a r did h e die . .
16 H e r od otus th e G r ee k hi stori a n s om e ti m e s
.
, ,
ca ll e d th e
Fath e r of His tory w as b or n in 4 84 a nd d i e d in ,
42 4 . At
h
W a tage did h e die
2 20 . S ub traction il l ustrated b y th e num b er scal e . In

su btracting 4 f r om 6 w e fi nd wh at n um be r must b e a dd e d
—
8 -
7 —
6 -
5 —
4 -
3 —
2 —
1 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8
F IG . 156 . TH E N UM B ER SC AL E
t
o the 4 btr ah en d) to ge t th e 6 (t
( th e h e m in uen d )
su .
O n th e n um be r sca l e ( Fig 1 5 6 ) h ow m an y space s ( be g in .
n in g a t 4
) ust w e coun t un til w e a rr i v e at 6
m
LLUS TRATIVE
I EXA P LES M
1 . S ub t a ct r 2 fr om 3 .
S ol uton i . B eg i n n i g t 2 w n d t c unt 5 p c t th
n a e ee o o s a es o e
ri ght(p ositiv e ) t rriv t

o a 3 H nc ub tr cti g
e a 2 fr.m 3 q u l 5e e, s a n o e a s .
N ote th a t w e m i gh t h v b t i n d th r ul t b y dd i g
a e o 2 t 3
a e e es a n o .
S ub tr act fr om
'
2 . 5 2 .
i on
S ol ut . Beg i nn i ng a t 5 on th e n um b e r sca el w e n e e d to co un t7
to th el ft ( g ti ) t rriv t 2 H nc ub tr cti g 5 fr m
e ne a ve o a e a . e e, s a n o
2 qu l 7 N t th t w c ul d h v
e a s bti d th
. m r ul t
o e a e o a e o a ne e sa e es
b y ddi n g
a 5 t 2 o .
Thi rci m b t t d
s ex e t m p r tur pr b l m ; n m ly
se ay e s a e as a e e a e o e a e ,
W h ti th di ff r n c b tw n 5 b v z r n d 2 b l w z r
a s e e e e e ee a o e e o a e o e o
3 . S ub tra ct 8 fr om 2 . r r eta s a v e rb a l pr ob l em
I nte p .
i B gin n i n g t 8
S ol uton . e a o n th n um b r c l
e w n d t c un t
e s a e e ee o o
6 t th ri gh t(p iti ) H n c
o e os ve . e e, s ub tr cti n g 8 fr m
a 2 qu l 6 o e a s .
N ti c th tth
o e m r ult i a e sa e es s o b t i n d if
a 8i edded t 2 s a o .
Th ese e xa m p e s s l h ow th at sin ce sub t ion

r a ct is th e r ev er se
f
o ad dition, w e ca n sub t
r a ct a n um b er b y a dding its opp osi te .
T h us add in g $ 100 to th e
, un n e cessa ry e x pen s e s of a fi rm
is pr e ci se ly th e s am e as sub tr a ctin g $ 1 00 g a in or on , ,
th e oth e r h a n d e l im i n a ti n g ( sub tr a cti n g ) $ 1 000 of l ost

,
m oti on in a n i n d ustr i a l e n te r pr i se is a dd i n g $ 1000 to th e

n e t g a in .
It is con v e n i e n t for us to m a k e use of this r e l a ti on for ,
b y its use th e r e w i l l b e n o n ew r ul e s to l e a rn b ut m e r e ly ,
a ut om a tic ch a ng e of sign wh e n w e com e to a s ub tr acti on
p r obl e m a n d a con t in u
,ati on o f th e pro ce s s of a ddi ti on .
22 1 Al geb raic sub tra ction

. Th e pr e ce din g dis cuss i on .
sh ow s t h atsubtr acti on of a l g e br ai c n um be rs m ayb e ch ang e d

i nto a lgebr a ic additi on by th e f ol l ow in g l aw :To sub tra ct
on e num b er fr om an oth er ch a ng e th e sign o f th e r a h en d
sub t ;
a n d add tlw r esult t

o th e m inuend .
h
T us, th e s ub r i
t a ct o n ex am p l e
7a
3a
+ 10 a
m ay b h
e c a n ge d to th e a dd i ti on e x a m l
p e
X
E ERCIS ES
r
S ub t a ct th e l owe r n um b e r fr om th e uppe r num b e r in th e
foll owi n g I ll ustra te Ex s 1 11 wi th v e r b a l pr ob l e m s
—
. .
.
2
1 . 29 9 .
-
14 17 .
+ 3; 25 .
+ o si m .
10 3 a
'
65 11 .
15
8
20 . 5 74 x
.
5 .
13 .
5 3
T? 75
22 . 30 .
‘
a
2
15 . 7a 23 .
-
5 (a —
b) 31 .
—
7 42
. z
2
—
l4a —
3 71 z
.
1 74 G EN ER A L M ATH EM ATI C S
Th e sub r
l g ebr a i c poly n om i a l s is th en n ot
t acti on of a , ,
diffe r ent fr om th e sub tr acti on of m on om i al s an d m ay

th e r e for e b e r e d uce d to a ddi ti on a s in th e f oll o w in g ,
tw o e x am pl e s wh i ch a re e x a ctly e q u i v a l e n t:
,
S unr na c'
r ro n An n r'
r ro x
2 2
7 a
2 —
l4 ab —
11 b 2
7 a —
14 ab —
11 6
+ 5 a
2
+ 3 ab + 3 b” 5 a
2
3 ab 3b 2
2 a
" —
l7 ab —
14 b 2
2 a
2 —
17 ab —
14 b 2
Th e d e n t sh oul d ch ang e th e si gn s of th e sub tr ah e n d

stu
in th e wr i tte n f or m un ti l th e r e is n o d oub t wh ate v e r as

to h is ab i l i ty to ch an g e th em m e n ta l ly Th e e x am pl e w i l l .
appe a r as foll ow s :
a
2
2 ab b2
+ a
2 —
2 ab + b
2
4 ab
NO T E . Th e l b w e r s i gn s a re th e a ctua l i gn
s s of th e s ub rh
ta end .
T he y a r e n e g e cted l i n th e a dd n g i p r o ce s s .
Num e r ous rb a l pr ob l em s h a v e b e en g i v en w ith th e

ve
h ope of gi v in g a r e ason abl e b as i s for th e l aw of sub tr acti on .
Th e stud en t sh oul d n ow apply th e l aw a utom a tica lly in th e

foll ow in g e x er ci se s .
EXERC IS ES
S ub tr actth e l owe r fr om uppe r poly n om i a l
1 . 4 a
2 —
3 ab —
6b 2
3 . ar :
" —
2
3 513 3
/ 3 azg + g
J
f
-
2 8
2 2 2 3
4 a —
5 ah —
4b 2
7 x y+ 3 xv + y
2 " 2 3
x —
5 c
cg + g 4 . 2 mn + 5 m n + 6
2 2 3
—
3x —
4 ac;1/ —
3g 2 —
7mn —
4m n + 18
5 . From 10 mg 5 az
z 6 gz'
sub r
t a ct 4 mg 3 azz 3 304 .
6 .
From 5 ma :2
4m 8
s ub r
t a ct 4 m ac ?
12 m 3
.
7 . Fr m 2
o a
a
2a b Q
ab
z
26 3
s ub r
t a ct a s
3a b 2
ab
?
b a
.
S ub tr actas i ndi cate d ,

do i ng a s m uc h of th e w or k as pos s ib le
m e nt
a lly .
3 3 8 ’ 8 2 3
8 .
(4r 5 7 8 10 3 ) 6 rs
(2 r 6 r 3 43
9 3 2 2 2
9 .
—
8m p g —
4m p —
l om g ) 6mp 8m p g —
15 m g
2 3 3 2
10 . 12 x g 7 y) 11 x 8 90 g
3% a b
“
}
2 z 2 s
11 . a
s
3 a b) a ab a b 3a )
.
5
1
12 .
( g
5 rst 75
1 1
3
8 8% s t 2
6 g t r)1 g
( 3;
4 z
s t rs t 7
“ 4 ‘ a 6 2 ‘ a
b fi
b f
3a bg 4
)
13 .
(
2 3a b
. a b + a b ) a a .
2 9 2
14 .
(3 x 4c
c+ (2 3 + 5 x 3) 2 x + 3x
” z
(31 fi g
2
15 . x 3
] 41 xg 2g ) mg 5 y) .
2
16 . a b 2
5 ab 6) a s 2 ab
s s s 3— s s 3
17 .
(3 a b 3 ab c) —
2 ab a 4 abc
) 4a 2b ) .
2 2
18 (5 5 acg g ) (9 m
— — —
.
19 . C ompa r e th e s ign s r of th e sub tra h e nd in th e of th e te m s

for egoi ng e x e rci ses b e for e a nd a fte r th e par enth e si s a e rem oved r .
2 0 S tat
. e a r ul e as t o t h e e ff ect of th e m i nus s i gn pr ece din g
a poly n om i a l in pa r e n t h esi s .
2 1 W hat is th e rul e w h e n th e pl us s i gn pr ece de s a poly

.
n om i a l in pa r e n thesi s
223 . S ym b ol s b een f oun d v ery
of aggr egation. It h as
con v en i e nt to use th e p a rent h esis for gr oupin g num be r s .
S uch a sy m b ol indi cate s d e fi n i te l y w h e r e a pol yn om i a l

b eg i n s a nd en ds O th e r sy m b ol s use d w i th ex actly th e
.
s am e m e a n in g an d pur ose are br a ck e t br )

p ( s
) ; ( aces
an d
( V in cul um
) Th us to in di ca te t
h at a + b is
.
,
to b e sub tr acte d fr om x + g w e m ay use any on e of

th e f ol l owin g w ay s : ( x + g
) [x + g
]
{x + g} or x + g a + b Th e V i n cul um is l ik e —
.
th e f am i l i ar li n e s epa r atin g n um e r ator an d d en om in ator
i on as in g
a + 6
of a f r act ,
a —
b
S om e tim e s th e s y m b ol s a re in cl ose d on e p ai r w i th in
an ot e h r ; th us { 16 (9
,
19
In a n e x a m p l e li k e t h e p r e c e di n g th e co m m on a gr ee
m e nt is to r em ov e fir st th e inn e r m os t par en th e si s F i r st .
,
b r d f r m 9 t h th r u l t 7 is to be
2 is to b e s u t a cte o en e es , , ,
su b tr a cte d f r o m 1 6 Th i s r e s u l t 9. is i n tu r n to b e sub , ,
r t
t ac e d f r o m 1 9 ; wh e n c e th e fi n a l r es u l t is 1 0 .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . G iv e th e m ean n g i of th e foll owi ng

( ) a 15 (6
b
( ) —
5 [
7
( )
c —
5 x —
7w
d s (w + y> 5 {x 2w 3 y}
( )
— — —
.
(e ) 5 (x + g) —
7 {2 x
2 . fi n i te ly in m i n d th e r ul es gov er n i n g th e e ffe ctof

K ee p de
a m i nus or a pl us s i gn b e for e a gr oupi n g s y m b ol ; P e r form th e
foll owi n g i n di cated oper ati on s an d s i m plify th e r e sul ts
( ) a 12 —
2 ao
(b ) 17 —
12 x —
3a :
3 2 a
}
2 2
( )
c 4 a —
{ a —
3a + 3a —
d .
(d) 2 e —
[e6 —
3b —
4 e —
(2 e
()
e 7 a —
{5 b —
(7 b
(f ) 15 x
2 —
3 :
c
2
SU MM AR Y
22 4 Th i s ch apter h as taugh t th e m ean in g of th e f ol l ow
.
in g w or d s an d phr a se s : i i v b r n e g ati v e n um b e r
‘
pos t e n u m e , ,
a l geb r a i c num b e r s ab s ol ute v a l ue of a n um b e r or n um e r i ca l

, (
v al ue) degre e of a num b er d egr ee of a m on om i a l d e gr ee
,
°
, ,
of a pol yn om i a l d e scen din o e r a sce n di n g w r

gp w , p o e . .
C H AP T ER I X
I
POS TIVE AND NEGAT V E NUMBER S I . MULTIP LICATION
AND DIVI S ION . FACTORING
231 . M ul ti pli ca tion Th e

l a w s of m ul tipli cati on of num.
be rs h a v in g pl us or m inus si gn s are e as il y applie d to a

con sid e ra bl e n um b e r of in te re st ing prob l e m s Th e se l a w s .
are i ll ust r ate d in th e foll owin g e x a m pl e s :

I LLUS TRATIVE EXAMP LES
F ind th e pr oduct of
1 . 4) a n d
i on G m tri c l l y w
S ol ut . i nt rpr t thi
eo e f ll w :T k
a e e e s as o o s a e a
segm n t + 4 un i t l
e g n d l y i t ff tw s tim t th
on ight a a o o es o e r of
z r e o on th num b r c l ; th t
e e s a e a
i i n i t w di r cti
s, s o
(F i gn e on .
T us,h 4) 8 .
2 . Fi n d th e pr oduct of
4) a nd
Sol ution . G eom e t ri c lly th i

a s
m e an s :
T k a e a se m e n t—
g 4 uni ts
l on g a n d l ay i t off tw o t m e s to i
th e lefl of ze o r on th e n um b e r
sca e l ; t h a ti s , i n i ts ow n d ir cti e on F ro . 158
—
8
.
_
4 4
3 . Fi n d th e pr od uct of
4) and _ 8
0
S ol ut
i on ri c l l y w i n
. Geom e t a e
F ro .
t p t thi
er f ll w :T k
re s as o o s a e a
segm n t 4 un i t l n g n d l y it ff tw
e s o a a o o im
t es to th e l eftof ze r o ;
th tia
pp it i t w di r cti n (F ig
s, o os e s o n e o . h
T us, 2) 4) 8 .
l 7a
4 Fi nd th e pr oduct of
. 4) a nd
S ol uti on If th fi r t f ct r w r
. e s a o e e a i iv
po s t e 2 , t e n w e h s hould
i nterpr t th i g m tric ll y b y l yi n g
e s eo e a a of
f wi
4 t ce , ob ta ini ng a
li ne gm n t se8 un i t l n g (
e s o se e
OR I , i n F ig 16 0) ust a s w e did in
. j
Ex 2 B ut s n ce it i s a n e ga t e 2 ,
. . i iv
w e l ayit off n ot in th e d ir cti n f
e o o
OR l b ut i n th e oppo s it dir cti n ;

e e o
F 1G 16 0
n am e ly , OR ( se e F ig . T h us,
0 4 3 R
Note t h at in 5
t h i s l ast case , as
in Ex 1, th e . ig n s s
of th e m ul ti pl i
can d and th e m ul tipli e r are a l ik e an d th e pr od uctis posi ti v e ,
wh il e in Ex s 2 and 3 th e s ig ns of th e m ul tipli can d an d

.
m ul tipli e r are un l ik e an d th e pr od uct is n eg ati v e , .
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . Fi nd geom e tri ca lly th e pr oducts of 2) 2)

2) 5)
2 . St
ate th e la w of s i gn s r
for th e p oduct of tw o a l ge b ra i c
n um b e s a s sugge sted r b y th e r
p e ce d ng oi w rk .
2 32 Th e la w of signs for m ul tiplica ti on T h e l aw of

’
. .
s i gns for m ul tiplicati on is as fo ll ow s

Th e pr oduct of tw o f a ctor s h a v ing like si gn s is p osi tiv e .
f two f a ctor s h a ving un like sign s is n ega tive

Th e p r oduct o .
X E ER CIS ES
Fin d th e v a l ue of th e foll owi n g pr oducts ,

us n g ti
he law of
s i gn s I ll us tra te th e fir stte n ge om e tri ca ll y

. .
1 . 3 . 3) 5 . 2)
2 . 4 . 3) e . 2)
G EN ERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
7 . 11 . s
o
) . 15 . 3) 5 x
) ,
8 12 . 16 .
g)
9 . 9
( ) 13 . 2 x
)( 17 .
10 . 4) x
) . 14 .
(2 a b ) ( 2 my) g)
233 1
. La w of l
m ul tip i ca tion il ust a ted b y th e b al ance l r .
Th e la w of s l r ig w h
n s m ay b e il ust a t ed i t a b al an ce d b ar
( gF i . A li gh t b a r is b a l a n ce d a tM T h e po i n t
s r1 r
2
.
, ,
et c r e pr es en t pe g s or s m a l l
.
n a i l s dr i v e n a te q u a l di st an ce s .
W e sh a ll spe ak of r 1 r 2 e tc , , .
”
as first righ t pe g se con d ,
”
r igh t peg etc a nd of Z] I, l l 1 1,
.
, a s 4
“ ”
et c as . fir st l e ft peg se c ,
on d l e ftpeg et c w i th th e b ar ,
.
in a position f aci ng th e cl as s as F 16 2 TH L AW M U L TI IG . . E OF
In F i 16 2 T h e W e1 h t s w
A I LL U A B Y H P LI C TI Oh 5 TB T r3] 1
'
r L
g .
g .
B A L AN D B AM , ,
CE E
are a ll e ua l ; h e n ce w e sh a ll
q
”
m e r e ly S pe ak of th e m a s tw o w e i gh ts thr e e w e i gh ts -
, ,
et c i n ste a d of m e nti on i n g th e n um b e r of oun ces or gr am s

.
con tain e d In Ex pe r i m e n ts 1 3 th e s tr ing ov e r th e pull e y

.
—
is f aste n e d on th e fir st l e ft pe g .
EX P E R I M EN T S
1 . H an g tw o w i ght e s on 11 ° T his te n d s to tu rn th e b ar . How

m an y m ust b e atta c e d h to th e h ok o H to k ee p th e b ar l v l?
e H a ng
e
thre e we i ghts on 1 Wh a t do yo u n oti ce a b outth e 1

: turn i n g te n de n c
y
a s co m par e d wi th th e fi r st ca se ? An swe r th e sa m e que sti on for f uro
we i ghts on I s
.
1 Th e ir r i l m y b
i tt d t th t ch r di cr ti n Th
e nt e a t c e a e om e a e ea e
‘
s s e o . e
d ic h
ev e a s, h w v r pr v d u
ful i th h o d f m y t ch r Th
e e ,
o e se n e an s o an ea e s . e
app r tu m y b
a a b ugh t t s v r l f th l rg b k c m p ni
a e o a se e a o e a e oo o a es or ,
b tt r till m d in th h p b y m m b r f th cl u i g a
e e s ,
a e
p rt of e s o a e e o e ass , s n a .
a y rd ti ck f th l r n d m ll il f p g
a s or e ev e a s a na s or e s .
182 G EN ERA L M ATH Ell/LATI C S
Th e distan ce fr om r i g p oi n t to t h e pe
g wh e r th e tu n n
e
th e w e igh t or force act s will b e ca ll e d th e l ev r a r m

, , or e ,
a rm of t h e f orce Le v e r a r m s m e as ur e d fr om th e turni n g
.
oi n t t o w ard t h e r i g h t w ill b e m a r k e d t h ose tow a r d

p
th e l e f t F or e x am pl e i f th e d is ta nce f r om M to pe g r l
, ,
is r epr e se nte d b y 1 th e n th e d i sta n ce fr om M to r3 w i l l ,
be 3 ; th e dis tan ce fr o m M to l2 w i ll b e 2 ; an d s o on .
235 M ul ti pl ica tion of pos i ti v e a nd negati v e num b ers B y

. .
m e an s of th e appar atus ( Fig 1 6 2 ) th e pr od uct of positi v e .
an d n eg a t i v e num be r s is n ow to b e f oun d .
I LLUS TRATIVE EXAMPLES

1 Fi n d th e product of
. 2)
S l uti n \
o V m y i t rpr t th i
o . rci e a n e e s exe se as m e an n i
g, H a n g ou f r
d wn w r d pul li n g
o a g tiv
-
w i ght n , or ne a e, e s o th e se co n d pe g t o the
ri ght (p i tiv ) Th b tur cl ckwi
os e . e ar ns o se . Th e f rc
o e is n e ga t iv e ;
h nc th pr duct f (2 )
e e e 4) i o8 o s .
2Fi n d th e pr oduct of 2 )
.
S l uti n H
o g tw d wn w rd pul li g
o . an o o a -
n , or n e a t
g iv w i gh t n th
e, e s o e
f urth p g t th l ft ( g tiv ) Th b
o e o e e ne a e . e ar tur c u t rcl ckwi
ns o n e o se .
T h f c i p i tiv ; h c th pr duct
e or e s os e en e e o of 2) 4) is 8 .
3 . Sho w th at 3) 4) z 12 .
H I N T F a s te n
.
ri g v r th pull y t th e st n o e e e o th e f urth p
o eg to th e
ri ght an d h ng thr w i gh t th h k
a ee e s on e oo .
doe s th e b e a m ill ustra te th e la w of o r de r in m ul ti pli ca ti on

5 C m pa r e th e r e sul ts of Ex 4 wi th th e l a w of s i gn s
'
. o s . 1 —
in
m ul ti pli cati n A t
( o r .
It is
h ope d th a tth e l aw of s ig n s is m ad e r e a son ab ly cl e ar
b y m e an s of th ese ill us tr a ti on s T h e stud e n t s h oul d n ow .
p r oce ed t o a
pp ly th e l a w a u tom a ti ca lly .
X
E ERCISES
S ta te th e pr od ucts of th e foll owi ng ,

do i n g m enta lly as m uc h
of th e work a s poss i b l e :
1 4) 11 5)
. . 21 . as
) .
2 . 4) 12 .
4) 22 . 5) x
) .
w 4) 6) 13 (s) 23 . 8) my)
h 4) 14 °
3) 3
15 ) 24 0
) a b)
m 2) 5> 15 a —
2
25 2 my)
m 16 . 6 1
26 . 3l a b)
1
17 6 ( 4
5
q
27
:
. .
4 z
3) 1s 6 ) 6 ) 28 . 9) ar m
).
( 5) 19 . 6 4) 6l 29 .
10 . 12 ) 20 . 5) x
) . 30 .
2 36 . M ul ti plica ti on b y zer o . Th e pr od uct of 3 x 0 m e an s

0 0 0 O .
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . w ge om etri ca lly th at x 0 0
Sho a .
2 S h ow b yth e b e a m (F ig 16 2 ) th at x
. th a t0 x = 0
. a a .
3 S tate a v e r b a l pr ob l e m i n w h i ch n e of th e factor s is
. o
ze r o
. In ge n e ra l b oth
~
x 0 and 0 x
.
e q ua l ze r o
a H e n ce th e a .
va l ue of th e pr oduct is ze r o w he n on e of th e fa ct r s is ze ro o .
4 W h at is th e a r e a of th e re c
.
ta n gl e in F ig 1 6 3 H w w oul d th e a ea
'
. o r
ch a n ge if you w e r e t m k th e b as e o a e
sm a ll e r a n d s m a ll e r W h tc n n cti on a o e
h as th i s W th th p nc pl
i x 0 O9
e 11 1 e a
F c 163 .
r .
5 H ow w oul d th e r e a of th e e c
. a r
ta n gl e in F ig 1 6 3 ch a n g if b w e r e n t ch a n ge d b ut
. e we r e o at
W h a td s th i s ill us trate ?
'
m a de s m a ll e r a n d s m a ll e r
"
oe
184 G ENERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
2 37 . Product of fa ctor s Th e pr od uct of s e v e r a l

sev era l .
fa ctors is ob ta ine d by m ul tiply in g th e first f actor by th e

s e cond t h e r e sul t b y th e thi r d a n d s o on
,
B y th e l a w of ,
.
or d e r in m ul t ipl i ca ti on th e f actor s m ay firs t b e r e a rr ang e d

i f thi s m ak e s th e e x e r ci se e as i e r This is of ten th e ca se in .
a
pr obl e m wh i ch i n v ol v es fr act i on s .
X E ER CIS ES
1 . Fi n d th e v al ue of th e f oll owi n g pr oducts
() a 2) 3) 5)
(b ) i ) i ) i t) 3)
(0 ) i t) t) i t 1 3
)( 5
2 . Fi n d th e va l ue of
3 . Fi n d th e v a l u f 3 x e o
4 —
5 a
s
+ a
2
' —
12 x —
5 wh e n : a —
2 .
4 . Fi nd th e v a l ue of x 3
3x y 2
3ay f
y
2
w h e n so 3
and 2
y .
5 . Fi nd th e v al ue of x
3
3x 2
3a : 1 w h e n x z 10 .
6 . C om pa re and 2 ; 3
3 8
and and
2 ; 4 a
a nd
3 4
an d
“
d
) a ; a
) a .
7 . W h at is r oduct of fi e fa ct r s of wh i ch
th e s i gn of th e p v o
th r e e a e n e ga tiv e a n d tw o a e pos i tiv e

r of s ix fa ct r s of r o
w h i ch th re e a e n e gativ e a nd th ree a e pos i tiv e

r r
8 W h a t powe r
. f 1 a e pos i tiv e sof o 2 of : r a
S ta te th e r ul e .
2 38 . Mul tipli ca ti on of m onom ia l s . F in d th e p r od uct of

2 2 z
( 93
) 3 xy ) 5
Th e s i gn of th e p r o d ucti s d e te m r i ned as in Ar t 2 32 . and is f oun d
to b e
B yth e l a w of o rd r i
e n l i li
m u tp ca t on th e i f a cto s r m a yb e r
a r a n ge d
as f ll w
o o s
2 3) 5 ) xzzxyyy,
w h i ch i qu l t s e a o 30
20W hat is a sh or t m eth od of dete r m i n i ng th e sign of th e

.
’
p r o d uct con ta i ni n g a l a rge n um b e r o f f actor s
N E Iti
OT gr d th tw h n n ri th m tic l
. s a ee pr i n c nt i n
a e a a e a ex e ss o o a s
p l u m
s or u i gn i n c nn ct
in i n wi t
s s h m ul ti pli c ti n
s d ivi
o i n e o a o or s o
si gn th m ulti plic ti n d divi i n h ll b p rf rm d fi r t Th i

s, e a o an s o s a e e o e s . s
am un t t th
o m
s th i g o fi di g th e sa lu f e ch t m n d th as n n e va e o ea er an en
'
a dd ing or s ub t ing a in dica ted
‘
ra ct
g
.
2 39 . M ul tipli ca tion of a pol ynom ia l b y a m onomi al We .
s h al l n ow se e h ow th e pr oce ss of a lg e b r a i c m ul tiplicati on
is exten de d .
INTRODUCTORY E ER CIS ES X
1 . Re vi e w th e pr oce ss of fi n di n g th e pr oductof ( : y a a z
)
in Ar t 12 2 . .
ll
I ust a te b y a ge om e t c d
2 . r ri rawi n g th e m e a n ing of th e
p odruct ob ta ne d in Ex 1 i . .
3 . H ow m an y r
pa ts does th e w h ol e fi gur e con ta in
4 . W h a t is th e area of ea ch pa r t
Th e pr e ce di ng ex e r ci se s se rv e to r ecall th e law th at a
olynom ia l m a b e m ult i li ed b a m on omi al b m l i
t l i
y y y u py g
‘
p p n
ev er f th e p olynom ia l by th e
y term o m onom ia l a n d a d din
g th e
LL EXERCIS ES DRI
Fi nd th e pr oducts a s i ndi cate d an d ch e ck sub sttutn g i i

a ri thm e ti ca l va l ues for th e li te r a l n um b e r s
2
1 . 3a ( a
;
S ol ution . (1
2
2 ob 3 I) ? 19
3a 6
3 a3 —
6 a
2
b 4 9 ab
2 = 1 14
Ch k
ec Le t a 2 a nd b 3 . T h en th e sa m e r e su lt i s ob in d b y
ta e
i i he product a s ub sti tuti n g f ct r

-
s ub st tutin t by i n th e d
‘
g n s a o s an
t he n li l i
m u tp y ng th e n um b e s r . N ote th a t th e c h e ck is n t r li b l
o e a e
N UM B ER S 1 87
if we i r l num b r in pr
le t a l te a e
'
a o d uct co n ta in i n g a po wr e of th at
li t r l n um b r ( :
e a in pr duct e as a a o 4 33) e qu l 1 a , for if c = 1.
, , th e n
l qu l Ex pl i n
5 3 2 9
x 4 4
it a so e 4 a s 1 x, x x, x 4 x, e tc . a .
2 . 5 a:
(2 : a
2 —
3 c :
3 . 3% x (10 9c —
15 a;
2
4 .
—
5 y) .
4 z Z 3 d 1
5 . d
( i 7
a m
~ —
14 7 -
an —
34 7 am
).
2 2 2
6 .
(5 w y + 4 xy + 2
y
—
1) a3y .
a 4 “ 5 z 7 6 “ i ”
7 .
(m n 3m n 4m n 9m n
) m n .
8 . 2 (3 x —
2 y) —
y) .
9 . 2 x + y(ac
2 8
10 .
( x —
3 x + 4) 3 x —
(zv
’
11 . 30 (3 e —
2 d) -
2 ed (3 e —
2 d) 4 d .
240 Product of tw o pol ynom i al s

. In Ar t 1 26 w e f oun d . .
th e p f
r oduct o tw o ol n om ia ls t
p y o b e th e f
sum o a ll th e
p ia l
a rt
s ob t
a ined
p r oduct b ym ultip lying ev er
y term of on e p olyn om ia l
by ea ch ter m o f th e oth er. Af te r r e v i e w in g br i e fly th e case
for pos i ti v e te r m s w e sh a l l pr ocee d to i n te r pr e t th e a b o ve
l a w g e o m e tr i ca ll y e v e n wh en n e g ati v e te r m s are i n v olv e d
’
LLUS TRATIVE EXAMP LES

I
i n d th e pr oductof (c d) (
1 . F b) a .
S l uti on Tho r f th w h l r ct n gl
. e a ea o e o e e a e i n F ig 1 6 4 i s . r
ex p e sse d
b y( b ) (c a d) T h d tt d li n ugg t . e o e e s es s a
m th d f pr i g th r
.
e o or e x th um f e ss n e a ea as e s o
tw r ct n gl
o en m ly a
(c d ) b (ces d) a e , a .
If w u th elin JUN th r m y b
se e e , e a ea a e
’
Z
,
ex pr d th
e s se um f f ur r ct n gl
as ; e s o o e a es
n m ly
a c e d b , b d E ch
a
pr ina e . a ex e ss o
equ l th r fa s f th r ct gl ; h n c
e a ea o on e o e e an es e e F IG . 164
2 l r
. b y m ea n s of F ig
I l ust ate , . 1 6 5 , th e law for he
t
m ul ti pli ca ti on of tw o poly n om ia l s .
3 Fi nd th e pr od uctof (
. b )(c d) a —
S ol ution I n th i c n . f th f ct r s a se o e o e a o s
i nv lv n g tiv t rm
o es a e a e e .
Th pr d uct (
e b ) (co d) i p a s re re
se nt d b y e r ct ngl h vi ng th dim
a e a e a e en F IG . 165
i ( b ) nd (c d) ( F ig
s on s a a Th . e
r ct ngl AB E F
e a e c d S ub tr cti n g a a . a
fr m thi th r ct gl b
o s d bd w
e e an es e an , e
o b t in th r ct gl AB C D
a e e an e .
Th r f r (
e e o eb ) (c d) c a d a a
b e bd ch i d f th
, ea qu ti n p s e o e e a o re re
se nt in g th r f r ct n gl AB C D
e a ea o e a e .
* 4 Fi n d th e pr oductof (
. b )( b) a a .
S ol uti on L t AB C D (F ig . e
p . re re
se nt q u r wh
a s id i ( b ) f t
a e ose s e s a ee .
S h w th t th
o r a f AB C D equ l a ea o e a s
EF GC GH I E F K DE K HIA .
T he n
( a b) (a b) (a b) 2
Wh y
2 2
—
a + b —
ab —
ah
(1
2
2 ab 112 .
F IG . 16 7
*5 S k e tch r e ct l wh ose a r is w h
. a a ng e ea
(m n
)( r s
) os e
2
are a is 2 4 b 6 be .
LL EXERCIS ES DRI
Apply th e la w of m ul ti pli cati on to tw o poly n om i a l s

foll owi ng e x e rci se s C h e ck only th e fir st fi v e .
.
g
1 .
( v
a
S ol ution . 2 mg y
2
a:y
a
x 2fi g y x
2
2 x y2 y
“
3
+ 3 2
3 z 8
25 x y + r i
/ l y
- -
k b y l tti ng :
‘
C h ec e a 2 a nd
y 3 .
G EN ER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
19 0
'
24 1 P ro
. d u ct o f tw o W e sh
'
a l l n o w se e h
b inom ia l s
ow .
th lg b r i c r o d uc t o f t w o b in o m i a l s m a y b e ob t a in e d
e a e a p
m ti c ll y T h e f oll ow i n g e x e r cise s w i ll h e l p t h e st u
aut o a a .
d ent to dis co v e r a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e m e th od .
9
X
E ER C IS ES
F i nd b y a ctua l m ul tipl l cation th e foll wi n g pr o oducts
4
1
.
.
5 : (3 x —
2)
S ol uton i . 2 x + 3
6
4x + 5
83 2
+ 12 x 7 .
6 .
8 x i 5
7) (a
-
(
-
9 . d —
10 .
(3 96 8) (a :
2 .
11 .
12 .
(a: 3)( a;
2 a —
8
2
6 a
2
+ 10 a
13 .
(x
2
—
24 a —
40 14 .
(x
40
14 4
( 3
2
6 4 — —
15 . x
3) (5 y s)
16 .
(2 y .
3 . 5
( 3/ 4) (5 9 4) s
1 1) (m
3
17 ,
( m
i
ay i
f yt 2 g)
S ol ut on 18 (
-
.
. 95 . —
25 y + 20y 2
19 .
( c
22 . 53 x 57 .
S ol ut on i . 53 x 57 (so 3) ( 5 0 7)
2
50 + (7 3) 5 o 21 .
37 X 33
'
23 . 61 x 69 . 24 . 52 x 56 . 25 . .
26 . C an
‘
y ou se e a n y w a y of form ul ati n g a r ul e for fin din g

th e p r oducts of tw o b in om a si l
PO S I T IV E AzN D N EGAT IV E N U M B ER S 19 1
If w e ‘
a gree
b in om i al s ar + b an d cx + d to
to us e th e
'
r epr e se nt a ny tw o b i nom i a l s w h e r e a b c an d d are , , ,
k n ow n num b e r s l ik e th ose in th e pr od ucts a b ov e the n w e ,
m ay d i s cov e r a sh or t cut in m ul ti ply in g a s: b b y cz

v l d -
.
LLUS TRATIVE EXAMP LE

I
Fi n d th e product of ( ar
e b) and
( :
cal ) ( .
S ol uti n o . or b
55
or d
2
a cx b cx
a ds : bd
2
(b e + ad
) bd
‘
a er + ~ -
x
Th e a rr w h w th cr
o s s o e o ss -
l i li
m u tp ca t o n s i or c o ss r -
p r o d ucts wh o se
s um is e qu l t th m iddl
a o ,
e e te m r . It i s se e n h at th e fi
t er m
r st t
f
o he
t
p r oduct is th e p rod uct of th e first ter m s of th e b in om ia ls , th a tth e la stter m

is th e p roduct of th e l a st ter m s of th e b in om ia ls, a nd th a t th e m iddle te rm
is th e s um o f h e tw o cross p r od ucts
t -
.
X
E ER CIS ES
Usi n g th e r ul e state d ab o ve , g iv e th e p r od ucts of th e fol

l owin g b i n om ia l s
1 . .
(3 a —
2 b )(3 a —
2 b) .
S ol ut on i . r
T h e p oduct o f th e
(x
first term s of th e tw o b n om a s i i l
is 6 a ,
z
th e p r od uct of th e l t as
te r m s i s 15 , an d th e sum of th e
r r
c o ss p od ucts i s 1 9
-
a. Th e rfr e o e
th e p r oducti s 6 a
2
19 a 15 .
.
(3 a3 —
2 ) (7 ao
2 .
3 .
(2 a3
5 y)
4 (3 x +
—
.
.
,
5 .
(7 x
15 .
— 2 b) . 18 .
(3 a —
7 b ) (3 a -
i h) .
16 . 19 .
17 . 20 .
21 D o you n otice a ny th i n g e s pe ci a lly s i gn ifi ca nt a b outth e

.
pr od uct of tw o b i no i a l
m s t h a t a re e x act ly a lik e ? E x pl a i n
b y us i ng th e produet of + y a nd -
y b an d a; 6 a ,
a a
om pa r e wi t h E x 1 Art 1 2 7
)
( c .
,
.
2 2 D o you n oti ce a n y th i n g e spe ci a lly s i gn ifi ca n t ab out th e

.
p r od uc t f t w o b i n om i a l s t
o h at a e th e sa m e e x ce pt fo th e r r
s i gns b e t wee n th e tw o te rm s Ex pl a in b y us i ng th e pr oduct

of m + n an d m —
n .
23 Try to form ul ate a rul e for ob ta i n i n g a utom a ti ca lly

. th e
pr od ucts r e f e rr e d to in Ex s 2 1 a n d 2 2 . .
2 42 . S pecial products . W e ha ve se e n in Art . 2 4 1 h ow

l
th e m u tipli cati on of tw o b m om l a l s m ay b e pe r f or m e d
a utom a tca i lly S uch pr od ucts are ca ll e d sp ecia l p r oducts
. .
Th e stud e n t sh ou l d ob se rv e th at Ex s 2 1 a n d 2 2 Ar t 2 4 1 .
, .
,
furn is h e x a m pl e s of such pr od ucts F or e x am pl e th e .

,
p r od u c t of x +
y a nd x +
y is e q ua l to 29 + 2 x
y y+
2
a n d ,
is cal l e d the squa r e of the sum of a:an d y; whi l e th e
pr d uct o f a b an d a b is e q ua l to a 2 2
o -
2 ab + b an d
—
,
is cal l e d th e squa re of th e d if er en ce of a an d b F urth e r .

,
th e pr od uct of m + n an d m n is e u a l t o m
2
n
2
a nd
q
-
is ca l l e d th e p r oduct of th e sum a nd dif eren ce of m an d n .
X
E ER C IS ES
1 F in d autom ati ca ll y
. th e f oll owi n g s pe c a i l r
p od ucts a nd
cla ss ify ea ch
(a ) (c)
( ) o ao
b — —
z) .
( ) (
d 3 4 —
5 ) <3 x
(e ) (2 4 (g ) < 2 a: 4 y)
?
i
() (2 a 4
( ) ( 4:
.
( ) (
f 4 4 2s . h 5 (j ) (3 4
19 4 G EN E RA L M ATH EM AT I C S
Th e pr e ce din g rcise s s h ould es tab l i sh

e xe th e f ol l ow in g
sh or t cut for fi n d i ng t h e pr od uct of th e s um an d th e
diff e r e n ce of tw o n um b e r s
1 . S qua re ea ch o f th e n um b er s .
2 . Sub tra ct th e se con d s qua re f rom th e first .
2
Th us, ( 2 x —
3 y) ( 2 3 + —
9y
DRI LL EXERCIS ES
Fi nd th e f ollowi n g pr oducts m e nta lly
1 . 11 .
(
c
c
2 f
2 .
(y 3) (y 12 .
(w )
c (w )(
c w c
)
.
3 .
( z 4 ) (z 13 . 9) (10 m
z 2
4 .
(2 w 5 ) (2 w 14 .
(
c
o
y
/
2
5 .
( z 2 h ) (z 2 b) . 15 .
(1 1 + fgh )(1 1
6 .
(3 z 2 a
) (3 z 2 a
) . 16 .
(
a
5 5
0 ) (a
s
h é
)
.
7 .
(3 r 17 .
8 .
(4 a 18 .
(30 + 1)
9 . my z
) (g a y )
z . 19 .
( )
1 8
10 .
(
a : 1 )( : a 20 . 31
( )
2 43 . Divi sion . l g e br a i c di v i si on is ea si ly
Th e l aw for a
l earn ed b e cause of th e r e l a ti on b e tw e en di v i s i on an d m ul
tipl ica tion W e r eca l l f r om a r i th m e ti c th a t division is th e
.
r oce ss of fi n d in g on e of tw o n um b e r s Wh e n t h e i r pr od uct
p
an d t h e oth e r n um b e r ar e g i v e n an d a l s o w e r e m e m b e r
th a t quotientx divisor dividen d .
T h ese f acts sugg est th e l aw of di v i si on Th us w e k n ow .
th at 12 2 6 b e ca us e 2) + 12 .
PO S I T IV E AN D NEGAT IV E N U M B ER S 5
X
E ERCIS ES
1 . S i n ce 2
( ) 6) 12 , w h at is 12 2
2 . S i nce 2) 6) 1 2 w h a t is
, 12 2
3 . S i n ce 2) 6) z 12 w h at is
, 12 2 ?
S i nce
'
4 . a
) b) a b, w h a t is ab
) a
5 . i gn s of d ivi de nd an d divi sor a e a lik e

I f th e s r ,
th e s i gn O f th e q uoti e n t?
6 I f th e s i gn s of d ivi de n d a n d divi or a e un l ik e
. s r ,
th e S i gn of th e q uoti e n t
244 . La w of sign s in div ision Th e . w or k of th e pr e ce d

th e f ol l ow i ng l aw :
,
ing a r ticl e m ay b e sum m e d up in If

th e dividend an d divisor h a v e lik e si n
g s, th e
q u i
ot en t i s
p osi
tiv e ; if th e dividend an d divisor h a ve un l ik e s ign s, th e
q u i
ot en t is iv e
n ega t .
2 45 . Divi ding a m onom ia l b y a m onom ia l W e sh a l l

. n ow
h av e an O ppo r tun i ty to app ly th e l a w le arn e d in th e pre
ce din g arti cl e .
X
E ERC IS ES
F i nd th e q uoti e n t in th e f oll owi n g ,

do in g m e nta lly as m uc h
th e w ork a s possi b l e
1 .
10 . 10 9c)
) : v
2 .
11 . ab
) a
‘
K
3 .
12 .
(f d F
a 2
4 .
13 F —
35
5 .
14 .
4 ) x
i
6 .
15 .
(_ 1 21 +
( y
x
)
3
7 . 16 14 )
) 17 <i )
5
s .
)
ao c
c
.
. 9 . 18 .
s)
G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT I C S
‘
19 x
)
2 2
20 it) x
) ( ) x
21
: b) :
22 .
g )
(a s> )
-
e e
23 .
)
"
ae
) a
2
6
25 . 12 92
) a
) wJ
/z )
4m) :
26 . x
) )
m nt t )
:
i )
2
27 . 4 ( L66
) ab
)
: a 1:
28 5) 4
) ( g )
7 . 22)
:
'
%
29 .
( )
x
2
x
) 3 r
)
‘
) 2 4 xy z 3 x 9
30 )
—
. x a - -
NO T E . Th e a l ge b r ic l uti
ffi cul t pr b l m f
a so on of th e m r
o e di o e s o
thi typ s be a re esfr ctit i n t rpr t d

i c fr cti n i n
e e e as a on s, s n e a a o s a
24 y
i dic t d qu ti nt T h u 2 4 g/ 3 :m y b wri tt n Th
(b
3 :
n a e o e . s, a
v + 1 a e e e
a
2
3
3
1 35
p r b
o l m en w i n o f r d uci n g t l w r t r m
s o e o T h u i ne o o e e s . s,
.
i a
t
b th n um r t r n d d
o e m i n t r m yb
a o a d ivi d d b y 3
e no Th r ul t a o a e e x . e es
8y
is __ ,83 1 un i t
or s .
1
In l g b r a ine i th m tic th qu ti n ti n t lte r d if divi d nd
a, as ar e , e o e s o a e e
a n d divi r b th di i d d b y th
so a re om f ct r D ivi din g d ivi d d
v e e sa e a o . en
an d di vi r b y th so hi gh t c m m n f ct r r duc th qu ti t
e es o o a o e es e o en
( orfr c tia
) t t hon i m p l t for m ( t l
e s w t t
e rm ) es o or o o es s .
8 9:“
ym
2 ’ 8
S ol uton i . Th e qu ti n t i n g tiv
S ign of th e o e s e a e . VVh y?
Th e n um ri c l f ct r c n b
e a divi d d b y 8
a o s a e e $
5
a nd
2
13 a r e
£ d ivi i b l
s e
b y352 ; y
“ d g
an di i i b l b y y ;
s
a re d m v s e
3 2
771 a n
3
are d ivi ib l s e b y 7712 .
H e nce
2 3 3
x y m m
G EN ER AL M AT H EM AT I C S
2 47 . F actoring ; pri m e num b e s r . To f a ctor a num b er is

to fi nd tw o or b e rs wh i ch wh e n m ultiplie d
mo re n um
toge th e r w i ll pr od uce th e n um b e r Th us on e m ay se e by .
,
i n spe cti on th a t 2 2 and 3 are th e f actors of 12 In lik e

, ,
.
"
m ann e r rc + y an d a a re th e f actor s of a x + a y
,
.
A n um b e r w h i ch h as n o oth e r f actor s e x cept i tse lf an d

un i ty is s a i d to b e a p r im e num b er ; as 5 x a n d a b
’
.
, , ,
A m on om i a l is expr e sse d in te r m s of its pr i m e factor s ,
th us -
x ~
/
3
-
y 3
/ -
Th e fo ll o w i ng is an e x am pl e of th e m e th od of e x p e ss r
in
g a factor e d polyn om i a l :
2 2 3 2
6 90 1
0 1
In a lg eb r a ,
r i th m e ti c cer ta in f orm s of n um be r
as in a ,
e x r e ssi on occur v e ry f r e q ue n t l e ith e r a s m ul t i li cati

p y p ons
or as di v is i on s s o m uch s o th a t it is of con s id e r ab l e
,
a d v an t ag e t o m e m ori ze t h e ch a r acte r i sti cs of th ese n um

b e r s th at w e m ay f actor th e m by i n spe cti on an d th us b e
ab l e t o
pe rf or m th e m ul tipli cati on s an d di v i si on s auto
m a tically In thi s tex t w e sh a ll s tud y tw o g en e r a l type s
.
of f a ct or i n g .
2 48 F a ctor ing Type I

. Tak ing out a com m on m onom ial
.
fa ctor Typ e f orm a x b x ex x (a b c)

. .
'
A n um b e r of th i s ty pe w e s h a ll ca ll a n um b er con ta znzrig
'
a com m on m on om ia l
f a ctor Th e pr od ucts ob tain e d in th e
.
e x e r cis e s of Art 2 39 a re n um b e r s of t
. his type Alth ough .
th is type of f actor in g is n ot di ffi cul t n e v e rth e l es s itis im ,
p o rt a n t a n d sh oul d b e k e t in m i nd
p W e s h a ll l e a r n t h
. at
m an y v e r b al pr ob l em s l e ad to e ua ti on s wh i ch can r e adil y
q
b e s ol v e d by a m e th o d wh i ch d e pe n d s upon f actor i n g .
F actor in g al so e n ab l e s us to tr an sform f orm ul as i nto th e i r

m ost conveni en t f or m .
P O S ITI V E AN D N EGATI V E NU M B ERS 19 9
Th e m et h od of fa ctor in g t h is y
t pe con si sts of th e
f oll ow ing steps
1 Insp ect th e term s

. a nd discover th e f a ctor wh ich is
com m on to a ll th e t
erm s .
Divide by th e
2 . com m on m onom ia l f a ctor . Th e r esult
a in ed is t
ob t h e oth er f a ctor .
3 In. or der t
o
fi nd out w h eth er h e h as f a ctor ed ly
corr e ct
the ud ent s h ould

st m ultip ly the tw o fa ctor s togeth er .
NOTE . In a ll f ct rin g prob l m

a o e s th e stude n t sh o ul d fi r st l oo k to
se e if th e n um be r c nt i n c m m
o a s a o on m on om i lfa a cto r .
X
E ERCIS ES
Factor th e foll owi ng by i n specti on a nd c h e ck y our work

'
b y m ul ti pli ca ti on '
1 . b ar 5b bc .
S ol ution . Ea ch te m h a s th e r f a cto rb . Di vi d e th ee x p r i
e s s on b yb .
Th e qu tio e nt is x 5 c .
C h e ck . b (r
. c ) bx 5b be .
Th e rfr e o e th e f a cto s of r bx —
5 b —
b c a re b a nd r —
5 —
c .
5b 9 ”
2 . 5 a —
. 8 . 11 — o
x .
2 3
3 . 4x + 4y . 9 . 25 x —
5 x .
2 2
4 5 ma l omb 10 2 + 4 xy + 2 y
'
.
. —
. . x .
5 . 5 aa : 2 —
10 a 1 y :
: 2
11 . a
2
b + ab
2
+ a
3
.
s 2 2
6 . Zine 12 . 4x —
8 a1y l 4 y - —
.
7 . 3x 2
6 33 . 13 . a x
2 2 —
2a 2
x
2
y f
2 - -
4ax y“ 2
.
2
14 . 3a —
l5 a +l8 .
2 49 . F a ctoring Type II .
_
Th e cut a nd try m eth od of
z
fa ctoring . Typ e form a cr +
Th e pr od ucts bta in e d e x e r ci se s of Art 2 41 can al l
o in th e .
be factor e d e as i ly b y in spe cti on Th e m eth od of f a ctor i n g .

suc ph r od u c ts is k n o w n a s t h e cu t and t r
y or t r ia l an d
e rr or m e th o d T h e .m e t h o d co n s is t
s s im pl y of g ue ss in g .
th e c o rr e ct p a i r o f f a cto r s f r om a ll o f th e p os s i bl e on es
a n d th e n v e r if y i n g t h e r e s u l t b y m u l ti ply i n g th e f act ors
tog e th e r . Th e m e th od is ill ustr a te d by th e f oll ow in g

e x a m pl e
F aC t
OI
‘
Q :
a
2
10 .
S ol ution . T h e re a re f ur p i b l
o os s e
p a ir s of f act r
o s, a s s hown b e lo w
2 r + 10 2 3. i +5
'
x + 1 2 r + 1 2 x + 2
I t is cl e a r th a t th e l ast pa ir is th e corr e ct on e s in ce th e ,
sum of th e cr oss pr od ucts is 9 x O f cour se th e corr e ct

-
.
“
a ir of f a ct or s m a y b e f oun d at a n y s t a g e of th e cut
p
an d t r
y m e t h od an d whil e t h e
pr,
oce s s m a
y see m s l ow a t
first pr acti ce s oon d e v e l ops such sk ill th at th e factors can

,
e as i ly b e f oun d .
It is v e ry i m por tan t for th e s tud en t a lw ay s to b e s ur e

th a t th e f actor s h e h a s ob tain e d are pr i m e n um be r s S uch .
factor s are ca ll e d p ri m e fa ctor s In ci d e n ta lly it is i m por .
ta n t to r e m e m b er th a t th e r e a r e som e n um b ers th at a re
n ot fa ct or a b l e b e caus e th ey are a lr e a d y pr im e n um b e r s
,
~
pl e f r l
z
+ 16 a d a + 2 + 12
2
F or e x a m , x n x ar e n ot a cto a b e .
S ee if you l a in w h yth e y ar e n ot f a ctor ab l e

can ex p .
Fr om w h at h as b een s a id th e stud en t will see th at in

a l l f actorin g pr ob l em s it is i m portant to h ol d in m i n d
thr e e thi n g s ; n am e l y
1 Try to dis cov e r a com m on m on om i a l f actor

. .
“ ”
2 F in d th e pri m e f actor s by th e out a n d try m e th od
. .
3 C h e ck b y m ul tiply i ng th e f actor s tog e th e r

. .
G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT I C S
2 50 .
F actoring
fect tr inom ial sq uares Type form per . .
2 a h + b = (a j : Num b e rs l ik e 4 x + 1 6 x + 16 or
2 2
2
a j ;
2 b) .
a
z 2 xy y +
2 w hi ch a r e o b ta i n e d by
,
m ul ti ply i n g a b in o
m ia l by i t s e lf are ca ll e d p er fe ct tr inom ia l sq ua res Th ey

,
.
a re spe ci a l case s of t h e s e con d ty pe of f a ctor in g di scusse d

in Ar t 2 4 9 W e h a v e a lr e a d y see n pe rf e cttr in om i a l s q uar es
. .
where al l th e te rm s are posi ti v e in th e pr obl e m s of Ex 2 .

,
Art 1 2 7 S ee if you can f orm ul a te a sh or t m eth od of

. .
factor in g pe rf ect tr i n om i a l sq uar e s .
XE ER CIS ES
Factor th e foll owi ng pe rfe ct tri nom ia l s q ua e s r by a s h ort

m e th od :
2 2 2
1 . a
2
+ 2 ab +6 5 . 9 x + 42 x y + 49 y .
2 2 2 2
2 . m —
2 mn + n . 6 . 64 a —
32 ab -
l 4b
-
.
3 . 9 x + 12 2
xy + 4y 2
. 7 . 4 :
:
1y
2 2 —
12 r
r
yz 4 9 z — 2
2 z
4 . 16 a —
40 ab + 2 5 b . 8 .
2 51 . F actoring th e difference of tw o sq ua es r . Typ e f or m

a
2
(
2
b ( a f orb)
m a b
a2
a re b) . Num b e r s of th e ?
cal l e d th e difi eren ce of tw o squa r es Th e pr od ucts ob ta in e d .
in th e e x e rci se s on pag e 1 94 are n um b e r s of th i s type .
Thi s is a speci al cas e of th e type di scusse d in Ar t 249 . .
ORAL E ER CIS ES X
W h at is th e pr oduct of ( c 3) ( :
1 . a a W h at th en are
”
th e fa ctor s of a 9
2 S ta te th e fa ctor s of th e foll owi n g
.
2
( ) 4 (c)
3 2
a 90 —
7 —
43
“
.
.
(b ) c 25 . d
( ) 25 x
2
.
3 S h ow b y m eans of F ig 1 7O on th e foll ow i ng tha t

pa ge
. .
6 =
2 2
a —
(a + b ) (a b) .
PO S I T I V E AN D N EG AT I V E N U M B ERS 2 08
Th e q i e a b 2
(
uaton a b )( a b ) a ss e r ts
2
, t ha t a
b i nom i al w hi ch is th e diff er ence of tw o s q uar e s ,

m ay b e
r e ad i ly factor e d as f oll ow s
One f a ctor i s th e sum o f
he
t s ua re r oot
q s o f th e ter m s
f
o th e b inom ia l, a n d th e oth er
th e d if eren ce of th e s
qua re
r oot
s o f th e er m s
t f
o th e
b inom ia l B
A
.
H —
aH k—
H
Thus , to fa ctor 49 a
zz
b
F rC
firstfi n d th e sq uar e r ootof
e a ch te r m ; t h at is 7 an d a b T h e n a ccor din g to th e ru l e
, .
, ,
on e f a ct o r is 7 a b an d th e oth e r 7 ab O b v i ous ly th e .
,
factor s m ay b e g i v e n in r e v e r se or d e r W h y .
X
E ERC IS ES
Fa ctor th e foll owi ng b i n om ia l s C h e ck b y m ul ti pli cati . on
w h en you ar e n ot a b sol ute ly ce r tain th e r e sul t is corr e ct .
2 2 F
1 . x 16 . 7 . 16 a 25 I . 13 . 36 .
2 . a
"
a
“. s . 81 16 a . 14 . 2 89 m 2 ; 81 n ?
3 . 9 . 25 a “ '
36 4
15 . 16 9 a b Q ’ 2
L
c 9d
6 3 2 2
4 . 1 10 . 49 36 x . 16 . 12 1 7 3 16 t .
t 2 fi z
2
i y
2
5 . x 9y 11 . 1 25 c 17 . 19 6 1 00 b c .
2 1 2 3 2
6 . 9 y 12 .
1
x 18 . 36 1 7 k 19 6 .
s 4 6 12 2
19 . 225 a 77i n h . 26 . 9 (a c
c
) 16 .
4 ‘
20 s 2 6
. x y .
27 .
( a y) x .
21 . 25 n r “ ‘
81 m “ .
8 s
22 . x y . 9
23 . 625 a
z ‘
b 256 0
4
.
29 . (L
2
b “ .
24 . 6 4 at“ 9 .
2
30 0 °
y
.
25 .
(M a —
9 . 16
2 04 G EN ER A L M A TH EM AT I C S
K no wl e dg e r
of
p od uct s th e s pe c a i l
con s id e r e d a b ov e
e n a b l e s us to m u l ti ply ce r ta in a r i th m e ti c n u m b e rs w i th
gr e at rapid ity T hus th e pr od uct of 32 by 2 8 m ay b e
.
w r i tte n ( so 4; 2 ) ( 30 2) 89 6
“
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . G iv e m e n tal ly th e foll owi ng pr oduct s
( ) a 18 22 .
( )
e 32 2 7 . i
( ) 6 7 7 3 .
( )
m 7 5 85 .
(b ) 17 23 . f
( ) 37 4 3 . j
( ) 6 6 7 4 .
( ) n 79 81 .
( )
c 26 34 .
(g) 38 4 2 . k
( )0
6 8 7 2 .
( )
o 42 38 .
(d) 29 31 . h
( ) 47 5 3 . l
() 7 5 6 5 .
(p) 95 75 .
2 :Fi nd th e v a l ue of th e foll owi n g

2 2 2 2
( )
a 71 2
19 2
.
( )
c 14 6 54 .
() e 1 2 15 15 .
(f )
2
(b ) 14 6 2
46 2
. d
( ) 312 2
2 88 2
2 14 6 2
10 .
2 52 . Differ ent w a y s of ca rryin g outth e sa m e cal cu l ations .
pr e ce d in g pr obl sh ow t h f or l a b2
Z—
Th e em s at th e mu a
=
( a —
b ) ( a + b ) pr ovi d e s us wi th
-
a m et h od of m akin g
l l i
ca cu at on s fact th e
e as e i r . In , e x pr es s i on s wh i ch are
l in ke d b y th e e q uali ty S ig i n n a
2
62 =
( a —
s i m pl y r e pr e s e n t tw o di ff e r e n t w a y s of ca rry in g out t he
s a m e ca l cul a t i ons of w hi ch th e on e on th e r igh t is by
,
far th e e as i e r .
2 53 Di stin ction b etw een identity a nd eq uation An e q ua l

. .
ity s uch as z
b : (a
2 a b ) ( a + b ) is ca l l e d a n iden tity
— — -
.
It r e pr e sen ts tw o w ay s of m ak ing th e s am e ca l cul ati on .
T h e state m e n t is tr ue for a ll v a l ue s of a a n d b Th e .
p pi l sh oul d n ot con fuse th e m e a ni n g of a n id e n ti ty w i th

u
th at of a n eq uati on T h us 1 3 4 (a: 2 ) (x 2 ) is true

.
for al l v a l ues of b ut 1 2
4 32 is a s tate m en t th at is
s
o,
tr ue on l y wh e n or : 6 ; th a t is it is a state a ,
m e n t of e q ual ity in s om e s e ci a l s i tuati on ; it m a b

p y e
'
3 . A m e ta l pl ate is cut as s h o wn in F ig 172 I f a . 10 and .
b wh at is th e a re a of th e
2, pl a te I n w h at tw o wa y s m ay
th e cal cul a ti n g b e don e W h a tis th e

v ol um e of m e ta l if th e pi e ce is i in .
th i ck W h atis th e we i gh tif a cub i c

i nch of th e m e ta l we i gh s 2 0 gra m s
Wri te a ge n e ra l f or m ul a fo a pl ate r
cut in th e for m of t h e fi gur e ti nch e s ,
th i ck a n d w e i gh in g 9 gr am s pe r
s qua re i nch W ri te th e r e sul t in a
.
form whi ch is e as ily ca l cula te d .
F w 172
4 A de mgn patte r n i s cut i n
.
th e for m s h own in F ig 1 73 C a l cul a te th e a r ea

. . M ak e a .
ve rb a l pr ob le m ill ustra ti n g th i s for m ula .
5 We ca n m a k e a n a ppli ca ti on of ou
. r
knowl edge of fa ctori n g in pr ob l e m s re
l ate d to circl e s a s will b e se e n b y s olvi n g t

, a "
th e f oll owi ng
h e ar e a of a cir cl e w h ose r a d i us
( )
a T
is r is 7r W ha t is th e a rea of a circl e
r
2
.
F 173 IG
whose r adius is R ?
.
( )
b H ow ca n
y o u fi nd t h e a r ea o f th e ri n g s h ade d in
F ig 174 ? I n d i ca te th e a r e a
. .
( )
0 S i m plify th e r e s ul tof b b y e m ov
( ) r
in g th e m on om i a l fa ctor .
(d) W h a t is th e a r ea of a r unn i n g
tra ck in wh i ch R = 100 a n d 90 ? r
C a l cula t r h
( )
e e th e a ea o f t h e s a de d
ri n g in F ig 174 i f R . in a n d 5; . r
if R an d r
F 174 ro
6 All owi ng 5 00 l b to a cub i c f oot fi n d
.
. .
,
th e we i gh to f a stee l pi pe 2 0 ft l on g if R 12 in an d i 11 in
‘
. .
;
Hi N F ind rul
r . f rm ul f th v lum f cy li nd r
a e or o a or e o e o a e .
PO S I T IV E AN D N EGAT IV E N U M B ER S 2 07 .
7 F i nd th e w e i gh t of an ir on ro d 6 ft l ong . cas t in th e
for m shown in F ig 1 75 if a = 2 in b = I in a nd c g in
. .
,
. .
-
H IN All w 5 00 l b p cub i c f t
T . o , er oo .
Di v ision of pol ynom ia l s

il l ustr a ted b y a r ith m etica l num
Th e pr ocess of di v idin g
'
b ers .
on e pol y n om i a l b y an ot h e r m ay
b e cl e a r l y il lustr ate d b y a l on g m 1 75 e .
di v i s i on pr obl em in a r i th m eti c ;
for e x a m pl e w e sh all con s id e r 6 7 94 2
, 32 2 O r din a r i ly w e ,
.
.
di v id e in autom ati c f ash i on a d opti ng m an y d esi r ab l e sh ort ,
cut s w hi ch th ough th e y m ak e our w or k m or e e ffi ci en t

, ,
ne v e r t h e l ess obscur e th e m e an in g .
In m ul ti pli c ti n i t w p i n t d utth t b c u
a o f u d ci m l
as o e o a e a se o o r e a
sy t m th 9 in
s e e d n t t nd f 9 un i t b ut f 900 un i t
oe s o s a or s, or s
or 9 10 un i t S i m il rl y th 7 m
2
s . n 7000 a 7 10 tc , e ea s ,
or
3
, e .
If w .rr n g divi d n d n d divi r in th f rm f p lyn m i l

e a a e e a so e o o o o a s,
th d ivi i n m y pp r in i th r f th f ll wi n g f r m :
e s o a a ea e e o e o o o s
6 0000 7000 900 40 2

6 0000 4 000 4 00
3000 5 00 40
3000 2 00 20
3 102 + 2
° O
IO + 2
-
1 02 2
3 -
10
3 -
10
3
3
Th e d ent sh ould stud y th e tw o pr e ce din g ex am pl es

stu
car e f ul l y In or d e r to b e b e tte r ab l e to un d e r stan d th e s i m i

l arity of th e se w i th th e di v i si on of al g e br ai c ol y n om i a l s
'
p
w h ich w e sh all n ow di scuss .
256 Divi sion of a l geb ra ic l yn o m ia l s Th e di v i s i on of

po
:
.
.
a lg e b r a i c p o ly n om i a l s a rr a n g e d a c c o r di n g to e it h e r t h e
as ce n di n g o r th e d e s c e n d i n g p o w e r of s o m e l e tte r is S i m i l a r
to t e pr
h e ce di g
n di v i s i on of a r i thm e ti c a l n u m b e rs ; t h us :
+ y+ 2
2
4 y2 + y+ 2
2
4 31 + y+ 2
2
a
3
+ a b
Q
—
a b
2 2
—
a b —
ab
2 3
+ ab + b
z '
+ ab -
b s
257 . Proces s in div i sion r om a stud y of th e pr ece ding

. F
e x e r ci s e s w e s e e th at in di v id in g on e poly n om i al by an oth e r
w e pr oce e d a s f oll o w s :
1 . Arr a nge b oth d iv iden d a nd div is or a ccor ding t

o a s cen d
ing or descen ding p ow ers of som e com m on letter .
2 . D ivide th e fir stterm Q f th e dividen d b y th e fir stter m f

o
th e div isor a nd w r it
e the fi fi r s tter m of t
r esh e
quotilt
uen t ir th e .
3 . Multip lyth e entire di v isor b y th e fir stter m of th e quoti en t

a nd sub t h
r a ctt e r esult r om f h e di viden d
t .
4 . If th ere is a r em a in der , con sider it a s a n ew dividen d

a nd roceed a s b efore
p .
Th e d en t sh oul d obse rv e th atth e pr ocess in di v i si on

stu
furni sh es an ex cel l en t r e v i e w of th e oth e r f un d am enta l

p r oc ess es i na sm uch a s t
, h e y ar e n e ce s s a ry in a l m ost e v e r
y
di v i si on pr obl e m :Th ey sh ould th e r ef or e b e m a ster e d as
s oon as poss i bl e .
G EN ERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
X
E ERCIS ES
D ivi d e , a nd c ec h k b y e th e i r m et h od
11 x + 30) (
a
1 (m i x
— — —
” z
2 o
(v —
v
3 .
4 .
(9 —
4 :
)
a
3
2 3
5 .
(4 + 2 x —
8 fc + 2 9 x Z
i nc
8 2 2 3
6 .
( 7 93
2 —
5 4 zc y l 36 - -
xy —
8 y) —
(3 a; -
2 y) .
8 2 2 3
7 .
(2 7 2 + 5 4 x y+ 36 x y + 8 y) 2 y)
.
8 .
(m
s —
y)
8 -
(
a : y)
—
.
3
9 .
(8 2 —
5 y) .
3 3
10 .
(8 x + 12 5 y)
32 m + 32 m 2 3 “ 2
11 .
(15 + 8m — —
15 m ) —
5m )
.
12 .
13 .
3
14 .
(r + 65 r 63) -
( r
2 3
15 .
(2 5 a —
20a + 6 a —
12 )
16 . 8
( x —
4 f 6 ic + 8 c
- —
4
: 3
’ 2 a 4
17 .
(9 5c y —
6 mg + az
4
(2 2
18 . 5 x —
6 y) .
19 .
5
20 .
(a
s
(
‘ ‘
21 v) i ( v)
a —
a — -
( a —
v)
4
(2 5 m
2 2
22 49 m 7 n
) .
4
( 5m
2 ‘ 2 2
23 49
. n
) m 7n ) .
3 3
24 b s
. a o
) ab c
) .
s
25 .
(8 a
1 2 —
3 :
a
2 60 Di v i si on b y zero T h e q uoti en ts , ,
0
. .
’
0 0 O
etc. h av e no m e an ni g , for be r m ul tipl i e d by 0
a n um
cann otg i v e 1 , 2, 3, 23, e tc .

( see th e d e fin i ti on of di v i s i on in
Art . T h e q uoti en t 9 s u nd e te r m i n e d , a s e v
'
ery n um
O
b e r m u l tipl i e d by 0 e q ua l s 0 Th e r e for e w e sh a l l assum e .
th at in a ll q uoti ents h e r e afte r th e di v i sor is n ot ze r o n or

e q ua l t o ze r o .
EXERC IS ES
1 Th e f oll owi n g sol uti on is on e of se ve r a l th a t a re s om e

.
ti m e s g iv e n to s h ow th a t 1 2 F i n d th e fa ll a cy . .
T w n um b r
o gi v n qu l
e s a re x y e e a , as .
Th e n x —
y z O,
a nd 2 (x
Th e n x — =
y 2 (
x —
y) .
Divi di g b th i d b y y
n o s es1 2 x ,
.
2 G iv e a s i m il a r a r gum e nt w h i ch
. se e m s to S h ow tha t 2
eq ua l s 5 .
S U MM AR Y
2 61 . Th i s ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e an in g of th e foll ow

in g w or d s an d phr ase s : tur n i n g te n d e n cy f or ce l e v e r arm , , ,
m ul ti p l i cati on di v i si on factor i n g factor s pr i m e num b e r

, , , , ,
n um b e r con t a in i n g a m on om i a l f a ct or .
2 6 2 Th e l aw of si g n s in m ul tipl i cati on w a s ill ustr ate d

.
1
( ) g e om e t r i ca lly w i th li n e s e g m en ts a nd 2
( ) by m e a ns
of t h e b a l an ce d be am .
2 63 Th e f ol l ow i n g a gr e e m e n ts w e r e use d
.
1 . A weigh t pulling dow nwa r d is n

e g a tiv e ; on e
p ul ling
upw a r d is p osi tiv e .
2 . A f or ce tending to at
r ot e a bar cl ockwise is ive ;
n eg a t
er clockwise,
count i
ositv e.
p
3 . A le ver a rm to th e r ig h t o f p th e oint wh er e the b a r is
b a la nced is positive ; to the left, nega tive .
Th e turning tend ency ( or f or ce

) in
a ct
g b al a nced
u on a
p
b a r is ual t
o th e
p roduct o f the w eigh t tim e s the le ver a rm
e
q .
2 64 . La w of s igns p in m ul tipli cati on

f :Th e r oduct o
tw o num b er s ha ving like signs is p osi t ive ; the pr oduct of two

n um b er s h a ving unl ike signs i s neg a ti ve .
265 . Th e ch apte r h as taugh t an d g eom e tr i ca lly il l us

trate d th e f o l l ow i n gr ce sse s of m ul ti li ca ti on :
p o p
1 . Th e m ul tipli cati on of se v e r a l m on om i a ls .
2 . Th e m ul tipl i ca ti on of a m on om i a l by a poly n om i a l .
3 Th e
. m ul tipl i ca ti on of poly n om i a ls by po lyn om i a l s .
Th e o rd e r of fa cto r s m ay b e c h an ge d wi th out ch an g in g
th e p r od uct .
Th e v a l ue of a pr od uct is ze o r if one of th e f actor s

is ze r o .
26 6 . L aw of di v i si on :The q u i
ot f
en t o tw o n um b er s ha v
ing like signs is p ositive ; th e qu i
ot ent o f tw o num b er s h a ving
unl ike signs is nega tive .
Ar i th m eti cal be r s m ay b e arr an g e d in th e form of

n um
p o ly n om i a l s accor ding to po w e r s of 1 0 .
Th pr c e f d ivi di n g n p l y n m i l b y n th r i
o e ss o o e nti ll y
o o a a o e s e sse a
th m
e sa th pr c
e as f di vi di n g ri th m ti c l n um b r
e o e ss o a e a e s .
In l l pr b l m
a f th t tth divi r i n t z r
o e s o e ex e so s o e o .
2 67 . Th e ch apte r h as ta ugh t th e f oll ow i n g for m s of
di v i s i on
1 . Th e di vis i on of a m on om i a l by a m on om i a l .
2 . Th e di v i si on of a polyn om i a l b y a m on om i al .
3 Th e
. re ducti on of a f r acti on to l ow e st te rm s .
4 . Th e di v isi on of a pol yn om i a l b y a polyn om i a l .

C H AP T ER X
I
GRAP H CAL REP RE S ENTATION OF S TATIS TIC S ; THE
GRAP H OF A LINEAR EQ UATION
2 70 F a cts presented in th e form of a ta b l e Th e f oll o w

. . .
ing ta bl e of f acts sh ow s in pa rt th e r e cr e a ti on a l in te r e sts

of t h e b oys an d g i r l s of ce r ta i n C l e v e l an d ( O h i o) h i gh
'
s ch ool s Thus of 4 5 2 8 b oy s 4 075 pl ay b ase b all ; of 372 7

.
, ,
g i rl s 2 6 08 pl ay b ase b a ll ; 74 02 ch ild r en out of a total of

,
82 55 a tten d th e m ov i es r eg ul a r l y ; an d s o on .
TAB LE OF R E C R EATI O NA L I NT ER ES T S
BOY S G I R LS T OTA L
Num b e r f tud t
o s en s
Num b e r w h pl y b b ll
o a a se a
Num b e r w h pl y b k tb ll
o a as e a
Num b e r w h pl y t i
o a enn s
Num b e r w h b l g t C m p F ir
o e on o a e G irl s
Num b e r w h wr tlo es e
Num b e r w h tt nd m vi
o a e o es
Num b e r w h tt nd m i d ily
o a e ov e s a
X E ER CIS E
S tudy th e pr e ce di ng tab l e un t il un de s tr
a nd th e m e an
you
ing of th e col um n s of fi gur es .
2 71 . Pictog ra m s ;
T ab l e s m a d e up of colum n s of
graph s .
figure s are com m on in n e w spape rs m ag azin es an d b ook s , , ,
b ut a tabl e lik e th e pr e ce di ng is n ot th e b e st d e v i ce for

2 14
P
R E R ES EN TAT IO N OF I
S TAT S T C S I 2 15
r
e x p e ss n i g g of an a rr ay of fa cts Th e or din ary
th e m e an in .
m i n d cann ot see th e r e l ati on s i f th e li st is at al l ex ten d e d ;

h ence it often h appen s th at th e r e al m e an ing of a se r i es of
facts is l ost in a com pli cated tabl e Ne w spape rs m ag azin es
.
, ,
tr ad e j our n a l s a n d b ook s r e a l izin g th i s f act are b eg i nn i ng

, , ,
to ad d to tab l e s of stati sti cs pi ctur e s wh i ch S h ow th e i r

m e an i ng an d th e i r r e l ati on sh ips m or e cl e a rly th an can b e
d on e by colum n s of figur e s .
Th e S i gn i fi can ce of th e f acts of th e pr e ce di n g tab l e is

far m or e v i v id ly e x pr e sse d by th e pi ctur es of F ig 1 76 . .
Th us th e pi ctur es sh ow th at of th e h i gh sch ool g i rl s On e

.
-
ou t of e v e ry t w o ( 5 0 pe r ce n t) pl ay s te nn i s ; tw o out of
e v e ry d oze n 1 6 r ce n t a re C am F i r G i rl f h
( gp e ) p e s ; o t e
h i gh sch ool b oy s six out of e v e ry tw enty ( 30 per cen t)

-
wre stl e ; 85 pe r cen t of al l th e e l em enta ry sch ool and -
h igh sch ool b oys atte n d th e m ov i e s r egul a rly ; and so on

-
.
T h e pi ctur e s con sti tute a m or e pow e rf ul m e th od of

te achin g n um e r i ca l r e l ati on s b e cause th e y te a ch thr ough
,
th e e ye F or thi s r e a son th ey are ca l l e d grap h ic pictures

.
,
i cto ra m s or s i m l y a hs
p g , p g p r .
X
E ERCIS ES
B ym ea n s of i
th e p ct
og ram s in F ig . 1 76 an s we r th e foll owi ng
i
q ue ston s
1 W h at pe r ce nt of th e C l e v e l an d b oy s pl ay te n n i s ? of
.
th e C l e v e l an d girl s ? Wi th w h i ch gr oup is te n n i s th e m or e
o
p p ul a r ?
2 Assum i n g th at e v e ry soun d b od i e d b oy s h oul d l e ar n to

.
-
wr estl e does y our cl ass m a k e a b e tte r or a w or se s h owi n g in

,
per cents th an th e C l e v e l a nd b oy s
3 Are a l a r ge r pe r ce nt of th e girl s of y our cl ass C a m p

.
Fir e G irl s th an is th e ca se in th e C l e ve l a nd h i gh sch ool s

i
H g h Sch oo G
-
l irl s
Do not Tenn i s
\ \
i
H g h Sch oo Boy s l (
Rfi
-
PlyT i
a e nn s Do no tpl y Ta e n nis
Hig h -
Sch oo G irl l s
a sk e t Ba ll We vr Ne e
i
H g h S ch oo Boys l
XRfi
( \( \ \
-
pl y B ll
We a as k e t B a ‘V N v Do
e e er
Wl yWe p a B a se b a
K
ll
i
H g h Sch oo G
-
l irl s
We Ne v
er Do
KKM K KKK K
i
H g h S ch oo Bo l y s
-
W l y l e p a B a se b a l 1 Ne ver Do
i
H g h Sch oo G
-
l irl s
B elong to C am p F i re Do not b e l ong to C a m p F ire
i
H gh S ch oo Boys
-
l
Wres tle Do not Wrestle

E le m e nta ry a nd H ig h S ch oo l B oys
-
Atte nd Movie s Do not a tte nd Mo vi es
Dai ly Att enda nce
i
H gh Sch oo Boys
-
l
Sw m i
i
H gh Sch ool G -
irl s
Sw m i S O S B oa d
. . , r of Educa ton i l
F IG . 176 . S HO W I NG H OW P I C T O G R A M S AR E US D E TO EX PR ESS F AC T S
(Ad apte d from J oh n son ’

s i
Ed uca t on th ro ugh Re crea tion
2 16
X
E ER CIS ES
1 . I n F ig 177 h ow doe s th e a m ount pa d as nte e st com

. r i i
a r e wi i li r
th th e a m ount pa d for po ce a nd fi re p ote cton i
p
2 D O you th i n k it woul d ha v e b e e n m or e pr o fi ta b l e in th e
.
l ong run fo P or tl a nd to paycas h fo all pub li c i m prove m e nts

r r
H N I A d fi ni t n w r t th i pr b l m m y b
T . e e a s b t i n d if
e o s o e a e o a e
se v r l m m b r f th cl will lv E 3 n d r p rtt th cl
e a e e s O e a ss so e x . a e o o e a ss .
*3 Wh at wi ll it cost a ci ty to b uil d a i$ 100 000 h i gh s ch ool

.
,
-
b uil di ng if of it
. s cos t is pa i d in cas h a n d t h e r e m a i n de r
p a i d b y i ss u i n g 4 pe ce n tb on ds of w h i ch $ 4 000 w orth ar e t
r o be
retir e d (pai d) a nnua lly (All i nter e stdue to b e pa i d a n n ua lly ) .
N E Th pr b l m m u t n t b
OT . e i n t rpr t d
o e n rgum n t
s o e e e e as a a e
sh wi g th t b n di n g (b rr wi n g) i n v r j u ti fi b l
o n a o o o s e e s a e .
Th e d i scuss i on f th e m e th od of payi n g th e e x pen se s

o
of t h e U n i te d S t at e s fo th e fir st y ea r of ou pa r ti ci pa ti on in
r r
th e Eur opea n \ V ar w as sh a r ply d i i de d b e twee n tw o gr oups v .
O n e g r oup fa v or e d a l a r ge a m oun t of b orr owi n g b y th e i su s
a n ce of b onds w h il e th e oth e r a dv ocate d a paya s you go

,
- - -
p o li cy t h a t is
,
r ai sing t h e m on e y b y t
,
a x ati on D e b a t
e th e .
m e ri ts of th e tw o pl a n s
5 S h ow th e f oll owi n g fa cts b y m e a n s of a cir cl e di v

. i de d
into s ector s
TAB LE S H O W I NG D I S P O S ITI O N O F T H E G R O S S RE VENUE OF

T HE B E LL L
TE EP H O NE S YS TE M F O R T H E Y EAR 19 17
I T M E S P ER C E NT
Sa l ri
a e s, wg a e s, a n d i nci d en ta s l 50
Ta x e s 7
rl S u p us 4
M t ri l r n t n d tr v li n g
a e a s,
p n e20 , a a e ex e se s
In t r t e es 7
Divi d n d e s 12
Th ough w id el y used th e circle di v id e d in to se ctors ,

t
is
n ot a
q ui te s ati sfactory m e th od of sh ow in g th e r a ti o of
P
R E R ES EN TAT IO N OF S TAT S T C S I I 2 19
n um be rs In fact th e obj e cti on s are S O se r i ous th at th e

.
,
m e th o d of con str ucti on w a s g i v en to pr ote ct th e stud e nt

a g a i n st f a l s e con cl us i on s Th e m eth od is n ot in accur ate
.
wh en th e pa rts wh ich con sti tute a un i t are sh ow n b y th e

use of on e circl e It fr e q ue n tl y
.
h appen s h ow e v e r th atth e com

, ,
'
a r i son is m a d e b ci r cl diff r
p y es e
ing in s ize In such a cas e s in ce

.
,
th e e y
e te n d s to m ak e th e com
p a r i son on a n a r e a b a s i s th e r at i o ,
F IG 178 C I L
RC ES D AWN
R ON
132? fgii i ggz giii

fl l
Of t h e tw o n um b e r s sh oul d b e e x
£
l
O l l’
’
1 3 lr
p r e s se d by th e r ati o O f th e a r e a s
Of t h e tw o ci r cl es an d s ta ti s ti ca l auth or i ti e s S O r e com m en d
,
.
In F i g 1 78 th e ci r cl e s a re d r a wn on an a r e a b a si s b utth e
. ,
r igh th an d ci r cl e appe ars l ess pr om i n en t th a n th e fi gur e s

-
j ustify th us causi n g th e r e a d e r
,
to un d e r e sti m ate th e r a ti o In .
F ig 1 79 th e ci r cl e s a r e d r a w n
.
on a di am e t e r b asi s Th e r i gh t
.
h an d ci rcl e appe a r s m or e pr om
i n cut th an th e fig ur es j ustify ,
th us causin g th e r e ad e r to ov e r F 1 79 C I L D A W N
IG. . RC ES R ON
A DIAM T BA I E ER S S
e st im a te th e r ati o Th i s f e a tur e
.
is fr e q uen tly uti l i ze d b y th ose w h o m ak e di sh on e st use

O f ci r cl e di agr a m s T h e con cl us i on is th at a com par i son
.
b e tw ee n ci r cl e s diffe r i n g in s ize s h oul d b e a v oid e d a l to

g eth e r B e tte r graph i c m eth od s w i ll b e taugh t S pace is
. .
g i v en h er e to ci r cl e pictogr a m s b e cause of th e ir ex ten si v e

us e in m an y fi e l d s .
EXERCIS E
Te st th e accuracy of cir cl e pi ctogram s w h i ch you m ay fin d

i m a ga zi ne a r ti cl e s a n d a d v r ti se m e nts
ll D i s cuss th e ir val ue
e .
wi th y our cl a s sm ate s .
2 73 Area pictogr am s Th e pictur e of th e

. .
tw o tra v e lin g m e n giv e n h e r e is i n ten d e d to

S h ow th e in cr e ase in th e passe n g e r tr a ffi c of
th e r a ilr oad s Th e tw o m e n a re com pa r e d
.
on t h e b as i s of h e igh t .
Th e 1911 m an , on
accoun t of h is far
greate r ar e a l ook s ,
m or e th an 2 } I
tim es
as l a rg e as t h e 1 899
m an Th e m en S h ould
Ofie Mil e One Mile
.
b e com pare d on th e
F IG . 180 A P O P O L AR T YP E O F P I C T O G R A M ,
b as is O f a r e a l
This .
T O B E AV O I D E I)
type too s h ou l d b e
a v oid e d be ca use it t en d s to d e ce i v e th e o r din a ry r ea d e r .
O N E M LE I
F IG . 181 . A MO R E AC C U R A T E M E TH OD OF PO T A Y I NG F A C T S
R R
XE ER CIS ES
1 . Wh y woul d it b e d iffi cul t to ma ke a d ra wi ng on th e

b as i s O f a re a ?
2 . D O you wh i ch coul d b e used to ch eck
kn o w a ny m e t od h
a dr awi n g m ade on t h e b a si s of a r ea ? (S e e Art .
2 74 V ol um e or b l ock pi ctogra m s C ube s par all e l epi pe ds

. .
, ,
an d s h e r e s are fr e uen t l y u d in com a r ing r e l at i v

p q se p e
v ol um es ; for e xam pl e pi ctur es of b al e s of h ay or cotton

,
1 B ri nton in h i c ll ntt xt G r ph i cM th d f
, s ex e e Pr ti ng F ct
e ,
" ”
a e o s or esen a s,
pre sent ch rt (F ig 181) dr w n fr m th

s a a . m f ct th t in F ig 180
a o e sa e a s as a . .
N t th t th f ct
o e a p rtr y d m uch m r cl rl y nd ccur t l y
e a s a re o a e o e ea a a a e .
276 .
‘ f
P a cti ce in interpreti ng th e b a r dia gra m . F ig . 1 82
S h ow s gg esti on s Of th e J oi n t C om m i ttee on
on e of th e su
S tan d a rd s for G r a ph i c P r e s en tati on Th e di agr am F i g 1 82 .

, .
,
a ) b ase d on li n e a r m e a s ure m e n t is ca ll e d a b a r diagr a m

( , , .
\V e sh a ll stud y thi s topi c f ur th e r in th e n e x ta rti cl e Re v i e w .
Y ear T ons
woo eve 588

-
555 031
(3 )
F IG . 182 . B AR D I AG A M
F A T B TT TH AN A A A
R S sn ow C S E ER RE ND
V O LU M P I TO G A M E C R S
th e obj e cti on s to th e oth e r tw o di agr am s ( th e S q uar e s a n d

bl ock s sh own in Fi g 182 W h e r e it is pos si bl e th e
.
,
st ud e n t sh oul d r e pr e s e n t q uan ti ti es by lin e ar m a g n i tud e s ,
as r epr e s e n t at i on by ar e a s or v olum e s is m or e lik e l y to

b e m i si n te rpr e te d .
EXERC IS ES
1 S tudy F ig 1 83 a n d de te r m i n e to w h a t e x ten t th e tw o
. .
h ori zontal b a r s ar e h e l pful in e x pr e ssm g th e r ati o of th e tw o

num b e r s g iv e n .
2 W oul d th e
. C otton ,
b a r s in F ig 183 .
b e suffi ci e ntwi th
out t h e ill us tr a W h eat ,
ti on s at th e l e f t
F 183 A F A I D I AG A M (AF T B I N T O N)
h e n um b e r s
IG R R ER R
Of t 9 . . .
3 W i th th e a id o f com pas se s ch e ck th e a ccur

. a cy o f F ig 1 84 . .
N ote th atth e fi gur es a e wri tte n to th e l e ftof th e b a r s I n m an y

r .
1906 b a d i a gr a m s th e fi gur e s r
are wri t te n to th e ri gh t
1911 21 m m
1912 283004 39
°f th e b ar s ‘ ca n You
th l nk O f a s e r l ous 9 1
F IG . DI AG A M H O W
R S ING AM E R I C A N Ex 339 0
PO T R S or AU T OMO B I L ES .
(AF T E R B R m TO N ) ti on to th at m eth od
1
S e e pa r gr
a a ph 7 und e rAt r . 2 77
R E R ES EN TAT P IO N OF S TAT S T C S I I 2 23
4 . W hy is th e re a s pa ce le f t b et we e n th e b a rs f0 1 \1 906
‘
a nd
1911 in F ig 1 84 ? D o you . se e a n y ot eh r w ay to i m pr ove th e

i r
d ag a m (S ee Art .
5 . D ra w on th e b la ck b oar d a fi gure s i m ila r to F ig 1 84, .
i
a dd n g a b ar for th e
m m “ 6
y ea r 1917 .
(Th e s um
a o s ro n
fO I th
'
i s ye ar is a b out
N EW YO RK
’
RH ILAQ EU HIA
22
6 ° Ex pl a in F ig 1 85 .
F IG I A G A M H OW I NG D A TH
. 185 . D R S E
w RA T F OM T YP H O I D H UN
’
7 Sho th a t th e E R 19 12 IN P ER
D D T H O U AN D P OP U L A TI O N
,
RE S
b ars of F i g 186 . r e v ea l
mo r e cl e arly th an th e foll owi ng tab l e th e ra n k O f th e U n te d i
S tates in r e spe ct to we a l th T h ese a e th e 19 14 . r i
e st m a tes .
U n it d S t t e a es
Gr t B ri t i n n d I r l d
ea a a e an
G rm n y e a
F r nc a e
Ru i ss a
Au tri H un g ry
s a -
a
It l y a
8 . S h ow th at it w oul d ha v e b een as a ccu at r

e an d mo re con
v e nie n t to d raw th e p r e ce di ng dia gra m s on s qua r ed pa pe r .
0 25 50 150
um r e o s u r e s 150
G R EAT B R IYAI N
AN D IR ELAN D
O ER M ANV a n o m — u
-Q — o c- c
- ‘ Q n - Q “ fi fi fi fi fi fi
R U S S IA
AU S TR IA H U NG ARY
-
.
25
F IG . 186 . C OMPA A TI V E W E A L T R H OF N A TI O N S IN 1914
9 Th e ta b l e for th e
. wea l th O f n a ton s i con ta ns i i
e st m a tes
r
p p ed
e a r at the b e ginn i n g of th e Eu r opean Wa (19 14 r
Th e se i
e s tm a t
e s ar e from fa cts Th e stude nt s h oul d
no w fa r .
at te m ptto ge tth e l a te st e s ti m ate s fr om th e W orl d Al m a na c

a n d cons tructa b a dia gra m w h i ch will pre se ntth e s i tuati on to
r
date a nd will e na b l e h im to m ak e a n i n ter e sti ng com par i son .
10 D i s cuss b a di agr a m s s i m il a r to th ose g iv e n on page s

. r
2 2 2 2 2 3 w h i ch you m ay fi n d i n P op ul
—
M ech a n ic M g zine ar s a a ,
Motor, P op ula r S cience M on th ly, a nd I nd us tr ia l M a n a ge m en t .
F or h e tim e b e
t i ng li m i ty our self to th e S i m pl er dia gra m s .
277 . How to constructa b ar dia gram . An un d e r stan d ing

of h ow to cons tr uct b ar di agr am s and h ow to inte rpr e t
th ose h e m ay fi n d in ne w spaper s an d m ag azi nes S h ould
b e a par t of th e e d uca ti on of e v e ry g e n e r a l r e a d e r j ust as ,
itis O f e v e ry e n g i ee r ph y si ci a
n n stat i s ti ci a an d b i ol og i st
,
n 1
, , .
As ci v ilizati on ad v an ce s th e r e is b e i n g br ough tto th e atten

ti on of t h e r e adi n g publ i c a con stantly in cr e as i ng a m oun t
O f com par a t i v e fig ur es of a sci e n ti fi c tech n i ca l an d stati s , ,
ti ca l n atur e A pictur e or a di agr am wh i ch pr esen ts s uch

.
d ata in a w ay to sa v e ti m e and a l so to g a in cl e arn ess is

a gr a h Th e b ar di agr a m is a w id e ly us e d m e t h od of con
p .
yey i n g s t at i sti ca l i n for m ati on gr ap h ica lly Th e sol uti on of .
th e i n tr od ucto ry e x e r ci se s a l on g w i th th e dis cuss i on of such

su
pp l e m e nt a ry gr a p h s as m a h a v e se e m e d pr ofi t
y ab l e for t h e
cl a ss to di scuss w i ll h e l p t h e pupil to un d e r stan d th e f oll ow

in g outlin e O f th e m e th od of con str uctin g a b ar di agr am
1 Th e b ar s sh oul d b e con str ucte d to s ca l e To obta in
. .
a con v e n i e n t un i t fir st i n s e ct t s ize O f t e s m a ll est

'
p h e h
an d t h e l a rg e st n um b e r an d th e n ch oos e a li n e se g m e n t to
1
i il r r l il
Ne th e pup s n or te a ch e s S h ou d b e m s e d b y th e a ppa e nt sim r
plicity of th s w o rk i il r i r
Th e d eta s a r e of th e g eatest m po ta nce I t w
. . ill
lfl i r r i i
b e h e p u to ob ta n th e e po ts of th e J o nt C om m tte e o n S ta n da d s for r
r i r i i i v
G aph c P ese n ta t on Th s is a com pe te ntcom m tte e of se e nte e n , w h ch
. i
i r l r l ry
h as e xpe nd e d con s d e a b e e ffo t on th ese e e m e n ta ph ases Th e pr e .
li m i n ry r p rt m y b h d fr m th Am ri c n S ci ty f
a e o a e a o e e a o e o M e ch a n ic la
Engi n r 2 9 W 39th S t N w Y rk ; pri c 10 c nt

ee s , . .
,
e o e, e s .
AME RI C A S T W ENT Y B ES T C US TO M ER S
’
(F r om th e r e po rt of th e r
Bu e a u of F r i gn
o e a nd i
D om est c C om m e ce ) r
VA L U E OF
U HA
.
P RC S ES
*2 i l e a sce r ta i n th e facts to da te “W orl d Al m a

I f poss b , (se e
nac r
g pa h r e sul ts a s i n Ex 1 a n d com pa r e t h e tw o di a gr a m s
.
,
.
Accoun t fo un usua l ch a n ges A e n e w custom e r s appe a ri ng

r . r
”
a m ong the tw n ty b e st H a v e Ol d on e s d roppe d out
e
3 re se n tth e s tati sti cs of th e foll owi n g ta b l e b ym ean s of a

. P
b ar di a gra m s h owi n g th e c m pa r a tiv e l e n gth of riv e r s (U se th e
o .
s ca l e 1 0m 4 00m i ; th e l e n gth s g iv e n in th e ta b l e a e in m il e s )
. . r .
L E NG TH L E NG T H
i
M sso u M ri i i i ppi
-
ss ss
Am azon
N il e
Y a ngtze
Y eni se i
K ongo
L e na
N gei r
Ob
’
H oa ngh o
Am ur
P
R E R ES EN TAT ION OF S TAT I S T I C S 227
4 . r esent th e sta tisti cs of th e foll owi ng ta b l e b y b ar

R ep
diagr a m s Th e e sti m a te s of th e l ea di n g cr ops in th e U n i te d
.
S ta te s for th e y e a r 1917 a e h e r e com pa r e d wi th th e r e vi se d

r
fi gur es fo th e cr ops of th e pr e ce d i ng n i ne ye ar s Th e pupil

r .
s h oul d n ote t hat each col um n is a sepa r ate pr ob l e m .
R EP O RT O F THE U NITED S TATES D EP AR TM ENT OF

AG R I C U L TU R E F O R 19 17
YE A R C O N
R W H AT
E OA T S BA L Y
R E C OTTO N
2 78 . Ba r dia gra m s used to S h ow sev era l fa cto s

r . We
h a ll n ow s e e h ow b ar di a gr am s m a S h ow
S
y b e use d to
se v e r a l fact
o rs .
IN TRODUCTORY E ERC ISES X

1 F ig 187, on page 2 2 8, difi e rs
. . om t h ose in Art 2 77 fr .
in r
th at it p ese nts tw o acto s f l
h at is th e sca e of th e dia r . W
gra m N ote tha t th e b a r s r e pr e sen ti n g n ew b uil di n gs e x te n d
fr om th e top to th e b ottom of th e b lack b a Try to a ccoun tfor r .
th e h ea vy l osses b y fi re in 1 904 an d 1 906 W h y is th e b ar so .
s h or t fo n e w b uil d i n gs in 1 908 ?
r
(Th e v a l ue s a re giv en in
m illi ons of doll ar s ) C ri ti ci ze th i s d i a gr a m a ccor d i n g to th e
.
prin ci pl e s of Art 2 7 7 .
'
2 G iv e th e facts of F ig 1 87 for th e twe lfth y e ar ; th e

. .
e i gh te e nth y ea r .
228 G ENER A L M AT H EM AT I C S
i2
22
2
5W
1‘0 VV 3 fi ldinflf |III| Fi re Iaxnun;
1910 1911
F IG. I AG A M Y A L Y V A L U O N W B U I LD I NG A
187 . D R OF E R AES F E S, ND O F LL
B U I LD I NG L T B Y FI
S N HOS U N IT D S T A T 1901 19 11 I N C L U IV
RE I T E E E S,
-
,
S E
(C ourtesy of W C B rinton)
. .
w
F ig 1 88 s h o s th e b us n ess e atons n o e d
3 . . i r l i
i v lv w h en a city
i lf
b on ds tse to b uy s om e p e se n t n e e d or uxu r
l ry Th e par ts .
of a s ingl e b a h h h ow t e f oll owi n g :a

(say t e t e n t
r
) S h ( ) het
i nterest pa i d to date (th e b l ack por ti on) ; (b ) th e am ount
of t h e $7 st ill outstandi ng (th e pl a i n porti on) ; (c) th e
pa r t of th e deb t th at h as b ee n pa i d (t h e cr ossh a tch ed por ti on ) .
S h ow th at a pub li c b on d i ssue is not on ly a de b t b ut th a t

it com e s d an ge r ous ly n e a r to a pe rpe tua l ta x ” .
b a r diag ra m S im ila r t th e one r e pri nte d from th e Ayr es re port
o ,
S h owi ng w ha t it will ul t i m ately cost y ou com m uni ty to pay r
fo th e pr oj e ct
r .
*2 A ce rta i n coun ty in I ndia na b uil t 2 0 m i of m a cada m

.
.
ize d r oa d b y i ss ui n g worth of 4 pe ce nt n onta xa b l e r
b nds Twe nty $ 100 b on ds w e r e to b e r e tir e d e a ch y a r B y

o .
e .
m ea n of a b a r d i a gra m S h ow h ow m uch it ul ti m ate ly cos tth i s

s
to w ns h i p to b uil d its tur n pik e .
*3 Te n y e ar s a fte r th e tur n pik e r e fe rr e d to in Ex 2 w as

. .
b uil t it w a s pr act i ca lly worn out D id th i s town sh i p l e n d to

.
p os te ri ty o b orr ow fr om it
r G iv e r a s on s fo y our a n s we r
e r .
2 79 . C a rtogra m s . S tati sti ca l m a ps w hi ch sh o w q uan ti

ti e s th a t v a ry w i th d i ffe r e n t g e ogr aph i c r egi on s a re som e
ti m e s ca ll e d ca r togr am s Th e s tude n t w i ll d oub tl e ss fi n d
.
e x a m pl e s in h is g e ogr aph y He sh oul d a l so e x a m in e th e

.
”
S tatisti ca l Atl a s O f th e U n i te d S ta te s p u b l i s h e d,b y
th e C e n s us B ur e au V a r i ous co l or s a n d s h a d e s a re use d
.
to h e l p e x pr ess th e m e an i n g .
\V h e n th e cost of co l or pr in ti n g is pr oh i b i ti v e th e S a m e
e nd s m a b tt i n e d by cr os sh a t ch w or k Th e stud en t
y e a a .
s h ou l d e x am i n e r a i n f a ll m a s con t a i n i n g ca r to r a m s an d
p g
wh i ch are O fte n pr in ted i n n e w spape r s .
A S pe ci a l f or m of ca r togr a m is th e d otte d m ap If w e .
wi sh to S h ow th e d en s i ty of popul a ti on of a ci ty w e m ay ,
ta k e a m ap O f th e ci t y an d pl a ce a dot w i thi n a s q ua r e
-
for e v e ry fifty pe opl e l i v in g in th e s q u a r e Th e sca l e .
S h oul d b e S O ch osen t h a t th e d ots w i ll b e fa ir ly cl ose

tog e th e r in th e se cti on s wh os e o u l a ti on is Of gr e at e st
p p
d en si ty S pace is n ot g i v e n h e r e to i l lustr ati n g thi s type
.
,
b ut th e pupil w il l h a v e n o di ffi cu l ty w i th th e e x e r ci s es
th at f ol l ow .
P
R E R ES EN TAT IO N OF I
S TAT S T C S I 2 31
X E ERCIS ES
1 O b ta i n a t l e as t fi v e d iffe r e n t for m s of pi ctog r a m s an d

.
ca r tog ra m s fr om n e w s pa pe r s m a ga zi n e s tr a de j our n a l s or
, , ,
gov e r n m e n tb ull e ti n s Ex pl a i n v e ry b ri e fl y w h a t each i nten ds

.
to S h ow .
2 . D i s cus s th e m e ri ts or de fe cts of th e g r phs

a of Ex 1 . .
2 80 . Interpr eting ) gra ph ic curv es Th e i n tr o

( or rea ding .
ductorye x e r ci s e s gi v e n b e l o w w i ll f ur n i sh th e s tude n t w i th
som e
pr acti ce in t h e int e r p r e tati on O f gr a h i c curv e s
p .
F IG . 189 H OW I NG
. S R A I LW A Y O C K F L U C T UA TI O N S B Y M ON TH S
-
ST , ,
THE AV AG P I
ER E R CE o T W EN T Y F I V E o
r -
T H E L E A D I NG S T O C
r S K ON
THE NE W Y O K S T O C K EX C H ANG
R E
(Adapte d from th e N e w York Ti m es)
'
m rRODUC TORY EXERCIS ES
1 . Ex pl a i n th e cur ve in F ig 189, n otin g th e h i gh e s t prl ce ,

.
th e l owe st pri ce ,
th e ca us e O f th e upwar d tr e n d in 1 9 15 , th e
ca us e O f th e wa rd m ov em e nt in 1917 a n d th e cau e
d ow n ,
s of
th e s h a r p b r a k u wa r d i n t
e h e cl s i n g d a y s of 191 7 o
p .
232 G EN ERA L M ATH EM ATI C S
2 . Ex p lai n v e in
th e cur
19101911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918
F ig 19 0
. C h e ck th e gr a ph
.
fo th e ea rly y ea r s
r G iv e a .
r eas on for such r esu l ts as you

m ay fi nd .
3F ig 19 1 is a te m pe
. . ra tur e
ch ar tof a cas e of t ph o dy i fe ve r.
n 8
E x l i n th e ri e n d fa ll
( )
e
a a s a
p G
r
h e cur v e (b ) W h at is th e
e
of t . P 8
m ean i n g f th e dots
o D o th e se
poi n ts m a rk th e tops O f b a r s
()c W h a tas sum pt i on d oe s th e
ph y s i ci a n m a k e w h e n h e con
n e ct s t h es e poi nts b y a curve
N ote tha tth i s d ia gr am d oes
n oth a v e a ze r o s ca l e ; w h y w as F 190 N U M B
IG . CA . ER OF RS OF
it om i tt ed ? Th e ch a r t w oul d
D I FF N T T YP ER E ES
(Ad pt d f m M t )
b e i m pr ov e d if ith a d a n e m ph a
a e ro o or
S i ze d li n e r e pr ese n ti ng n orm a l te m pera tur e W h y C on

st ructa l in e in col or in y our textfor th e norm a l te m pe ra tur e li n e -
A TEM P ER ATU R E C H A R T A P O I D F E VE R
'
F IG .
‘
OF A C SE OF TY H
Y EA R P OP UL A TI O N Y EA R P OP U LA TI O N
tw o sm a ll space s v e r ti ca l sca l e r epr es en ts th e

. 2
( ) Th e
o ul a t i on in m i l li on s T w m l l space s r epr es en t te n
p p o s a .
m i ll i on T h e r e f or e a b ar ab out
. m m l on g is pl a ce d on th e .
1 79 0 l i n e an d a se con d b ar a li ttl e ov e r 2 m m l on g is pl a ce d
, .
on t h e 1 800 l in e .
S i m i l a rly b ar s
,
w e r e pl ace d on
th e oth e r l i n es .
(3)Th e u pper e nd
po nti
s of th e v e r
i l seg m en ts
tca
b a r s ar e j o in e d
( )
b y a curv e In .
so far as th e
b ar s a re con
r d
ce n e th e fig
ure d oe s n ot F IG . 193 . TH E GR AP I
H C C U V
R E
difi e r f r om an
or d i n a ry b ar di a gr am . We m ay a ssum e , h ow e v e r th at in
,
crea se in p opula tion b etw een p an

y w
t o eri ods w as gr a dua l ;
for ex am
p l e w e , m ay e sti m ate th a t in 1 79 5 th e popul a ,
ti on w a s r eas on abl n ea r som e b e r h al f w ay b e tw e en

num
y
a nd th at is a b out , S im i
l arly, w e m ay e sti m a te th e popul ati on in th e y e a r 1 79 3 .
P
R E R ES EN TAT IO N OF S TAT S T C S I I 2 35
Th i s as s um pti on l e ad s us to dr a w th e sm oot h curv e w hi ch

l us to esti m a te th e ch ang e in
e n ab e s . o
p pu l ati on w ith out
k n ow i ng th e e x a ct l e n g th of th e b ars By m e ans of th e .
curv e pr e di ctwh att h e popul ati on w i ll b e in 19 2 0 In wh at .
w ayw i ll th e accur acy O f y our pr e d i cti on b e affecte d by th e

Eur opea n W ar
EXERCIS ES
1 Th e f oll owi n g ta b l e s h ow
. s th e tota l m onth ly sa l es of a
b ook stor e th r ough a pe ri od of tw o y e a r s .
D ra w a gra ph i c curve fo e ach y e a r on th e sa m e s h ee t of

r
gr a ph i c pa pe r D ra w th e tw o curve s wi th d i ffe r e ntcol or e d -

.
in k o el se use a d otte d li n e fo on a nd a n un b r ok e n li n e fo
r r e r
th e oth e r Ex pl a i n th e curv e s
. .
2 On a wi n te r day th e th e r m om e te r w a s r ea d a t 9 A M a n d
. . .
e v e ry h our a f te rwa r d un til 9 P M T h e h ourly read i n gs we re

. .
ra w th e te m pe ratur e gra ph
D .
3 U s i ng a Con v e n i e n t sca l e a n d ca lli ng th

. v e rti ca l li ne s e
a ge l i n e s gra ph t
,
h ese a ve ra ge h e i ghts of b oy s a n d girl s
B OY S G I R LS B OY S G I R LS
ft . ft . ft .
At w h a t a ge d o b o y s g r o w m o s t r a pi d ly ? A t w ha t a ge do
g irl s g r o w m o s t r a p i dl y I s it r ea s on a b l e t o a ss um e t h at th e
v r
a e a ge h i
e g h t o f a b o
y n i n te e n y a r s Oel d is f t ? e .
4 Th e t a n d i n g s of t h e ch a m pi on b a tte r s fr om 19 00 1 9 07 —
. s ,
i n cl us ive a e h er e give n for th e N ati ona l a nd Am e ri ca n

,
r
l ea gue s .
T h N tie l L gu
a on a ea e
Th e Am e ri c an L e a gue
G raph th e da ta for h l ea gue to a con v e n i e nt s cal e

e ac ,
b oth
on th e sa m e s h e et . Te ll w h at th e li n es s h ow .
5 . D raw a te m pe ra tur e ch a rt of a pa t i
e nt,
th e da ta for
w h i ch a re g iv e n b e l ow (se e F ig .
6 i l
I f pos s b e, ge t a copy of a te m pe a tu e cu e such a s is
. r r rv
com m onl yk
e ptin h os p t i l
a s a nd e x l i r
p a n th e g a ph to th e c a s s l .
Th e c ass l pwill r
o fi t m o e b yr ou y r i
d s cuss on th ei if
cu e rv
pr e se nts th e data fo a l on g pe ri od r .
7 B e on th e l ook out f
.
gr a ph i c cur v e s w h i ch con v e y in fo
or r
m ati on of ge n e ra l i n te r e s tto y our cl ass I n n e arly e v e ry n e w s .
pa pe r you will fi n d ta b l es of sta ti sti cs w h i ch m a yb e pl otted to

a d v an ta ge G l ance occas i ona lly th r oug h th e
. S ta ti sti ca l Ah
stra ct f th e U n ite d S t
O at es th e S ta ti s ti ca l Atl a s of th e
or
U n i te d S ta te s (pu b li sh e d b
y th e B u r ea u f F or e i gn a n d o
D om e sti c C om m e r ce ) P p u la M ch n ic l lI g z ine P p ula

,
o r e a s a a ,
o r
S ci nc M n th ly S cien tifi c Am e ic n a n d so on wi th th e pu
e e o , r a , ,
r
pose of fi n d i n g i nte r esti n g gra ph s I f a l a ck O f ti m e pr e v e nts .
cl as s d i s cus s i on postth e se gr a h s on b ull e ti n b oa r ds

,p .
2 83 . S ta ti stics as a science W e h a v e n ow pro

defi ned .
re sse d fa r e n ough for t h e st ud e n tto un d e r s ta n d th a t th e

g .
”
te r m i sti cs r e fe r s to a l arg e m ass O f f a cts or d ata
"
stat , ,
wh i ch b e ar upon som e h um an pr ob l e m O n e O f th e ch ie f .
us es of stati s ti cs a s a sci e n ce is to r e n d e r th e m e a n in g O f
’
m as ses O f fig ur e s cl e a r an d com pr eh e n s i bl e at a g l an ce .
S ta ti sti cs g i v es us a b ir d s eye V i e w of a s i tuati on in v olv

’
-
ing a com pl e x a rr ay of n um e r ous i n stan ces in s uch a w ay

th a t w e ge t a pi ctur e wh i ch ce n te r s our atten ti on on a
fe w s i g n i fi can t r e l ati on s S uch a V i e w sh ow s h ow on e fac
.
tor in a com pl i ca te d soci a l or e con om i c pr ob l e m i n fl ue n ce s

a n ot h e r ; in sh o rt it en abl es us to un d e rsta n d th e r e l ati on
,
b e tw e e n v a r i ab l e ( ch ang i n g ) q uan ti ti es .
2 84 Th e uses of sta tistics

. S tati sti ca l studi e s do n ot
.
e x i st m e r e ly to sa t i sfy id l e cur i osi ty Th e y are n e cessa ry

.
in th e sol uti on of th e m ostw e i gh ty Soci a l g ov e r n m e n ta l a n d , ,
econ om i c pr ob l e m s D O ce rta i n soci a l con di ti on s m a k e for

“
in cr e ase in cr i m e an d pov e r ty Th e s oci ol og i s t d e te rm i n e s -
st at i stica lly th e r e l ati on s b ea r ing on th e q uesti on Ar e oer .

» .
tai n cr i m i n a l a cts due to h e r e di ty T h e b i ol og i stpr e s e nts

st at i sti ca l d a ta IS tub e r cul osi s in cre asm g O r de cr e as ing ?
.
-
U n d e r wh at con di ti on s d oe s it in cr e ase ? R el iabl e sta ti st i cs .
pr ese n te d by th e m e di ca l w orld g uid e our pub li c hygien i c -
po l i ci e s F ur th e r possi b i l i ti e s Of stati st
. ica l s tud i es III th e?
' “
m e di ca l w orl d a re s ugg e ste d by th er e c e n tw ork O f Dr Al e x i s

'
C a rr e l Th e w or k of D r C a rr e l h as b een w id e ly di scusse d
. . .
Th ough auth or i ti e s di sagr e e con ce rn i n g som e of th e d eta il s ,
al l wi ll
pr ob
'
a bl
yagre e th at th e m ath e m a ti ca l a ttack on th e
p r o bl e m O i w ar surg e ry is a di st in ct sci en ti fi c a d v ance .
Wh at in sur ance r a tes ough t w e to pay S ta ti sti ca l

i n v e sti g ati on s h av e d e te r m i n e d l aw s for th e ex pe ctati on of
l i fe un d e r g i v en con di ti on s wh i ch for pr a cti ca l purpose s
are a s a ccu ate as r th e f orm ul a for th e r
a ea Of a s
q ua r
e .
P
R E RES EN TAT IO N OF S TAT S T C S I I 2 39
busin ess w orl d at ti m e s tr e m bl e s und e r th e thr ea t

Th e
of g i g an ti c str ik es th at w oul d pa r a lyze al l busin ess Are .
th e d e m an d s O f th e m en un r e ason a bl e Ar e th e corpor a
tion s e a r n ing un d ue di v id en ds Th e publ i c d oes n ot
k n ow an d w i l l n ot k n ow un til a sci e n ti fi c gr oup of ci tizen s
pr ese n t r e li a bl e stati sti cs of e arn in g s an d e x pendi tur es .
Th er e is n ow in ex i sten ce in W ash in g ton a n on par

ti san tar i ff com m i ss i on wh i ch con s i sts of fi v e m e m b e r s a p
poi nte d by th e pr e sid e n t wh i ch coll ects sta ti sti cs an d

,
m a k es r e com m en d ati on s to C on gr ess fr om ti m e to ti m e .
It is n ow th ough t th at th i s com m i s si on m ay te n d to do
a w ay w i t h th e O ld h aph aza r d m e th od s of h andlin g tar i ff .
q ue sti on s .
How r apid ly an d w i th w h at d egree of a ccur a cy sh oul d

a f our t h gra d e pupi l b e a bl e to add a ce rta in col um n of
-
fig ur es ? Th e e d ucator is abl e to pr e sen t an an s w e r b ase d

on t est s of m or e t h an f ourth gr ad e ch ild r en for
-
th at pa rti cul a r pr obl e m .
B e cause O f th e n um e r ous tr a i n e d e n um e r ator s w h i ch

th e y e m pl oy e d to C O V C I th e w orl d s output th e l a rg e S pe c
‘
’
-
ula tors ou th e C h i cag o B oar d of Tr ad e k n e w wi th a b sol ute

,
certain ty fOr d ay s in a d v an ce of th e r e cor d br e aki n g j um p

'
in th e pri ce of w h e at in Aug ust 1 916 , .
WC m igh t con ti nue i nd e fi n i tel y to pr esen t e v id en ce

,
Sh ow i ng th a t th e i n te l lig e nt r e a d e r in a ny fi e l d w i l l pr ofi t
“
by a k n owl e dg e of th e e l e m en tary prin ci pl es of stati sti ca l

m eth od s .
2 85 F req uency ta b l e ; cl a ss l im its ; cl a ss inter v a l

. In .
the i n v e sti g ati on of a pr ob l e m it is n e ces sa ry th at th e

d ata b e tabul ate d in som e sy ste m ati c f ash i on th at w ill
e n a b l e us t o gr a s th e p r ob l e m S upp os e w e m e a sur e d
p .
th e l e ng th of 2 2 0 e a r s of cor n L e t us s ay th e sm all est

.
e a r m e a sur e s b e tw een 5 in an d 6 in th e l on g e st be tw een

. .
,
1 2 in . an d 13 in . We could th e n gr oup th e r by in ch es
ea s ,
thr ow i ng th e m i n to e igh tgr oups , a nd tab ul ate th e r e sul t

s
som e wh a t as f o ll ow s :
F REQ UENC Y TAB LE S H O W I NG L ENGTH OF EAR S O F C O RN
L E NG TH IN I NC H ES
S uch rr ang e m ent of d ata

an a is ca ll e d a f r equen cy ta b le .
Th e e ar s of corn h a v e b e e n di
v ided in t o cl as se s Th e ta b l e .
S h ould b e r e a d as f oll ow s
Th e r e are tw o ea r s m e asur in g
som e wh e r e b e t w e en 5 m an d .
6 in f our b etw een 6 ih an d

, .
7 ih . et
, c Th e b oun d a ry lin es
.
are k n o w n a s cla ss lim it s an d ,
th e di s tan ce b e tw e e n th e tw o
li m i ts of an ycl ass is d esi gn ate d
as a cl a ss in ter va l . Th e cl a ss
i nte rv a l in th e pr e ce din g case
,
is 1 in . C l ass i nte rv al s sh ould

a lw ay s be e q ual .
Th e f acts of th e ta ble a re
sh ow n by th e gr aph in F ig 1 94 . .
Th i s gr aph is th e sam e as th e
b ar d i agr am ( F i g 1 86 ) wh i ch .
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
w e h a v e d r a wn w i th th e e x ce,p
ti on th at i n th i s case th e b a r s F IG . 194 .D I S T I B UTI O N o F
R r RE
Q U E NC Y P OLY G O N 2 2 0 EA
or RS
cov er th e s ca le in terva ls .
or CO N R
2 42 G EN ERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
F R EQ U ENC Y TAB LE OF WEI G HTS S HO W I NG 1000 T W EL V E O
Y EAR —
O L D B O Y S , 1000 T H I RT EEN Y EAR O L D B O Y S AN D 1000
— -
F O URTEEN Y EAR
-
- —
O L D B O YS
WE I G HT S IN N UM B ER O F N UM B ER O F N UM B ER OF
P O UN D S 12 -
YE A OR -
LD B OY S 13— YE A O
R -
LD B OY S 14 -
Y A O
E R -
LD B OY S
O T E Th f
N . ehird col um n in th e tab l e l ack s 5 4 b oy s of
a ctt a tthe h t
t t li n g 1000 i b
o a s ca use 5 4 b o y s i n th i s gr o up we i gh e d ove r 14 0 po un ds
e .
Th e 4 9 5 6 m e a n s from 49 up to b ut n ot i n cl udi n g 5 6 W he r e ve r th e
-
l a tn um b e r O f a cl a ss is th e s a m e a s th e fi r tn um b e r O f th e n e x tcl a ss
s s ,
th e fi r stcl a ss i n cl ude s up to th a tpoi n t b utdoe s n oti n cl ude th a tpo i n t ,

.
C on s truct th e gr a ph (s i m il a r to F ig 19 4) for . e ac h of th e
gr oups of th e ta b l e a b ov e .
7 . foll owi n g test on th e a b ili ty to use th e four f unda

Th e
m e n ta l l aw s in s lvi n g s im pl e e q ua ti n s w a s g iv e n to 115 fi st
o o r
yea r h i gh sch ool stude n ts th e ti m e giv en fo th e te st b e i n g

-
,
r
fifte en m i nutes .
D IR EC TI O NS T O P UPI L
F i nd th v l u f th unk n w n n um b r i n
e a e o ch f th
e f ll wi n g o e s ea o e o o
equ ti n D n t ch ck y ur r ult W rk th pr b l m in rd r
a o s . o o e o es s . o e o e s o e
if p i b l If y u fi nd
o ss e . t difiicult d n tw t to m uch ti m
o one oo , o o as e o e
o n it b utp, n t th n t B
a ss o ur th ti t i t
o ed iffi cul t h w v r
ex . e s e a s oo , o e e ,
b f r yup
e o e o D n t m i t n ypr b l m wh i ch y u c n
a s s on . o o lvo a o e o a so e .
P
R E R ES EN TAT IO N OF I I
S TAT S T C S 2 43
T H E T ES T
13 16 y+ 2 y
.
14 .
10
1
35
-
i 43
““
: 5 x
26
4 3
fi
at
2 2 19 . 3x
2 0 7 v + 90
h
-
2
_
2 : : a 1
o .
f +f t
i
2 3
5 x
5
_ —
+ 2 T§ 3 +
' 6
3 6
m a m
y 3 25 ai
12 .
2 4 2 4
Th e re sults of th e t
e st iv
g e n b y th e o o
a re f ll wi ng ab
t le
fr e que n cy . Th e stude n t s h oul d stud it ca e u y r f lly .
N UM B N UMB N UM B
ER O F ER or
ER O F
S T U D N T S T UD N T
E S E S
A TT MP TI NG S U
E FU L CCESS
2
d 44 G ENERA L M ATH EM AT I C S
Expla na tion l c n i t f tw p rt f w h i ch th fi t
. Th e ta b e o s s s o o a s, o e rs
p
rt
a i t h fi r t c
s n d f ur th en d fi fth c l um n
s w h i ch h ul d b
, se o , o , a o s, s o e
r d O f th n h undr d n d fi ft n tud nt t ki n g th t t n
ea ,
e o e e a ee s e s a e es o e
tri d b ut 8
e m pl n tte m pt d 1 2 n
ex a e m pt d 13 f ur
tt es, o e a e , o e a e , o
att m pt d
e tc Th e c n d p rt c n i t f the fi r t third
. e se o a o s s s o e s , ,
f urth n d i th c l um n n d h ul d b r d O f th n h undr d
o , a s x o s a S o e ea , e o e e
an d fi ft tud n t t k i n g th
een s t t n lv d nl y 1 pr b l m c
e s a e es o e so e o o e or
rectly lv d nl y 2 c rr ctly thr

,
on e so lv d 6 c rr ctly f ur
e o o e , ee so e o e , o
solv d 7 c rr ctly tc
e o e , e .
8 C on str uct a gr a ph sh owi n g t

. h e fa cts of th e ta b l e giv e n
3 e r O f st i
'
on a
p ge 2 4 fo r th e n um b ud e nts at te m pt ng .
9 . U nde r th e d ir ecti on s of y our i n structor ta ke th e te s t

in Ex 7 . .
10 y our i n structor to give you a fre q ue ncy tab l e s h ow

. As k
in g th e num b e r of a tte m pt a nd s uccesses in th e te stta k e n b y s
y our cl as s and dete rm i ne h ow th e w ork d one b y y our cl as s

com pa r e s in s pe e d a nd accur a cy wi th th a t don e b y th e one
hun dr ed and fifte e n stude nts in th e te s tde scrib e d in Ex 7 . .
2 86 . M ea sur e of centra l tendenci es ; th e a rith m eti c

a v era ge . A f r e q uen cy ta ble and a f r e q uencygraph h el p
us to un e st f acts b e cause they sh o w us th e
d r d m ass of
.
an a
di str i buti on of th e i te m s S O t h at w e S e e fw h e re the l arge st ,

-
gr oups and th e sm al lest groups f al l Th e graph sh ow s us ‘

.
th e g en e r a l tr e n d of th e f a ct s Th e l a rg e gr oups assum e .
i m por tan ce W e n e ed term s to d escr i be th e centr a l te n d

.
“ ”
e n cy O f te n th e w or d a v e r ag e is use d to m eet th i s
‘
n ee d S uch a te r m is h e l pful in m aki n g a m a ss of f acts

.
cl e a r Th us a group of f a r m e rs could n ot possi bly l e a r n

.
,
m uch ab out a fi e l d of corn if w e r e a d a li st to th e m sh ow

in g th e l en g th of e v e ry e ar in a fi e l d B ut th ey w oul d
'
ge t som e id e a of wh a t y i e l d to e x pe ct i f to l d th atth e
a v e ra g e l e n g th of a n e ar is 9 5 in Th e y coul d ce rtainly .
gi v e e fa ir e sti m ate of th e y i e ld i f in a ddi ti on w e t

_ _ . -
old
-
2 46 G E N ER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
e d,
te m pt
at four re por t 6 ,
fi ve r e por t a, h re e re po rt 8
t ,
a nd tw o
re port 9 .
S ol ut
i on . 2 x 11
4 x 65 26
53 x 7 5
3 x 85
2 i
i ; 19
16 119
1 19 16
a vr e a ge n um be r of p r bl
o em s atte m pted
Th e poi n t is th a t th e se r i e s o f f a cts i n th e tab l e is n o t

a di scr e te se r i e s, as on e w oul d at fir s t b e i n cl in e d to th in k ,
b ut a con tin uous se rie s .
EXER CIS ES
*1 . l l ate
C a cu ve rage num b e r of e q ua ti on s a tte m pte d b y
th e a
y our cl as s in th e s i m pl e e q uati on te st (Art -

.
2 U s in g th e ta b l e of Ex 5 A t 2 85 fi nd th e a v e ra ge
. .
,
r .
,
w e i gh t of th e twe lve y ear old b oy s ; of th e th irtee n y ea r ol d

- - - -
b oy s ; of th f our te e n y ea r old b oy s
e - -
.
3 Fi n d th e a v e r a ge l n gth of th e 1 13 l e a v e s in Ex 4
. e .
,
Art 2 85. .
4 Fi n d th e a ve ra ge l e n gth o f th e 2 2 0 ea rs of cor n of th e
.
fi r st ta b l e in Art 2 85 . .
5 Fi n d th e a v e ra ge n um b e r of F our th of J uly a cci de nts

.
fo th e s ix y ea r s of th e ta b l e o f A t 2 82
r r . .
6 C om par e th e a v e ra ge s of th e ch a m pi on b a tte r s for th e

.
l ast e i ghty ea rs (Ex 4 Art .

,
.
7 At M i nnea poli s th e 7 A M
. te m pe ra tur e r e ad i ngs for . .
th e t e n day s b e gi nni n g F eb r ua ry 1 w e r e as f oll ow s 5 3 , ,
5 ,
3 7
,
—
9 , 8 2 O ,
6 Fi nd th e a v e rag e 7 A M
, , ,
. . .
t e m pe ra t ur e r ea d i n g fo th e pe ri od r .
R EP R ES EN TATI O N O F S TATI S TI C S 247
8 . Fi nd th e av e rage of th e foll owi ng tem peratur es :8 A M . .

,
9 A M . .
,
10 A . M .
,
11 A M . .
, 12 M .
,
1 P M. .
,
2 P M . .
,
3P M . .
,
4 P M . .
,
5 P M
. .
,
6 P M
. .
,
7 P M . .
,
9 Fi n d th e a ve ra ge ch urch
. ri i
con t b ut on s a cco d ng to th e r i
foll owi ng fr e que ncy tab l e .
T AB L E O F C H U RC H C O NT RIB UT I O N S
N D D UAL
I IV I N UM B ER or N UM B ER o r
CO N BU N TR I TI O S CO N TRI BU TO R S C O N TR I B U T O R S
No cont b ut on ri i
1 ce n t
5 ce n ts
287 . Disa dv a nta gesr S om e of of th e a ith m eti c a v era ge .
th e pr e ce din g e x e r ci s es sugg e s t th at th e r e ar e ce r tai n

obj e ct i on s to th e a r i th m eti c a v e r age F or e x a m pl e it .
,
m e an s l i ttl e to s ay th at th e a v e r ag e ch ur ch con tr i b uti on

in Ex 9 Ar t 2 86 is 6 2 ce n ts
.
,
P e opl e or d i n a r il y use
.
, .
“ ”
th e w or d a v e r ag e thin ki n g it m e a ns th e m ost us ua l
occurr en ce ; t h at is th e com m on th ing As a m atte r of fact, .
n ob od y g a v e 6 2 ce n t s an d on l y on e pe r s on g a v e as m uch ,
as t h at Th e ob j e cti on to th e a r i th m e ti c a v e r ag e is th at it
.
g i v es too m uch e m ph asi s to th e e x tr em e i te m s T o i l l ustr ate .
m or e f ul l y : A b oy w h o h as j ust fi n i sh e d an e l em en ta ry
s urv e y i n g cour se l e ar n s t h at th e a v e r age w e ek ly w ag e of a
r a i lw ay surv ey i n g gr oup is $ 23 T hi s is v ery encduraging
-
.
un til a n a n a l y s i s s h ow s h im th atth e ch i e f en g i n ee r g e t s $55
a w ee k ; h is ass is t an t $ 30 ; a nd a ll ot h e r s b ut $ 15 To say
, .
th at th e a v e r ag e w ee k ly e a r n in g of ten m en w or ki n g m an
i n sur an ce offi ce is $ 30 a w e e k m ay b e m i sl eadi ng for on e ,
m an m ay b e a $ 5 000 a y e a r m an in whi ch case th e usu -

al-
,
sa l a ry is m uch l ow e r t h an $ 30 per w ee k O th e r ob j e cti on s .

G ENER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
o t
t he r i th m e tic av e rage are th e f oll ow i ng :( a) it cann ot
a ,
b e l oca te d e i th e r in a fr e q ue n cy ta bl e m i n a f r eq uen cy
graph ; ( b ) it cann ot b e accur a te ly d e te rm in e d wh en th e
ex tre m e i te m s a re m iss i ng ; ( 0) it is lik e ly to fa l l wh e r e
or e x a m pl e a soci ol ogi st m a
no i t em e x is ts
( f y d i scov e r
,
th at th e a v e r ag e s ize f a m ily in a g i v e n com m un i ty h as

-
m e m b e rs th ough s uch a n um be r is e v id e n tl y im possi bl e )

, .
F or th e se r e as on s it is d esir a b l e to h a v e som e oth e r

m e as ur e of th e ce n tr a l te n d e n cy of a gr oup .
2 88 . C entral tendency ; th e m ode . O ne of th e m ost use

ful m e asur es is th e m ode . It m ay b e de fin e d as th e s ca e l
i nte rv al th at h as th e m ost f r e q uen t i te m or w e m ay sayit ,
is th e pl ace wh e r e th e l ong es t b ar of a b ar di agr am is

d r a wn Th e te r m d escr ib es th e m ostusua l occurr en ce or
.
,
“
the com m on th ing . T h e popul a r use of th e te r m a v e r ag e
a pp oxr i m ate s th e m e a n in g of th e w ord W h en w e h ea r of .
th e a v e r ag e high
h l b oy h e is suppose d to r epr e sen t
-
s c oo
a t ype one w h o r e ce i v es e x a ctl y th e m ost com m on m ar k

—
of h is cl as ses is of th e m os t com m on a thl e ti c ab ili ty

, ,
spen d s th e m ost com m on a m oun t of tim e in stud y sh ow s ,
th e m ost com m on am oun t of s ch ool spi r i t w ast es t h e m ost ,
com m on a m oun t of ti m e, is of th e m ost com m on a

ge , e tc .
It is bv i ous th at n o such h igh sch ool b oy can b e foun d

o -
.
Th ough a b oy m ay posse ss som e of th ese attr i butes h e is

ce r ta in to di ff e r fr om th e com m on ty pe in o th e r s
Th e w or d a v e r ag e is th us i n corr e ctl y us e d for m od e ,
wh i ch in can s th e com m on type Th us th e m od e in th e .
ch ur ch con tr i b uti on tabl e Ex 9 Art 2 86 ) is fi v e c

( ent s
-
. . .
,
M ore pe opl e in th i s ch ur ch g av e a n i ck e l th an any oth e r

'
coin . Th e m od e in th e f r e q ue n cy ta bl e for th e Sirnpl e
'
7, Ar t 2 85 ) is tw en ty
'
e q uaton i te st for atte m pts ( Ex . .
exa m pl es . In th e test m or e studen ts

-
w e r e a t th is po nti
w h e ri tim e w a s ca l e
'
l d th a n at an y oth e r poin t
’
.
n ot for th e m od a l be r ; h e nce th e str ap h ang e r

num .
Th e m a n ufactur e r of r e a d y m a d e cl oth i ng fi ts th e m od a l
-
m an n ot th e a v e r ag e m an Th e S pi r i t of a com m un i ty s
’
.
,
ch a r i t y f un d is fa r m or e e v id en t in th e m od e th an in th e
a v e r ag e .
A di s a d v an tag e of th e m od e is th a t th e r e are a l a rg e
n um be r of f re q ue n cy tab l e s to wh i ch it ca nn o t b e ea s i ly
a li ed I n such cases w e h a v e a n i rr e gu l a r gr oup w i t h no

pp .
ar t i c u l ar t y e stan d in g out a n d t h e m od e is d i ffi cu l t t o
p p ,
fi n d as w i l l b e i ll us tr a te d pr ese n tly
,
.
2 90 C entral tendency ; th e m edian If a n um b e r of oh

. .
a re m e asur e d w i t h r e f e r e n ce t r a i t or a t r i b
j e c ts o som e t t , u te ,
and t h en r an k e d accor d i ngly th ey are sa id to b e a r ra yed

, .
S uppose th a t y our i n str uctor g i v e s an e x a m in a ti on wh i ch

r e a lly te sts m a th e m ati ca l ab i l i ty a n d th a t a fte r th e r e sul ts
,
a re a n n oun ce d th e s tud e n ts stan d in l i n e taki n g th e ,
os i t i on corr e s on di n g t o t h e i r m a r k s on t h e e x am i n a t i on ;
p p
th at is th e stud e n t w i th l e a st m a th e m a ti ca l ab i l i ty at t
, he
f oot of th e cl ass th e on e n ex t in ab i l i ty n ex t to th e f oot
, ,
et c Th e cl a ss is th en a r r a yed
. If a ny gr oup of obj e cts is
.
a rr ay e d t h e m idd l e on e is k n ow n a s th e m edia n i te m
, If .
y our cl ass h ad tw en ty th r e e pupi l s s tan d i n g in th e or d e r

-
of t h e i r ab i l i ty th e tw e lfth pupi l f r om th e f oot or th e h e a d

,
of t h e cl as s is th e s tud e n t w h ose m ar k is th e m e di an m a r k .
Th e re are j ust a s m a ny b e l o w a s ab ov e h im in a b ili ty Th e .
m e di an is an oth e r m e a sur e of th e ce n tr a l ten d e n cy of a

'
g r o u p If
. th e r e is a n e v e n n um b e r o f i te m s th e m e d i a n ,
is s a id to e x i st h al fw a
y b e t
. w ee n t h e tw o m idd l e i tem s .
T h us i f y our cl ass h ad tw en ty tw o pupi l s th el m ark h a lf

,
-
,
'
w ay b e tw ee n th at of th e e l e v en th a n d th at of th e tw e lfth
st ud en t fr om e i th e r e n d w ou l d b e ca ll e d t h e m e di an m a r k .
'
Th e m e an i ng is f ur th e r ill ustr ate d b th r ci s g i v
y
'
e e x e e s en
on a ge s 2 5 1 a n d 2 5 2
p .
R EPRES ENTAT IO N or S TAT IS TI C S 25 1
1 Fi n d th m e di a n wa ge i n th e foll wi ng ta b l e of
. e .
o th e
we e kly wage of th e w ork e r s in a r e tail m illi ne ry s h op .
1
WE E K L Y WAG E
N UM B ER or
WO R K E R S
Th e tab l e bov e sh ow s th e w ag e s of on e h und re d gi rl s

a .
W e are ask e d to fi n d a w e e k ly w ag e so th at w e sh a ll b e
ab l e t o say t h at on e h al f th e g i r l s in th i s sh O p r e ce i v e l e ss
th an th is s um an d on e h a l f r e ce i v e m or e th an th i s s um ;
th at is w e w an t a m e asur e of th e gr oup
,
.
In th e fir st pl ace th e stud e n t s h oul d n oti ce th a t th e

,
ar it h m e ti c a v e r ag e se e m s too h igh t o b e r e r es en t
p
at i v e for th e r e ar e too m an y girl s w o r kin g for sm a l l e r
,
s um s In th e se con d pl a ce th e m od e is un sati s f a ctory

.
, .
Th e w ag e $ 1 5 to $ 1 6 see m s to b e a m od e b ut th e r e are ,
m or e g i rl s w or ki ng for a b out $ 5 $ 6 or $ 7 ; h e n ce n e i th e r , ,
th e a ri th m e ti c a v e r ag e n or th e m od e h as v e ry m uch m e an
ing so w e pr oce e d to l oca te th e m e di an
, .
Th e r e a re on e h un d r e d g i rl s in th e sh O p ; h e n ce w e m ust
fi n d a w ag e h a lfw ay b e tw ee n th at of th e fif ti e th an d th a t
of t h e fi ftyfi rst g ir l f r om th e l ow est w a g e Addi n g th e
-
.
n um b e r of t h e fir s t f our gr oups of g i rl s + 12 )
g i v es us for ty six g i rl s and tak es us to th e 8 d oll a r w ag e
- -
.
W e n e e d to coun t f our m or e of th e n e x t se v e n w h o are ,
1 F ctu l f ct
or a a
“ Dr am ki g d M illi
s se e ry in Th C l v
ess a n an ne
” "
e e e
,
l d S urv y p g 6 3 Th t b l w d pt d t m t th purp
an e ,
”
a e . e a e as a f a e o ee e oses o
the e xe rci se .
252 G EN ERAL M ATH EM AT IC S
'
ge tting be tw e e n $ 8 an d $ 9 Th e tabl e assum es th at th e .
se r i es is con t i n uous ( pi e ce w or k h ence th e n e x t sev en

’
ar e di s t r i b ute d a t e q ua l di sta nce s b etw e e n $ 8 and $ 9 W e

'
.
m ay thi n k of th e se v e n g i r l s as b e i n g dis tr i b ute d gra ph i

ca lly as s h ow n in F i g 1 9 5
‘
. .
,
Th e gr aph m ak e s cl e a r th e a ss um pti on th at th e fir st g ir l
h f or t y se v en th ) e a r n s a sum wh i ch is be t w ee n $ 8 an d
( t e -
$ 82 ; w e assum e th a tth e w ag e is atth e m id poin tof th i s in -
terv al or $ 81 1
,
1 S i m il a rly th e s e con d g ir l ( th e f orty e i gh th )
.
,
-
e a rn s a sum b e t w een an d
$ 873 an d w e a ssum e th e w ag e
to h e a t th e m id poi n t of thi s -
i n te rv al or $ 813 In lik e m an
,
.
'
n er t h e w ag e of th e f or ty
n in th g i r l is $ 8 h e fift i h
51 t et ,
girl $ 87 5 an d th e fi fty fi rst g i r l $ 81 3 M id w ay b e tw e en

7
,
9 -
.
th e m id poin t -
s (if t h e fi fti e th an d th e fi ftyfi rst w ag e is -
h alfw ay b e tw een $ Si If an d $ 891 or $ 84 H en ce th e

7
,
.
m e di an is $ 8 pl us $ 1 or $ 84 for th is w a g e is h a l f w ay
5 , ,
b e tw e e n th e w ag e of th e fi f ti e th g ir l an d th at of th e fifty
fi rst Th e stud en t sh ould stud y th i s gr aph un ti l th i s
.
p o in t is c l e a r H e s h o u l d n ot
. e t h at t h e a v e r ag e is f oun d
b y cal cul a tin g th e m od e b y in spe cti on a n d th e m e di an by

, ,
'
coun t in g M e r e ly coun t a l on g th e i m ag in e d sca l e un til a
.
o i n t is f oun d th a t di v id e s t h e i te m in to tw o e q ua l gr oups
p .
S in ce a w ag e pr ob l e m usuall y in v ol v e s a di s cr ete se r i e s
( why a m or e
p ra c t i ca l il l u str a ti on of t h e p r i n ci pl e is
g iv e n be l ow .
2 Fi nd the m edi a n for th e attem pts of th e on e h undr ed a n d

.
fifte en stude nts in th e s i m pl e e qua ti on test in Ex 7 Art 2 85 -

.
,
. .
i on W m u t fi n d th
S ol ut .n um b r f qu ti n
e tt m pt d b y
s e e o e a o s a e e -
th efi fty i ghth tud n t fr m i th r n d f

-
e h wi ll b th m i ddl
s e o e e e , or e e e e
stud nt f th
e n oh un dr d n d fi ft n C unti ng fr m th t p f
e o e e a ee . o o e o o
2 54 G EN ER AL M A TH EMATIC S
th e s ta ts tca i i l stu di es h a v e b ee n e x pos e d to th e c i ti ca lr
j ud g m e n t of tra in e d e x pe rts ; ( 4) to w h a t e x te n t s i m il a r
s tudi e s sh ow s i m i l a r r e s ul ts .
2 92 . La w of . st is ti ca l
at regu ari t l y . In ca l cul ati n g th e
v a l ue of f ar m l and s in In d i an a it is b y n o m e an s
th e
n e ce s sa r y t o e v a l ua te an d t a b ul a te e v e ry acr e in t h e s ta te .
T o fi n d out th e a v e r ag e s ize of a tw e n ty fi v e y e a r ol d m an - - -
in Ne w Yor k it is n ot n e ce s s a ryto m e a s ur e a n d ta b u l ate

“
e v e ry m a n in t h e ci ty Th e S tati sti ca l Abs tr act of th e
.
U n i te d S ta te s b li sh e d b h B r a u of F o r e i gn a n d
(p u y t e u e
D om e s ti c C om m e r ce ) sta te s th e v a l ue in d oll a rs of h og s ,
sh e e a n d ca ttl e pr o d uce d in 1 9 1 8 b utt h i s d oe s n ot m e an

p , ,
th a t th is tota l is ob t a in e d by t a b ul a ti ng e v e ry in di v id ual
a n i m al To fi n d out h ow f as t on a n a v e ra g e a tw e l v e
.
y e ar ol d C hi cag o b oyca n run 100 y a r d s w e w ould n ot n e ed

-
.
to h old a s t0 p w atch on e v e ry b oy In f act a fe w ch os e n .

,
in e ach cl as s in e ach s ch ool b ui l di n g woul d pr ob a b l y g i v e

‘
us an a v e r a g e th at w ou l d b e id e nti ca l with an a v e ra g e
ob t a in e d f r o m t h e wh ol e gr oup Th i s is due to a m ath e .
m atica l l a w of n a tur e wh i ch st at es t h at if a r ea sona b le num

b er of ind ividua l ca ses a r e ch osen a t r a n dom
from a m ong
a v er l
y g g
ar e r ou , t
p h e
y a re a lm ostsure, on th e a v er a
g ,
e t
o
p os
se ss the s a m e ch a r a ct
e ristics as th e la rger group s . Th e phr as es
“ ”
a t an r d om an d r e ason abl e num b e r m a k e th e l a w appe a r
“ ”
so m e wh atv ag ue K in g in El e m e n ts of S tatis tical M eth od
.
, ,
i ll ustra te s th e l aw as foll ow s : If tw o pe rson s b l indfold e d

“
, ,
w e r e to pi ck h e r e an d th e r e thr ee h un d r e d w a lnuts f r om
, ,
a b in con t a in in g a m i ll i on n ut s th e a v e rage w e i gh t of th e
,
n ut s pi ck e d out by e a ch e r son w ould b e a l m ost id e n

p
”
ti cal e v e n th ough th e n uts v a ri e d con s id e ra bly in s i ze
, .
G a m b l e r s us e th e pr in ci pl e j ust il l ustr ate d wh e n th e y h a v e

d e te r m in e d h ow m any ti m es a gi v e n e v e n t h appens out o f
a
g i v e n n um b e r o f poss i b il i ti e s Th e y are th us ab le to p ly
.
‘
R EP R ES EN TATI O N O F S T AT I S T I C S 255
th e ir cr aft continuous ly an d profi ta b ly on a sm a ll m a rg i n .
in th e i r f a v or Th i s pri n ci pl e is th e b as i s of all in sur

.
a n ce ; t h us it is poss i b l e to pr edi ct w i th a gr eat d egre e

of a ccur a cy h ow m a n y m e n of a g i v e n a e out of a g i v e n
g
on e t h ous an d w ill un d e r or din a ry con di ti ons die d ur i ng
, ,
th e n e x t y e a r Th e l a w of stati sti ca l r e gul ar i ty is v e ry

.
ex t e n s i v e ly e m pl oy e d in t h e C e n s us B ur e au Th e tota l s .
a re usua lly e st i m ate s b a se d on ca r e f ul stud y of s uffi ci en t

re presen tati v e case s .
H o w e v e r th e s tud e n t sh oul d b e cri ti ca l of th e phr a se

,
a t r an d om It is n ot a ss e r te d th a t a ny s m a ll gr oup
.
w i l l g i v e th e same r esul ts as a m e asure m e nt of th e w h ol e

group T h us if w e m e asur e d th e h e igh t of th e first
.
,
.
four h un d r e d m e n th a t passe d us a s we stood a t th e

cor n e r of R a n d ol ph an d S ta te S tr e e ts C hi ca g o w e coul d , ,
n ot b e sur e of g e t
. ti ng a n a v e r a g e th at w oul d a ccur ate ly
r epre sent th e ci ty Any n um b e r of e v ents m i g h tvi ti ate th e
.
r e sults ; for e x am pl e th e M inn e sota footb a l l te a m m i g h t

,
b e passin g b y or a gr oup of un usua lly s m a ll m e n m ig h t

,
b e r e tur n ing fr om s om e pol i ti ca l or s oci al m e e ti n g li m i te d

to on e n ati on a li ty Th e s am pl in g s h ou l d b e r e pr ese nt
.
at i v e ; th a t is s uffi ci e n tly l a rg e an d a t r an d om ( h er e a n d
,
th e r e ) T h e l a rg e r th e n um b e r of i te m s th e gr e ate r th e
.
,
ch an ce s of g ettin g a f a ir s a m pl e of th e l a r ge r g r oup of
ob j e ct s st udi e d .
2 93 Th e l a w of ine rtia of l a r ge num b er s

. T hi s la w .
fo ll ow s fr om th e la w of s tati sti ca l r egul a r i ty It a sse r ts .
”
th at w h en a
p a rt o f la rge group difi ers so a s to sh ow a
a
te nden cy in on e dire ction, th e pr ob a b ility is th a t a n eq ua l

p a rto
f th e sa m e
gr ou p h as a t en den c t
y o va r
y i n th e o
pp osi te
direction ; h en ce th e tota l ch a ng e is slig h t .
-
2 94 . Com pensa ting and cum ul a ti e ev rr or s . T h e pr e ce d
in g l aws are a sol i n v olv e d in a di scussi on of e r ror s If
.
25 6 G EN ER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
th e pupil s in y our sch ool w e r e to m e as ure car efull y th e
g h y r instructor s d esk th e ch ances w ould b e th at
l e n t of ou ’
a s m a n y w ould g i v e r e s ul t s t oo l a rg e a s t oo s h or t .
Th e e sti m a tes of a th ousan d ob se rv e r s of cr op condi ti on s

wh i ch are sum m ar ize d or graph e d in a v ol um e such as
th e S tati sti ca l Atl a s (pu b lis h e d by t h e D e pa r tm e n t of
C om m e r ce ) te n d to appr ox i m ate a ctua l con di ti on s Th ese .
are i ll ust rati on s of com pen sa tin g e rr ors In th e l on g run .
”
th ey ten d to m ak e th e r e sul t l ow e r a s m uch as h i gh e r .
Th i s type of e rr or n e e d n ot con ce rn us gre atl y pr ov id e d ,
w e h av e a suffi ci en t n um b e r of ca se s .
How e v e r w e n ee d to b e on our gua r d ag ai n st a con

,
st a n t or cum ul at i v e e rr or If w e use a m e te r s ti ck th at is
.
too sh or t w e c , an n ot e l i m in ate th e e rr or by m e asur i n g a

v e ry l on g lin e A w a tch too f a st coul d n ot e v en tua lly b e
.
a corr e ct g uid e A wh ol esal e r w h o l ost a li ttl e on e ach

.
ar t i cl e s old could n ot possibly sq uar e a ccoun ts by se lling

l a rge q ua nti ti es .
Th e v a l ue of a m ass of f acts in v ol v i n g a con stan t e rr or

is se r i ousl y vi tia te d H en ce th e stud en t s h oul d b e con
.
st ant ly cr i ti ca l in h is e fi ort to d e te ct th i s ty pe .
EXERCIS E
*D ra w as a ccu a t
e r ly as i l
poss b e on th e b a c b oa d a ne l k r li
s e gm e n t a r i ce tr i
a n n um b e l y
of n ch e s in e n gth Ask as m an .
a s fr om f or ty to fifty sch ool if i l m ates, poss b e , to sta nd o n a ce r

ta i n s pot a n d e sti m ate th e l e ngth of th e li ne Fi n d h ow m any .
e st i m ated th e li n e too l ong ; h ow m an y e sti m ate d it too s h ort .
H IN T . Th e w rk
r fully H v
o ch
m ust b
tud n t e don e ca e . a e ea s e
esti m t f u ti m
a e ; th ti
o r ti m t l k w y ti m t tc R j ct
es a s, e s a e, oo a a , es a e, e . e e
esti m te af ll tud n t w h
s o d n t c m ply
a s ri u ly with y ur
e s o o o o se o s o
r qu t H w m n y ti m t d th li n to l ng ? H w m ny e ti
e es . o a es a e e e o o o a s
m t d i tt
a e h rt? R p rtth r ult to y ur cl
oo s o e o e es s o a ss .
Th e s am e e n d e n cy
t is f i rs ob se rv e d in e con om ic af a .
Thus if w e m e asur e d th e in com e of th e or din ary agri

,
cul tur a l com m un i t y w e s h oul d fi n d out of a th ousa n d

,
r on s on ly a fe w w h os e i n com e is l ess th a n $ 300 er y e a r

p e s p ,
on ly a fe w if any w i th an i n com e o v e r $ 2 5 00 and th e

, , ,
r e st gr oupe d an d
tape r i ng be tw ee n
th e se li m i ts .
W h en th e r i se
an d f a l l is r eg u
lar ( th a t is th e ,
curv e f a l l s r e g u
l arlyon b oth s id es
f r om th e m od e ) ,
th e di str i b uti on is
lik e ly to approx i
m ate wh a t w e call
a n orm a l distrib u
ion, an d th e cu
t rv e
is cal l e d a n orm a l
distr ib uti on curv e .
A n or m al dis
trib ution is i l l us
tra ted by th e
F IG . 19 7. H Y S I C A L P H E N O M E N A I L L U S T RATE
P
NO R M A L D I S T R I BU T I O N
tab le a nddi agr am
( Fig . 1 9 7) g i v en h e r e wh i ch r e pr e s en ts th e h e i gh ts f r om
,
a ct ua l m e asu r e m e n t of f our h un d r e d an d t h i r ty Eng

l i sh publ i c sch ool b oy s f r om e l e v en to tw e l v e y ea r s
-
of a 1
ge .
It w ill b e seen th at th e num be r s con form to a v e ry

un ifor m r ul e :th e m ost n um e r ous gr oups ar e in th e m iddl e ,
a t 5 3 in an d 5 4 ih . wh i l e th e gr oups at 5 1 in an d 5 6 in
.
, . .
F r m R b
1
t M nu l f A th r p m try ’ ”
o o er s s
p 18 a a o n o o e ,
. .
R EP RES EN TATI O N O F S TATIS TI C S 59
a re l e ss in be r th ose at 5 0 in and 5 7 in are sti l l fe w e r

num , . .
,
an d s o on un t il th e e x tr em e ly sm a l l n um be rs of th e v e ry
s h or t an d v e ry t a l l b oy s of 4 7 in an d 6 0 in . a re r e ach e d . .
I t is s h ow n th at th e m od a l or typi ca l b oy of th e cl ass
, ,
a n d a e g i v e n is in an d S in ce h e r e r e sen t s t h e m ost
g .
, p
n um e r ous gr oup h e f or m s t, h e sta n d ar d .
Th e curv e w oul d pr ob ab l y b e sm ooth e r if m or e b oy s

w e re m e as ur e d or gr oupe d in to h al f in ch groups As itis -
.
,
it appr ox im ate s v e ry n e a rly a n or m a l di str i b uti on .
O f cours e it is n ot as se r te d th at e v e ry distrib ution is

of t h i s type Th e r e is m e re ly a te n d e n cy in ch an ce and
.
in n a tur e to pr od uce it Th e r e a re m a n y ca use s wh i ch

.
m a k e di str i buti on ir r eg ul a r a s w e sh al l pr e sen tly see

, .
*296 S ym m etry of a curv e Th e gr a h in F ig 198

. .
p .
sh o w s t h e h e i gh t of Am e r i ca n a d ul t m en in in ch es .
Th is curv e lik e th e on e
,
of Art 2 9 5 is m or e r e g
.
, _
ul a r th an m ost curv e s
which w e h a v e studi e d .
It w oul d prob ably b e

m uch sm ooth e r if th e
01388 in t e rv a l w e r e on e F 1 98 H
IG .m .M (Am
a re or EN . e n
four th in ch If w e draw T H N D OR M N AL A
I K E, S AL E T ND OC I
M A U M N ”
E p 9 8)
S RE E TS , .
a pe r pe n d i cul a r AK f r om
t h hi gh t o in t o f th e cu rv e w e m a
y th i n k o f thi s a s an
e e s p ,
ax si a r ou n d wh i ch th e r e c ta n gl e s a r e b u i l t T h e cu rv e .
to th e r i gh t of th i s a x i s l ook s v e ry m uch l ik e th e pa rt to
th e l e ft In th i s r espe ct w e s ay th e curv e is a l m os t
.
m m etrica l
s
y .
y
S m et
m ry o f fig u r e s m a y b e i ll us tr a te d by th e h u m a n
h ead wh i ch is sym m e tr i ca l w i th r e spect to a pl an e m id w ay

,
be tw e en th e e y e s an d pe rpendi cul a r to th e face ; th us th e

f
l e t eye a n d t h e l e f t e ar h a v e co rr es p o n di n g pa rt s to th e
260 G EN ER AL M A TH EM AT IC S
righ t of thi s a xi f sym m etry Note th a t th e pa rts are
s o .
a rra y ed in r e v e r se o r d e r .
O th e r f am i li a r i ll ustr a ti on s O f sy m m e try a re ( 1) th e '
h and an d th e i m age Obta in e d b y h ol din g th e h a n d in fr on t

O f a pl a n e m i rr or ; ( 2 ) w or ds wr i t te n in in k an d th e ini
e b lo
'
ri os e w or d s on t ting pape r wi th w h ich th ey

'
h h
’
nt O f t t
p
ar e b l o t
-
ted ; ( 3) o ur cl oth e s whi ch a r e l a rge l yb u il t on th e
,
r i n ci l e O f s ym m et ry; ( 4 ) t h e n or m a l dis tr i b uti on Curv e

p p
—
.
In a r ch i te ctur e in art an d in hig h e r m ath ema ti cs th e

, ,
p r i n ci l e o f sy m m e t
p ry i s v e ry i m po rtan t .
i t
2 9 7 S k e w nes s of a curv e
. T h e te r m sk e w n e ss
. de
n ot es t h e O ppos i te O f sy m m e try a n d m e an s th a tth e i te m s
a r e n ot s y m m e t ri ca lly d i str i bute d Th e curv e is n o t O f th e .
b e ll s h a pe d f or m
-
I t is h i gh e r e i th e r a b ov e or b e l ow th e
.
m od e th a n a s e n s e O f sy m m etry w oul d h a v e us e x pe ct
'
.
T O i ll ustr ate : S up p ose t h at t h e in com e s O f a ll t h e eo le

p p
l i v in g in a ce rta in com m un i ty w e r e ta b ul ate d as fo ll ow s
IN C O M E DO LL A R S I N M
CO E IN DO LL A R S N UM B ER O F
P ER S O N S
4000 4 500
—
3000 35 00 —
Th e gr aph ( F ig 19 9) O f thi s tab l e is n ot sym m e tri

.
ca l b ut is s k e w e d to w a r d th e l o w e r S i d e
, Th e m e a n in g O f .
.
s k e wn e ss is c l e a r l h ow n b t h gr h T h r h
y s
y e ap e g p a no
- -
lon ge r pr esen ts th e n or m a l sy m m e tr i ca l b e ll sh a pe d f o rm
, , f
th e b as e is d r a wn out to a gr e a te r e x te n t o n th e one s ide

h an
t on th e e
oth e r;
262 G EN ERAL M AT H EM ATI C S
costs of g ood s w i th out com puta ti on

did e ren t q uan ti ti e s of .
Th is is S h ow n b y th e f ol l ow in g ex am pl e :
I f ora ng e ll a t 30¢ a d oze n t
es s h e r e l a ti on b e twe e n th e n um
,
b e of d oze n s a nd th e cos t m ay b e e x pr e s se d b y th e e q ua ti on
r
0 = 30 d w h e r e d i th e n um b e r of doze n s an d c th e cost
,
s
p e r d oze n I f v
. a l ues a e giv e n t o d corr e s pon d i n g v a l ue s
r ,
m ay b e f oun d fo c a s giv e n in th e f oll owi n g t

r ,
ab l e
0 11 s q ua e r d
r d r a w tw o ax es 0 X an d O Y
a
p pe , , at r i gh t
an g l e s O n O Y l e t a sm a l l un i t r e pr e sen t 1 doz
. .
, and on
0 X l e t a sm all un i t r epr e se n t Th e n on th e , 30¢ li ne
100 250
F IG . 2 00 . TH E G R AP H OF A C OST F OR M U LA
ma rk a
p r
o ntie p r ese nti n g 1 doz O n th e 2 0 ¢ li n e
. m a rk
'
a oi n t r e r e s en t i g 3 d D r a w a l in e t h r u gh t h oin t
p p n o z . o e p s
th us m ar k e d It is se e n th atth is l i n e or gr aph ( F i g
.
,
.
is a str ai gh t lin e .
B y l ookin g at th i s pr i ce curv e w e can get th e cos t of

an
y n um be r O f d ozen s e v en of a f r acti on a l n um b e r F or
,
.
e x am l e t o fi n d t h c t f 6 d z b rv th e poin t wh e r e
p , e os O o O se e .
R EPR ES EN TATION OF S TATI S T I C S 263
th e h or izonta l lin e S ix sm all un i ts up m ee ts th e pr i ce

curv e ; O b se rv e th e poi n t dir e ctly be n e a t h th i s on th e
ax i s OK ; t hi s is e igh teen sm a ll un i ts fr om 0 an d h en ce
repr e se n ts S i m il a r l y th e cost of 8% doz is se en , .
to b e
ExERCIS Es
1 . B y m ea n s of th e g ra ph in F ig 2 00 de te m ne th e cost . r i
of foll owi n g :9 doz
th e .
; 11 doz ; 2 é d oz ; 3% d oz ; 10i doz ;
.
-
. . .
5 } doz ; S i doz
3 . .
2 I f e ggs se ll a t 4 5 ¢ a d oze n dr a w th e pri ce gra ph

.
, .
3 O n th e pri ce gra ph dra w n fo Ex 2 fi n d th e costof 4 d oz

. r . .
3 d oz ; 10 doz ; 3% doz ; 5 § d z ; i i d z
. . . o .
( o .
4 D r a w a pri ce gr a ph fo s uga r costi n g

. a pound r .
5 O n th e gr a ph dr a w n fo Ex 4 fi n d th e cos t of 11 l b
. r . .
31 l b 4 6 & 1b 4 1 0 1b .
6 C on str uct a gra ph w h i ch m ay b e use d in ca l cul a ti n g th e

.
pri ce of pot atoe s a t pe b us h e l r .
7 U s e th e gr a ph of Ex 6 to fi n d th e cost of 3 b u ; 4 % b u ;
. . . .
2 b u 3 pk ; 5 } b u ; 5 b u 3 pk
. .
7 . . .
8 S i n ce th e gr a ph s in Ex s 1 7 a e s tr a i gh t li n e s h ow r
-
. .
,
m a ny of th e po i n ts w oul d h a v e to b e l oca te d in e ach ca se in

or de r to dr a w t h e li n e S h oul d th e b e ta k e n cl ose toge th e r se
o fa a pa r t in or d r to ge t th e pos i ti on of th e pri ce gr a ph
r r ,
e
m or e n ea rl y accura te Wh y
2 99 . Gr a
ph s l inea r
of i ons
eq ua t ; l ocus ; coordina tes . AS
sh ow n in the pr e ce di n g
i th e r e l ati on b e tw e en tw o
se cton s
i i e s m ay b e e x pr e sse d in t hr e e w ay s : 1 by
q uan t t ( ) an
or din ary Eng li sh se n t en ce ( 2 ) by an e q ua t i on or ( 3) b y

, ,
a gr a ph Th e gr aph is s a id to b e th e gr aph of th e e q uati on

. .
A gr aph m ay b e con structe d for e ach e q uati on th at w e

26 4 G EN E R AL M AT H EM ATI C S
h av e stu d ate Th e pr oce ss of d r a w in g th e gr aph
die d to .
of a n e q ua t i on w i l l b e g i v en in th i s ar ticl e .
L e t th e e q uati on b e y 2 x 3 wh i ch w e sha l l s uppose,
is th e tr an s l ati on of som e se n te n ce wh i ch state s som e

d efi n i te pr acti ca l r ul e ; for e x am pl e th e cost of se n di n g a ,
'
ack a e b y pa r ce l po s tin t o a ce rta in zon e e q ua l s tw o ce n ts
p g
p e r oun ce pl us t h r e e ce n t s W e w an t t o d r a w a gr a h
.
p
for th e e q ua ti on y 2 a: 3 .
EXERCIS ES
1 . W ha t is
va l ue f y in th e e qu ti n y 2
th e O 3 wh e n a o T
ase qu l 0 wh n :q u l 1 w h e n :
a s e e qu l
a e 2 wh n :
a s e q ua l s 3 a s e a
3 wh n : equ ls e 2 a w h e n x e q ua l s 3 7
a
‘
2 Fill in th e f ll wi n g t
. a b l e of v a l ue s of :
o o a n d y fo th e a r
equa tion y 2 3 a; .
\
V e a re n ow r eady to r
t an s fe r
d a ta O f Ex 2 to th e .
s ua r e d a er
q p p T h e.
pr oce s s d oes n ot di ffe r v e ry m uch '
fr om our w or k in f r e q uen cy ta bl e s e x ce pt th at usua l ly in

r
g p a h i n g e ua t
q i on s w e n e e d t o co n s id e r b ot h pos i ti v e an d
n eg a tiv e n um be r s F or th e s a k e O f m e th o d w e S h a ll e x te n d
.
th e d i scus s i on to co v e r thi s po i n t T w o a x es X X a n d .
’
,
Y Y ( Fig d r a w n at l igh t an gle sfi an d m e e t

’
. a re
C o rr e spon d i n g to e a ch se t of v a l ue s of so a n d y a
'
at 0 .
po in t is l oca t ed t h e v a l ues O f a:
, b e in g m e as ure d a l on g or
pa r al lel to X X h e v a l ues Of y a l on g or pa r a ll e l to
’
an d t ,
YY P os i ti v e v a l ue s of x a r e m e a s ur e d to th e r i g h t of
’
Y Y a n d n e ga tiv e v a l ue s to th e l e f t
’
o s i ti v e v a l ues Of
p y
,
are m e a s ur e d a b o v e XX an d ne g a ti v e v alu e s b e l ow XX
’ ’
.
4 l e cta ny poi nt of th e graph a nd de te rm i ne w h e th e r th e

. Se
v al ues o f : a nd y s a t
a i s fy th e e q ua ti on .
5 H ow m a n y poi n ts coul d on e fi n d on th e li n e
.
Th e pr e ce di n g e x e r ci se s i ll ust ra te th e f ol l ow in g facts
Th e coordina t f oin t on th e lin e is fy th e
( ) a es o ev er
yp sa t
e
q uation .
b
( ) Th e coor din a t
es o f yp
e ve r oin t n ot on th e lin e do n ot
sa tis fy th e equa tion .
Th ese tw o fa cts can b e pr ov e d r i g id ly in a d v a n ce d

m ath e m a ti cs an d th e y e n a b l e us to say th a t th e s tr a i gh t
,
'
l i n e f oun d is th e locus (th e pl a ce ) O f a l l poin ts wh ose coOrdi
n at es sa t i sfy th e g i v en e q ua ti on It is i m por tan t to O bse rv e
.
th at th e id e a of a l ocus i n v o lv e s tw o th i ng s S pe ci fi e d un d e r ,
and b a b ov e
( )a
( ) .
S i n ce it appe a r s th at th e gr aph of an e q uati on o f th e

first d egre e h a v i n g tw o un k n ow ns is a s tr a i gh t l in e e q ua ,
ti on s of th e fir st d egr e e are ca ll e d lin ea r equa t ion s .
A li n e m ay b e ex te n d e d in d e fi n i te ly in e i th e r di r e ction ,
an d t h e r e are an i n d efi n ite ly l a rg e ( i n fi n i te) n um b e r O f poi nts

'
upon a s tr a igh t li n e S i n ce th e coor din a te s of e a ch poi n ton
.
th e li n e s a ti s fy th e e q uation of th e li n e th e r e a r e a n i n fi n i te ,
n um b e r of so l ut i on s of a lin e a r e q uati on wi th tw o un k now ns .
T hi s f act is e v id en t a l s o b e cause for e v e ry v a l ue of on e O f

, ,
th e un k n ow n s w e ca n fi n d a corr e s on di n g v a l ue for th e
p
ot h e r un k n ow n .
ORAL EXER CIS ES
1 . W h a t isl oca ti on (l ocus) of al l poi nts in a pl ane

th e
wh i ch a e a t a di sta n ce of 5 ft fr om a giv e n poi nt P in th e
r .
pl a n e ? ata di sta nce of 7

1 ft f rom P ? a t a d i s t
7; a n ce
. f :f et? o a e
2 W h a t is th e l ocus of a ll poi n ts in pa ce at a d i s tanc

. s e
of 10 ft fr m a giv e n poi n t? 1 cm fr om a g iv e n poi n t?

. o .
:ya rds from a give n p i n t?

11 o
R EP R ES EN TA IO N O F T S TATI S TI C S 267
3 . W h atis th e l ocus of all poi nts in a pl a ne 3 in d i stantfr om . a
g iv e n s tra i gh tli ne in th e pl ane 5 ; in di sta nt yi nch es di stant .
4 W h a t is th e l cus of a ll poi n ts in S pa ce a ta d i stance of

. o
4 i n fr
. o m a g iv e n s tr i
a g h t li n e 6 cm ? f
y e e t?
.
5 W h at is th e l ocus of a ll poi n ts in a pl a ne e q ua lly d is

.
ta n t fr om t w o giv e n pa r a ll e l li n e s in th e pla n e
*6 W ha t is th e l ocus of a ll poi nts in space e q ua lly di stant
. .
from tw o given pa ra ll e l li n es 7 ‘
7 W h atis th e l ocus of al l poi n ts i n a pl a n e 6 in d i sta ntfr om

. .
e ach of t w o give n poi nts in th e pl a n e w h i ch a e 1 0 in a pa r t? r .
8 W h a t is th e l ocus of a ll poi n ts 3 ft fr om th e ce ili n g of

“
. .
y our cl as sroom
*9 W h at is th e l ocus of a l l poi n ts in a pl a ne 5 in di sta nt
. .
fr om a li ne s egm e nt 7 in l ong in th e pl ane .
W h at is th e l ocus of all poi nts in S pace 5 in d i sta nt .
fr om a li ne segm ent 10 ft l ong .
300 Term s used in gr a ph in g a li near eq ua tion C e r ta i n

. .
te r m s use d in m ath e m ati cs in conn e cti on w i th gr aphi cal .
repre sen tati on w i l l n ow

be g i v en an d i ll ustr ate d
b y F i g 2 02 T h e lin e s
. .
XX an d YY d r a w n a t
’ ’
,
r igh t an gl e s are ca ll e d
.
,
a x es
( X X th e h orizon ta l
ax s i an d YY th e i
ver t
ca l a x s i ) . T h e poi n t 0 is
ca ll e d th e or i in
g Fr om P ,
.
an y po i
n t on th e s q ua e r d
pape r , pe r pen di cul a r s ar e
d r a w n to th e ax es th e : F IG . 2 02 ILL US T RAT I NG T II E TER MS
“m “
.
US ) P L O TT I W A Pm
d i stan ce PM is ca ll e d th e
or dina t
e Of P , an d th e di stan ce P N is call e d th e a b scissa of P ;
268 G ENE R AL M A TH EM AT IC S
tog e th e r th e y are ca ll e d th e coor dina tes of P . Th e a x es are
ca ll e d coordin a te a x s Th e e . l
s ca e use d is i n d i cate d on th e
a x es . T he di stan ces on 0X and OY a re
po s i ti v e ; th ose on
OX
’
a n d on g ati v e Th e a bsci ssa of P is 2 a n d th e
OY ’
ne .
o r di na te is 2 ; t h e poi n t P is ca ll e d th e p oint
1
2 _ ’
Noti ce th a t th e ab sci ss a is wr i tte n fir st an d th e or di n a te

S econd F i ndi ng a point 0 11 a gr aph i c sh ee t wh i ch corre
.
S end s t o a g i v e n pa ir O f coor di n at e s is ca l l e d p loti

tng
p
th e p oin t
.
EXER CIS ES
1 . Wh a tis th e a b s c s s a of i i
po n t A? B C D E ( g
F i .
2 . W hat i s th e o rd i n ate of th e po int A ? B ? C ? D ? E ?
F
( gi .
3 . G ive th e i n ts A B C D E (F ig
coOr d in a te s of po , , , ,
.
4 O n a S h e e tO f gr aph i c pa pe r d r a w a s e tof coor d i n a te a x e s

.
i nte r se cti n g n e a r th e ce n te r O f th e pa pe r a nd pl ot th e foll owi n g ,
p o i nts : (2 ( 5 (4 , ,
3 3 ,
35
g) , ,
.
5 C om pa r e th e pr oc s s f pl otti n g poi nts wi th th e n um b e ri n g

. e o
o f h use s in a ci ty
o .
6 O n a s h ee t O f g a ph i c pa pe r l oca te th e poi n ts A (2
. r ,
B (5 ,
C (2 and ,
W h at ki n d O f fi gur d y u e o o
th i n k is f r m e d wh e n th e poi n ts A B C a n d I)
o co n n ct d ? , , ,
a re e e
Dra w th e di a gona l s f th e fi gur a n d fin d th e c O dina te s O f

‘
“
O e, o r
th e poi n t w h e r e th e d i a gon a l s i nte r se ct .
301 S um m a r y of th e m eth od for th e pr ocess of gr a ph ing

.
l inea r eq ua ti on W i th Art 300 in m i nd w e sh a ll n ow

'
a; . .
ill ustr a te a n d sum m ari ze th e p r oce ss of

g r aph i n g a li n e a r
e q ua ti on .
D r a w th e gr a ph of 4 c
c 3y 6 .
(a ) S ol ve th e e q ua tion for
.
ei t
h e r un k n o w n in te r m s
'
f
o h e ot
t h er :th us ,
’
6 3y
CL .
EXERCIS ES
ra w th e g raph s of th e f oll owi ng

D e q ua t on s , ea c i h on a s e
p
e s h ee t o f s q ua r e d pa pe r :
a ia t
5 . 5 x —
4 y= 2 0 . 9 . 5 x —
2y —
3 .
2 . 2 x —
y = 8 . 6 . 3 x + 5 y = 15 . 10 . :
c+ 5 y —
12 .
3 . 3x —
2 y = 12 . 7 . 5 x —
2 y = 10 . 11 . 2 x = 3 —
4y .
8 . 6 x —
4y= 3 . 12 . 3 y= 4 —
8x .
H I S T O R I C AL N O T E i i tt i d th di gn i ty f. ci S ta t st cs h a s a a ne e o a s
e n c duri n g th
e l t fi fty y r It gr wth g h d in h n d wi th
e as ea s . s o oe s an a
n t a i n l rg n i z ti
o a Ev
o i cr ude tri b l rg n iz ti n th
a a on . rul r en n a a o a a o e e
m u tn s d kn w m th i ng f i t w
ee s lth t d t r m i n th t
o so e O s ea o e e e e a x e s or
tri b ut wh i ch m y b
e l vi d O u rli t t ti ti c l c m pil ti n
a e e e . r ea es s a s a o a o s
( m
so t i m b ef r 3 000 eC ) pr n t d th
e o e p pu l ti n nd w l th B . e se e e o a o a ea
O f Egypt i n rd r t rr ng f th c n tructi n f th py m i d
o e o a a e or e o s o o e ra s .
M n y c n turi
a l t r ( b ut 1400 C ) R m
e es a e II t k c n u a o B . a e se s oo a e s s
o f ll th l n d
a f Egy pt t r pp r ti n hi
e a s O ub j ct o ea o o s s e s .
In th B i b l w r d h w M
e um b r d th
e e tri b ea f I r l o o se s n e e e es o s ae
a nd f th oc u f th e R m n m p r r Augu tu C
en s s o r i th e o a e e o , s s ae sa , n e
y r wh i ch m rk d th b irth f C h ri t
ea a e e O s .
T h Gr k nd R m
e ee d th f ud l b r n f th M i ddl
s a o an s an e e a a o s o e e
Ag m des m ny n um r ti n
a e f tha pur p f pp rti n i n g
e e a o s or e o se s O a o o
l n d l yi ng t x cl ify i n g th i n h b i t n t n d d t rm in i ng th
a , ev a e s, a ss e a a s, a e e e
m ili t r y tr n gtha In s ll c e c pt th t f th. R m n m a a se s ex e a o e o a s so e
sp ci l r
e n a i t d f c ll cti g th d t T h R m n c l
e a so ex s e or o e n e a a . e o a s o
l t d uch d t
ee e s t r gul r i n t rv l a a a e a e a s .
D u i g th M rc n til Ag
r n f w t r n Eur p th f l i n g gr w
e e a e e o es e o e e ee e
th t i t w
a th f un cti n f as g v rn m n t t n c ur g th m
e o ur O a o e e o e o a e e ea s es
a i m d t cue b l nc
o se f tr d In r d r t d ci d c rr ctl y
re a a a e O a e . o e o e e o e
c c rn i n g th
on e n d f c m m rci l l gi l ti n m r d t il d in f
e ee s o o e a e s a o , o e e a e or
m ti n w
a on c ry th n h d hi th rt b n g th r d Th gr wth
as e e s sa a a e o ee a e e . e o
in c n tr li
a d m n r chy furth r ti m ul t d t ti ti c l tudy T h t
e a ze o a e s a e s a s a s . a
m n rch w
o a m t ucc ful w h c ul d in dv nc m t ccu t ly
as os s e ss o o a a e os a ra e
c mp r hi r Wi th h i riv l
’
o a e u c s e so r es s a s .
In 15 75 P h ili p I I f S p i n m d xt iv i n quiri fr m th p l
O a a e e en s e es o e re
ates c n c rn i n g th ir d i t i ct
o e In 1 6 9 6 L ui X I V r q uir d r p rt
e s r s . o s e e e o s
on t h c n di ti e f th c un try fr m
o ch f th g n r l i n t n d n t
on s o e o o ea o e e e a e a s .
R EP R ES EN TAT IO N OF S TAT I S T IC S 2 71
P us s r i a li y f m ki ng p ri dic
b e ga n i n m od e rn ti m es th e po c o a e o
c ll cti n
o e f t ti ti c l d t
o I n 17 19 F r d ri c
s o s a k Willi m I b g n
s a a a . e e a e a
r quiri ng m i nn u l r p rt
e t p pul ti n
se a ccup ti o na r l e o s as o o a o , o a s, ea
es ta te h l di n g t x ci ty fi
o nc c L t r th
t s, a d t w r c l
e s, na e, e . a e e se a a e e o
l ct d v ry th r
e e y r F r d ri ck th Gr t l w
e e ee vi g r u
ea s. e e e ea a so as a o o s
ex p n n t f th v l u
o e f t ti ti c
o H n l rg d t
e h a c p f t ti
e O s a s s . e e a e e s o e o s a s
ti c i g n r l b yi n cl ud i g n ti n li ty
s n e e a g d th nd t h ir c u n a o a , a e, ea s a e a se s,
c n di ti
o f gri cul tur
on s tr d m
o uf ctur
a hi ppi ng i n f ct e, a e, an a e s, s , a ,
a nyth i n g t h t m i ght p i b l y c tri b ut t n ti l ffici ncy

a oss on e o a on a e e .
A pr vi i n i n u c ti tuti n f 1 79 0 i i ti t d th d c nn i l
o s o o r on s o o n a e e e e a
c n u
e O n c un try ft r n th r h
s s . e d pt d
o m f r m f r gul r a e a o e as a o e so e o o e a
e n um r t i until in 19 11 C h i n t k h fi r t ff ci l c n u
e a on , , , a oo er s O i a e s s .
In r c t ti m th e c n u
en h v gr wn tr m l y l b r t
es e e s se s a e o ex e e e a o a e .
In 1900 th U n i t d S t t t b li h d
e
p rm et C n u B ur u a e s es a s e a e anen e s s ea
wh functi n it i t tudy p ci l pr b l m in th li ght f th

ose o s o s s e a o e s e O e
d t c ll ct d n d t pub li h th r ul t f th i
a a o e e a tudy M tl o di g s e es s O s s . os ea n
n t ai n l h v p ci l b ur u w h i ch tt m pt t k p th t
o s a so a e s e a ea s a e o ee e s a
ti tic
s f n t
s i n up t d t b y m n f ci n ti fi c ti m t An
O a a o o a e ea s O s e es a es .
ex dm pl f uch b ur u i
e O u N ti n l B ur u f S t ti ti c
s a ea s o r a o a ea O a s s .
M ny t t h v
a t b li h d b ur
s a es u t m a t th
e n d
es a f th s e ea s o ee e ee s o e
t t
s a e R c n tly
. m v m nt h e e g i d m m ntum t a t b li h
o e e as a ne o e o es a s
m un i ci p l b ur u t c ll ct n d tudy th
a ead t f th c m m uni ty
s o o e a s e a a o e o
a nd t i n t ruct th pub li c t th i gni fi c n t r ult b t i n d b y

o s e as o e s a es s O a e
m n ea f l b r te r p rt
s o Ane a m pl f th i i d
o a i ill u tr t d
e o s . ex a e o s ea s s a e
b y th S u v y C m m i tt
e f th C l v l n d F un d ti
r e o ee O e e e a o a on .
S UM M AR Y
302 . C h apte r X h as ta ugh t th e m e an i ng
f ol l ow i ng of th e
w ord s and phr ase s :pictograin cartb gra m b ar di agram s , , ,
graph i c curv e fr e q ue n cy tab l e cl ass in te rv a l cen tra l ten d

, , ,
e n cy ar ith m etic a v e r ag e m od e m edi an nor m a l dis tri

, , , ,
b ution r an d om s a m pl ing com pe n s ati n g e rr or s con stan t

, , ,
or accum ul a t i ng e rr or s sy m m e try sy m m e try of a curve , , ,
sk e w n e ss of a curv e p r i c e gr aph l i n e a r e ua ti on
q l ocus , , , ,
ax e s h orizon t
, a l ax i s v er t i cal ax i s or din ate a bsci ssa cob r , , , ,
din ate s coOrdin a te ax es pl otti n g a poi nt

, ,
.
2 72 G EN ER AL M AT H EM AT IC S
303 . Th e ,
gr aphic cu rv e
d to S h o w th e r e l a
m ay b e use
ti on b e tw ee n tw o q ua n ti ti e s S pe ci fi c d i r e cti on s w e r e gi v en
.
S h o w ing h ow a gr aphi c curv e is dr a w n

“
304 . C on tin uous an d d i scre te se ri e s w e r e il l ustr ate d a nd
l i d
e xp a ne .
305 . S ta ti s ti ca l stu di e s a r e n e cess a ry to so lv e our s o c

ial ,
g ov e rn m en ta l a n d e con om i c pr obl e m s Th e i n te ll i g e n t
,
.
r e a d e r w i ll pr ofi t b y a k n ow le d g e O f th e e l e m en ts of
st at istica l m eth od s .
30 6 T a b ul atin g th e f a cts be a r i n g on a pr obl e m in th e

.
f or m of a f r e q ue n cy tab l e e n ab l e s on e to ge t a gr asp on
th e pr ob l e m .
307 Th e w or d a v e r ag e e n e r a l ly used m a a
. as
g y m e n
a r ith m etic a v er ag e m ode or m edia n All a re m eas ur e s O f

, , .
th e ce n tr a l te n d e n cy O f a m as s of s ta ti sti ca l d ata Th e .
’
ar it h m e ti c a v e r a g e is f oun d by figuring th e m od e is f oun d ,
by insp ection an d th e m e di an by counting

, .
308 Th e l aw of statis ti ca l r e g ul a r i tyw a s i ll ustr ate d

. .
309 Th e l a w O f in e r ti a O f l a rg e n um be r s w as sta te d
. .
310 Th e gr aph of g ood s pur ch a se d a t a con stan t cos t

.
”
m ay b e u se d a s a r e ad y r eck on e r .
311 Th e ch apte r h a s ta ugh t h ow to pl ot po in ts on

.
s q ua r e d a er
p p .
312 Th e gr aph O f a lin e a r e q uati on is a str a i gh t l in e

. .
T h e coiir di n ate s of e v e ry poin ton th e l in e satis fy th e e q ua

e
ti on an d th e coOrdi n ate s O f e v e ry poi nt n ot on th e l in e do

,
n ot sa t i sfy th e e q uati on Th i s i ll ustr ate s th e l ocus id ea

. .
313 Th e ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e th od Of gr ap h ing a

.
lin ea r e q uati on .
2 74 G EN ER AL M AT H EMATI C S
EXERCIS ES
1 . Fi nd th e i nte re st on $ 42 5 at 4 % for 2 5 yr .
2 . Fi nd th e i n te r e st on $ 6 40 at for 3 yr . .
9
H IN T . S ub st tute i for r. Wh y?
100 2 00
3 Fin d th e i n te r e ston $ 820 at4 7 fo 2 yr 3 m o 5 da

.
0 r . . .
H N R d uc 2 yr 3 m
I T . 5 da t d y d ivi d th i r ul t b y
e e . o . . o a s, e s es
a nd ub ti tut f
s t W h y?
s e or .
316Oth er types of interes t prob l em s conv eni entl y sol v ed

.
b y special form s of I = F rt Th e m eth od of s ol vin g oth e r .
type s of i n te r e st pr obl e m s is i ll ustr ate d b y th e foll owi n g

pr obl e m
H ow m uc h m one y m ust b e i n ve sted at 5 % for 2 yr . so as to
yi e l d $ 180 i n te re st
N OTE Th i pr b l m di ff r fr m E 3 A t 315 i n th t r t
. s o e e s o x .
, r .
, a a e,
tim e, an d i tr t giv n d th pr b l m i t fi n d P (th pri n

n e es a re e an e o e s o e
cip l )
a It m y b
. lv d b y ub ti tuti n g th th r n um b r gi v n
a e so e s s e ee e s e
for th c rr p n d i n g th r
e o l tt r f th f rm ul W h y? H w v r
es o ee e e s O e o a . o e e ,
it wi l l b f u d n tri l t b f m r c nv ni n t if w fi t lv
e o n o a o e ar o e o e e e rs so e
for P i n I P rt .
S ol ut
ion . D ivi di ng b oth m em be r s of th e e qu ti a on b y r t, i
rt
r
l
Thi s m a y b e t a n s a te d n to th e o o n g ul e of a t m e t c i f ll wi
r ri h i
TO fi n d th e p i n c pa d r i l ivi
de th e n te e st b yth e p oduct of th e p n i r r ri
I
cipa l a n d th e ate P i s onl r
a spe c a l o m Of I
. F rt, b ut -
y i fr
rt
i
con st tute s com pl t dir cti e e e on s f fi n di n g th prin cip l wh
or e a en th e
o th r th r
e f ct r gi vee a o s ar e en .
In th pr p d pr b l m w
e o ose o e e Ob i
ta n , b y sub sttut n g, i i
180 180 16 0
'
—
1 800 .
5 1 0 i_
16 6
.
Q 7 6 6 TO
T hus th e p ri ncip l i a s $ 1800 .

C O N TR O L O F TH E FO RM U LA 2 75
EXERCIS ES
1 . W hat pri nci pa l m ust b e i n vested at for 2 yr to

yi e l d $ 81 7 ‘
2 . W hat is th e p ri n ci pa l if th e r ate is th e tm e 4 i yr .
3 da .
,
i nter e st $ 12 0
a nd th e
3 W h at is th e r a te if th e pri n ci pa l i s $ 5 00 th e tim e
i
.
, 3 yr .
,
an d th e i n te r e st $ 90
H r P t nd I
e e ,giv n ;
, i th
a un k n wn
a re H nc w e r s e o . e e e so lv e
I P r t for r .
D ivi di ng b th m o em be r s b yP and t h en b y tor b y (P t),
I
Pt
I
S ub sttutn g th ei i k n wn f
o a cts in r
Pt
90 6
6
5 00 3 100
4 . Tra n s late r i nto a rul e of p r oce dure for fi n di n g

th e rate .
5 W h a t is
. r ate if th e i nte r e st i
th e th e ti m e s
1g yn a nd th e pri n ci pa l $ 95 0 ?
1
,
6 W h a t is a four th ty pe of i nte r e s t pr ob l e m ?
. Fi nd a
for m ul a m ost con ve n i e nt fo th e s ol uti on f such ty pe r o
p r ob l e m s .
7 S h ow h ow to ob ta i n th i s f or m ul a fr om th e f or m I
. P t r .
8 Tra n sl ate i n to a r ul e of a ri th m e ti c
. .
9 I n to w h at tw o pa r ts ca n 15 00 b e d ivi de d s o th at th e
.
i n com e of one at 6 % sh a ll e qua l th e i ncom e of th e oth er

at 4 70
10 . How ivi de $ 1800 s o th atth e i ncom e of part

ca n a m a n d
s h a ll b e t h e r e st a t
a t4
7 0 h e sa m e a s t a t of t h
11 A ce r t a i n s um i n v e ste d a t4 g a ve t h e sa m e i n te r e stin ,
1 / 0
.
2 yr a s $ 4000 ga ve in 1% yr a t 4 %
. H ow l a r ge w as th e s um
.
2 76 G EN ERAL M A TH EM ATI C S
I
317 . S ol v ing a for m ul a . Th e pr ocess of d e r i v i ng t
Pt
f r om I =F r t is ca l l ed solving th e f orm ula for t . S i m i l a rly ,
I
d e r i v i ng th e f or m P —
is ca ll e d so l v ing th e f or m ul a
rt
for P . Th e spe c a i l f or m
bta i n e d is n ot on l y th e m ost o
con v en i e nt f or m for t h e pa r ti cul ar pr obl e m b ut it m ay b e ,
use d to so lv e t h e w h ole cla ss of p rob lem s to wh i ch it

b e l on g s T h e sol v i ng of th e f or m ul as of th i s ch apte r a re
.
of t h e pr acti ca l ki n d an d w ill in v o lv e l ittl e m or e th a n

th e appl i cati on s of th e ax i om s of C h apte r I .
318 Gra ph ica l ill ustra tion of inter est pr ob l em s

. Th e .
r e l ati on be tw e en any tw o of th e f a ctors th a t appe ar in

an i n t e r e st f o r mul a m ay b e r e pr ese n te d gr aph i ca lly .
EXERC IS E
H ow does th e y ea rly i nte r e st v a ry on i i l s i n v este d

pr nc pa
at 5 70
I
S ub st tutn g i i 1 36 for r, a n d 1 for t,
the n I 1 85 P .
N ote th a t th i s is ali n r qu ea e a
i
t on i nv lvi n go I an d P wh i ch m y a
l
b e p otte d b y th e m e th od of Ar t 301 . .
Th e ta b e b e o l lw
w a s use d to m a e th e k
gr ph in
a F i g 2 04
. .
0 6 10 15 20 25
L e ton e sm a ll un t 1 on th e h or zon ta l
i In te re s t
li n e s r e P e se n t r i nt r t 1 of e es 1 a n d on e
F IG 2 04 GRA PH TO B E U ED
S
l rg v rtc l l n
. .
un t n th
.
a e i o e e i a i e s re
pr e IN C A L U L A TI NG I N
C T E R ES T O N
se nt$ 5 0 f
pri n ci p l i nv t d
o a es e . PR I N P AL S
CI m v s sr n n AT 5 01, 7
2 78 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATIC S
EXERCIS ES
1 . If $ 400 is i n v e ste d at wha t is th e a m oun t a t th e
e n d of 1 yr .
? of 2 yr .
? of 3 yr .
?
2 . If $ 12 00 is i n v e ste d at w ha t is th e am o u
nt at the
e n d of yr 2 .
3 W h at is th e r ul e for fi n di n g th e a m oun tw h e n pri n ci pa l

.
,
ra te a nd t
,
i m e a e giv e n 2 r
4 U s i ng A fo th e a m ounta nd P tfor th e i n te r e st tr ans l a te

. r r ,
th e pr e ce di n g r ul e i nto a f or m ul a .
5 Th e f or m ul a fo th e a m ount m ay a l s o b e wri tt
. e n in t
r he
form A P (1 t) P r ov e r . .
6 S olv e A
. P (1 t) for P r .
H NI D ivi di g b th m m b r
T . f th
n qu ti n b y th c ffi ci n t
o e e s o e e a o e oe e
A
of P, n am e y ( + rt
) , we oh ta 111
'
P
7 . Tran sla te i nto a rul e of a ri th m e ti c th e for m ul a ob ta ne d i

in Ex 6 . .
8 . Fi nd th e p ri ncipa l if th e ra te is i
th e t m e 3 yr .
, a nd
th e a m oun t $ 4 72 .
A $ 4 72 $ 4 72
S ol uton i . P 400 .
1 rt 1
9 . F i nd th e p ri nci pa l if th e ra te is 5 70 , th e t m e 3 yri .
,
a nd
th e a m oun t $ 115 0 .
10 . lv e th e e q uati on A P F t fo t Tra n s l ate th

So r r . e
re sul ti n g for m ul a i nto w rds o .
11 Fi nd th e ti m e if th e pri n ci pa l is $ 2 5 00 th e a m oun t
.
,
$ 2 72 5 a n d th e r ate
,
12 S olv e th e e q ua ti onA
. P P t fo and t ra nsla te th e r r r
re sul ti n g for m ula i nto wor ds .
13 Fi n d th e r ate if th e p
. ri nci pa l is $ 15 00 th e a m ount ,
$ 1740 an d th e ti m e 4 yr
, .
14 S um m a ri ze th e ad v antages of solv i ng i n t
. e r e st pr ob l e m s
b y f or m ul a s .
C ON TROL O F TH E F O R M U LA 2 79
32 0 . Ev al uating a form ul a Th e pr oce ss of fi n di n g th e

.
a r i th m e tica l va l ue of th e li te r a l n um b e r ca ll e d for in a
form ul a is ca l l e d eva lua ting th e form ula . Th e for eg oi ng
e x e r ci s e s sh ow t h at th e pr ocess consi sts of
1 S ub stituting th e known
. n um b er s in th e f orm ula .
2 . R educing th e a r ith m etica l num b er ob ta ined to th e simp lest
NO T E . A drill li t i nv l i n g th
s o v e se p r oce sse s is g iv en in Art 32 9 . .
32 1 S um m a ryof th e discussion of a form ul a . C ul ti v atin g

an d g a in i ng r l
con t o of a f or m u l a m e an s
1 . Ana lyzing an ar ith m etica l sit ion

ua t so as
’
t
o se e he
t
rul e of p r ocedur e .
2 . Tr a nsla ting th e r ul e in to a f or m ula .
3 S olving th e
.
f or m ula f or an
y l etter in ter m s of a ll he
t
oth er s .
4 Eva lua ting th e for m ula

. .
Th e s e steps w ill n ow bel i of

. i l l ustr ate d in th e so ut on
m oti on pr ob l e m s W e sh all th en pr ocee d to s olv e sh or t

.
l i sts of e x e r ci se s wh i ch sh ould d e v e l op pow e r in th e se steps .
322 . Th e form ul a appl ied i on prob l em s

to m ot . Inl v ing so
th e foll ow in g pr ob l e m s tryto ob se rv e th e steps sum m a r ize d
in Ar t 32 1 . .
ORAL EXERCISES
1 . If y ard dash m an run s th e l ast 5 0 yd in 5 sec at

a 220 - -
. .
,
w h at rate is h e fi n i sh i n g
2 I f a n autom ob il e m a k e s 75 m i in 2 5 h r
. h ow fas t is it . .
,
b e i ng d iv e ri r
3 Ex pr e ss th e d i sta n ce cov e r e d b y a tr a i n in 8 h r at an
. .
a v e r age r a te of 2 0 m i pe h our ; of 12 h our ; o f 3: il

% m.i pe r m es . r
p e r h our ; o f : 3 m i p e h
a our . r .
4 . Ex pre s s th e d i sta n ce cov e r e d b ya tr a i n in t h our s a tthe

ra te of r m il e s p er h our .
5 Expr e s s th e ti m e itta k es a n a utom ob il e to go 15 0 m i a tth e

. .
ra te of 10 m i pe r h our ; of 15 m i pe r h our ; of 2 0 m i pe r h our ;

. . .
of m il e s pe h ou ; of 2 m m il e s pe day; of 2 m + 4 m i pe day
m r r r . r .
6 How l ong doe s it ta k e to m a k e a tri p of d m il e s a t th e

.
rate of m il e s pe h our
r r
7 Th e r a te of a tr a i n is 30 m i a n h our
. I f it l e a v es th e . .
stati on a t 1 A M h ow fa a wa y is it a t 2 A M ; a t S A M ; a t
. .
,
r . . . .
4 AM ; . t 5 A M ; et
. c? a H w f a wa y is
. it a t. AM ; o ar . .
?
at A M ; at
. . AM . .
8 . D e n ot n g th e d i i st
a n ce r v e l e d b y d fi nd d wh e n th e ra te
ta ,
is 45 m i . an h our and th e n um b e r f h ur s is s ix o o .
32 3 . Distance , r ate, tim e T h e pr e ce din g e x e r cis e s sh ow

.
th a t a p r obl e m in v ol v in g m oti on is con ce r n e d w i th dista n ce,

ra te, an d im e
t . Th e n um
b r e of l in e a r un ts i passe d o ver by
a mo v i n g b od y is ca ll e d th e di stan ce , an d the n um be r
of un distance tr a v e rs e d m ay b e r epr esen ted by d
its of .
T h e r a te of un if or m m oti on th at is th e n um be r of un i ts , ,
tr a v e r se d in e ach un i t of tim e is ca l l e d th e r a te ( or spe e d) ,
an d is r e r e se n t e d by r T h e tim e t is e x pr esse d in
p .
, ,
m in ute s h ou rs d ay s e tc
, , , .
ORAL EXER CIS ES
1 ll r
I ust a te b y a m a e x pe e n ce s th a td is ta nce
. f ili r ri eq ua l s
ra te m ul tip l ied b g th e ti m e ; th a t is, th at d rt .
d
2 . S ho w h ow to ob ta in t fr om d rt .
3 . Tra n sla te t
g i n to a r ul e for fi nd i n g th e ti m e .
5
(
4 . Sho w h ow to ob t
a n r i fr om d rt .
d
5 Tran sl a te r i nt
o a rul e for fi n d l n g th e ra te
I
. .
2 82 G EN E RAL M AT H EM ATI C S
4 . In runn i n g 2 80 m i a fre i gh t tra i n w h ose r ate is th a t
.
of a n e x pre ss tra i n ta k e s 3% h r l onge r th n th e e x pre ss tr i n . a a .
Fi nd th e la t
e o f ea c h .
5 . An il e r un s 10 m i a n h our fa s te r th a n a
a utom ob .
m otor cy cl e a n d it ta k e s th e a utom ob il e 2 h r l n ge r to un
,
. o r
15 0 m i th a n it t
. a k es t h e m tor cy cl e to run 6 0 m i Fi n d th e o .
ra te of ach e .
6 A m a n r ow dow n s tr ea m a t th
. s r a te o f 8 m i a n h our e .
a nd r e t ur n a t th e r te o f 5 m i a n h ur
s aH ow fa dow n s tr a m . o . r e
ca n h e go a n d r e tu r n if h h a 5 % h r a th i s d i p l ? Atew h t s . s osa a
“
rate d o s th e str ea m fl ow
e
Z
7 C h i ca go a n d C i n ci n n a ti a re a b ut2 5 0 m i a pa r t S uppo e
. o . . s
th a t a tr a i n s tar t s fr om e a ch ci t y towa rd th e oth r ne atth e e ,

o
rate of 30 m i pe h our an d th e oth e r a t th e r a te of 35 m i pe

. r . r
h our H ow soon will th e y m e e t2

.
8 A tr a i n is tr a v e li n g a t th e r ate of 30 m i a n h our I n
. . .
h ow m any h our s will a s e con d tr a i n ov e r ta k e th e fir st if th e

se con d st a rt s 3 h r lat r t h a n th e fi r s t a n d tra ve l s at th e ra te
. e
of 35 m i a n h our.
*9 A a n d B un a m il e r a ce A r un s 2 0 ft pe e con d a nd
. r . . r s ,
B 19 % ft pe s e con d B h a s a s ta r t o f 32 yd
. r . I n h ow m a n y .
s e con ds will A ov e r t ak e B WV h ich will w in th e r a ce
A b ull t goi n g 1 5 00 ft pe r se con d i h e a r d to s trik e

e . s
th e ta r ge t 3 s e c a fte r it is fi r e d . H ow fa a way is th e ta rg t . r e
( S oun d t ra ve l s a tth e rate f a b out 1080 ft pe r s e con d ) o . .
11 A m otor cy cli s tr de 85 m i in 5 h r P a r tof th e d i st

. o a n ce . .
w as on a coun try r oa d a t a s pe e d of 2 0 m i a n h our a n d th e .
r e st wi th i n th e ci ty li m i ts a t 10 m i a n h our Fi n d h ow m a ny ,
. .
h our s of h is ri de w e r e in th e country .
12 Tw o b oa ts 149 m i a pa rt a ppr oa ch e a ch oth erl e a vi n g a t

. .
,
th e sa m e tim e O n e goe s 1 0 m i pe h our fa s te r th a n th e oth e r

. . r
,
a nd t h ey m e e t in 2 h r Wha t is th e r a te of e a ch .
C ON TR O L OF THE FOR M U LA 83
32 4 . Gra ph ica l il l ustr a ti on of a m otion prob l em . M any

m oti on pr ob l e m s v en i ently ill ustr ate d graphi
ca n be con
ca lly as th e , stud e ntw i ll di scov e r i f h e s ol v e s th e f oll ow in g
e x e r ci se s .
EXERCIS ES
1 . i ana poli s race s D e P a l m a dr ov e h is

I n th e In d ca r a t a
ra te va ryi ng b ut littl e fr om 9 0 m i pe h our D ra w . r . a g r aph
s h owi n g t h e r e l ati on b e twee n th e d i st
a nce a n d d g
ti m e of D e P a l m a s pe rfor m a n ce
’
.
S ub ti tuti n g 9 0 in ds t r,
d 90 t .
N ote th a t d 90 t i s a li n r qu ti
ea e a on wh ich
m ay b gr ph d (e t b l n d F ig a T e see a e a e n m ll
s a
un i t n th
s o v rti c l i r pr n t 30 m i ; t n m ll un i t n th
e e a ax s e e se . e s a s o e
h ri z n t l i r pr n t 3m
o o a ax s e e se 1 .
2 D ete r m i n e fr om th e gr a ph in F ig 2 05 h ow m any m il e s
. .
D e P al m a dr ov e in 2 h r ; in 1 5 h r ; in 1 h r 2 4 m in ; in 4 0 m in ; .
—
. . . .
in 4 m in ; in 2 h r 12 m in . . .
3 D e te r m i ne b y th e gr a ph
.
in F ig 2 05 h ow l on g it took .
D e P a l m a to go 5 0 m i ; 4 0 m i ; . .
6 0 1n i ; 75 m i ; 14 0 m i ; 16 0 m i ;
. . . . n
i
e 90
10 m i .
c
n
a
Ob vi o us ly th e r c d i ng
p e e re
t
s
i
s ul ts co u ld be c l cul t d
a i th ra e e e
D
bya ri th m ti c e or b y th f rm ul e o a .
H w v r th gr ph h th d n
o e e , e a as e a va
f r li ng ll th r ult
"
tg
a e o ev e a a e es s
M mfl e ours
i n vivi d f h i n as o
F 2 05 TH G RA PH AM N
.
IG . . E OF OTIO
4 D r a w a gra ph s h owi ng
.
P O ,
M F M U LA R B LE OR
th e dist a n ces t ra v er sed b ya pa sse nger tra i n runn i ng uniform ly

att h e r a te of 4 0 m i pe r h our for th e fir stten h our s of its tri p
, . .
*5 Fi nd out if oss i b l e w h at us e ra ilr oad offi ci al s m a k e of

.
p , ,
gr aph s in a rran gi n g s ch e dul es .

2 84 G EN E R AL M A TH EM ATIC S
32 5 . C i r cul a r m oti on . C ir cul a r m oti on is of fre q ue n t
rr e nce in m e ch an i cs A f a m i l i a r i ll us tr a tion is f oun d
‘
occu .
in th e m o v e m e n t of th e h a n d s of a cl ock .
EXER C IS ES
1 . At w h at ti m e b e twe e n 3 an d4 o
’
l k
c oc ar e th e h an ds of
a c oc l k toge t he r 7 ‘
S ol uton i qu l th . Le t x (F ig 2 06 )
. e a e
n um b r f m i n ut ft r 3 cl ck w h n ’
e O es a e o o e
th h ed t g th r ; th ti
an qu l
s a re o e e a s, x e a s
th n um b r f m i n ut p c
e v r w h i ch
e o e s a es o e
th m i ut h d p fr m 3 cl ck ’
e n e an a sse s o o o
u t il it v rt k th h ur h d
n o e a es e o an .
T h n £ qu l th n um b r f m i n ut
e e a s e e o e
5
d
F IG 2 06 C LO C K P RO B L EM S
d v h u h 1
. .
sp c a
p es b y th a sse o er e o r an (
I L L U S T R AT E A TY P E O F CIR
W h y? C U L AR MO TIO N
S i n ce th e n um b e r of m i n ute spa ce s
fr om 1 2 to 3 i s 15 , and i
s n ce th e wh l o e is e qu l a to th e sum of i ts
r
pa ts, i t f ll w th
o o s at
x z 15 x
12
VVh e n ce a : 1 6 T T m in4
.
Th e rfr e o e th e h a n d s a re to g e t h r at 16 1 ;
e
4
m in . a ft r 3
e O
’
l k
c oc .
2 . At w h a t ti m e b e twe e n 4 and 5 o
’
c ocl k a re th e h a n ds of
a l k toge th e r 7
c oc
‘
H N Dr w I fi gur i m il r t th
T . f E 1
a a e s a o e on e or x . .
N ti c th t th f rm ul f cl ck pr b l m i
"
o e a i e o a or a o o e s x —
+ m,
12
w h r m q u l th n um b r f m i ut
e e e
p c th m i ut
a s e e o n e s a es e n e h a n d m ust
g i n i n rd r t r ch th d ir d p i ti n
a o e o ea e es e os o .
3 . At w h a t ti m e b etwe e n 2 and 3 O
’
c ocl k a re th e ha n
ds of
a l k
c oc 15 m in rt . a pa
H N I T . Dr w fi gur a a e, t hin k th e pr ob l em hrough

t , and the n try
to se e ho w th f rm ul e o a i n Ex 2 . a pp li es .
4 . A ca n do a p i e ce of w ork in a da ys an d B ca n do it in
6 da ys . H ow l on g will it take th e m to d o ittoge t he r

Le t n th e n um b e r of da y s it w ill t k
a e
t he m toge t her .
th e a m o un t of w rk th y c n d
o e a o
in 1 da .
,
1 th e a m o un t A ca n d o i n 1 da .
,
a
h th e a m oun t B ca n d o i n 1 da .
I 1 1
H e n ce
a b n
M ul ti ply i n g b y a b n , bn an r a b,
a h,
(b a
)n
ah
a b
N O TE . Any prob l e m of th e t pe y of Ex 1 . on pa ge 2 85 m a y b e
ab
solv ed b yus in g th e e q u ti
a on n as a f rm ul
o a . h
T us, to so lv e
a + b
0
T he n n
+4 7
5 . O n e b oy ca n m a k e a pape r r oute in 2 h r a n d h is fri e n d .
ca n m a k e th e r oute in 1% h r H ow l on g will it ta ke th e tw o
.
togeth e r (S olv e b
y f or m u l a .
)
*6 S uppose tha t in Ex 1 ppi e ion
s a n 2 85 th e s e con d
. .
pa ge
e m pt yi n g pi pe h ow l on g will it ta k e to fill the ta nk if b oth
,
ppi e s a e r unn i n g rW h a t f or m d e s th e f or m ul a ta ke o
*7 A ca n s we e a walk in 7 m in B in 8 m in a n d C in
.
p .
,
.
,
10 m in H w l on g will it ta k e th e m w orki n g togeth e r

. o W h at
for m doe s th e f r m ula fo a work pr ob l e m ta k e
o r
*8 A coul d la a si de wa lk in 3 da B in 4 da and C in
.
y .
,
.
,
da H ow l on g doe s it ta k e th e m w h e n w orki n g toge th e r ?

.
S olve b y s ub sti tuti ng in th f r m ul a fo Ex 7 e o r . .

C O NT R O L O F TH E FO RM U LA 2 87
32 7 . Transl ating rul e s of procedure into form l a s u W ri t

. e
e ac h of th e f oll ow in g in th e f or m of a for m ul a
1 . Th e a r ea of a t ria n gl e e q ua l s th e pr oduct of h alf th e
b ase ti m e s th e a l ti tude .
2 . Th e a r e a of a r e cta n gl e e q ua l s th e pr oduct of it
s b a se
a nd a l ti tude .
3 . Th e r of a pa ra ll e l ogra m q ua l s th product of its

a ea e e
b a s e a n d a l ti tude .
4 Th e a r a o f a tr a pe z i d q u l s n h a lf th e s um
. e o e a o e f th o e
p a r al l e l b a s e s m ul ti pli e d b y th e a l ti tude .
5 Th e v ol um e of a pyra m i d q ua l s one th ir d th e b s e
. e a
ti m e s th e a l ti tude .
6 Th e l e n gth o f a cir cl e i a ppr ox i m a te ly e q ua l to tw e n ty

. s
tw o se v e nth s o f th e d i a m e te r .
7 Th e cir cum fe r e n ce o f a cir cl e is e q ua l to :

. ti m es th e 7
d i a m e te r .
8 Th e a r e a of a cir cl e is '
. n t i m es th e s qua re of th e rad i us
'
.
9 Th e pr oducte q ua l s th e m ul ti pli ca n d ti m e s th e m ul tipli e r

. .
10 Th e pr od uct ob ta in e d b y m ul ti plyi n g a fr acti on b y a

.
wh ol e num b e r is th e pr oduct of th e w h ol e n um b e r a n d th e
n um e r at or d ivi de d b y t h e d e n om i na tor .
1 1 Th e q uoti e n tof tw o fr a cti on s e q ua l s th e d ivi de n d m ul ti

.
pli e d b y th e i n v e r ted d ivi sor .
12 Th e s q ua r e r oot of a fr act
. i on e q ua l s th e sq uare r oot of
th e num e ra tor d ivi de d b y th e s q ua r e r oot of th e de n om i n ator .
13 Th e s q ua r e f a fr a cti on is th e s q ua r e of th e num e r a t
. o or
d ivi de d b y th e s q ua r e of th e de n om i n ator .
14 Th e r ul e fo ca l cul a ti n g th e cost of one a r ti cl e w h e n

. r
y o u k n ow th a t a ce r ta i n n um b e r of t h e m cost so m uch ; wri t e
th e cos t of m a r ti cl e s .
15 Th e r ul e fo e x pr e ss i ng y ea r s m on th s a n d da y s a s y ea r s
. r , ,
.
16 . r ul e fo ca l cula ti ng th e a rea of th re e a dj a ce n t r oom s
Th e r
of difi e re n t l e n gt h s b ut th e s a m e wi dth .
1 7 Th e r ul e fo ca l cul ati n g th e a r ea of th e fl oor of a

. r
s q ua r e r oom .
18 Th e r ul e for findi ng th e cost of a te l e gra m

. .
19 Th e r ul e fo fi n d i n g th e a r ea of a fi gur e outfr om ca r db oa r d
. r ,
g iv e n it s w e i g h t an d th e w e i g h t o f a s q u a r e un i t of c a r db oa r d .
2 0 Th e r ul e for fi n d i n g th e a m ountof a v a il a b l e a i for e a ch

. r
p e r s on in a cl a ss r oom g iv,
e n t h e d i m e n s i on s o f t h e r oo m and
th e n um b e r in th e cl a ss .
2 1 Th e r ul e for fi n d i n g th e we i gh t o f a s i n gl e l ea d s h t
. o ,
g iv e n t h e w e i gh t o f a b e a k e r wi th a g iv e n n um b e r of s h ot in
it a n d th e we i gh t of th e e m pty b e a k e r .
2 2 Th e r ul e fo pr e di cti n g th e popul a ti on of a tow n a ft

. r er
a ce r t a i n n um b e r of m on t h s giv e n th e pre se nt popul ati on th e

, ,
a v e ra ge n um b e r of b ir t h s a n d th e a v er age num b e r of d eath s

,
.
2 3 Th e r ul e fo fi n di n g th e d i st
. r a n ce a pa r t a f t e r a giv e n
,
ti m e of tw o cars w h i ch sta r t fr om th e sam e poi nta n d tr a v e l

,
in oppos i te d ir e cti on s a t di ffe r en t spee ds .
2 4 Th e sa m e a s in Ex 2 3 e x ce ptth atth e ca r s a re m m il e s
. .
a pa r t a t st art i ng .
2 5 Th e sa me a s in Ex 2 3 e x ce pt th at th e ca r s go in th e
. .
sa m e d ir e ct i on wi th di ffe re nt s pe e ds .
2 6 Th e r e a d i n g on a F a h r e n h e i t th e r m om e te r is a lwa y s 32
°
.
gr ea te r th a n of th e r e a d i n g n a ce n ti gr a de th e r m m e te r
o o .
2 7 Th e r e a d i n g of a ce nti gr a de th e r m om e te r m ay b e ca l
.
culate d b y n oti n g th e r e a d i n g on th e Fa h r e n h e i t sub tr a cti n g ,
32 an d ta ki n g
, of t h i s r e sul t .
328 . Gra ph ic representati on of th e rel a t

i on b etw een th e
readings on centigra de and F a h renh eit th erm om eters . Th e
l ast tw o ex e r ci ses d e a l w i th tw o type s of th e rm om ete r s
th a t ar e use d to m e asur e tem pe r atur e F i 2 07 s h ow s th at
g . .
G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
E XER C IS ES
1 . D e te m r i ne b y th e g ra ph rre spon d i ng Fa h r nh i t
th e co e e
rea d i ngs for th e f ll wi ng

o o ce n ti g rad e r e ad i n g s :
2 . D e te m r i ne b y th e g ra ph th e ce nti gra de r e ad i ngs cor

r e spondi n g to th e foll owi n g Fa h r en h e i t read i ngs : 7
3 . I n th e for m ul a F g C
32
°
s ub s tt i
ut
e in e ac h case
th e tw o rs you th i n k a e
n um be r
corr e spon d in g r e a d i n gs Th e .
e rr or s h oul d b e v e ry s ma ll .
4 N or m al r oom te m pe r a
“
.
ur e is 6 8 F h at is it
° T
t .
ce n ti gr ad e
5 Th e n or m a l te m pe r a tur e
.
o f th hum an b ody is 9 8 4 F
e
°
.
Wh a tis itcen ti grade 9

6 W h a tte m pe r a tur e ce n ti
.
'
grad e co e pon ds to 0 F
°
rr s
7 C oul d you go s ka ti n g a t
.
F IG . 2 08
. A G R APH TO U SED IN
BE
°
15 C . C H AN G I N G C E N I G R AD E E
T R AD N G I S
T O F A H R E N H E I T AN D V I C E V ER S A
8 . In y our r l sci e n ce
ge n e a
-
cou s er ou a r e tol d th a t m e r cury fr ee ze s at 4 4 0° F W ha t

y —
.
is th i s cen ti grade ?
9 . W oul d y our classr oom b e com for tab l e at 2 5
°
C .
32 9 . Ev al ua ting F in d th e v al ue of th e l e tte r
a form ul a .
ca ll e d for in e ach of th e e x e r cis es g i v e n on pag e 2 9 1 .
W h en n o e x pl an a ti on is g i v en it is assum e d th at th e ,
stud e n t r ecogn i zes th e f o r m ul a .

C O N TR O L O F TH E F O R M U LA 1
E
EX R C IS ES
1 . G iv e n C = 3
— ~
(F Fi n d C . if
2 . G iv e n F = g
——
C + 32 . F i nd F . if C .
3 . G iv e n d = rt Fi n d cl if = 87 5 m i p h ur a nd
. r . . er o
12 h r ; if r 1 0gft pe r s e con d a n d t: 10 s e c
—
. . .
4 G iv e n r Fi n d if d 1 m i a n d t 4 m in 16 se c
r ; s
I
. .
if d —
2
mi . a nd t sec .
5 . G iv e n A P + P rt . Fi nd A if P $ 2 4 0, r 4 57 4
0 , an d
t= 1 yr 2 m . 3 da ; P : $ 12 8,
o . . if r : a nd t 2 yr 3 da . .
;
if P $ 5 11, r 6 70 , a n d t 2 0 yr .
6 . G iv e n V : l w h . Fi n d V (se e F ig . 2 09 )
if I ft, . 10 ft, . and h ft ;.
if l in .
,
w in .
,
a nd h 1 in .
lw h
7 . G iv e n V Fi n d V if l : 63 ft .
,
3 F IG . 2 09 R EC T AN
:
.
10 ft, . and h ft ; . If l = 3 cm .
; G U LA R P AR A L L E L }
w cm an d h , cm .
PI PED
,
.
8 . G ive n 0 32 d
7
. Fi n d if d 0 1 ft ; 1 1n ; 4 ih ; 10 in ;
. . . .
5 1 in
7
.
,
G iv e n A '
( Fi n d A if 1 in ; 5 ft ;
2
9 . -
rrr 7r r . .
1 0 yd ; 7 . cm .
10 . v l um e V of an ypri sm (F ig 2 10)
Th e o .
is e q ua l to th e pr od uct of its b ase B a nd

its a l ti tude h Fi n d V if B s q in
.
. .
an d h 12 in ; if B s q in and .
. .
h 2 % ft .
11 Th e l atera l surfa c L o f a ri ght

. e
p ri sm e q ua l s th e pe ri m e t
er f th e b a e o s
F IG . Pm sn
P ti m e th e al ti tude h
s F i n d L if P .
1 2 6 i n a nd h _
. 1 1 in ; if P in . . a nd h in .
292 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
12 . Th e v ol um e
ri gh t cylin de r (F ig 2 11) is e qua l to
of a .
th e pr od uct of it s b ase a nd h e i g h t Th e f or m ul a is V
2
h . 7rr ,
w h e re is th e rad i us of th e cir cul a r b a se Fi n d V if = 10 2 cm

r . r . .
an d h = 9 om ; if : G in a n d h = 12 in
. r . .
13 Th e la t
. e ra l s u face o f a ri g h tcyli n de r
r
e q ua l s th e pr od uct of th e a l ti tude a n d th e
cir cum fe r e n ce of th e b a se Th e f or m ul a .
us ua ll y g iv e n is S = C h F in d 5 if C = s in . .
a nd h 10 in .
14 . Th e rface T of a ri gh tcyli n de r
ir
e nt e su
e q ua l s th e cir cum f e r e n ce of th e cir cul a r b a se

ti m e s th e sum of th e a l ti tude a n d th e r a d i us of P I0 . 2 11 m m“ ,
.
th e b as e ; th a tIS T 2 ( ,
Fi n d T If r C YL ND
I ER
h = 10 in a n d = 5 in ; if h = 2 ft a n d = 1 ft
. r . . r .
15 Th e v ol um e V of a nypyra m i d (F ig 2 12 )
. .
is e q ua l to on e th ir d th e pr oduct of its b a s e
Eh
B a n d its a l ti tude h ; th a t is V F i nd ,
3
V if B : 2 00 sq in a n d h = 12 i n ; if B . . .
sq in a nd h 2 ft
Y AM D
. . .
F IG . 2 12 . P R I
16 . la te r a l a r e a S of a re gul a r py a m i d
Th e r
is e q ual to on e h a lf th e pr od uct of th e pe ri m e te r P of its b as e
a n d its s l a nt h e igh tl ; t ha t is S 5 Fi n d A if P = 10 6 in ,
; . .
a nd l : in ; if P . cm a n d l : 15 cm . .
17 Th e l a te r a l a r ea S of a ri gh t cir cul a r
.
con e (F ig 2 13) is e q ua l t
. o on e hal f t h e pr od
s sl a n t h e i gh t I a n d t h e cir cum fe r
'
uct of it
e n ce C :of it s b as e
'
W ri te th e for m ul a fo S
. r
,
a n d fi n d S if l = 14 6 1n a n d C = 1 0 in
; if
. . .
I ft an d C . ft F 2 13 R G H.
IG . . I T
C A C ON I RC U L R E
18 Th e l a t
. e ral ar ea S of a ri gh tcir cul a r con e
is 7rr h w h e r e is th e r ad i us of th e b as e a n d h is th e s l a n th e i gh t
,
r .
Fi nd S if = 10 1n a n d h = 10 in ; if : l 0 m a nd h 2 6 2 in
r . . r . . .
330 . P r a ctice in so v in g l fte n d e s ir for a ny etl

te r . It is o
ab l e t o s olv e a f o r m u l a for som e pa r t i cu l ar l e tte r in th a t

f or m ul a T oo ofte n th e stud en t wi ll r e cogn ize a f or m ul a
.
p r o v id e d it stan d s in t h e f o r m i n wh i ch it is com m on l y
wr i tten b ut w i ll n ot appr e ci ate its m e an i ng if it is wr i tten

,
in a diff e r e n t w ay F or e x a m pl e h ow m a ny s tud e n ts
.
,
w oul d r e cog n ize th e f orm ul a 0 K as th e w e ll k n ow n -
ab
for m ul a V= abc ? f or m ul a e x cept th at it

I t is th e sa m e
is in a di ffe r en t f or m If th e stud e n t r e a l i zes th i s it h e l ps

.
,
h im to ga i n con tr o l of th e f or m u l a T h e f o ll ow i ng e x e r .
ci s e s w ill f ur n i sh pr a cti ce i n so lv i n g for pa r ti cul a r l e tte r s .
EXERCIS ES
So lve e ac h of th e foll owi n g form ul as for th e l e tte r or l e tte rs

i n di ca te d
6 Bh
9 for a ; for b
27
.
a b cfor e ; for a ; for b .

_ E
2
r tfor r ; for t .
A: P + P r t for t .
q for ( l ; for I) .
32 ) for F .
Wl l1 W2 l 2 Wr f
’
5 . for l l ; for gf 2
for t ; for g .
6 V for w ; for h 2 7r r h 2 e for

S h
. .
7 .
b l
L L
-
d for ( l A — 1 —
f0 r h '
2
.
8 . C for r . for b for b 2 .
E
9 . V : B h for B .
for E ; for R ;
R + r
10 V :.
3
7
2 — 3
1 71 for h
, .
C ON T R O L O F TH E F O R M U LA 2 95
S UM MAR Y
331 This ch apte r h a s taughtth e m e ani ng of th e fol l ow in g
w or d s and ph ra ses :for m ul a sol v i n g a for m ul a e v a l ua tin g
,
.
a f or m u l a a pply i n g a f or m ul a ce n tigr a d e F a hr e nh e i t
, , , .
332 A f or m ul a is a con v e n i e n tly a bbr e v i a te d f or m of

. -
som e pr a ct i ca l r ul e of pr oce d ur e .
333 A cl e a r un d e r s ta n ding of a f or m ul a i m pl i e s
.
°
1 An a n a ly s i s of som e a r i th m e ti ca l s i tua ti on s o as to
.
a rr i v e a t som e r ul e of r oc e d u r
p e .
2 Tr a n s l a ti ng th e ru l e in to a f or m ul a
. .
3 T h e a b i l i ty to s olv e for a ny l ette r in te r m s o f th e

.
ot h er l ette r s in th e f orm ul a .
4 Th e a b i l i ty to a pply th e f or m u l a to a pa r ti cul a r
.
p r o bl e m an d t o e v a l ua te t h e f or m u l a .
334 Th e pr e ce di ng s te ps w e r e i l l ustr a te d in d e ta il b y
.
a
pp l i cat i on s t o in t e r est
p r ob l e m s to
pr obl,e m s i n v o lv i n g
m oti on to w or k pro bl e m s to th e r m om e te r pr ob l e m s an d
, , ,
to g e om e tri c pr ob l e m s .
335 T h e gr aph i ca l i n te r pr e ta ti on s suggeste d e con om i ca l

.
m e th od s of m a n i pul ati n g a f or m ul a F or e x am pl e
.
1 S i m pl e i nte r es t pr obl e m s w e r e sol v e d by th e f or m ul as

.
-
I = P rt and A = P + P rt .
2 . A pr ob l e m i n v o lv i ng un i f or m m oti on in a st a r igh t
l i ne w aslv e d by th e f or m ul a d r t
so .
3 Th e r e l a ti on b e tw ee n ce n tigr a d e a n d F a h r e nh e i t
.
r e a di ngs w as e x pre sse d by th e f or m ul a C : 3( F

336 W h il e th e i m por tan t th i n g in th is ch a pte r is th e
.
‘
p o w e r of m an i ul a t
p i n g a n d e v a l ua tin g a f or m ul a th e stu ,
d en t w as g i v e n th e m e a n i ng of m ost of th e for m ulas in

or d e r t o h a v e h im r e a lize fr o m t h e v e ry outse tth a t b oth th e
f or m ul as an d th e i r m a n i pul a ti o n re fe r to a ctua l si tuati on s .
2 96 G EN E RAL M AT H EM ATI C S
H IS T O R I C AL N O T E f rm ul b l ng t
. T h e de vl e opm e nt o f th e o a e o s o
a v ry l t t g in th d v l pm nt f m th m ti c It r quir
e a e s a e e e e o e o a e a s . e es a
m uch h i gh r f rm f th i n ki ng t
e th t th
o r f ny tri ngl
o o se e a e a ea o a a e
;
a
c n b
a xpr d byA
e e th n t fi n d th
e sse r f p ti cul r a o e a ea o a ar a
i tw h un dr d f t n d wh l titud i fi fty f t
’
l twh
o b ose a se s o e ee a o se a e s ee .
H n c it w
e e, v ry l t in th r c d v l pm n t th t l tt rs w r
. as e a e e a e s
’
e e o e a e e e e
u d in
se pr i ng ul ex e ss r es
'
.
Th rly m th m tici n r pr n t d th un k n w n b y m w d
e ea a e a a s e e se e e o so e or
lik (m
e r es n in g t h th i ng ea L t r c l cul t or u d ei n gl l t t r a e , a a s se a s e e e
f orth un k n wn b ut th
e pr b l m o till d l twi th p r ti cul r c
,
e o e s s ea a a a se s .
Di ph ntu r pr
o a nt i ng G r k m th m ti c t t d m pr b l m
s, e e se ee a e a s, s a e so e o e s
i n g n r l t rme b ut u u ll y
e a lv d th p b l m b y t ki g p ci l
e s, s a so e e ro e s a n s e a
c a se sV i t u d c pi t l l tt r (c n n n t n d v w l ) t r pr
. e a se a a nt e e s o so a s a o e s o e e se
k wn n d un k wn n um b r r p ctiv l y N wt n i i d t b
no a no e s es e e . e o s sa o e
th fi r tt l t l tt r t n d f
e s o n g tiv
e a ew ll p i tiv n um b r
e s a or e a e as e as os e e s,
wh i ch gr tly d cr th n um b r f f r m ul
ea e n c
e a se sry e e O o as e e ssa .
Wh il th r c h e h d di ffi cul t ti m
e a edi c v ri n g n d un d r
as a a e s o e a e
t n di n g f r m ul
s a it t k c m p r tiv l y li tt
o l i nt lli g n c t u
a s, a es o a a e e e e e o se a
f rm ul M n y m n in th i n du tri l w rld d th ir w rk ffi ci ntly

o a . a e e s a o o e o e e
b y th m n f
e f rm ul w h d riv ti n n d m ni ng th y d
ea s o a o a ose e a o a ea e o
no t un d r t n d It i e s ai d th t v n m ng c ll g tr i n d ngi n r
. s sa a e e a o o e e-
a e e ee s
o nl y f w ut f a ery hun dr d d m r th n f ll w f rm ul
o o ev e e o o e a o o o a s or
o th r dir cti n b li n dly T h u i t pp r th tf

e e o s th gr tm j ri ty . s, a ea s a or e ea a o
o nl y th i m m di t ly pr cti c l i v l u b l H w v r w c n b
e e a e a a s a a e . o e e , e a e
r n b l y ur th t n n c n ri to b
e a so a s e l d r in ny fi l d b y
a o o e a se e a ea e a e
hi wn
s b ili ty wi th ut un d r t n di n g th
o a th r ti c l o w ll e s a e eo e a as e as
th pr cti c l
e a a .
Th f r m ul i v r y i m p rt n t i n th pr
e o a snt c m pl
e i n d u tri l o a e e se o ex s a
a g A c n i d r b l p r ti n f th n c
e . o s e a ry c lcul ti n d n b y
e o o o e e e ssa a a o 1s o e
f ll wi g th dir cti n f m f rm ul Th r f r t m t th i
o o n e e o s o so e o a . e e o e o ee s
nee d th tudy f th f r m ul
e s h uld b m ph i z d I n d i cu i g
o e o a s o e e as e . s ss n
th ki n d f m th m tic th t h ul d b r quir d Pr f r A R
e o a e a s a s o e e e o e ss o . .
C r th rn
a
( S ch l
o d S ci t
e
y J uly 7 1 9 17 p 14)
oo an y : Gr t“
o e , , ,
. sa s ea
e m ph i w ul d b pl c d n th f rm ul
as s o nd ll
e rt f f rm ul
a e o e o a, a a so s o o as
c ul d b b r ught i n Th
o e
p pul r ci n c m g zi n
o th
. tr d e o a s e e a a e s, e a e
j urn l nd c t l gu
o a s a m in f i n f rm ti n b ut wh i ch th
a a o e s, a r e es o o a o a o e
m d rn b y
o e
girl un d r t n d
o Th
or
pupil h ul d th i n k f th e s a s . e s o o e
f rm ul
o n lg b r i c d cl r tiv n t n c th t c n b tr n l t d
a as a a e a e a a e se e e a a e a s a e
98 G EN E R AL M ATH EM ATI C S
i nt o En g li h v l u ti n l d up t th t b ul r pr n t ti n
s . Th e e a a o ea s o e a a e se a o
o f th e f rm ul
M ch n i c l b ili ty i th m n i pul ti n f y m b l
o a . e a a a n e a a o O s o s
s h uld b
o c ur g d th r ugh i nv
e en o i f th f r m ula e wh tth o e rs o n o e o a , or a e
Engli h m c ll
s ch n gi g than ub j ct f th
a f rm ul W h v
s
‘
a ii
‘
e s e o e o a .
’
e a e
h r l th b gi nni ng f th q u ti n w h n u d cl r tiv nt nc
e e a so e e o e e a o e o r e a a e se e e
i ch n g d t th i t rr g tiv
”
s a e o e n e o a e .
Arch i m d (2 87 2 12 ) e g es t m th m ti ci n w h —
tudi d BC , a re a a e a a o s e
i n th u iv r i t
e y t Al n dri
n e d liv d i n S i cil y l v d ci n c
s a e xa a an e , o e s e e
so m uch th t h h ld i t u d i b l t pply h i i n f rm ti n t
a e e n e s ra e o a s o a o o
p r ctai c l u Bau t g r t w h
se i .m ch n i c l b ili ty th t wh n
SO ea as s e a a a a e
a d iffi cul ty h d t b v rc m th g v rn m t ft n c ll d n
a o e o e o e e o e en o e a e o
h im H i tr d uc d m y i v ti
. e n i t th v ryd y liv f
o e an n en ons n o e e e a es o
th p pl
e eo e .
H i lif i c d i gl y i t r ti g R t ri
'
s e s ex d th ee f hi d tc
n n e es n . ea e s o es o s e e
ti no f th o di h t g l d m i th ;
e f th s u f b ur i g gl
on e s t o s o e se o n n -
a sse s o
d tr y th
es o h i p f th tt cki g R m n qu dr ; f h i cl v r
e s s o e a a n o a s a on o s e e
u se f l v r d vi c f h l pi ng ut H i r w h h d b uilt h ip
o a e e e e or e o e o, o a a s
so l rg th t h c ul d n t l unch it ff th li p ; f h i cr w f
a e a e o o a o e s s o s s e or
pum pi g w t r ut f h i p
n d f
a e irri g ti n g th Nil v l l y H
o o S s an or a e e a e . e
d vi d th c t pul t wh i ch h l d th R m n tt ck f
e se e a a th r
s y r e e o a a a or ee e a s.
Th wr
e se c n truct d th t th
e e so r ng w i th r l g
o s h rt e a e a e as e e on or s o
a nd th t th y c ul d b
so d i ch rg d th r ugh
a e m ll l o
ph l e s a e o a s a oo o e
w i th ut p i g th m n t th fi f th n my
“
o ex os n e e o e re O e e e .
Wh n th R m n fi n ll y c ptur d th ci ty Arch i m d w kill d

e e o a s a a e e e es as e ,
th ugh c n tr ry t th
o o rd r f M rc ll u th g n r l in ch rg f
a o e o e s o a e s, e e e a a e o
th i g Iti i d th t l di r nt r d Arch i m d tudy wh il h

e s e e . s sa a so e s e e e e es
’
s e e
w as s tudy i n g g m tri c l fi gur wh i ch h h d dr wn i n

a eo nd e n a e e a a sa o
th fl r Arch i m d
e oo . t ld ldi r t g t ff th d i gr m nd n t e es o a so e o e o e a a a o
t p il i t Th
o s o l di r b i ng i n ult d t h vi g rd r gi v n t
. e so e , e s e a a n o e s e o
h im nd n t k
a wi g th l d m n kill d h im
o no n e O a ,
e .
Th R m e r ct d pl ndid t m b w ith th fi gur f ph r

o an s e e e a s e o e e o a s e e
en gr v d an it Ar ch i m d
e o h d _ q u t d th i t c m m m r t h i
. e es a re es e s o o e o a e s
d i c v r y f th tw f r m ul
s o e o :th v l um f ph r e q u l tw
e o o as e
_
o e o a s e e a s o
th ird th t f ths cir cum cri b i n g ri g h t cy li d r

a o e d th urf c f s n e , an e s a e o
a s
ph r q u l f ur ti m th r f gr t circl Y u m y l
e e e a s o es e a ea o a ea e . o a a so
r d n in t r ti n g cc u t b y C ic r f h i ucc ful fi t t
ea a e es a o n e o o s s e ss e or s o
fi nd Arch i m d It w il l b
t mb pr fi t b l if th tud t will
’
e es o . e o a e e s en
r d B ll A S h rt H i t ry f M th m ti c pp 6 5 77
ea a
’
s o s o o a e a s, .
-
.
C H APTER X II
F UNCTION ; LINEAR F UNCTIONS ; THE RELATED IDEAS OF
F UNCTION, EQUATION , AND F ORM ULA INTERP R ETED
GRAP H ICALLY ; V ARI ATION
337 . F unction th e dependence of oneq uantity upon

a noth er . O ne of th e m os t co m m on n oti on s in our l i v e s is
th e n oti on d epe n d ence of on e th i ng upon a noth e r

of th e .
W e sh a ll h e r e stud y th e m ath e m ati cs of such d e pen d ence

by con sid e r i n g Se v e r a l con cr e te e x am pl es .
EXER CIS ES
1 . w h atd oe s th e cost of 10 yd Of cl oth de pe nd

U pon .
2 I f R esta d riv e s h is ca a t a n a v e rage r a te of

. r m i pe . r
h our upon w h at doe s th e l e n gth (d is ta nc ) of th ra ce d pe nd

,
e e e
3 A b oy ri de s a m otor cy cl e fo tw o h ur s
. U p n wha t
r o . o
doe s th e l e ngth of h i tri p de pe nd ? s
4 H ow m uch i n te r e s t w oul d you x pe ct to coll e ct in a

.
. e
y e a r on $ 2 00 ?
5 U pon w h a t d oe s th e l e ngth of a cir cul a r r un n i n g tr a ck
.
de pe n d
6 . wi sh e s to b uywir fe n ci ng to i ncl os e a s q ua re l ot
A m an e .
H ow m uch fe n ci n g m ust h e b uy
7 S ta te up n w h a tq ua n ti ti s e ach o f th e f oll owi ng d e pe n d s
. o e
T h e a m un tof s irl oi n s t ea k th a tca n b e b ou h tf a d olla r

( )
a o g or .
h e n um b r f th e ate r ti ck e ts th a t ca n b e b ugh t fo
( )
b T e o o r
a d oll a r .
T h e h e i gh t of a m apl e t r ee t h a t a v e r a ges a gr owth of

()
0
4 ft pe y e a r
. r .
300 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATIC S
d
( ) Th e t m i
e it t
a k e s you to get y our m a th e m a ti cs lesson if
ou solv e on e pr ob l e m e v e ry t h r e e m i n ut es
y .
Th e v a l ue o f a s ub m a ri n e as a m e r cha n t v e s s e l
( )
e .
f
( ) T h e ra t e of i n t e r e st ch a r ge d b y y our l oca l b a n k .
()
g T h e pe ri m e te r 4 a: 4 o f th e r e cta n gl e in F i
g 2 15 . .
Th e pr e ce din g rcis e s i ll ustr ate th e dependen ce of one

ex e
q u an t i ty up on a n ot h e r W e h a v e h a d n um e r ous o t
. h e r
e x a m pl e s of d e pe n d e n ce in t h e ch apte r s on s tati s ti cs a n d
th e f or m ul a . In f act e v e ry pr a cti ca l for m ul a i m pli es th a t
,
th e v a l ue of som e q uan ti ty d e pen d s upon on e or m or e

ot h e r s T h us th e cir cum f e r e n ce of a cir cul a r runni n g tr ack
.
d epen d s upon th e di a m ete r W h en a q uanti ty d epen ds

.
upon a n oth e r q ua n ti t y for its v al ue it is said to b e a f un c

,
ti n of th e l a tte r
o Th us th e a r ea of a cir cl e is a fun cti on
.
of t h e di am e te r b e cause it d epe n d s upon th e di am e te r for

its v a l ue ; th e am oun t of s irl oin s te a k th a t can b e b ough t
for a d oll a r is a f un cti on of th e pri ce pe r poun d an d th e
e x pr e ss i on 4 x —
4 is a f un cti on of x b e caus e its v a l ue
ch a n g e s w i th e v e ry ch a n g e in t h e v a l ue of x .
S e e if you can il l ustr ate th e id e a of fun cti on by te n

f am i l i a r ex am pl es n ot g i v e n a b ov e .
338 V a ri ab l e
. A n um b e r th at m ay ch an g e assum i n g a
.
,
s e ri e s of v a l ues t h r oug h out a di scuss i on is ca ll e d a v a r ia b le

, .
”
Itis n otobl i g e d to v a ry itis ab l e to v a ry
—
T h us th e pr i ce
.
o f w h e a tan d t h e n um b e r s in th e e q ua ti on A 8 a re v a r i ab l es
2
.
339 Dependenta nd indepe ndentv ari ab l es In th e f or m ul a

. .
-
C 7rd t h e n um b e r d is sa id to b e th e in dep enden t v a ri a b le .
In a discuss i on or in th e con str ucti on of ci r cl es w e m ay

ta k e its v al ue e q ua l to any n um b e r w e pl e ase O n th e .
ot h e r h an d th e v a l ue of C is a utom ati ca lly fi x e d on ce th e

,
v al ue of d is d ete r m i n e d B e cause of th i s f a ct C is call e d

.
th e dep endent v aria b le.

302 G EN ERAL M ATH EM ATIC S
If w e pl ot th e poi n ts corr e spon di n g to ( 3,

et c us in g th e h or izon ta l a x i s to pl ott
.
h e v a l ues of x
a nd t h e v e rti ca l a x i s to pl otth e v a l ues O f 4 a 4 , w e O b ta in :
th e poin ts as S h o wn on th e str a i gh t l i n e AB in F i g 2 16 Th e . .
:
lin e sh ow s th at a s 9 in cr e as e s, th e v al ue of 4 az 4 in cr eas es - —
acco r din g l y .
EXERCIS ES
1 . Te ll
y our ow n w ords h ow th e gra ph in F ig 2 16
in .
s h ow s t h at th e fun cti on 4 x 4 i ncre a se s as :i n cr eas e s —

a .
2 D e te r m i n e fr om th e gra ph
.
th e pe ri m ete rs of r a n gl e s
e ct
w h ose l ength s a e a s foll ow s r
8 in ; . in ; 1 1 in
. .
3 . D e te mr i ne fr om th e graph
th e l e n gth of th e r ecta n gl e s
w h ose pe ri m e te rs are as foll ows
30 in ; 2 5 in ; 2 0 l n ;
. . . 18 l n ;.
10 in ; S in ; O in
. .
4 . S uppos e you ch ose to m a e k

a ri l rr
pa tcu a l
e ct l
a n g e 1 0 in on g . .
How l on g woul d th e pe ri mete r b e

How doe s th e gra ph s h ow thi s
5 H ow l on g w oul d you m ak e
.
a r e ct
a n gl e of th e sam e s h a pe
F IG . 2 16 . G RA PH S H O W I N G T H AT
as th e on e in P i8 2 15 S O a s t0
°
TH E P E R I M ET B R O F T H E R E C T AN
h av eits pe ri m et
e r
16 in ? H O W . G LE I N F I G 2 15 I s A F
. C TIO UN N
doe s th e g a ph S h o th s r w i OF THE LE NG H
T
6 Re . n g on lyi
ou pas te x pe y r ri ence ll h ow m any re ctangl s
,
te e
you coul d con st uct in th e sh op r or con struct in y our n ote b ook

”
w h ose l e n gth sh all e x ce e d th e ir wi dth b y tw o un i ts .
F UNC T IO N IN TERP R ETED G RAP H IC ALL Y 303
342 i nea r function S i n ce th e g raph of th e e x pre ssi on

. L .
4 v
. 4 is a s tr a igh t li n e th e fun cti on is ca ll e d a l in ea r f un c
,
tion If w e le t g r epr e s e nt th e v al ue o f th e l i n e a r f uncti on

.
w e ge t th e corr es pon di ng li n e a r e q uati on g 4a 4 :

.
EXER CIS E
G ive fi v e e x am p les Of li ne a r functi o ns .
343 . S ol vi ng a fam il y of . eq ua t ons i b y m ea ns of th e
gr aph Th e gr aph
fun cti on 4 93 4 m ay b e use d
of th e
‘
—
.
to s olv e a l l e q uati on s on e of w h o s e m e m b e r s is 4 4 r —
and t h e o th e r s om e a r ith m e ti ca l n u m b e r o r con s tan t F o r .
e x am
p l e if in t
, h e e q ua ti on
g = 4x 4 w e l e t g = 16 —
,
th e n th e e q uati on 4 x 4 = 1 6 m ay b e i n te r pr e te d a s r a i s
'
ing th e q ue sti o n W h a t is th e v a l ue of x th a t w i ll m ak e
,
4 v
. In or d e r to a n s w e r thi s q ue sti on w e fi n d
16 o n th e y ax i s ( th e v e r ti ca l a x i s ) pass h or i zon ta lly to
-
th e g r aph of 4 56 4 a n d r e a d th e co rr e spon di ng v a l ue
—
,
of v . T h e co rr e spon d i ng v a l ue of a:
. is s e e n to b e 5 H e n ce .
41 7 4 = 1 6 w h e n a: 5
—
.
AS a v e rb a l pr ob l e m th e e q ua ti on 4 r 4 = 1 6 m ay b e
tra n sl a te d i n to th e f o l l owi n g i n te rr og ativ e s e n te n ce : W h at
sh al l b e t h e l e ng th o f th e r e cta n gl e in o r d e r th at it m ay
h a v e a peri m e te r of 16 A gl an ce atth e gr aph is suffi ci e nt
to d ete r m in e th e a n s w e r ; n a m e ly 5 ,
.
EXER CIS ES
So lv e byg ra ph ,
a nd h k
c ec th e foll owi ng e q ua tio ns
1 . 5 . 4 a :
H IN T Add 4 to b ot h m em
2
.
r i q u ti
.
be s so a s to ob ta n th e e a on
3 . 4a '
4a : 4 6 .
4 . 4 a : 4 6 . 6 .
304 G EN ER AL M AT H EM AT IC S
7 .
l i d 9 .
8 . 4 a + 6 = 26 .
l Il N T . r
S ub t a ct 1 0 fr om b ot h 11 4 a
'
15 29
r
. .
m em be s so as to ob ta 1n th e
re s u lt 4 r —
4 z 16 . 12 . 4 115 —
4 2 0 .
344 . Th e g r a ph i ca l
functi on set eq ua l to so l uti on of th e
ze r o P r ob l e m 1 2 Art 343 is a n in te r e stin g spe ci a l cas e

.
,
.
,
for tw o r e a son s : 1
( ) I t g i v e s us a n e as y m e t h o d of fi n d
ing th e v a l ue of a: in th e e q ua ti on 4 4 0 IV e ne e d r .
o n ly r e f e r to th e g r a ph a n d ob se rv e w h e r e th e l in e cr osse s
th e x a x i s Th e li n e is s e en to cr oss wh e r e x z 1 T hi s v a l ue
-
. .
of a: ch e ck s b e ca use 4 1 4 0 H en ce r = 1 is a sol u .
ti on of th e e q u a ti on Ai r 2
( ) I t f u rn i sh es u s a
graphi c m eth od for solv in g all l in e a r e q uati on s in one

un k n own b e cause e v e ry e q ua ti on In on e un k n own can b e
th r o wn in to a f or m s i m i l a r to 4 x 4 0 S h ow h ow th is .
m ay b e d on e wi th th e e q ua ti on 3 x + 7 x + l 2 .
EXE R C IS ES
1 . lv e gra ph i c ll y th e e qua ti on 3 : 7 : 1 2
So a a a .
H N ITh qu ti m yb w i tt in th f rm 2 x 5 z 0 IVh y
T . e e a on a e r en e o .
’
Gr ph th f u cti n 2
a 5 ju t
e w gr ph d 4
n 4 (F ig
o x— s as e a e x .
S wh r
ee th gr ph f 2 e e 5 cr th
e i Th i i th a o r
. osse s e r — ax s
. . s s e
co rr ct v l u f
e a e O x .
C h ck b y ub ti tuti g th i v l u
e s f : i s th igi il q u ti n n s a e o a n e or na e a o
3a :7 a : 12 .
2 .lve th e f ll owi n g li n e ar e qu ti
So o a on s b y th e g ra ph ,
a nd
ch e ck th e r e s ul ts
( )
a
() e
a :
b
( ) 6 x f
() . 7 —
x —
5 .
5
()
c 5 x + 8 = 8x —
4 .
( )
d 11 x
<e § + 4
is sa y id
d ire ctly as t
to h e oth
vare r or t o b e dire ct ly pr o
p i
or t ona l to th e ot h er Th us th e n um b e r x is s a id to v a ry .
d ir e ctly as yif th e r a ti o
i
f re m ains co n s ta n t, :
as a and
y bo th
y
ch an g e or v a ry . Th e e q ua ton i 3 k r
e x p e ss e s a l geb r a i ca lly ,
9
.
an d is e
q u i v a l e n t to , th e state m ent h a t x v a r i es d ire ctly
t
Th e e q ua ton i 5? k is ften wri tte n x : Icy S h o w

as y . o .
why th 1s is co rr e ct .
J
1
EXER C IS ES
Tra n sl ate th e foll ow m g st

ate m e nts i nto i
e q ua t ons of th e
: a
f rm
o
1 . Th e cos t of 10 yd . of d r e s s good s is dir e ctly pr o por

tional to th e p ri c e pe r yard .
S ol ution .
'
i
I s ng c fo r th e to ta l co s t a n d p ri
for th e p ce pe r y ard ,
c
10, 01 c
'
10 p .
T h i s ill ustra te s dire ct vari a ti on , fo r th e gre a te r .th e p i ce pe r r y a rd ,
th e g r
r th t t l c t
e ate e o a os .
2 T h e r a ilr oa d fa r e wi th i n a ce r ta i n s tate is 3 c n ts pe
'
. e r
m il e Wri te th e e q ua ti on h wi n g th t th e di s ta n ce is d ire ctly

.
,
s o a
pr opor ti na l to th e m il ea g
o e .
3 T h e w i gh t f a m a s s o f ir o n v a ri
. e d ir ctly as th e
o es e
v ol um e .
'
4 I f a b o dy m o v e s a t a un if r m ra t th e d i sta n c v a ri es
. o e, e
d ir ctly as th e ti m e
e .
5 Th e l e n gth (cir cum fe r e n ce) of a cir cl e v a ri e s d ir e ctly a s

.
th e d ia m e ter .
6 Th e d i st
. a n ce d t h r ough w h i ch a b ody fa ll s fr om r e st
va ri e s dire ctly as th e s q ua re of th e ti m e t in w h i ch it fal l s .
A b ody is ob se rv e d to fa ll 400 ft in 5 se e W hat is th e . .
c n s tan t r ati o of d to t H ow fa d oe s a b od y fa ll in 2 s ec2

o r .
F U NC T IO N IN TERP R ETED G R AP H IC AL L Y 307
S olution . Th e e qu ti a on for d a n d ti s
d
2
[
In t h i s prob le m Ao
gg
)
.
k;
he n ce
i
S ub s t tut ng Is i 2 16 a nd ( 2
2 2 in
z
(I
16 .
02
So lvi ng ,
z 64 ,
h
T is so l uti on s h ow
r i d s t ha t t m
n o a
y b e d e te m ne as so o n as o e
v l u f t d th c rr p ndi g v l u f d i k n w n O c d t
a e O an e o es o n a e o ,
s o . n e e er
m i n d th i
e , l u f I m y b u d in ll p r b l m f th i typ
s va e O t a e se a o e s o s e .
Th u in ll f lli g b dy pr b l m k
s, a a 1 6 ( ppr
n -
) o o e s a ox .
7 H ow fa d s a b od y fa ll fr m r e st in 3 se c
. r oe in 5 se c o . .
8 I f a:
. va ri e s d ire ctly as y a nd : 4 0 w h e n y 8 fi nd ,
a
,
th e v a l ue of c w h e n y 15 a .
9 If . v ari s d ir ctly a s a nd u 2 4 w h n : 2 fi nd
70 e e x,
:
e a ,
w wh e n : 11 a .
10 A s ton e f e ll fr om a b uil d i ng 5 7 6 ft h i gh
. I n h ow m a n y . .
s e con ds did it r e ach t h e gr oun d h od of Ex

(U se th e m et ,
.
Th e s pe e d of a fal li ng b ody va ri es d ir e ctly a s th e ti m e .
th e e q ua ti on for th e s pe d V a n d th e tim e t A b od y
'
e ,
.
falli n g from r e st m ove s a t th e r te of 180 ft pe sec n d fi e a . r o v
se con d s a f te r itb e g i n s to fa ll W h a twill b e th e S pee d a tta i n e d .
in n i ne sec n ds 7
‘
o
12 Th e ti m e t (in s e con ds) of oscill a ti n

. f p nd ul um o o a e
va ri s dir ctly a s th e q ua re r ot of th l ngth I ; th t i

e e s o e e a s,
t
e n d ul u m in l n g m k s ne o cill a ti n in
'
k A p o
W
. . o a e o s
on e s e con d . Fi nd th e l e ngth of a
p e n du l um w h i ch ma kes an
os c ill ati on i n tw o s e con d s .
13 . i m pl e i nte re st on a n i n v e tm e nt va ri d ire ctly a

Th e s s es s
th e ti m e If th e i n te r e s t f
. 5 yr on a s um of m on e y is $ 15 0 or .
,
wh at will b e th e i nte r e st fo 6 yr 4 m o r . .
?
14 . we i gh tof a S ph er e of a giv e n m ate ria l va ri e s directly

Th e
as t h e cub e of its rad i us Tw o sph e r es of th e sa m e m a te ri al
.
h a v e ra dii of 3 in a n d 2 in r e spe ctiv e ly I f th e fir st sph ere

. . .
we i gh s 6 l b w ha t is th e w e i gh t of th e se con d ?
.
,
346 . Gr a ph ing directv aria ti on be tw e en . D i r e ctv a r i ati on

tw o q uan ti ti e s m ay b e r epr e se n te d gr aph i ca ll y by m e a n s
of a s tr a igh t lin e T urn b ack to C h apte r X I on th e form u
.
,
l as an d fi n d thr ee gr aph s ill ustr a tin g dir e ct v a r i a ti on

, .
F IG . 2 17 . GRA PH OF C 7rd S HO W NG I DI REC T V AR I AT I O N
An in te r e stin g e x am p e l is furn i sh e d by gr aph i ng th e
e q ua ton i
5 7r
( w h e re W Th is i
e q ua ton sa y s th a t
th e ci cum r f e ren ce of a r v ar i es dire ctly as its di am ete r
ci cl e .
C om pl ete th e f oll ow in g tab l e an d gr aph th e r esul ts so

,
as to ob t
a in th e gr aph in F i g 2 1 7 In te rpr e t th e graph
. . .
310 G EN ER AL M AT H EMATIC S
EXERC IS ES
1 . Ex p r ess e ac h of th e f ll wi ng
o o st
a te m e nts b y m e a ns of
e q ua ti on s
( )
a Th e t m e i n e e de d to g o a ce tr i
a n d st
a nce i va ri es i n ve r se ly
as th e ra t e of ta r v l e .
b
( ) Th e h ea t o f a sto v va ri e s i n v e r se ly
e as th e s q ua re of
th e d i stan ce from it .
h e rat e a t w h i ch a b y goes to th e r r dr ug
()c T o co n e store
v a ri e s i n v e r se ly a s th e ti m e it ta kes h im .
18
S h ow th a tw v a ri e s i n ve r s e ly wi th z.
3 . va ri e s i n ve r se ly as x
If y ,
and x 12 wh en y 4, fi nd
th e v a l ue of y w h e n 2 a; .
S ol uti n B yd fi it
o . i n fi v r e n o o n e se v a ri ti
a on ,
In th e fi r st ca se ,
and
T h e re fore 12 4 k,
k 48 .
I n th e s e co n d ca se , a 2 .
Th r e fo r e
e 2 y z 4 8, i
s n ce :
I i s con sta n t .
Th e n y 24 .
4 . :va ri e s i n ve rs e ly a s a n d a: 12 w h e n y 13 fi nd
If a i ,
th e v a l ue o f a: w h en y 2 .
5 W h e n gas in a cyli n de r is put un de r pr e ssur e th e v ol

.
,
um e is r e duce d a s th e pre ssur e is i n cr e a se d Th e ph y s i ci s t .
s h ows us b x e ri m e n t th a t th v ol u me v a ri e s i n v e r s e l y as
y e p e .
th e pr e ssur e I f th e v ol um e o f a gas is 14 cc w h e n th e pr e s
. .
s ur e is 9 l b wh a t is th e v ol um e un de r a pre s sure o f 16 lb ?
. .
,
6 Th e n um b e r of m e n doi n g a pi ece of w ork v a ri e s i n v e r se ly

.
as t h e ti m e I f 10 m e n ca n d o a pi e ce of w ork in 33 da in
. .
,
h ow m a ny day s ca n 12 m e n d o th e s a m e pie ce of work

F U N C TI O N IN TERPR ETED G RAP H I C AL L Y 311
348 . Gra ph ing inv erse v ari ation . W e sh al l r

n ow
p oce e d
to S h ow in v e r se v ar i ati on m ay b e
h ow r epre sente d gr aph
ically T w o ci tie s are 4 8 m i apa rt
. . . Tr ain s r un ni ng at
v ar i ous r ate s carry th e tr affi c be tw ee n th e tw o ci ti e s .
S uppose w e atte m pt
to fi n d out h ow
l on g it w i ll tak e a
tr a i n wh i ch m ov e s
un if or m ly at t he
ra te of 24 m i per .
h our to m ak e th e
tr i p th en 6 m i per
, .
h our 8m i per h our

,
.
,
et c T h e f oll ow i ng
.
ta b l e con ta in s som e
of t h e v a l ue s by
m e an s of wh i ch th e
o int s in F i g 2 18
p .
w e r e pl otte d T h e .
e q ua t i on r epr e sent
ing th e s i tuati on is
4 8 = rt Wh en th e
F IG . 2 18. G R APH S H O W I N G I NV E R S E
.
V AR I AT I O N
poin ts of th e t
a . b le
l otted it is cl e a r th a t th ey do
r i gh t n ot l ie st a
'
a re on a
p ,
lin e a s w a s th e cas e in di r e ct v a r i a ti on b ut i f th ey are

,
conn e cte d th e r e s ul t is th e curv e d l i n e of F i g 2 18 This

,
. .
l ine is on e of tw o b r an ch e s of a curv e cal l e d a hyperb ola .

312 G EN ER AL M ATHE MATI C S
EXERCIS ES
1 . e r m i ne
De t fr om r
th e g a ph in F ig 2 18 th e tm e it t akes . i
a r i n w h ose r ate is
ta r . r
31 m i pe r h ou ; 2 0 m i pe r h ou ; 2 5 m i . .
pe h our
r .
2 De te r m i ne fr om th e gr aph in F ig 2 18 h ow fast a tr a i n
. .
runs w h i ch m a k es th e tri p in 1 4h ; 2 4h ; 5 4h r ; 84h r r . r . . .
3 G ra ph th e e q ua ti on p = 144 (s e e Ex 5 A t 34 7) a n d
. v .
,
r .
i nte r pr etth e gra ph .
4 Th e h y pe r b ol a is a n inte r e s ti n g m a th e m a ti ca l curv e S e e
. .
if you ca n h e l p y our cla ss l ea r n m ore a b out it b y con sul ti ng

ot h e r b ook s .
349 .
Joint v a r iati on i n te r e st f or m ul a I P rt
. In th e ,
I d e pe n d s for its v a l ue on P r a n d t A ch an g e in a ny , , .
on e of t h ese l e tte rs cause s a corr espon d ing ch an g e in th e

v a l ue of I W e e x pr e ss th i s b y s ay i ng th at th e in te r est
.
v a r i es j ointly a s th e pr incipa l r ate an d ti m e Th e alg e , , .
bra i e e q uati on wh i ch d e fi n es j oin t v a r i ati on is x : Icyz .
EXER CIS ES
1 . Turn to C ha pte r X I on th e form ul a and fi nd fi v e ill us

, ,
tration s of j oi nt v a ri a ti on .
2 I f z v ari e s j oi n tly as a:
. a n d y a n d if z 6 0 w h e n at 3 ,
an d y 2 fi nd ,
w h e n : 4 a nd y 4
a a
d
.
Wri te th e foll owi n g la w a s a for m ul a :Th e sa fe l oad L

of a h ori zon t a l b e a m s uppor te d a t b oth e nds va ri e s j oi ntly a s
th e wi dth w a n d th e s q ua r e of th e d e pth d a nd i n v e r se ly as th e
l e n gth l b e twe en th e supports .
*4 A b e a m 12 ft l on 4 in wi de a nd 8 in d ee w h e n
.
g .
, p .
,
.
s uppor t e d a t b ot h e nds ca n b ea r sa fe ly a m a x i m um l oa d f o
1 92 0 l b .W h atw oul d b e th e sa fe l oad fo a b e a m of th e sam e r
m at e ri a l 10 ft l on g 3 in wi d e a n d 6 in th i ck
.
,
.
,
.
C H APTER X III
S IMILAR IT Y; N
CO S TR UCTION or S IM ILAR TRIANGLES ;
PR OPO RTION
35 6 . Construct
l r triangl es ; fi r st m eth od ;
i on of sim i a ,
introductoryex erci se s T h e f ol l ow in g e x e r ci s es w i ll h e l p to
.
f orm a b as is for th e w or k of th i s ch apte r Th e s tud e n t .
sh oul d stud y th em ca r e f ully .
EXER CIS ES
1 . On s q ua re d pa pe r
li n e se gm e ntAB of any con
la y off a
v e n ie n t l e n gth At A con str uct wi th th e pr otr actor a n a n gl e

.
, ,
of At B con str uct a n a n gl e of 63 a n d pr od uce th e s i de s °
of t h e tw o a n gl e s s o as to f or m a tri a n gl e C a ll th e v e rtex .
an gl e C .
2 C om pa r e th e s h a pe of th e tri a n gl e AB C th a t you h a v e
.
dr a w n wi th th e s ha pe f th e d ra w n b y y ur cla ss m a te s
o os o .
3 W h a t w a s d one i n Ex 1 t
. o i n s ur th a t a ll m e m b e r s
. f e o
th e cl as s s h oul d ge t tri n g l e of th sa m s h a pe
a s e e
?
4 l V ith th e pr otra ct r m e sur a n gl e C in y our fi gur

. o a H ow
e e .
el se m i gh tyou h a v de te r m i ne d it s i ze
e s
5 C om pa r e th e s i ze o f a n gl e C in y our fi gur wi th n gl e C
. e a
in th e fi gure s d r a wn b y y our cl a ssm ate s .
6 S h ow th at a n y angl e C d ra wn b y a ny m e m b e r of th e
.
cl as s oug h t t o b e e q ua l to an
y th e r a n gle C dr w n o a .
'
7 Are th e tri a n g l es dr a wn b y th e cl as s of th e s m
. ize a e s ?
A e a ny tw n e ce sar ily f th
r o s m e s i ze o e sa ?
314
C ON S T R U C TIO N O F S I M I L AR TR IAN G LES 315
357 . S im il ar tr ia ngl es
Tri angl e s h avi ng th e sa m e sh ape
.
a re ca ll e d si m il a r tr ia ngl s S i m i l a r tr ian g l e s are n o t n e ce s

e .
s ar i ly of th e s a m e s ize T h ey m ay b e con structe d b ym a k in g

.
tw o an gl e s of on e e q ua l to tw o angl e s o f th e oth e r as w a s ,
d on e in Ex 1 Art 35 6 If tw o a ngl e s of one a re e q ua l

. .
, . .
to tw o an gl e s of th e oth e r it f o ll ow s th a tth e th i r d angl es,
a re e q ua l ( W h 2
y )
. T h e Sy m b o l f or s i m i l a r i ty i T h u s s m .
' ' “
A A B C is r e a d tr i a ngl e AB C is s i m il a r to
A AB C
’
m
tr i an gl e Th e r e s ul ts of Art 35 6 m ay b e sum m e d .
up in th e f oll ow i n g g e om e tri c t h e or e m :If two a ngles f o
one tria ng le a re e
qual r es
p iv el
ect
y wo
o t
t an
gles f
o a not er h
tria ngle, th e tri a ngles a re sim ila r .
358 . S econd rela tion of pa rts in sim il a r tri angl es . Th e

stu d ent sh oul d b e ab l e to di scov e r a se con d m e th od of con
struct in g sim i l a r tri a n gl es if h e studi es an d un d e r stan d s
th e f oll ow in g e x e r ci se s .
IN TRODUCTORY EXERC IS ES
1 . ria n gl e AB C dra wn fo Ex 1 A t 356 l tte r th e

I n th e t r .
,
r .
,
e
s i de O ppos i t e a n gl e C wi t h a s m a ll l e tte r c th s i de O ppo i te ,

e s
a ngl e B wi th a s m all l e t te r I a n d th e s i de o ppos i t

e a n gl A wi th
)
,
e
a s m a ll l e tter a .
2 M e as ur e th e l e ngth s of th e s i de s
.
b a nd c in Ex 1 (1 , ,
.
to tw o de ci m a l pl ace s Fi n d th e r a tio of .
t b f I to c of a o ,
o ,
,
c in ea ch cas e to tw o de ci m a l pl a ce s )
a t o
( .
3 C m pa r e y our r e s ul ts in Ex 2 wi th th e r sul t b ta i n e d
. o . e s o
by th e th r moe m b e
e r s f y ur cl t oa t c onc lous i n d y u a ss .
o o o
m a k e wi th r fe r e n ce t th e r ati
e f th e s i de s
o os o
35 9 C onstruction
. of sim i l a r tri angl es ; se cond m eth od .
r
Th e e su t l s o f Ex s 1 3 A r t 3 5 8 m a.
y b e s—
um m a ri
,
ze d as .
,
foll ow s :I n sim ila r tria ngles th e ra tios f corr espon d ing sid s o e
e w or k of Art 35 8 s ug ge s t s a se con d m e t h
T h od
a r e e ua l
q .
.
for con s tr uctin g si m il a r tr i an gl e s .

316 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATIC S
EXERCISES
1 . D ra w
ria ngl e D ra w a s econ d tri a n gl e w h ose s i des
a t .
a e r e pe ct
r iv e ly twi ce a s l on g as th e s i de s o f th e fi rs t
s
tri a n gl e .
2 C om pa r e th e tr ia ngl s con tr ucte d in Ex 1 as to s ha pe

. e s . .
A e th y s i m ila r
r e F i n d th e r a ti o f th e corr e s pon d i n g s i des o .
3 D ra w a tri a n gl e wi th s i de s th r e e tim e s as l on g as th e
.
corr e p n d i n g s i des of a n oth e r tr ia n gl e

s o Are th e y s im ila r ? .
G iv e r eas on s fo y our a n s we r r H ow d o th e ra ti os of th e
.
corr e spon d i n g s i de s com pa r e ?
4 D ra w a tri an gl e AB C
. B i se ctth e li n e s AB A C a nd B C
.
, ,
.
' '
C a ll th e ha lv e s x g a n d z
' C on s tr ucta s econ d tri a n gl e us i ng
.
, , ,
' ' '
th e se gm e nts x y a n d z as s i des C om pa r e th e tw o trian gl es .
, ,
as t o s h a pe Ar e th ey s i m il a r ? \
. Vh a t a e th e r ati os of th e r
corr e spon d i n g s i de s
Th e pr e ce din g e x e r cis es su gg estth e foll ow in g th e ore m

Tum tria ngles a re sim ila r if th e ra tios f
o th e cor res on d
p
ing side s T hi s g i v e s us a se con d m e th od of
a re e
qual .
con structin g s im i l a r tr i a n g l e s ; n a m e ly by m a kin g th e ,
r a ti os of th e i r corr e spon din g s id e s e q ual .
360 C onstruction of sim il a r tria ngl es ; th ird m eth od

. .
W e s h al l stud y a thir d m e th o d of con str uctin g s i m i l a r

tr i an g l e s whi ch is s ugge ste d by th e foll o w in g e x e rci se s :
1 . C on s tr uct a tri a n gl e
wi th tw o s i de s cm a n d cm . .
,
a n d wi t h th e pr otractor m a k e th e i ncl ude d angl e 70 C on °
st r uct a se con d tria n gl e wi th tw o s i de s cm a n d cm . .
an d t h e i ncl uded a n gl e C om par e th e tr ia n gl e s a s to s h a pe .
Wh at is th e ra ti o of th e corre spond ing s i des M easur e th e

corr e spond i n g a n gl e s .
31 8 G EN ERAL M AT H EM ATI C S
EXER CIS ES
(E xs . 1 4 —
r f rt
e e o F ig 2 19)
.
1 . S ho w th a t A AD C A AB O w .
2 . Sh w l o th a t A B C D
a so A AB C w .
3 . T ra n l a te ths r e sul ts o f Ex s 1 a nd
e . 2 i nto a geo m e t c ri
th e o re m .
4 . S ta te a h e or e m
t r
e x p e s s ng i th e r e s ul t s of h i s a r ti cl e
t .
363 . S im il a r pol ygons l a te r w ork in m a th e m a ti cs

. In
w e l e a r n th a t sim il a r po lygon s a l so h a v e corr e spon di n g
a n gl e s e ua l a n d t h at t h e r at i os of th e corr e s pon d in g s id e s
q
a re e q ua l Th i s r e sts on th e factth a t tw o s i m il a r polyg on s
.
m ay b e di v id e d i nto se t s of s im i l a r tr i a n gl e s by d ra w i n g
corr e spon d in g di ag on a l s a s
in F i g 2 2 0 . .
S i m il a r fig ur e s a re o f
f r e q ue n t occurr e n ce Th e .
p l a n s of con st r u cti on w or k
F 2 2 0 S M LA
,
P L YG N IG. . I I R O O S
dra w m gs in sh op a s ur ,
l
v e or s C o y of a fi e l d t r i a n gl e bl r i o ra h
’
y p u e p nts a
p h ot
g p
, , ,
e n l a rg e d a n d r e d uce d pi ct ur e s a re a l l e x a m pl e s ,Th e re l w .
ti on of th e d iffe r e nt pa rts in a ll t h e f or eg oin g is s h o wn b y

m ag n ify in g or r e d uci n g a ll p ar t s t o a d efin i te s cal e T h us .
,
a bl e to d e t r ook i ng a t a
y ou m a
y b e e m i ne b
y l ph otogr aph
of a m a n t h a t h e h as l a rg e e ar s a l th ough in th e pi ctur e ,
th e a ctua l m e as ur e m e nt of e i th e r of h is e a rs m ay b e l es s
th an a ce n ti m e te r O n e ca n te l l by l ooki ng a t th e pl an
.
of a h ouse wh e t h e r th e w in d ow s a re l a rg e or s m a ll b e ,
ca us e th e r e l a ti on is br ough t out by th e f act th a t a ll pa rts
a re r e d uce d t o t h e s a m e s c a l e ; th a t is th e r a tios f th e , o
cor resp o nding p a r t s a e ua l S

re e e if y ou ca n fi n d e x a m pl e s
q .
th a t w i ll ill ustr at e t h e l as t s tate m e n t .

C O N S TR U C TI O N O F S I M IL AR TRI AN G L ES 3 19
S i m il a r tri ang l e s m ay b e r eg a r d e d as copi e s of th e s a m e

tr i a n gl e m agn ifi e d or m inifi e d to a scal e , or b oth m ay b e
r eg a r d e d l d r aw i ngs of th e sam e tri a ngl e t dif
as s ca e o
fe e n t sca l e s We s h a ll stud y th e g e o m e tr i c r e l ati on s m o r e

r . .
in d eta i l in th e n e x t ch a pte r .
.
364 Al geb rai c pr ob l em s on sim i l a r fi gur es T h e f act

. .
th at th e r ati os of th e co rr e s pon d in g s id e s o f s i m il a r poly

g ons a re e q ua l f ur ni sh es us w i th an al geb r ai c m e th od o f
fi nding di s tances .
EXERCIS ES
1 . I n th e s i m il a r tri a ngl e s f F ig o . 2 2 1, if a 3 in .
,
a
’
9 in .
,
and b 3 in h ow l on g is b
'
,
.
2 . In th e s i m ilar t ri angl e s of F ig . 222, if

a
' 8 mm a nd b 8 mm h ow l ong
,
.
,
.
'
is b ?
3 . I n th e s i m il a r tri a ngl e s of F ig 2 2 3, .
' '
if ,
a mm .
,
6 = 12 m m .
,
a nd b
15 m m .
,
h ow l on g is a
"
F IG 221
4 . Th e s i de s
ri an gl e are 16 2 0
of a t , ,
.
an d 2 6 Th e s h or te st s i d e of a s i m il a r
.
tri a n gl e is 2 2 Fi n d th e oth e r s i des

.
.
5 Th e s i de s of a tria n gl e a e
.
cm r .
,
cm a n d 3 cm
.
,
Th e corr e spon di n g . .
s i de s of a s i m il a r tri angl e a e g a nd r r , ,
F 222
12 cm Fi n d th e v al ues o f x a n d g
‘ IG .
.
.
6 Tw o r ecta n gul a r b oa rds a e de s ir e d

.
r .
O n e is to b e 4 in w i de an d 6 in l ng .
. o ,
th e oth e r is to b e 18 in l on g H ow wi de . .
s h oul d th e s e con d b da rd b e
F IG . 223
7 . r i
At a i o f d ay
ce t
a f t r
a n tm e
oo u l e
f d
ca sts a s h a dow 1 0 in l on g H ow l h w y r
on g is t h e s a d o
.
o a a
.
'
st i
ick a tth e sa m e tm e ? D ar w a di a gra m a n d p r v e y ou r w o
rk o .
32 0 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
8 . In F ig 2 2 4 th e po . le ,
th e l e n gth of i ts s h ad ow ,
a nd
th e ra y s pa ss i ng ov e r th e top of th e pol e for m a tri a ngl e

s un s
’
.
Th e s h adow of th e pol e is m e a sur e d a nd is f ound to b e 6 0 ft , .
l ong At th e sa m e ti m e th e s had ow of a v e r ti ca l sti ck 2 2 ft

.
1
.
h i gh is m ea sur e d and is f ound to be 7% ft l q n g H ow m ay w e

,
. .
de te r m i ne th e h e igh tof th e pol e

wi th outactua lly m easuri ng it?
F IG . 22 4 F IG.
S ol uton i . Th e i k;
st c th e s h a dow , a nd th e sun s
’
r y f rm
a s o a
t ri ang e l s i m il r a to th e fi r st tri an gl e (se e F ig . W h y?

If w e l e t h de n ote th e h e i gh t of th e po l e , w e get
h 60
The n h 20 .
Th e
_
s ha d ow of a h i m ne y
c is ft . l ong . At th e sam e
i
t m e th e s ha dow of a m a n 6 ft 2 in tall is 9 ft 2 in
. . . . H ow h i gh
i
is th e ch m n e y
10 D r a w a tri an gl e AB C on s q uar e d
.
pa pe r as in F ig 2 2 6 T h r ough a poi ntD on . .
AC d r a w li n e D E ll AB M e asur e th e seg .
m e n ts C D D A C E a n d E B t ,
o t,
w o de ci m a l
,
F 2 26 IG .
CD CE
p l a ce s F n d th e r a t os
i a nd H ow do i —
a EE
.
th ese r a ti os com pa r e Wh a tdoe s th i s s h ow

1 1 D r a w a sca l e n e tri a n gl e on s q ua r d
. e
a
p p e r m a ki n g t
,
h e b as e c o i n ci d e wi th o n e
F 22 7 IG
f th e h ori zon ta l li n e s L e tte r th e tri a ng le s
.
o .
a s in F ig 22 7 C h oos e a n y li n e pa ra ll e l to th b as e a nd l e tt r
. . e e
0 1) DE
It D E as n F i n d th e a tos
i and H w do r i o
DA AB 0
th e se r a t os com pa r e ? S t
i at e y our con cl us m n as a th e or e m .
32 2 G ENER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
pe r pe nd i cul ar to C B , a nd th e l i ne A! ) is dr a w n Th e l e ngths .
of C B , D E, and E A a re found t o b e 80 ft, 90 ft, a nd 2 5 0 ft . .
r es pecti v e ly . F i nd th e d i sta nce AB .
19 . S h ow th atth e di stan ce AB ac os s r
th e wa m p coul d a l so b e foun d b ym ea
s t
uri ng th e li nes s h ow n in F ig 2 32 . .
36 5 . -
P roportion p r e c e
. di ng Th e
ex e r cise s d e a li ng w i th s im il ar tr i ang l e s
P 2 32 ro
w e re s olv e d by m ean s of a spe ci a l
.
type of e q uati on e x pr e ss in g th e f act th a ttw o r a ti os in th e
geom etr i c fi gur e w e r e e q ua l Th us in F i g 2 33 th e l in e AB

. .
is di v id e d in to tw o pa r ts wh ose r ati o is g ( se e th e m e th od
of Ex 1 6 Art .
, In th i s cons tr ucti on it turn s outth at
.
AF g
F IG . 2 33
S uch wh i ch ex pr esse s e q uali ty of tw o rati os

an e q ua ton , i ,
is ca l l e d a pr op ortion Th e l in e seg m en ts AF F B AD an d
.
, , ,
D E are said to b e pr oporti on al or in pr oporti on Th is '
.
,
m e an s tha t AF di v id e d by F B w il l a l w ay s e q u a l AD
'
di v id e d by D E .
A pr oporti on m ay th us b e d e fi n e d as an e q uati on wh i ch
e x pr es se s th e e q ua li ty of tw o f r action s ; as An oth e r ,
e x am
pl e of a r
p po orti on is
3
"
Th is m ay b e
”
r e ad
a di v id e d by 6 di v id ed by d or a is to
e q ua s c l ,
b as
”
c is to d, a o v e r 6 e ua l s c o v e r d S i it is
'
or q om e t
-
m es . .
: c:
1
wr itten a b d b ut th is f or m is n ot d es i r ab l e,
,
CO N S TR U C T IO N O F S IM IL AR TR IAN G LES 32 3
EXERCIS E
2
I s th e st e m e nt
at
; 2 r oporti ? G iv e r e a sons for
’
a
3 p on
your ans we r . Is
33
9
a pro or t
p i on Ex pl a i n y our a n we r s .
366 . M eans and ex t em es . r Th e first an d l a st ter ms in

a
p pr o o rti on a re call e d th e extrem es an d th e se con d an d
th i r d te rm s th e m ea ns Th us ih th e pr opor ti on 2
.
3 a an d , _ ,
b d
d are th e e xtr e m e s an d b an d c th e m e an s .
EXER CIS ES
1 . C om pa r e th e pr oduct of th e m ea n s wi th th e pr od uct of
th e e xtre m es in th e foll owi ng proporti ons
( ) if
a
t :3
"
( ) C “ 10
2
‘
2
1
‘
(b ) i
6 12
T7S
°
(d) "
6
’
i
“
W h a t sta te m e ntcan you m ak e conce n ng th e pr i r oducts

2 . M ak e up se e a v r l pr oporti ons a n d com pa r e t h e pr od uct
of th e m ea ns w i th th e pr oduct of th e e x tr e m e s .
36 7 . Th eorem on th e re la tion b etw een th e m eans and th e

ex trem es of a proportion . Ex s 1 2 , Ar t 36 6 ,
.
-
. i l l us tr ate a
w e ll k n own
-
l aw or t h e ore m ; n am e ly , t h at in a
p pro or tion
the p roduct o f th e m ea ns e
qua ls th e
p r oduct o f th e extr em es .
a c
If th eg i v en pr opo rti on is th en th e l aw is a lg e br a i cal ly ,
b d
stated t hus :a d b e .
Th e th e or e m m ay b e pr o v e d a s f oll ow s
Le t
Zd
repre sent any propor ti on M ul ti pl yin g both .
m em be rs b y b d w e ge t
ab d eb d
b d
Re d uci ng e ac h fr acti on to l ow est te rm s ,
ad be .
'
32 4 G EN ERAL M AT H EM AT I C S
S in ce a r
p po or
i l ki n d of e q uati on th e r e
ti on is a spe c a ,
a re S pe ci a l l a w s w h ich oft e n m ak e a r
p po o rti on eas i e r
'
.
to s ol v e th a n oth e r e q uati on s w h i ch a re n ot pr opor ti ons .
Th e l a w g iv e n on pa g e 32 3, Art 36 7, is on e of th e m a ny .
r
p pi n ci l e s of pr oporti on co n v e n i e n t to use Th us, inst
e ad .
Bi ;
in
é
"
;
'
u
'
of fi n din g th e L io D q
‘
th e
’
. . e atioi am
d s ”?
'
in th a t w ay, w e s im l
py use th e pr e ce din g 13 W, an
4 x 48 .
x = 16
Th e
‘ z
l aw is l o a con v e n i e n t tes t of pr opor ti on a li ty
a s ,
us ua lly s i m pl e r t h e pr od ucts th an to
’
i
s n ce it is o fi nd t
i '
r e d uce th e io s tof l ow e rm s
'
rat e st t
’
’
EXERC IS ES
Te st th e f oll owi n g
1 . statem e nts if th e y a re
pr oporti on s '
3 15 15 12 42 m 2 1 in
( ) i
a
( )
c () 8
35 5 n_ 7 2 .5 n
2 a 5 a
(d) f
()
55
2 . F in d th e
'
v a l ue s of th e un k n own s in th e f ll owi n g p o o r
portion s h
a nd c ech k b y s ub s ti tuti n g in th e ori gi n a l e q u ti on s : a
4 u S
(”as “
x —
zg
é
b
( l z ‘
S ol ut on i . 9
y 20
‘
66 a:
( ) C
10 5
33
—
3 11 —
3
00
( ) e
3
y
1i 3 5+ 2
5 14 14 7
82 6 GENERAL MATHEM ATIC S
p pr o o rti on is i n v ol v e d in our di s cuss i on of v a r i a t i on b ut ,
t h is factis n ot a l w ay s s o obv i ous to a b eg inne r Th e fact .
t h at pr obl em s m ayb e state d b oth in te rm s of v ar i ati on and

in te r m s of pr opor ti on m a k es it n eces sa ry for th e s tude n t
to r e cogn ize cl e a r l y th e re l ati on be tw e e n v a r i ati on an d pro
o rti on Th i s re lati on w i l l b e ill ustr ate d in t h e f oll ow i ng
p .
l ist of e x e rcises .
S olve b y e i th e r
va ri ati on or pr opor ti on
1 I f 11 m e n ca n b uil d a ce m e nt walk in 82 da h ow l ong
. .
,
will itta k e 15 m e n to b uil d it

( ) S ol ution
a a v ariat ion prob l m
as e
m t= k
(T h ti m it t k t b uil d . e e a es o
th w lk v ri i nv r l y e a a es e se as
th e n um b ier of m e n .
)
Th en
-
11 82 k .
H en ce lc 902 .
Us i n g th i s v lu a e of k i n th e se con d ca se ,
7721 902
b ut m 15 .
Wh e n ce 15 t 9 02 ,
an d t 5 91 6 0125 da .
(b ) S olut
i on as a p opo ton p ob l e
r ri m r . Th e n um b e r of m e n i s n ot
i n th e sa m e r ti
a o i
a s th e t m e n e ce ssa ry il
to b u d th e w lka , b ut i n
i nv r rati
e se o t h at i s ,
ml dz
m, 3;
h i s proporti on
t‘
T m e an s th e fi r st group of m e n i s to th e se con d
gr up f m n th ti m
o o e as k e e r
i tta e s th e se con d g oup i s to th e t m e i t i
tk
a esth fi r t gr up
e s o .
S ub ti tuti ng th th r
s k n wn f e ee o a cts,
11 d,
15 82
15 d, 902 ,
«1
, s; o 6 0125 da .
C O N S TR U C TION O F S IM I LAR TRIAN GLES 32 7
2I f 2 00 ft of coppe
. r wire we i gh s 6 ol b w hat is th e we igh t
. .
,
of 125 ft of t h e sa m e
. ki nd of wire
3 Th e cost of wire fe nci ng of a ce r ta i n k i nd v ari es as th e
.
num b e r of y a r ds b ough t I f 12 r od s cost .h ow m uch

can b e b ough t for
4 . T wo m e n a re pa id in pr oporti on to th e work th ey do .
A ca n do in 2 4 da th e . s am e work th at ittake s B 16 da to do . .
C om pa r e th e ir w ages .
5 . A fa r m e r wh i ch one h or se we i gh s 12 00 l b
h as a tea m of .
a nd t h e oth e r 1 500 l b I f th ey pull in pr oporti on to th e ir

.
wei gh t w h ere m ust th e far m e r place th e cl evi s on a four foot

,
-
doub l etr ee s o as to di stri b ute th e l oad accor di ng to th e si ze

of th e h or ses
369 . Different arrangem ents of a p r oportion . Th e stu
d en t w ill b e in te r este d in se e i ng in h ow m any diffe re nt

f or m s _a pr oporti on m ay b e a rr an ge d Thi s h e m ay l earn .
by sol v i ng th e e x er ci ses th at f oll ow .
EXERCIS ES
1 . Arrange th e n um b e s r 3, 6 , 7, a nd 14 in as m an y propor
i
ton s as i b l e Do th e sa m e for th e num b e rs 2 5 8 and 2 0
pos s .
, , ,
.
2 C an you wri t
. e tw o ra ti os th at will n ot b e e q ual us i ng ,
th e num b e r s 2 5 8 an d 2 0 as te r m s of th e se r ati os
, , ,
3 H ow d o you de ci de w h i ch a rra nge m e nt consti tutes a

.
r
p po or ti on
Th e pr e cedin g exe rci ses sugg est th at a pr oporti on s uc h

a c
as m ay tak e four f orm s , as foll ow s
6 d
( ) a Th e g i v en pr oporti on
32 8 G EN ER AL M A TH EM AT IC S
( )
b T h e f or m ob ta in e d by a l ter n ating th e mean s in ( a )
Th e f or m ob ta i n e d
d
( ) Th e
.
f or m o b ta in e d by a l te rn a ting bo th th e m e an s
and r
e x t em e s in ( a
) :
Th e l as t for m can b e ob ta in e d s i m ply by ifivertiiig th e

ratio s in ( a ) .
W e kn ow th atth e pr opo rtio n s g i v en ab o v e are true fo r by ,
a ppl y ing t h e te st of pr opor ti on a l i ty w e se e th at th e pr od uct

of t h e m e an s e q ua l s th e pr od uct of th e e x tr e m es in e ach
cas e .F urth e rm or e any one of th e m coul d h a v e b e en
,
ob ta i n e d by di v id i n g t h e m e m be r s o f th e e q u a ti on a d = b o
d c
b y th e pr oper be r T h us di v id e
'
-
n um to ge t w e m ust
b a
.
,
b oth m e m b e r s of th e u t i ad be b y ab W hy
‘ ‘
e a on
q
z .
a d be
T ]i en
ab ab
d c
fr om wh i ch t or f or m
b a
370 . Th eorem . Th e p r e ce di n g dis cus s i on il l us tr ates th e

h e or e m wh i ch s ay s th at if th e e oduct of
'
use of th e t __
wo
t
num b er s is e
qual to th e
p ro wo oth er num b er s,
duct of t h
ei t er
p a ir m ay b e m a d e th e m ea ns a nd the oth er p a ir th e extrem es
f
o a ro
p p ion
or t .
30 G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT IC S
EXER CISES
1 . W h at is a m ea n p r oporti ona l b e twe en 4 a nd 9
H IN T . Le t fr . th e n um b e r .
T he n
F r om w h i ch 36 .
T h en 7
. :i 6 .
"
Q
2 . S h ow tha tth e v a l ue of b in th e p r opo rti on 5 I
is g iv e n
; O
quati on r “6 e q ua l s
b y th e e 6 j; V ac
( e ad or th e s q uar e
r ootof
W h atis a m e a n pr opor ti on al
3 . b et wee n 2 and 18 b e twe e n
10 and 4 0 b e tw ee n 2 a n d 800
4 Fi nd a m ean p ropor ti onal b e tw ee n a

“and
”
b ; b et w ee n
“ “
.
x a nd g .
372 . How to pick out correspondi ng sides of l

s im i a r
trian g es l . Th e si il ar tr i a ng l es of F i g 2 36 are pl ace d so

m .
'
th at in cer ta i n cas es a lin e is a s id e in e ach of tw o s im il a r
tr i an g l es Th us .
, AC is a
s id e of A AD C a n d a s o of l
th e s i m i l a r tr i an gl e AB C .
Th is su ggests
h at th e t
lin e m ay occur tw i ce in
th e pr opo r ti on of th e cor
r espon din g s id es In th i s .
F IG . 2 36
w ay it is see n
~
th a t th e
lin e be com e s a m e an pr oporti on al be tw e en th e oth e r tw o .
Th i s anal y si s can b e ch e ck e d on ly by actually wr i ting

th e pr oporti on of pa i rs of corr e spon di n g s id e s of si m i l a r
tri an g l es In or d e r to do th i s corr e ctl y th e stud en t m ust
.
rem em be r th at th e corr es on ding sid es o

p f sim ila r ria ngles
t
C ON S TRU C TION O F S I M ILAR TR I AN G L ES 331
a re th e sides w h ich lie o

pp osi t
e e
qua l an
gles . H e nce f r om ,
th e fact th atA AB O w A AB O w e m ay wr i te th e f oll ow i ng

r
p po or ti on
AC ( oppos i te A z in A AB C )
’ ’
AB ( oppos i te AC in A AC B )
AD AC
Th at is ,
AC A] :
AC is th us se e n to b e th e m e an p r opor ti ona l b e tw een AD
an d AB .
S h ow in a s im i l a r w ay t hat B C is a r
m e a n p opo ti on a r l
b etw e en th e hypotenuse AB an d th e a dj g
ace n t s e m e n tB D ;
BD BC
th atis sh ow th at
AB
,
.
BC
We m ay sum m a r ize th e pr e ce din g e x e rcises an d dis
cus sion by th e th e or e m : In a righ t tria ngle eith er side
in cluding th e r ig h t a ng le is ion a l b etw een th e

m e a n pr op or t
a
hy
p otenuse and th e f th e hypotenuse m a de
a dj a cen t seg m en t o
th e f th e rig h t a ng le he
by a p erp en dicul a r f rom v er t
ex o t
o t
hyp ot
en use .
373 . Th eorem . If in a righ t tria ngle a

pp er endicula r is
th e f th e righ t a ngle on th e hy ot
en use,
dr a w n f r om v ertex o p
th e er en dicula r is a ion a l
m ea n p rop or t
p p
h e hy
b etw een th e segm en t
s f
o t p oten use .
Th e tr uth r e ce d i n g th e ore m w il l
of th e p
b e se e n f r om th e f oll ow in g
In A A B O ( F i g 2 37 ) A C is a r.i gh t F m . 2 37
3?id b e caus e A ADC A CD B

1
an gl e , and C D _1 . AB .
w ,
and th e co rrespon ding s es a re th e r efo r e in pr oporti on .

GEN ER AL g .
EXER CIS ES
Wri te outth e com pl e te proof f th e pr ece di ng th e ore m

1 . or .
2 Fi nd th e a l ti tud e d r a wn t th h ypote n use of a ri gh t

'
. o e
tr ia ngl e if it d ivi de s th e h ypote n u

'
in t tw o s e gm e n ts w h se o
le ngths a e 4 in a n d 16 in r e s pe ctiv e ly F i n d als o a ch l e g

r . . . .
e
_
of t h e ri gh t tri a n gl e .
*3 I n a ri gh t tri a n gl e AB C (ri gh ta ngl e d a t C a pe pe n

.
) —
r
d icula is d r a wn fr om C t AB
r I f C D : 8 th e n AD : 4 o .
,
.
Fi nd th e l e n gth of AB .
374 . r oportional Th e th e or em
C onstructi on of a m ea n p .
of Ar t 373 on pa g e 331 f ur n i s h es u s w i t
. h a m e th od of con
struct ing a m e an pr opor ti on a l b e tw e e n any I
b
tw o l i n e se g m e n ts as w i l l n ow b e s h ow n , .
CL
In F ig 2 38 w e ar e giv e n tw o l i n e s e g i
.
4 — - —
m e nts a an d b Th e pr ob l e m is to con Em 2 38
.
'
str ucta m e an pr opor t i on a l (s ayx un i ts l on g) be tw een a an d b .
W e k n ow th at th e e q uati on g w i l l r epresen t th e
g
—
(I?
C on struction . On a w rki o ng li AK i n F ig 2 39 , w e l a y Off a

ne , a s .
fr om A i
to B an d b fr o m B ~
to C :W i th A C a s a d i a m e te r w e
con st uct a r i circle At se m .
B w erect p rp n di cul
”
e a e e ar
i t r cti g th circl t D
n e se n / g e e a .
l
,
Th n B B i r quir d i
'
e th s e e e
pr p r ti n l i
’
m ean
l
o o o a .
,
r
( /
P r f C nn ct A wi th D
oo . o b e a
C K
n d C wi th D
B
a Th n B B i 1
. e s
th r quir d m n pr p r
e e F m 2 39 M AN P
e P ea o o . . E RO O R TI O N AL
ti on al b tw n nd b p e C N
ee U N a a ro O ST R C TI O
v i d d w c n h w th t AD
e e a s o a
is a ri ght gl (Wh y? ) W h ll pr c d t h w th
‘
an e . e s a o ee o s o at AD i s a
ri ght n gl b y pr vi ng th t if yp i t
a e ci cl i c o a an o n on a r e s ed
onn e ct w it
h
h e ends
t o f a dia m e ter, th e a ngle f h a tp oin tis a r igh t a ngle
orm ed a tt .
4 . Fi nd th e m e an p r opor tiona l b e twee n th e li ne se gm e nts
m and n in F ig 2 42 . .
5 . M easur e m and n in F ig 2 42 . and th e m ea n p roporti onal

ed
con st uct r in Ex 4 . . S q ua e th e r va l ue of m
th e m ea n p ropor ti ona l a n d se e h ow th e
val ue com pa r e s wi th th e pr od uct o f m n
l
F 2 42
*6
IG .
. C on s truct a s q ua e e r q ua l I n ar ea to a
g ive n r ecta n gl e ; to a gi v e n pa r a ll e l og ra m to a g iv e n tr ia n gl e .
375 . F ourth pr oporti onal . In th e pr oporti on g — E a d is

b d
ca ll e d th e f our th p p ro orton a l i to a, b, an d c. Th e r e are
tw o m e t h od s of fi n di n g th e f ourth pr oporti ona l to thr e e

g i v en num be r s a b a n d c , , .
Al g b r ic m th od L t :r pr
e a e n t th v lu f th f urth
. e 3 e e se e a e o e o
pr p rti n l
o o o a .
a c
T hen
x b
(b yd e fi n i ti on of a fourth propo rti on al ) .
So lvi n g f or x, at be .
be
a
F IG . 2 43 . Ho w To co x s r n ccr
Ge om et i cm eth od r . Ta k thr
e g ee iv en a F O U TH R PRO P O R T I O N AL
li n e s, a s a , b, a nd c in F ig 2 43, . a nd
dr w a an y v i
con e n e n t a n g e , a s l AB AC . O n AB l a y off AD : 0 ,
DE b . O n th e h r li n e AC l ayoff AF
ot e rw T h e n d r aw 0 .D a DF .
E C IID F as sh own Th e n F G is th e re quire d fourth propo rti on a l

. .
See if you can s o h w why th e con s t ucti on is cor r r e ct .
EXER CIS ES
1 . C h e ck th e con s tructi on ab o ve b y m eas uri n g th e four

s e gm e n t
s to s ee if
2 C on struct a four th proporti onal to th re e giv e n l ine 8eg
;
.
m e nts 2 cm .
, 3 cm an d 5 cm l on g r es pectiv e ly
.
,
. .
C ONS T R U C T IO N OF S IM I L AR TR I AN G L ES 335
3 . S h ow
ra i ca lly th at th e segm e nt ob ta i ned in
al ge b Ex 2
.
s h oul d b e 7 5 cm l ong . .
4 C onstr ucta f ourth propor ti ona l to th r ee segm ents

. 5 cm .
,
6 cm an d 9 cm l ong r espectiv e ly
.
,
. .
5 C h eck y our work in Ex 4 b y a n al ge b ra i c m eth od

. . .
To fi nd th e q uoti entof tw o arith m eti ca l num b ers b y

376 .
a specia l m eth od T fi d3 n e r ce n tw e n e e d to s ol v e t
2
o n
7,
i p . h e
22 x
e q uati on
70 100
( Why ? ) Th is p ro
p o r ti on sugg e st s s im i
la r tr i a n gl es If w e .
ta k e a h or izon ta l l in e
CM ( Fig 2 4 4 ) as .
a div idend lin e on
sq ua e r d pape r an d ,
ON r
p p
e e n d i cul ar to
GM as a divisor li n e ,
th en l ay O ff GA on
GM e q ua l to 2 2 un i ts ,
an d at A e r e ct a pe r
pe n dicul ar a n d ma rk
of
f AB e q ua l to 70
i
un ts, w e lve can so
F G 2 44 I .
our pr ob l e m pr ov id e d
w e d r a w an oth e r l i ne D R 1 00 un i t s a bov e 0 M a n d pa r all e l
to it C a l l D R th e q uoti e n t li n e
.
.
S tr e tch a str i n g f as te n e d a t 0 so th at it passes thr ough

B m ee tin g th e q uoti e nt li ne at C
,
.
b e 22
Th en r , o
1 00 70
NO T E r f i l ft t th tud nt
. Th e p oo s e o e s e .
Th e re f or e 2 2 is appr ox i m ate ly 31 % of 70
.
336 .
r
G EN ERAL JVIAT HE M ATIC S 1 57 .
Poi n tout th e s i m il a r tri a n gl e s in th e d evi ce fo r e xpr e ss

'
1 .
iiig q uotie ii ts use d i n F ig; 2 44 R ea d th e s i de s w h i ch a re

'
pr o
po rti ona l .
A rde ne r pl an te d 12 A O f pota tOe s 8 A of b ea ns

'
ga .
,
.
,
13 A . o f n i n s 3 A f ce l e ry a nd 5 A o f ca b b a ge By m e a n
o o ,
. o ,
. . s
of th e de vi ce use d i n F ig 2 44 s h ow th e d i s tri b uti o n o f h is

.
ga r d e n ii i pe r ce n ts
-
377 . V e r b a l pr ob
l em s solv ed b y pr opor ti on ‘V e h av e .
sa id t h at m an y pr obl e m s O f sci en ce th e sh O p a n d e n g i n ee r , ,
in
g ,
ca n b e sol v e d by
p r opor t i on W e sh a ll pr oce e d t o .
stud y h ow to s o lv e s o m e of th e se pr obl e m s by us i n g our .
k n owl e d ge of pr opor ti on .
I n th e s tud y o f tur n i n g te n d e n cy Ar t 2 33 w e r e cog n i ze d , .

,
h e f oll ow in g f a m i l i a r pr i n cipl e of th e b a l an ce d be a m :Th e

.
t
lef tweig h ttim es th e l ef tl ev er a rm e
q ua ls the r ig h tw eig h tt
im es
h e righ t l ever a rm
t As for m ula A
. a
“ r
his m a y b e w ritten
t w l
l l
w 2 l2 .
T hi s prin cipl e is a lre a d y fam i l i a r

to a l l w h o h a v e play e d wi th a
;
e e sa w Th e y d i sco v e r e d l on g a go
s .
F w y 15 /
th a t a te e te r b oa r d w i ll b a lan ce
a nt en
a t l r d b aine d by l i l y i g h
“
"
a p o ucts a re O t m u t p n t e
w e igh t of e ach per son by h is di stan ce fr om th e point of

su pp o r t ( f u l cr um ):
I f in F i g 2 4 5 B w e igh s 6 0 lb an d is 5 ft fr om th e ful
, .
, . .
crum F th e n A w h o w e igh s 1 00 1b
,
m us t b e 3 ft fr om
,
.
, .
th e f ul cr um T h us 6 0 . 3 is a spe ci a l case of
,
g en e r a l l a w w l l1 w2 l2 .
-
g
If w e d ivi d e b oth m e m b er s of th e e q u ati on w l l 1 w2 l,by
w l lz w e ge t
,
in a wh i ch is in th e f orm of a ro ortion
p p .
I2 w1 ‘
338 G EN ER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
7 . i
ra i se an autom ob il e (F ig 2 4 8) a m a n lifts
I n a tte m pt ng to .
wi th a force of 15 01b atth e e nd of a l e ve r 10ft l ong Th e di stance

. . .
from th e a xl e to F is 2 5 ft .
W h at force is e x e rte d up
war d on th e ax l e as a r esul t
of th e m a n s lifti ng ’
8 Fi n d l if I
. 18 ft l 2
.
,
10
2
6 2 1b .
,
a n d 20
1
5 1 lb .
9 . Fi nd 12 if l l : 4 0 in .
,
2 6 lh .
, a nd w = 38 l b .
F ro . 2 48
1
MIX TURE AND ALLO Y P R OB LEM S

1 . H ow m uc h wate r m us t b e ad de d to 10 ga l . of m ilk
tes t n g i b utte r fa t, to m ak e it te s t 4 70 b utte r fa t?
S ol ution . Le t a : th e n um be r of ga ll on s o f w t r dd d
a e a e .
T hen 3 : 10 th e n um b e r of
ga ll on s o f d il ut d m ilke ,
10 th e a m oun t o f b utte rf a t in th e un d ilh te d m ilk .
1 33 00 10) th e a m o un t o f b utte rf a t in th e d il ut d m ilk

e .
S i nc e th e a m oun t o f b utte r f tr a em a n s i con sta n t,
10 1 35 61: t v 3
‘
110 x 10
2 00 25
4 x 40 55 .
: 3 2 th
a , e n um b e r of ga ll on s w ate rt o b e a d de d .
A ph y s i ci a n h a s a 2 5 70
2 . m ixtur e of li s te ri n e in wa te r H ow .
m uch w a te r m ust h e a dd to itto m a ke it a 15 70 m i x tur e

S ol uton i . C o n s de i r an a rb i tr ry a q ua nt t iy b f th e m i turx e, sa y
100 oz .
Let x th e n um b e r of oun ce s of w ate r ad de d to e v ry

e
100 oz . of th e m i x tu e r .
T he n 100 x th e n um b e r o f o un ce s i n th e n ew m i x tu e r .
C O N S TR U C TI ON O F S IM ILAR TR I AN G LES 339
S i nc e 25 % of th e o rigi n l m i
a x tu e r is li t ri n
s e e,
th e pe r ce n to f li t ri n
s e e i n th e
ne w m i tur x e .
An d s n ce i 15 % of th e n e w m i x tu e r i s to b e li t ris e ne,
25 15
100 x 100
15 00 15 ‘
L
.
’
2 5 00 .
15 J : 1000 .
H e n ce 6 63
; oz . of w a te r m ust b e ad de d to e v ry e 100 oz
. of th e
o ri gi n l m i
a xt r
u e .
3 . H ow m uch wa te r s h oul d b e a dde d to a b ottl e c nta i n o
mg 4 02 . of th e o ri gi na l m i x tur e in Ex 2 to m ak e it a 15 7 ‘
.
0
m i x ture
4 . i i
pa te nt m e d c ne conta n s 30% a coh o , h ow m uch
If a i l l
o f ot r i r i
h e ng e d e nts m ust b e a dde d to 12 q t of it s o th at .
i r
th e m x tu e s h a ll
co nt i
a n on l y
2 0 70 al coh o l
5 H ow m a ny q ua r t
. s of wa t e r m ust b e m i x e d wi t h 30 q t .
o f a l coh ol 82 pur e to m a k e a m i x tur e 7 0 7 pur e

(
0
6 W h a t pe r ce n t of e v a porati on m ust ta k e pl ace fr om

’ ‘
.
sol uti on o f s a l t a nd w a t e r ( f w h i ch 5 w i h
a 5
% 7 b y e g t o 0
is sa l t) to m ak e th e r em a i n i ng por ti on of th e m i x tur e a 7 %
sol uti on
"
7 T w o gr ad e s o f coffe e c s ti ng a de a l e r 2 5 ¢ a n d 30 ¢ pe
. o r
ou n d a re t o b e m i x e d so t h at 5 0 l b of t h e m i xture will b e
p .
worth 2 8¢ pe poun d How m any pounds of e a ch ki nd of

r . .
coffee m ust b e use d in th e m i x t ur e 9
8 I n a m a s s of a ll oy f r watch ca se s w h i ch con t
. a i n s 80 oz
o .
th e r e a e 30 oz of gol d
r How m uch coppe r m ust b e a dde d
. .
in or de r th a t in a ca w i gh i n g 2 0 th e re sh all b e % z
se e 2 . o .
of gol d
34 0 G EN ER AL M A TH EM ATI C S
Le t x th e n um b e r o f oun ce s o f co
ppe r to b dd e a ed .
80 x th e n um b e r o f o un ce s i n th e n w e ll y a o .
80 :
3
1
th e r ti
a o b et w een th e wh lo e m a ss of a ll y o
3
and th e g o ld .
th e r ti a o of a s a m l p e of th e n e w a ll y t
o o th e
g l d in
o th e sa m pl e .
T h en
80 2
. :4
30 1
80 x 12 0 .
x 40 .
H e n ce 40 oz . of coppe r h ul d b
s o e a d de d .
9 . In an a ll oy of
go d l
ilv e r We i gh i n g 80 oz th e e a e a nd s .
‘
r r
10 oz of g l d H ow m uch s ilv e r s h oul d b e a dde d in or d e r th a t

. o .
10 oz o f th n e w a ll oy s h a ll c n ta i n onl y
. e oz of gol d o .
10 G un m e ta l is com pos e d of tin a n d coppe r An a ll oy of

. .
2 05 0 l b f gun m e ta l of a ce rta i n gra de con ta i n s 1 7 2 2 l b of

. o .
coppe r H ow m uch tin m ust b e ad de d so th a t 105 0 l b of th e

. .
g un m e ta l m a y co n tain 86 1 l b o f c o pp e r ? .
*378 . r a vi ty pr ob l em s A cub i c f oot of gl ass

S pe cifi c g -
.
w e igh s ti m e s as m uch a s a cub i c f oot of w a te r ( a

"
cub i c f oot of w ate r w e i gh s Th e n um b e r is

ca ll e d th e specifi c gr a it y of gl as s I n g ene r a l th e
v speci fi c .
,
gra v i ty of a sub stan ce is d e fi n e d a s th e r a tio of th e w eigh t

f
o a
gi ven v olum e o f th e sub sta n ce t
o th e w e ig h t of an e
qual
v ol um e f o w a ter W h at
a t w o 4
ul d°
it m cent
e aig r a de
n .
,
th e r e f or e to say th a t th e spe cifi c gr a v i ty o f 14 k a r at g ol d

,
-
is A cub i c ce n tim e te r of di sti ll e d w ate r a t 4 ce n °
tigra de w e i g h s Jus t 1 gm S in ce th e spe ci fi c gr a v i ty of .
14 k a r at g ol d is
-
on e cub i c ce n ti m e te r of g ol d w e ig h s
g m 2 cc w e ig h s
.
, g m e
. tc I n s h or t t h e w e ig ht .
, .
,
f
o an o bj e ct i n g r a m s e qua ls th e p r oduct of its volum e in
im eters
cent im es its sp ecifi c gr a vit
t y .
34 2 G EN ERAL M ATH EM ATI C S
2 . r ecta ngl es (F ig 2 5 0) h a v e eq ua l b ases they are

I f tw o .
,
to each oth e r a s th e ir a l ti tude s (F oll ow th e m eth od of Ex

. .
3 I f tw o r ectangl es h a v e e q ua l a l ti
.
tude s th e y a re to e a ch oth e r a s th e ir b ase s

, .
4 Th e a r ea of a r ecta ngl e is 4 8 sq ft
. . .
an d t h e b as e is 11 yd W h at is th e a r e a of
.
a r e ct a n gl e h a vi n g t h e sa m e a l ti tud a n d e
a b a s e e q ua l t d
‘
7
o
y .
5 P r ov e th a tth e a r e a s of tw o pa r a ll e l o
g ra m s a e to e a ch oth e r a s th e pr oducts f
r o
th e i r b a se s a n d a l ttude s i .
F c 2 50 x .
6 Th e a r e a s of tw o tri a n gl e s a e to
. r
e a ch ot h e r a s th e pr oducts of th e ir b as e s a n d a l titudes .
7 T h e a r eas of tw o pa ra ll e l ogra m s h a vi n g e q ua l b a se s a e
. r
to e a ch ot h e r a s th e ir a l ti tudes th e a r ea s of tw o pa ra ll e l ogra m s
h a vi n g e q ua l a l ti tude s a e to e ach oth e r a s th e ir b a se s
r .
8 Th e a r e as of tw o tri a n gl e s h a vi n g e q ua l b a se s a re to
.
e a ch ot h e r a s th e ir a l ti tude s ; th e a r e a s of tw o tri a ngl e s h a vi n g

e q ua l a l ti tude s a re to e a ch oth e r a s th e ir b a se s .
9 P r ov e th at tri a n gl e s h a vi n g e q ua l b a ses a n d e q ua l a l ti
.
tude s a e e q ua lr .
C ons tr uct th e f oll owi ng b y m ea n s of Ex 9 :a ri gh t t i . r
an gl e a n i sos ce l e s tri a n g l e a n
,
b tuse a n g l e d tri a n gl e e ach e q ua l
,
o -
to a g iv e n tri a n gl e .
S U M M AR Y
380 T h i s ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e ani ng of th e fol
.
l ow i ng w ord s an d phr a ses s i m il a r tr i angl es si m i l a r ,
p o lyg o ns r
p p o , o r ti on m e a ns
, e xtr em es f
,
u l cr um m e an , ,
p r op o r ti on al f ou ,r th pr opo r ti on al a ll oy s e ci fi c gr a v i t
p , y
, .
381 P olyg on s th a t h a v e th e s am e sh ape are si m il ar

. .
382 In si m il ar tr i an g l e s th e co rr e spon d ing an g l e s are

.
eq ua l an d t h e corr espon d i n g s id e s are in pr oporti on .

C O N S TR U C T IO N OF S I M ILAR TRIAN G LES 343
383 . Tw o i m i l a r tr i angl e s m ay b e con str ucte d by

s
1 . M a king tw o ang l es of one e q ual to tw o an gle s . of
th e ot e
“
h r .
2 M ak in g th e
. r ati os of co rr espond ing sid es e q ua l .
3 M aki ng th e
. rati o of tw o s id es of on e e q ua l to th e
r ati o of tw o s i d e s of th e oth e r a nd th e angl e s i n cl ud ed
,
b e tw een th e s e s i d e s e q ua l .
384 A pr opor ti on e x pr e ss e s th e e q ua l i ty of tw o r a ti os
. .
385 A con v e n i e nt te s t of pr opor ti on a l i ty is th e th e or e m

.
th at say s th e pr od uct of th e m e an s e q ua l s th e pr od uct of

th e e x tr e m es .
386 If a d = b c w e m ay wri te th e f oll ow i ng f our

.
,
p r opor ti on s
i i
i ( d)
( )
— '
a
c
387 . f act th at th e r ati os of corr espon d i ng s id e s of

Th e
s i m il a r po lyg on s a re e q ua l f ur n i s h e s us w i th a n a l ge b r a i c
m e th od of fi n di n g d is tan ce s .
388 I n a ccess i b l e di stan ces out of d oor s m ay of te n b e

.
d e te r m in e d by m e an s o f a pr opor ti on .
389 B e am pr obl e m s an d m i x tur e , a ll oy , an d s pe cifi c

.
gr av i ty pr ob l e m s m ay b e s olv e d b y e q ua ti on s w h ich tak e

th e f or m of
p p ro r
oti on s .
390 . If a li n e is d ra w n p r ll el t
a a o t h e b a e of a t
s ri an l e
g ,
h
te t ri a n gl e c u t off is s i m il a r t o th e g i v e n t ri a n gl e a n d
, t h e
corr e spon di ng s id e s a re in pr oporti on .
39 1 T e h f l l w i n g i m o r t a n t th e o r e m s a b o u t th e ar e a
. o o p
of t w o pa r a l l e l ogr am s h av e b ee n pr ov e d
1 Th e a e a
.
r s o f tw o
p a r a l l e l ogr a m s ar e to e a ch oth er
h
as t e p r o d u c t o f t h e i r b as e s a n d a l ti tu d e s .
344 G EN ER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
2 . Th e r
a e as oftw o pa r a ll e l ogr a m s h a v i n g e q ua l b as e s
ar e to ea ch
h r ot e h r a l ti tud es a n d th e a r e as of tw o
as t ei ,
a r a ll e l ogr a m s h a v i n g e ua l a l ti tud e a re t ach th r

p q s o e o e as
th e i r b as e s .
39 2 Thr e e th e or e m s si m i l a r to th os e in Ar t 39 1 w e r e
. .
p r o v e d for t h e a r e as of r e cta n gl es a nd tri angl es .
39 3 If in a r i g h t tr i a n g l e a li n e is d r a w n f r om th e
.
v e rte x of th e r i gh t a n gl e pe rpe n di cul a r to th e hypote n use ,
1 Th e tr i an g l e is di v id e d i n to tw o s i m i l a r tr i an gl e s
.
wh i ch a re e ach a l so s i m il a r to th e g i v en tr i an gl e .
2 T h e pe r pe n di cul a r is a m e an pr opo r ti on a l be tw e e n
.
th e tw o s e gm e n ts of th e hy pote nuse .
3 Ei th e r s i de a b out th e r i gh t a ngl e is a m e a n pr opor

.
tion al b e tw e e n th e wh ol e hy pote n use a nd th e a d j ace n t

se gm e n t .
394 Th e f oll ow in g con stru cti on s h a v e b e e n ta ug h t

.
1 How to con str uct a m e an pr opor ti on a l

. .
2 H ow to con s tr uct a s q ua r e e q ua l to a g i v e n r e c
.
tang l e pa r a ll e l ogra m or tr i a n gl e
, , .
3 H ow to con str uct a righ t tri an gl e or an i s os ce l es

.
tr i an gl e e q ua l to a g i v e n s ca l en e tr i an gl e .
4 How to con struct a f ou rth pr oporti on a l

. .
5 H ow to di v id e a l ine se g m en t i n to tw o parts wh i ch
.
h a v e a g i v en r ati o .
In an o t eh r f or m of gr aph i c w or k , d r a w i ng s h a v e
sca el .
h el pe d us to und e r stand th e m e a n i n g of f uncti ons e q ua ,
ti on s an d f or m ul as
, . In addi ti on to th e f or eg oin g scal e ,
d r a w in g s are pr ob a bly fam i l i ar to th e s tud en t in th e for m

of sh O
p d r a wi n g s, g e ogr a phy m a ps ,b l ue pr i n t s m ,ap s in
ra i lr oad g uid e s a n d archite cts pl a n s

,
’
.
Th e sh 0 p d r a w i n g in F i g 2 51 i ll ustra te s a us e of a s cal e
.
d ra w in g which w e sh all n ow stud y in s om e d e ta i l

, .
Th e fig ur e sh o w s th at a sca l e d ra w m g g1v e s us an a ccu

r ate pi ctur e of th e r e a l o bj e ct by pr es e n ti ng al l th e pa rts
in th e s am e o r d e r of a rr a n g e m e n t an d sh o w in g th e r e l ati v e
s ize s gra hi ca ll y by m e a n s of r o o rti on a l l in e se g m e n t
p p p s .
O bv i ously th i s f a ct r e sts on th e pr i n ci pl e of s i m i l a r i ty an d ,
th e r a ti o be tw ee n an ytw o l in e se g m e n ts in th e pl an e q ua l s
th e r a ti o b e tw e e n th e l en g th s of th e tw o corr espon din g
p a rts of t h e li b r a ry tab l e
( F i g .
B y m e ans of th e scal e d r a w in g w e are abl e to d ete r

'
m i n e th e di m e n s i ons of pa r ts of th e ta b l e e v e n th ough
th ey a re n ot g i v e n on th e pl an . In f a ct in th e case of
,
ar chi t a n d surv e y o rs s ca l e d r a wi n g s w e a re a bl e t
’ ’
e ct s o .
m e asur e li n e s w h i ch in th e r e al obj e ct a re i n acce ss i bl e .
Th i s l ast pr oce d ur e i ll ustr ate s pr e ci sely th e us e wh i ch

w e w a n t to m ak e of s ca l e d r a w i n g s in th i s ch apte r In .
m an y cas e s w e s h a ll w an t to m e a sur e dis tan ces th a t ca n

n ot b e m e a s ur e d di r e ctly w i th s t ee l t a e or o t
p h e r s u rv e y i ng
d e v i ce s ; for e x a m pl e ,( 1) th e h e igh ts of to w e rs b uil din g s , ,
or tr e es ; 2 h e w id t h of pon d s l a k e s or r i v e rs ( 3 ) h
( ) t , , t e
l en g th of b ound ary li n e s pas s i n g thr ough h ouse s b a rn s or , ,
ot h e r ob structi on s .
W e can usua l ly d ete r m i n e such d i stan ces by f oll ow in g

th e m e th od se t f orth in th e f oll ow in g outlin e
1 M e asur e e nough actual li n e s and angl es in th e r eal

.
obj ect so t h at a scal e d r a w ing of th e obj e ct can b e m ad e .

. T R I G O N O M ETR Y 34 7
2 . D ra w th e figur e
l e pre fe ra bly on sq uared pape r to sca , .
3 M e as ur e car e f ull y w i th th e com pas se s and sq ua r ed

.
a er t h e lin e s in t h e fig ur e w hi ch r e r e sent t h e in acce ss

p p p
i b l e lines of th e actual obj ect th at is be i n g con sid ere d .
F IG . 2 52 . T 11 15 F I N SH D
I E LI B R AR Y TA BL E
(C ourte sy of I n d us tri a l Ar ts Ma g a zi ne)
4 . Tr an sl ate r e m e nts
th e m easu ob tai n e d in 3
( ) into th e
i
un ts use d in m eas ur in g th e l i n e s of th e actua l figur e .
EXERCIS ES
1 . Am an walk s fr om h is h om e a r ou nd a s wa m p (F ig .
He sta rts fr om h om e atA walk s

h is mi ,
. n or th th e n,
mi .
e as t,
th e n m i south. Ho w fa r fr om .
B 12 m1
. .
h om e is h e
S ol uton i . Le t2 cm r pr
. e e se n t1 mi . Ma k e a p
8
d r wing n quar d
a o f th di t nc
s e p pe r a o e s a es a s
8
s h wn in F ig 2 5 3 Th n n th q u r d p p r
o . . e o e s a e a e
a s id f v ry m ll qu r r pr t
e o e e smi a s a e e e se n s .
( W h y T h r q uir d di t nc i th
e num b r
e e s a e s e e
F ro 2 53
f m il r pr nt d b yth gm ntAD w h i ch
.
o es e e se e e se e ,
is m ll u i t l ng H nc AD r pr
s a n nt s o . e e e e se s 1 39 m i
. . Wh v ?
34 8 G ENER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
2 . S h ow h ow th e
four ste ps g ive n in th e outli ne of Art 395 .
a e f oll o w e d in t
r h e s ol uti on of th e pre ce d i n g pr ob l e m .
3 A m a n s ta r ti n g a t a poi n tS wal k s 4 8 yd n or th a nd th e n
. .
5 6 yd ea st Fi n d th e d ir e ct d i stan ce fr om th e s toppi ngpoi n t

. .
-
to th e s ta r ti n g poi n t (L e t 1 cm 1 0 yd )
-
. . .
4 A m a n w a lk s 9 2 yd south th e n 15 4 yd east a n d th e n
. .
,
.
,
132 yd n or th H o w fa is h e fr om th e s ta r ti n g poi nt? (U se

. . r -
1 cm fo e v e ry 12 yd )
. r .
5 Tw o m e n s ta r t fr om th e sam e poi n t O n e wa l k s 1 5 m i
. . .
w e st th e n 9 m i n orth ; th e oth e r wa lk s 12 m i south th e n

,
. .
,
1 6 m i ea s t H ow fa a pa r t a e th e y 7
‘
. . r r
6 D r a w to s ca l e a pl a n o f y our de s k top a n d fi n d th e
.
d i sta n ce d i a gon a lly a cr oss (U se th e s ca l e 1 e m 1 ft) . . .
7 A b a se b a ll d i a m ond is a s q ua r e w h ose s i de is 9 0 ft
. .
B y m ea n s of a sca l e d ra wi n g fi n d th e l e n gth of a th r ow fr om ,
h om e pl ate to se cond b a s e
”
.
8 Th e b r ok e n li n e AB C
.
(F ig 2 5 4) r e pr e se nts a coun
.
t y r oa d Fi n d out h ow m uch
r .
n e a r e r itw oul d b e t o wa lk d i a
g
onally acr oss coun t ry fr om A to A mi B .
E 2 54
C th a n it is to f oll o w th e r oa d
”
‘G
.
9 A r oa db ed is s a i d to h a v e a 6 % gra de w h e n th e l e v e l
.
h e oad ri se s 6 ft in 100 ft m ea sure d h ori zon ta lly D ra w

’
of t
~
r . . .
t sca l e a r oa db e d 5 2 0 yd l on g w h i ch h a s a 6 r
o
7 g ade .
0 .
10 Th e s i de s of a tri a n gul a r ch i ck e n l t a e 2 0 ft 16 ft
. o r .
,
.
,
an d 1 8 ft f e specti e ly M ak e a s ca l e d a w m g of th i s l ot on
r v . r
sq ua r e d pa pe r a n d e sti m ate th e a r e a b y coun ti n g th e sm a ll

s q ua r e s a n d a pp ox im a t in g th e r e m a n i ng a r ea
'
r
r i .
1 1 I n a m a p dra w n to th e s ca l e of 1 to
. w h atle ngth s
will re prese nt th e b ounda ri e s of a r e ctan gul a r s h aped county -
4 0 m i l ong a nd 2 0 m i wi de
; G iv e th e a n s we r to th e ne a r e st
.
hundre dth of a n i n ch .
35 0 G EN ER AL M A TH EMATIC S
16 . A r
t ia ngul a r l ot h a s th ese d m e ns i ons :AB 2 0 yd ; i .
BC 4 0 yd ; AC . 30 yd M ak e a scal e dra wi ng of th e l ot on
.
s q ua e r d a
p pe r a nd e r m i n e it
de t s a r ea
(S i n ce th e f or m ula for .
’
th e r
a ea o f a ri a ngl e A 99 ca ll s fo a n a l ti tude th e stude nt
t —
r ,
2
will dra w on e from A to B C a n d th e n apply th e for m ul a ) .
"
17 I n or de r to m eas ur th e d i s ta n ce b e twe e n tw o pum p
. e
ing s ta ti on s A a n d B in La k e M i ch i ga n a b as e li n e C D = 1 8 8 .
ch a i n s l ong (1 ch a i n 6 6 ft) w as m ea s u e d a l on g th e s h or e . r .
Th e foll ow ing a ngl e s w e r e th e n m ea s u e d : A AC D = 132 ; °

r
AB C D : A C D B = 12 5 Dra w th e fi gur e °
.
to sca l e a n d fin d th di st
a nce fr om A t o B in fe e t
e .
*18 T w o str ee ts i nte r se ct a t a n a ngl e f

. Th e cor n r o e
l ot h a s fr on ta ge s of 2 00 ft a n d 2 30 ft on th e tw o str e e t s,an d . .
th e r e m a i n i ng tw o b oun da ry li n e s o f th e l ot a e pe r pe n di cula r _
r
to th e tw o s tr e e ts W h a t is th e l e n gth o f th e se tw o b o und ry
.
a
li ne s 9 W h at is th e ar ea of th e l ot
H N I C n tr uct th tw p rp n d i cul r w i th c m p
T . o s e s Th n
o e e a s o a ss e . e
dr wa di g n l
a a t f rm tw
o a tri n gl
so as d c
o truct th ir o o a es an on s e
tw o l ti tud
a in E es 16 b v as x ..
, a o e .
*19 A cl ass. in surv eyi ng wi s h e s
o de t
t e m r i ne th e h e i gh t of a s m ok e
st
ac k as s h own
in F ig 2 6 1 . . Th e
tra n s i l
t is p ace d a tB , a n d th e ang e l
y is f oun d t o be th e n at A, F 10 26 1
:
.
a nd th e a n gl e ai f s oun d to h e
'
i ne l on g r e d a l on g l e v e l gr oun d
'
L AB is 4 8 ft . a nd is m e asu .
Th e t a n s t r i re s ts on a t pod ri 3% ft h i g h . Fi nd th e h e i ght .
of th e ch i m n e y .
396 . Angl e of el ev a t
i on . Th e an g e s l : nd
a a g wh i ch
,
w ere m e as u e r d in Ex . 19 a re ll e d a ng les of
ca ion
eleva t .
Th e ang l e K AH i n F i g 2 6 2 . s h o w s wh a t is m e an t by a n .
a n le
g ofl ele va tion T o fi n d . . th e an gl e of e le v a tion th e
. . .
TR IG O N O M ETR Y 35 1
r
t a ns i t is pl ace d at A as in F ig 2 6 2
. . Th e te l escope
of th e tr ans i t is
firs t poi nte d h or izontally tow ard he
t
sm ok e st a ck Th e f arth e r e n d is th e n
.
r ai se d unti l th e t0 p of th e ch im ney .
K is in th e li n e of si gh t Th e ang l e .
K AH thr ough wh i ch th e te l es co e
,
p A h i t l li or zo n a ne H
turn s is th e a ngle of ele va t ion of I\
'
,
F 262 An w ro ’ e or
from A th e poin t of ob se rv ati on
’
, Ew m .
vx os
EXERCIS ES
l
rawi ngs com pas se s and pr otractor
’
By m e a n s of s ca e d , ,
s olv e t h e f oll owi n g e x e r ci se s :
1 W h e n th e a ngl e of e l e v ati on of th e s un i 2 0 a b uil d i ng

.
s
°
casts a s h a dow 82 ft l on g 0 l e ve l ground Fi nd th e h e i gh tof

. 11 .
th e b uil di n g .
2 Fi n d th e a n gl e of e l e v a ti n of th e s un w h e n a ch urch
. o
s ir e 80 ft h i g h cas t s a sh a d ow 12 0 ft l on
p .
g . .
3 A r oof S l opes 1 in pe h ori zon ta l f oot W ha t a ngl e does

. . r .
th e r oo f m ak e wi th th e h ori zont al ?
4 A li gh t on a ce r ta i n ste a m e r is k n ow n to b e 30 ft a b ov e
. .
th e wa te r An ob se rv e r on th e s h ore w h ose i n s tr um e n t is
.
4 ft a b ov e th e wate r fi n ds th e a n gl e of e l e v a ti on of th i
. s
ligh t to h e W h at is th e d i sta nce fr om th e ob se rv r to e
th e s te a m e r ?
5 W h ata n gl e d oe s a m ounta i n s l ope m a k e wi th a h ori zont

. al
p l a n e if it ri se s 1 5 0 ft i n a h ori zon t .a l d i sta n ce of on e te nth

of a m il e
6 Th e ca b l e o
. f a ca ptiv e b a ll oon i s 6 2 0 ft l ong Ass um i ng . .
th e ca b l e to b e str a i gh t h ow h i gh is th e b all oon wh e n al l

,
th e ca b l e is out if owi n g to th e wi n d th e ca b l e m a k e s an a ngl e

, ,
of 2 0 wi t h th e l e ve l gr oun d (th at is th e angl e of e le vati on

°
,
is
7 . O n th e top o f a b uil d i n g is a fl a gpol e At a poin tA on .
l e ve l gr ound 7 0 ft fr om th e b uil d i ng th e a n gl e of e l e v a ti on of
.
th e top of th
y i a gpol e is At th e sam e po i n t A th e a ngl e
, ,
of e e l vati on of th e top of th e b u d il i n g is F i nd th e h e i gh t
of th e fl a gpol e . H ow h i gh is th e b uil d i n g
397 . Angl e of depr essi on

l escope a t M in th e top . A te
of a li gh t h ouse ( F ig 2 6 3) is poi nte d h or i zon ta lly (ze r o
.
r e a din g ) an d th en th e fa r th e r e n d is l o w e r e d (d e pr e sse d )
,
un ti l th e te l e s cope po i n ts to a b oa t a t B Th e a n gl e H M B .
,
th r ough wh i ch th e te l e scope tur n s is th e a ngl of d r ession

p , e e
of t h e b oatfr om th e poin t M In F ig 2 6 3 4 11M B AM B O . . .

, .
W h y is th is true
EXER CIS ES
1 . I f th e h e i gh t
li gh th ouse (F ig 2 6 3) is 2 2 0 ft
of th e . .
a b o v e wa te r an d th e a n gl e of de pr e s s i on of th e b oa t a s se e n
, ,
from M is w h a t is th e di sta n ce
,
of t h e b oat fr om R if R C is k n ow n
to b e 4 0 ft ? .
2 . A b oat pa sse s w e r n wh i ch a to o
is a s ear ch li g h t 2 2 0 ft a b ov e sea l e v e l . .
Fi nd th e a n gl e th r ough w h i ch th e
b e a m of li gh t m ust b e de pr e sse d fr om F 2 6 3 AN G L IG E OF
D
th e h ori zon ta l so th at it m ay s h i n e
EP R E S S ’ O N
dir e ctly on th e b oat w h e n it is 300 ft fr om th e b a se of .
th e tow e r .
3 H ow fa is th e b oa t fr om th e b a se of th e towe r if th e
. r
a n gl e of d e pr e s s i on is 5 1 N te th a t th e h e i gh t of th e
°
30 o
.
li gh th ouse is k n own a n d th a t th e d i sta n ce of a b oa t out at sea

,
de pe n ds 0 th e s i ze of th e a n gl e ; th a t is th e d i sta n ce is a
11
,
fun cti on of th e a n gl e In oth e r words th e li gh th ouse k ee pe r

.
,
ne ed on ly t
s o k n ow t h e a n gl e of de pr e ss i on to d te r m i n e th e e
d i s ta n c of a b oa t a t s e a
e .
EXERCIS ES
1 . R ead the b e a ings r of rr ow li nes in F ig 2 6 5

th e a . .
2 Wi th a
. r ul e r a nd protra ctor d ra w l in e s h a vi n
‘
g th e fol
l owi ng b e ari n gs
( )
a 26
°
e as t of sout h . 37 5
°
w e st of south .
e a st of n or th west of north
°
(b ) 39 .
( ) e ;
( )
0 40
°
we stof n or th .
(f ) 3
°
e as t of s out h .
3 . Wri te in ab b re vi ate d for m th e b e ari ngs of th e li nes in Ex . 2 .
N
7 r
W E W '
E
- - -
E
399 . Bea ring of a point . Th e b ea ring o f a

p oin t B
F
( gi 2 6 6 ). fr om a po nt i
0 be ar i n g of th e lin e
is th e 0B
w i th r efe re nce to th e n or th south l ine thr ough 0
-
.
EXERCIS ES
1 I n F ig 2 6 6
. . re a d th e b e a r
in g of
( )
a fr om 0 A ( )
d 0 fr om B . .
( )
b 0 fr om A
( )
e C fr om 0 . .
(c) B fr om 0 ( f ) 0 fr om C . .
W “
2 P o i n t A is
. m i ea st .
a nd m i n or th of B . Fi n d .
th e dis ta n ce fr om A to B W h a t .
a n gl e does AB m a k e wi t h th e
nor th south li n e th r ough B 7
‘
-
W h at is th e b e ari ng of B
fr om A ? of A from B ?
.
F 2 66 IG .
3 S k etch th e fi gur e for Ex 2

.
.
a n d s h ow wh y t h e a n gl es a ppea ri n g a s r e sul ts for Ex 2 .

TR I GO N O M E R Y T 35 5
4 . Th e b e a fortB from A b oth on th e s eacoa t i

ri ng of a , s ,
s
N 5 5 W An e ne m y s v e ss e l a ta nch or off th e coas tis ob se rv e d

° ’
. .
fr om A to b e a r nor th we st; fr om B n rth e a st Th e forts a e ,

o . r
kn own to b e 8 m i a pa rt Fi nd th e di sta nce from e ach for t to

. .
th e v esse l .
400 l . Th e im ita tions of sca el

r a w ings B y th i s ti m e th e d .
stud en t pr ob a bly ap r e ci a t
p es th e f a ct t h a t a s ca l e d r a wi ng
h as its li m i tati on s H e w oul d pr ob ab ly n ot agr e e to b uy
.
a t r i an g ul a r d o wn tow n l ot wh ose a l ti tud e an d ar e a h ad

-
b e en d e te r m in e d by a sca l e d r aw in g If a m ill i m e te r on .
th e sq ua r e d pa pe r r epr e se n ts of a m il e a s l i gh t s l i p ,
of t h e pe n cil or com pa sses m e an s di sas te r to a ccur acy .
S ca l e d r a w in g is use d e x ten s i v e l y b y th e sur v e y or a n d

e n g ine e r in t h e f oll ow i ng w ay s : ( 1) as a m e th od of esti
mat ing pr ob abl e r esul ts ; ( 2 ) a s a h e lp to cl e a r thin ki ng
a b outt h e r e l a ti on s of l i n e s an d an g l e s in v olv e d in a ge om et
ric d r a w i n g ; 3 a v a l ua bl e ch e ck on r e su l t s ob t a i n e d by
( ) as
mo r e po w e rful m e th od s B ut a s a m a tte r of f actw e ne ed a

.
m or e r e fi n e d m e th od to d e te r m i n e lin e s an d angl e s wh e r e
a h i gh d e gr e e of accur a cy is d e s i r ab l e W V e sh all n ow pro .
oe cd t o con s id e r a far m or e e ffi ci en t m e t h od of d e te rm in ing

such li n e s an d a n gl es M ost stud en ts w i l l fi n d th e m eth od
.
fasci n ati n g b e cause th e soluti on is si m pl e and th e resul ts

,
obt a i n e d ar e as accur a t e as t h e l in e s an d a n gl e s wh i ch are

di r e ctly m e asur e d .
T RIGO N O M ET R Y
401 . S im il a r righ t t ia ng es r l
i m i l ar
. A fe w ex e r ci ses on s
ri gh t tr i an g l e s w i ll h e l p th e stud en t to un d e r stan d th e
n e w an d m or e a ccur ate m e t h od of d e te r m i n in g lin e s an d
an g l e s Th i s m e th od m ay b e use d i nd e pend ent of sca l e
.
d r aw in gs is sh orte r in m ost case s an d l ay s th e f oun d ati on

, ,
for futur e m a th e m ati ca l w ork .

G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATI C S
:
EXER CIS ES
i W th pr o tra ctor r ri gh ta n gl ed tr iangl

'
1 th e con s t u ct a -
e
ha vi ng an ang e l of L e tte r th e fi gure a s sugge ste d in

F ig 2 6 7 M e a s u e th e n e s a , b , a n d 0 L e t
. . r li .
2 cm e p e se n t1 un t
. r r nd t h e a ue o f th e i . Fi v l
b
r , a nd f t
53 ; l l
0
ati os i o tw o de ci m a p a ce s .
2 r e y our re sul t wi th oth e r i n A

. C om pa ii e
'
b e r s f th cl ass D id a ll m e m b e r s f th e cl a s s
o e .
F
o
1G . 26 7
u e th
s s m e l e n gt h fo th e b ase s A e a ny
e a r r
tw f th e tri a n gl s d ra w n n e ce s a rily of th e s m e s ize S h ow

‘
o o e s a
(l
w h y th e r e ul t bta i ne d f s o or —~
s h oul d b e th e s a m e num be r as
th e es u ts r l of y ur cl s sm a te s o a .
3 . P r o ve th t if tw ig h t a o r A
tr ia n gl es h a v e an a cu te a ng l e
F ro . 2 68
f
o on e e q u a l to a n a cu te a n gl e o f th e oth e r, th e r a tios 0 f th e ir corr e~
s
p ond in g s id es a r e e
q r oporti on s (U se F ig ua l . IV r ite tw o p . .
4 C oul d you dr a w a ri gh t tri an gl e wi th a ngl e A in

°
. 37
3
S
w h i ch d s n ot e qua l appr ox m ate ly oe o P r ov e i r
5
.
H 1N T . Th e f a ctth at
c
2
0
g h a t i n e v e r y ri gh t
m e an s tri a n gl e th e
t
s id e o
ppo s te i a 37
°
a n gle i s a ppr ox i m a te ly a s l on g a s t h e hypo te n use .
5 . A b a ll oon Ble ( g
F i 2 6 l on g
9) i s a
. s te n e d b y a ca b f 2 00 ft .
-
O wi n g to th e wi l l r i lly st a igh t a n d
nd t h e ca b e is h e d p a ctca r
m a k e s a 37 a n gl e wi th th e h o i z n t a l H w h i g h is th e b a ll oon
°
r o . o
S ol ution T h i tri n gl i i m il r t v ry t i
. s a e s s a o e e r
an gl dr wn b y th cl
e a in E 1 Pr v e a ss x . . o e .
a
Th r f r e e o e
2 00
S lvi n go 12 0 ft
, a .
N t th t th
o e l uti i
a ce d i n gl yei m pl so
F
on
2 69
s ex e s e
IG
( nol y tw o q u ti ) n d th t t h e ccur cy
a fon s a a e a a o
'
.
r ult do n t n w d p n d up n th ccu acyof F ig 2 6 9

'
th e es es o o e e o e a r . .
1 . C onstr uct
righ tan gl ed tr ian gl e wi th a ngl e A (see
a -
F ig 2 70) e q ua l to
. M ea sur e 6 a nd Fi nd th e q uoti e nt 0 .
Zto tw o de ci m al pl a ce s C om pare th e r e sul ts wi th th ose of

)
.
th e ot e h r m e m b e r s of th e clas s .
2 . S h ow th at al l r e sul ts ough t to ag ee r i l
to tw o de c m a
[
place s ra ti o (F ig 2 70) is ca ll e d th e c in
Th e os e of th e a n gl e A
3
. . .
Th e a b b r e vi a ti on fo
“ cos i n e is cos
r Th u c 43 .
’
s os
°
a ppr ox T h i h a t in a n y ri gh ta n g l e d tri a n gl e th
( ) s m ea n s t
.
-
e
h e a n gl e 4 3 is a b out 1 6 6 a l on g a s th
7 3 °
s id e a dj cen t t o t
a “
s e
h ypote nus e .
3 Fi n d th e cosi n e of
°
. 6 87 0
4 C om pa r e th e r e sul ts fo Ex 3 wi th th e ta b l e
. r f c in e s. o os
in Art 41 0 . .
405 . Tangent W e sh a ll n ow in tr od uce a

of a n l
ang e .
th ir d i m portan t r ati o con ne cte d w i th s i m il a r r i gh ttr i an gl es .
Hi stor ica ll y th e ta n g en t ra ti o cam e fir st IV e s h a ll h a v e .
occas i on t o l e a r n m or e a bout it .
INTRODUCTOR Y EXERCISES
Cl
1 . I n F ig 2 70, w h a t is th e va l ue of -
C om pa r e y our re sul t
b
'
wi th th e r e sul ts ob ta i ne d b y oth e r m em b e rs of th e c a ss l .
2
r
a g ee
.
.
S h ow th a t all th e r e sul ts ob ta i ned fer
g in Ex 1 . s h oul d
2
Th e r ati o 5 is ca ll e d th e ta ng ent of an gl e A . In spe a k
ing of g e n t of 43 w e m e an th at th e s id e oppos i te
th e tan
°
an g l e A is 9 3 ap r ox of th e l en th of th sid e ad j ace n t
T6 6 ( p ) g e .
” “ ”
Th e a bbr e via ti on for ta n g en t is tan Th us tan 4 5 1 .
,
°
.
TR IG O N O M E R Y T 35 9
EXER C IS ES
1 . Fi nd th e t
a n ge n t o f 45
2 . C om pa re th e re sul ts of Ex 1 . wi th th e ta b le of ta n ge n ts
in Art . 410 .
406 . Trigonom et ic ratios r . S ov i ng l a riang

t le . Th e ra ti os
at h 6
C
3
5
, an d
5 a re ca ll ed rigon om e t
t ri c ra tios. W e shal l n ow
p r oceed to s h o w th at t h e use of th e se r a ti os gr eatly

s im pl i fi e s th e s ol uti on of m an y pr ob l e m s in
v ol v in g i n di rect m easurem e nts Byth e i r use .
an y pa r t of a r i gh t t ri angl e can b e foun d if

o pa r t s ( n ot bot h a ngl e s b id h
an
y t w ) es es t e
r i gh t an g l e are g i v en Th i s pr oce ss is ca ll e d
'
s al vin9 the t
r ia n le
y .
F ro . 2 71
407 . S um m a ry of defi nitions . Th e foll ow
ing out n e li w i ll be found con v e n i en t to th e s tud en t in
h e lpi ng h im to r em e m b e r th e d e fi n i ti on s ( se e F i g 2 71) .
1 . i
s n A
h ypoten use
dj
2 . co s A é s id e a a cen t
‘7 ’Wp O tefl U Se
3 ta n A
1; j
s ide a d a cen t
408 . Trigonom etric ratios cl ea r ex a m pl es of th e functi on
idea . Ei th e r
by y our own cr ud e efi orts at b ui l ding a tabl e
or by a s tud y o f th e ta bl e of r a ti os g i v e n it is e as y to see ,
th at th e v al ue of th e r ati o ch an g e s as th e an g l e ch ang e s ,
h
t at si a tr ig on om
,
e tr i c r a ti o d e p e n d s fo r its v a l u e u pon
36 0 G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATI C S
th e s zei of th e a n gle . H e nce th e r ati os f urn i sh us w i th

on e r e cl e ar e x a m pl e of the functi on id e a We
mo . m ay
th e r e f or e r e f e r to th e m as trigonom etr ic f unctions .
H I S T O R IC A L N o r a ri c r ti ugg t d vn . T ri g on o m e t a os a re s es e e e
i n th Ah m P pyr u
e eswh i ch h b n ttd
a s , as as ee s a e ,
m y i t lf b
a c py fse m th r c ll cti n wri tt n b f r
e a oth o so e o e o e o e e o e
-
ti m f M In d li n g w i th py r m i d Ah m m k
"
e o o se s . u f ea a s es a es se o
o n eti th t m y p
ra i b ly c rr p n d r ugh l y t u c i
o a a nd o ss o es o o o o r os n e a
ta n ge n t .
Th e fi r stto m a k e an
yn otewo rthy progre s s in th e de v e 10 pm e n to f
ri
t gon om e t ry was H i ppa rch us ,
-
r k
a G ee ,
who liv ed a b o ut 15 0 B C . .
He stud e d a t i Al e x a n dri a , and l t r r tir

a e e ed to th e il s a nd of h od e s
R ,
wh er e ri n ci p l w rk H w b l t
h e did h i s p t a o . e as a e o c l cul
a a e th e l e n gth
o f y r a wi h i i m i n ut
ea to t n s x es .
Th H i n d u contri b ut d t th
e s rly d v l pm nt f th ci n c e o e ea e e o e o e s e e,
fr m b ut A 5 00 n d th Ar b dd d m t i ll y t th ir w rk
o a o . D .
, a e a s a e a er a o e o
fr m b ut A D 800 t A D 1000
o a o . . o . .
R gi m n t n u (
e o J ho n M ull r 1436
a s G rm or fr d o an e , a e an, ee
th e sub j ct fr m i t d ir ct
e tr n m i c l c n n cti n n d m d i t n
o s e as o o a o e o a a e a
i n d p n d n t ci n c
e e e s e e .
In th i t n th c ntury th ub j ct d v l p d l wl y b ut in th
e s x ee e e s e e e o e s o , e
se v nt n th c ntury it m d
e ee v ry d ci d d dv n c d u t th
e a e a e e e a a e, e o e
i nv n ti n f l g ri th m m nti n d l t r n d t th gr t i m pr v
e o o o a s, e o e a e , a o e ea o e
m n t f l g b r i c y m b li m wh i ch m d i t p
e o a e a i b l t wri t tri g
s o s a e o ss e o e o
n m t i c f r m ul
o e r i i m pl m
o r T i g n m try i th f rm
as n a s e an n e . r o o e n e o
th t w
a k n w it m y b
e o i d t h v b n fully d v l p d c pt
a e sa o a e ee e e o e , ex e
for s li gh t ch n g i ym b l i th v nt nth c ntury

a es n s o s, n e se e ee e .
409 l e of trigonom etri cra tios of a ngl es fr om 1 to

. Tab
°
Th e s tud e n t s h oul d n ow b e com e f am i l i a r w i th th e ta bl e

on t h e f oll o w in g p ag e Th e r ati os are in m ost cas e s on ly .
appr ox i m a t e b ut are accur a te e n oug h for a ll or din a ry

,
w ork .
4 10 Th e use of a tri gonom etry ta b l e

. T h e pr obl e m s .
b eg inn in g on pa ge 36 2 are inte n d e d to furn i sh th e Stud ent

pra cti ce in th e use of th e ta b l e
“
.
G EN ER AL M A TH EM ATIC S
EXERCIS ES
1 . A b a ll oon B (F ig . 2 72 ) is a nc o e d h r to th e g ound a t a r
i
po n t A b y a ope , m a ng a n a ng e r ki l of 5 7
°
th th e g ound wi r .
i
Th e po n tC 0 11 th e g oun d d e ct un de th e b a r ir ly r ll oon is 146 ft .
fr
om A As sum n g th e ope to b e s t a gh t, fi n d
. i r r i
th e h e i gh t of th e b a ll oon .
S ol ution . Le t a h e i gh t o f b ll a oo n .
4
1
T hen ta n ge n t o f 5 7
°
1 6
B ut b y th e ta b l e, Art . 4 10,
°
ta n 5 7
a
H e n ce o
14 6
So lvi n g f or a , a ft
.
N O T l Z Th e-
. fi gur e doe s n ot n e e d to b e d r a w n a ccu a te r ly , for our
r e su lt s a re ob ta i ind
pe n de n t of i t Th e so ut on i s b e
ned e ly . l i ri f and
de pe n ds for r y
its a ccu a c upo n _th e a ccu a c o f th e a n g e th e r y l accu
r cya of the l e ngt h of th e li n e AC ,

an d th e
'
a ccur a c yof th e ta nge n tta b le .
2 . Th e l
a n g e of e e l vati on of a n r l
a e op a n e a t a po n t i A on
le ve l gr ound is Th e po i n t C on th e gr oun d dir e ctly

un de r th e r l
a e op a n e is 315 yd .fr m A Fi n d th e h e i gh t of
o .
th e a erO pl a n e .
3 . Th e l e n gth of a ki te st n g ri is 2 10 yd . a nd th e a n g e of l
l va ti on of th e ki t is
e e Fi n d th e h e i gh t of th e
e ki te ,
suppos i n g th e li ne f th e ki te s tri n g to b e stra i gh t o .
4 A pol e 2 0 ft in l ngth s ta n d s v e r ti ca lly in a h ori zon ta l

. . e
a re a an d t,
h e l e ngth of its s h a d ow is ft Fi n d th e an gl e .
of e l e v ati on of th e sun .
H N T F i n d th v l u f th t n g nt 9 Th n l k in th t b l
I . e a e o e a e e oo e a e
b
to w h t n gl
se e h a t n g n t c rre pon di ng t th
a e asv lu f a a e o s o e a e o
g It m y b n c ary f yu to ppr x i m t i nc th t b l i
e e e s sa or o a o a e, s e e a e s
b
n t c l cul t d f
o a m i n ut A k y ur i n truct r t h w y u m r
a e or es . s o s o o s o o a o e
c m pl t t b l
o f tri g
e e m tri c r ti
a e o ono e a os .
TR I G O N O M ETR Y 36 3
5 . A tre e is b r ok e n b y th e
wi n d so that its two par ts form
wi th th e ground a ri gh ta ngl e d tri angl e Th e uppe r pa r tm ake s
-
.
a n a n gl e o f 5 5 wi th th e gr ound a nd th e di stance 0 1 th e
° '
, 1
gr ound fr om th e tr unk to th e top of th e tree is 5 7 ft Fi nd .
th e l e n gth of th e tr e e .
6 A cir cul a r po l h a s a pol e ta nd i ng v e r ti ca lly a t it

. o s s
ce n te r a n d its top is 5 0 ft a b ov e th e urface

, At a poi nt in
. s .
th e e dge of th e po l th e a ng l e s ub te n de d b th l i 25
°
o
y p e o e s
Fi nd th e r ad i u a nd th a r a of th e p l
s e e oo .
7 A l a dd r 35 ft l n g l e a n s a ga i n s t a h ou
. e . o a nd r ea ch e se s
to a poi n t ft fr om th e gr oun d Fi nd th a ngl e b e twe e n

. . e
th e l a dde r a n d th e h ouse a n d th e d i t a n ce t h e f t f th s oo o e
l a dde r i fr om th e h ouse
s .
8 M ea sur e tw o a dj ace nt edge s of y our d s k o

. f a ec e r o r
ta n gula r ta b l s y y our s t
e, udy t
a ab l e Fi nd th e a ngl es th atth e .
d i a gon a l m a k e s wi th th e e dges (1) b y dr a wi ng a n a ccura te

fi gure a nd m e asuri n g th e a ngl e wi th a p o r
tr a ct r ; (2 ) b y use of th e tri gon om e tri c r ati os

o .
9 Th e tr ea d of a ste p on a ce rta i n s ta irway

.
is 1 1 m W l de th e ste p ri se s 8 in a b ov e th e n e xt
. .
l ow e r step Fi nd th e angl e atwh i ch th e sta irway

.
ri se s (1) b ym ea n s of a pr otractor an d an accurate

fi gur e; ( 2 ) b y m ea n s of a tri gonom e tri c rati o F 2 73
.
IG .
10 To fi nd th e d i sta n ce a cr os s a l a k e (F ig 2 73)
. .
b etwe e n tw o poi n t A a n d C a surve y or m ea sur e d off 7 1 ft n

s ,
. o
a li ne B C pe r pe n di cul a r t o AC He .
th e n f oun d L C AB : Fi nd AC .
1 1 Th e W as h i n gton M on um e nt
.
is 5 5 5 ft h i gh H ow fa r a pa r t a e B
. .
r
tw o ob serv e r s w h o fr om poi nts due F m 2 74 .
we stof th e m onum e nt ob serv e its

a ngl e s of e l e va ti on to b e 0
2 a n d 38 r e s pe ctiv e ly (S°
e e F ig 2 74 °
.
Hm F i nd A0
r . .
Th “
00 0
e tn a
v l u f A( 7 1; a e o
36 4 G EN E RAL M A TH EM ATIC S
*12 A m an .
an d n g on
st i
rive r ob se rves th a tth e th e b an k of a
a n gl e O f e l e v a tion of th e top of a tr ee on th e Oppos i t e b a nk is

e
w h e n h e re tire s 5 5 ft fr om th e edge of th e rive r th e .

,
a n gle of e l e va t i on is Fi n d th e h e i gh t of th e tree a nd th e
wi dth of th e rive r T .
*13 . F r om th e
s um m t i of a h ill
M 1 m il e
(F ig 2 7 5
.
) th e e a re r
F iG 2 75
rv
.
O b se ed t w o con
’
se cutiv e il e stone s on a stra i gh t h ori zonta l r oa d r unn i n g fr om

m
th e b a s e of th e h ill Th e a n gl e s of d e pr e ss i on a e f oun d to b e
. r
a n d 8 r e s pe ctiv e ly Fi nd th e h e i gh tof th e h ill

’
° °
13 . .
H IN T . r
C on st uct T C _L C ill z
u
Le t
T he n ta n ( W h y
an d ta n ( Wh y? )
S ub t a ct n g r i 1
( ) fr om ta n 82
°
ta n 77
°
C on sul t th e ta b l e On pa ge 36 , i
sub st tute , a n d s ol v e for h .
*14 A r a ilr oa d ha vi n g a h un dr e d foot ri gh t O f w ay cuts

.
-
th r ough a fa r m e r s fi e l d a s s h own i n F ig 2 76 I f th e fi e l d is
’
. .
r e ctan gul a r a nd th e m e asu r e m e n ts

a re
‘
Tmade a s s
i
h ow n ,
fi nd th e n um
b er Of S q uare r ods occup e d i b y th e

ri gh tof w aya n d th e a sse sse d da m age
if th e la n d is a ppra i sed at $ 2 00
a n a cr e .
F 2 76 IG .
15 A s h i p h as sa il e d due s outh
.
mi H ow fa is th e sh i p south of
'
we st a di sta nce of . r
th e sta r ti n g poi nt H ow fa is it w est of th e sta rti n g poi n t r

G EN ERAL M ATH EM AT IC S
S UMM AR Y
412 .Th i s ch apte r h as taugh t th e m ean in g of th e fol
l ow m g w or d s a n d phr as e s : s cal e d ra w in g surv e y o r 8 ch a in
’
, ,
st eel t a e a n gl e of e l e v a t i on an gl e of d e r e s s i on b ea r ing
p
p , , ,
O f a li n e be a ri n g of a poi n t s ine of an a ng l e cos i n e of an

, , ,
a ngl e, tan g e n t of a n a ng l e tr i g on om e tr i c r a ti os or tr ig o
,
n om e t ric f un ct i on s solv in g a tr i an g le
, .
4 13 S ca l e d r a w i n gs w e r e use d as a m e an s of in di r e ct
'
m e as ur e m e n t .
4 14 A sca l e d r a w i n g is use ful in m akin g esti m ates

.
of a n g l e s l in e s an d a r e as in g e ttin g a cl e a r pi ctur e in
, , ,
m i n d of th e r e l ati on of th e pa rts th at m ak e up th e figur e ,
a n d in ch e cki n g t h e accuracy of an a l g e b ra i c sol uti on .
H ow e v e r it is n ot as br i e f an d accur a te as th e a l g e br a i c
,
'
s ol uti on .
415 If tw o r igh t tr i an g l es h a v e an acute an gl e of on e

.
e q ua l t o an acut e a n g l e of t h e oth e r th e ra ti os O f th e i r ,
corr e spon di n g s id e s are e q ua l .
416 Th e ch apte r con ta in s a tab l e of tr i g on om e tr i c r a ti os

.
of a n l es f r om 1 t o 89 an d co rr e ct t hr e e d e ci m a l l
g
° °
o t ac
.
p es .
4 17 Tr i g on om etr i c r ati os f ur n i sh us w i th a pow e r f ul

.
m eth od of s ol v in g tr i ang l e s .
4 18 Th e a r e a O f a tr i an g l e m ay b e e x pr e sse d by th e
.
b c s 1n A
form ul a T
2
4 19 . Th e r
a e a of a pa r a ll e l ogra m e q ua s l r
th e p od uct of
tw o sid e s an d th e i
s n e of th e an gl e l b w
i n c ud e d e t ee n th ese
tw o s id es .
C HAP TER X V
THEOR Y AND AP P LICATION OF S IM ULTANEOUS LINEAR

EQUATIONS ; CLAS S IF IED LIS TS OF V ER B AL P R OBLEM S
420 . Tw o unk now ns ; so l uti on b y th e gra ph ic m eth od .
In v
s ol v m
g e r b al
pr ob l e m s it is som e ti m e s d e si r a b l e to
us e tw o un k n ow n s Th i s ch apte r a i m s to tea ch thr e e
.
m e th od s wh i ch th e pupil m ay appl y to s uch pr obl e m s Th e .
gr aphi c m e th od is
s h o w n in t h e dis
cussion of th e fol
l ow i ng pr obl e m :
In a b ase b al l ga m e
b e twe e n th e C h i cago
C ub s a nd th e N e w
Y or k G i an ts ,
th e
C ub s m ad e four
mo r e h i ts th a n th e
G i a n ts . How m an y
h i ts d id e ac h te am
ma ke ?
If w e l e t it re pre
se n t th e nu mb e r oi
F m 2 78
h its m a de b yth e
.
C ub s
a nd y th e n um be r m a de b y th e G i a n ts, he n
t th e e qu ti
a o n a; g 4
r
e x p e sse s th e con d t on ii a s se t fo rth i n th pr b l e o em .
Ob vi
ly th r ous e e a re a n y n um b r ef p ib l
O oss e com i n ti n uch
b a o s s
th t th
a num b r f h i t
e e o s m a de b y o n e te a m m a y b e f u
o r m r th n
o e a
th n um b r m d b y th
e e a e e ot e h r te a m . Th i s is cl
ea rl y h wn i th
s o n e
gr ph f th
a oqu ti e e a on x y 4 in F i g 2
. 7 8 .
36 7
G EN ER AL M A TH EMATIC S
EXER CIS ES
1 . Fr om th e g ra ph in F ig 2 78 fi nd th e n um b e of h ts
. r i
m ad e b y th e G i a n ts , as s um n g tha t ti
h e C ub s m a de 6 ; 8 ;
10 ; 15 ; 2 0 .
2 w th at e ve ry poi n t (wi th i nte gr al

. S ho coo d n a tes r i ) on th e
line will give a poss i b le com b i n a ti on of h i ts s uc h th a ta: y+ 4 .
NO T E . By t h i s ti m e th e stude n t is vi nc d th t no doub t co n e a a
de fi n i te so l uti on of th e pr b l mo tat d i i m p
e i b l b c u it
as s e s os s e, e a se
i nv lv tw unk n wn
o es o o s an d w h v giv n b ut n f ct An th r f ct
e a e e o e a . o e a
w h i ch h ould h v b n s a e ee
i ncl ud d in th pr b l m
e e o e
i th tth t t l n um b r f
s a e o a e O
h i t m d b y b th t m
s a e o ea s
w a s 18 .
If w e wri t e th e qu e a
i
t on : y =18 a , ex pr ing
e ss
th i se c n d f ct
s o y a , a n d stud
i t b y m e a n s o f th e gr a ph ,
F ig 2 79 w e se e th a tth e re
.
,
i s m or e th a n on e po ss i
b l e com b i n a ti o n such th a t
th e tota l n um b e r o f h i ts
m ad e i s 1 8 .
3 . Fi nd fr om th e g ph ra
F IG 2 79
r
.
in F i g 2 79 th e . num b e
of h t i
s m ad e b ythe G ia nts if th e C ub s m ad e 4 ; 6 ; 9 ; 12 ; 15 .
4 S h ow th at e v e ry po i n t (w i th i n te gr a l coor d i n ates ) on th e
.
li ne will giv e a possi b l e sol uti on for th e e q uati on a: g 18 .
W e h av e l in fi n i te l uti
'
NO TE . n ot b e en ab e to Ob ta a de so on ,
b e ca use w e h ave b e e n
i d ri n g th tw f ct b utth b con s e e o a s a o e all g m a e
sep r t ly T h tw
a a e quati .
pr diff r n t r l ti n
e o e on s ex e ss e e e a o s b tw n
e ee
th tw un k n wn i n th b ll g m
e o T h i m an th t w m u t fi n d
o s e a a e . s e s a e s
on p ir f n um b r wh i ch w ill
e a o ti fy b th qu ti n an d t d e s sa s o e a o s, o o
th i ws m u t gr ph b th q u ti n
e n th
s m h t t th
a m o e a o s o e sa e s ee o e sa e
c l h wn in F ig
s a e, a s s o .
sol uti on is sa id
l v e d wh en th e corr ectv a l ue s of th e
to b e so
un k n ow n s are d e t e r m in e d In th e graph i c m eth od th e .
cob rdin ate s of th e po in t of int e rsecti on f urnis h th e sol u

ti on Th e f oll ow in g is a s um m ary of th e graph i c m eth od
.
of sol v ing a a ir of s im ul t an e ous li ne ar e uat i on s

p q
1 . Grap h b oth e
quations to th e sa m e sca le .
2 . F ind the poi nt of in tersection o f the t

wo lin es ob t
a ine d
1 .
3 Estim a te
. el
a s a ccurat
y as
p ossi b l e the x -
m l ue an d th e
y va l ue of th is p oint
-
.
4 C he ck b y sub stituting in b oth

. e
q uations .
EXERC IS ES
'
1 . So lve th e foll wi ng sys te m s
o b y th e g ra ph i c m e th od a nd
h k
c ec ea c h
2 x + 3 y= 2 3 , 5y 3m — z 19 ,
=
c ( ) e
2
x y 3 7 y+ 4 x
—
.
2 y + 3 az= 13, 15 + 8 y= 1,
x
f
( )
5 x —
4 y= 1 . 5y 6x —
8 —
. 1 0 a: 7 y= —
24 —
.
2 W ha t d iffi cul ti e s d id you h a v e in fi n di n g th e corre ct

.
va l ue s f th e coord i na t of th e poi n t of i nte rs ecti on in th e

or es s
pr ob l e m s of Ex 1 .
In A sin gle
'
deter m ina te i in tw o
'
42 3 eq ua ti ons e q ua t on
‘
’
. .
un k n o wn s is s a ts i fi e d by an in fi n i te ( un lim i t
e d ) n um b e r
of v a l ues , but th e r e is n o on e
p r
ai of v al ue s wh i ch s ati sfy
it to th e ex c
l us i on of a ll th e h
ot e rs ; for e x am pl e , th e e q ua
ti on x + y= 4 is s a ts i fi ed
v a l ues b y as m a n y pairs of as
a re r e r e n te d b ch di ti t i n t on th gr a h of
p es
y e a s n c po e p .
th e e q uati on + y= 4 S uch a n e q uati on is ca l l e d

r
e . an
ind eter m in a te e q ua ton i .

SIMU L TAN EO U S LIN EAR EQ U A IO N S T 371
EXERCIS ES
Fi n d th re e sol uti on s
1. for ea c h of th e foll owin g in de te r
m i na t
e e q ua ti on s
( c) y
—
z = 6 .
( ) e 5w
( f) y 5
(d) 2 x —
4y z 3 . 3x —
4
424 . C ontra di ctory eq ua ti on s . Its om e ti m e s h appe n s th a t

e v e n th ough w e h a v e tw o e q ua ti on s in two un k n ow n s it ,
is sti l l i m poss i b l e to obta in a di stin ct or a un i q ue so l uti on ,
as is sh o wn by t h e f oll ow i n g e x a m pl e :
Fi n d tw o num b e r s such tha tth e ir d iffe r e n ce is 12 a nd such

th a ttwi ce th e fir st d i m i n i sh e d b ytwi ce th e se con d is e q ua l to 14 .
F IG . 2 81 . TH E G R A PH or A P AI R O F CO N TRA D I C TO R Y EQ UA TI O NS
If w e l e t ya de n ote one n um be r a nd
y th e ot e h r the n from
, th e
fi r st con di tion : g/ 12 ( 1)
,
1 .
F r om th e se con d con ii
d t on , 2 w 2 y z 14 .
In o rd r e to stud y th e pr b l m fur th r w
o e will c n tructe e o s th e
g r ph
a s Of
(1) and 2
( ) wi th r f r nc to th
e e e m c ordi
e e sa e o na te
a xe s
(F ig .
372 GEN ERAL M ATH EM AT I C S
EXER CIS ES
1 W ha t re l a ti on see m s to e x i st b e twe e n th e tw o li ne s o f
.
th e gr a ph in F ig 2 81 .
2 A e th e r e th e n a ny tw o num b e r s w h i ch will sa ti s fy th e
’
. r , ,
con d i ti on s of th e pr ob l e m giv e n 0 1 th e pr e ce d i ng pa ge 1
A yste m of e q ua ti on s w h i ch e x pre sses a

s r di ctory con t a
r e l ati on be tw e e n th e un k n ow n s is ca ll e d a sy s t em oi -
cont r a dict r i n c n sisten t e ua ti on s Th gr a h con s i st

or
y o , q e
o
p , s .
of t w o ( a t l e as t) pa r a l l e l li n e s Th e d e fi n i ti on s ugg es ts .
th a t in a v e r b a l pr ob l e m on e of th e g i v e n con di ti on s is
n ot t rue .
42 5 Identi ca l eq ua tions A ty pe of pr ob l e m wh i ch h a s n o
. .
un i q ue s o l uti on b ut ad m i ts of m an y sol uti on s is i ll us tr a t ed
by th e f o ll ow i n g pr obl e m
D ivi de a pol e 10ft l on g i n to tw o pa r ts so th a t 3 t
-
. i m e s th e
fir s tpar t i n crea se d b y 3 ti m e s th e se con d pa r tis e q ual to 30 .
If w l t e d yd
e t th l
x an gth f th tw p t th c n di ti n
eno e e en o e o a r s, e o o s
of th pr b l m
e o r pr t d b y th qu ti n
e a re e e se n e e e a o s
x y 10,
3x 3y 30 .
EXER C IS ES
1 G ra ph th e
qua ti on s 1 0 nd 3 : 3 y 30 t
.
y ea as o a
th e sa m e sca l e I nte r pr e tth e gr a ph

. .
2 D ivi de th e e q ua ti on 3 x
. 3 y z 30 b y 3 a n d com pa r e
th e r e s ul t wi th th e e q ua ti on y 10 a .
Eq uati on s lik e v e w hi ch ex pr ess th e

1
( ) an d ab o ,
sa m e r e l a ti on b e tw e e n th e un k n ow n s a re ca l l e d iden tica l , ,
dep enden t or e q uiva len t e q uati on s

,
L ik e a n i n d e te rm in at
e .
e q uati on th e y h a v e an in fi n i te n um b er of sol uti on s b ut

,
374 G EN ER AL MAT H EMATIC S
42 9 . Elim ina ti on b y addi ti on or sub tra cti on . Th e tw o
pr ob l e m s wh i ch f oll ow ill us tr at
e th e m e t h od of e li m i nati on
by addi ti on or sub tr acti on .
So lve
S ol uti on . M ul ti pl yi n g (1) b y 3 so a s to m a k e
n um e ri c ll ya th e sa m e i n b ot h e q ua ti o n s ,
3 x + 3 y= 1 8
2x 3 y= 2
—
Ad di ng , 20
i
S ub st tut n g 4 fo r i x in 4 y 6 .
So lvi ng fo r y , y 2 .
4 2 6,
C h e ck . 8 6 9
Thi s m e th o d is ca ll e d e l im in a tion by a ddition . W b y?

So lve 3x 4 y= 1 ( )
1
2 x + 5y 2
( )
S ol ut on i . Mul tiply i n g ( 1) b y 2 and 2
( ) b y 3 so as to m a k e th e
coe ffi ci e nts Of n um e ri c ll y e q ua l
r
. a ,
6 :
a 8y
6 1 15 y
r
S ub t a ct n g i , 23 y
y
S ub st tut n g i i —
1 fo r yi n ( 1) , 3 a : 4 =1 .
3x
I :
a nd
Th is m e th od is ca ll e d elimina tion bysub tr a ction .

T
S I M U L AN EO U S L I N EAR EQ U ATI O N S 375
430 . Outline of e l im ination by a ddit

ion or sub tra ct on i .
T0 lv e tw o sim ul tan e ous lin e a r e q uati ons in v ol v in g tw o

so
un k n ow ns by th e m e th od of a ddi ti on or sub tr acti on pr ocee d

‘
as f ol l o w s
1 . M ultip ly ij , n ecessa ry, h e m em b er s

t f
o th e fir st a nd
ions
secon d e ua t
q by such n um b er s a s w ill m a k e th e coefi ci en ts
o f on e o f th e unknowns num er ica l ly th e sa m e in b oth eq ua tion s .
th e coe lcie nt
fi h a ve th e
‘
2 . If s sa m e sig ns, sub tr a ct on e
e
q u i
aton fr om th e h
ot er ; if th ey h a ve opp osite signs, a dd
th e e
q u i
atons . Th is e l im in a tes one un know n .
3 S olve th e
. e
qu i
at on i ng
resul t f r om st
e
p 2 for th e unkn own
w h ich it con ta ins .
4 . S ub s titute t
he v a lue o f th e un k now n f ound in ste
p 3 in
e ith er e
q uation con ta ining b oth unkn own s a nd sol ve for th e
se con d unknown .
5 . C h eck th e solution by sub s t

ituting in b oth of the giv en
e
qu i
atons th e v a lues f ound .
EXERC IS ES
lve
So a nd h k
c ec th e foll wi n g sy ste m s
o th e m et h od of
a dd i ti on or sub r
t a ct o n i
3 x + 2 y = 7,
2 x + 3 y= 8 .
I
I
4w —
3y —
1
Il w y
—
I
5 m + 8 y= 42 .
2 x = 3 y + 1, 2 3
376 G EN ER AL M A TH EM ATI C S
G EO M ETR I C EX E R C I S ES F OR AL G EB R AI C S O L U TI O N
13 . Th e com b in ed h e i g h t of a
wer a nd fl agpol e is 110 ft ; to .
th e h e i gh t of th e towe r is 70 ft m or e th a n th e l e n th of t he
g .
fl a gpole F i nd th e h e i gh t f th e towe r a nd th e l e ngth of

. o
th e fl a gpo l e .
14 A r e ct
. a n gula r fi e l d is 2 5 r d l on e r t
g h a n it i s wi de Th e . .
p e ri m et e r of th e fi e l d i s 130 d Fi nd th e di m e n si on s O f th e fi e l d
r .
.
15 Th e pe ri m e te r O f a f ootb a ll fi e l d is 32 0 yd a nd th e
.
.
l e ngth is 1 0 yd m or e th an twi ce .
th e w i dth W ha ta re its d i m e n s i on s
.
16 Th e cir cum f e r e n ce of a cir cl e

.
e x ce e d s t h e d i a m e te r b y 7 5 ft Fi n d .
th e cir cum f e r e n ce a n d th e d ia m e t er .
e f or m ul a C 2 2
( U se t h 7
d ) .
17 T w o pa ra ll e l li ne s are cut b y
.
F 2 82 ro .
a t r a ns ve rsa l for m i n g e i gh t a n gl e s ,
a s S h ow n in F ig 2 82 Fi n d a:a nd y an d a ll of th e angl es
. .
,
.
18 Th e i n te ri r a n gl e s on th e sa m e s i de of a tr a n s v e r
. o sa l
cutti n g tw o pa ra ll e l li n e s a e (5 : 3 y) a nd ( c T h e ir °
r a a
d i ffe re n ce is 7 F ind a n d y a .
19 T w o a dj a ce n t a n gl es f a pa ra ll e l ogr a m a e r e pr e se nt
. o ed r
°
an d
by m n
)
an d th eir d iffe r en ce is Fi n d m n , ,
an d th e a n gl e s o f th e
pa r a ll e l og ra m .
20 Th e difi e e n ce b e tw ee n th e
. r
acut e a n g l e s of a ri gh t tri a ngl e 18

Fi n d th e a cute an gl e s F 2 83
.
IG .
2 1 A pi ctur e fra m e 1 in wi de
. .
(F ig 2 83) h as a n a r ea of 44 sq in Th e pi cture i n si de th e
. . .
fra m e is 4 in l onge r tha n it is wi de Fi nd th e di m e nsi ons

,
. .
of t h e pi ctur e .
G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATI C S
EXERCIS ES
S olv e th e foll owi ng prob l em s b yth e m e th od of sub s tt i

uton i
3 a + 4 b = 1 1, 2 x —
5 w = 1 7, 3m + 2 n = 130,
4 7'
5 a —
b = 3 . 5m —
6 n = 30 .
7 m + 3 y= l 2x + 3 y = 8, w
2'
,
' 3
/
ll x se —
s y = 4s .
8'
3 .
9 t 1 7r - - —
12 , r at — 3 y = 8, :
s
g _
12
15 t —
2 r = 21 3 2
N U M B E R R EL ATI O N P R O B L E M S
-
So lve
foll owi n g pr ob l em s b y th e m e th od of sub sti tuti on
th e ,
a n d ch e ck b y on e of t h e oth e r m e th od s
9 F i n d tw o n um b e r s w h oses um is 1 5 0 a n d w h ose di ffe r e n ce

.
is 10 .
Fi n d tw o num b e r s w h ose d iff e re nce is 15 such tha twh e n

10 .
on e is ad de d t o t wi ce th e oth e r th e sum is 2 95 .
11 Fi nd tw o n um b e r s such tha t 8 ti m e s th e fir st pl us 4
.
ti m e s th e s e con d e q ua l s 1 00 a nd 3 ti m e s th e fir s t pl us 7 ti m e s ,
th e se con d e q ua l s 87 .
Th e q uoti en t of tw o n u mb e r s is 2 a nd th e ir s um is 54 .
F i nd th e n um b e r s .
13 Th e v al ue of a ce rta i n fra cti on is 4 I f 2 is ad ded to th e

. .
n um e ra t or a n d 7 t t h e de n om i nator th e v a l ue O f th e r e sul ti n g
o ,
’
fra cti on is 5 Fi n d th e fracti on . .
14 Th e sum of th e tw o d i git in a tw o pl a ce n um b e r is 8
. s -
.
I f 18 b e ub tra cte d fr om th e n um b e r th e r e sul ti n g num b e r

s ,
W i ll b e e x pr e sse d b y th e ri gi na l d i gi ts in r e v e r se or de r Fi nd
.
o .
th e num b e r .
S ol uti on Le t u r pr s nt th e di gi t i n un i t pl ac n d tth di gi t
’
. e e e s e a e
i n t n pl c
’
e S a e .
Th n 10 t u r pr
e nt s th '
ri gi n l n um b r
e e se e o a e .
F Om th fi r t c n di ti n
-
r e t+ us 8 o o ,
.
S IM U L TAN EO U S LIN EAR EQ U ATIO N S 379
F rom th e se con d co n d t on , ii
10 ! u
S mp i lifyi ng
So lving ( 1) a nd
Sub sti tuti n g 5 fo t i n r
T h r f re th e n um b r i s 5 3
e e o e .
Th e te n s d i gi t of
’
a tw o p a ce
-
l
re e ti m e s n um be r is th
th e un i ts d i gi t I f 5 4 b e r from th e num b e r th e
ed
’
. s ub t a ct ,
d i ffer e n ce is a n um b e r e x pr e ss e d b y th e di gi ts i n th e r e ve r se
or de r Fin d th e n um b e r
. .
16 I f a tw o d i gi t num b e r b e de cre as e d b y 13 a n d th i s dif

.
-
, f
fe re nce d ivi de d b y th e sum of th e d i gi ts th e q uoti e n t is 5 ,

.
If th e num b e r b e d ivi de d b y on e f our th of th e ui its d i gi t

’
i ,
th e q uoti e n t is 4 9 Fi nd th e num b e r
. .
433 . S um m ary of m eth ods T h is ch apte r

of el im in a t
i on .
h as taugh t th e f oll ow i ng thr e e m e th od s of solv ing a sy ste m

of s i m ul ta n e ous lin e a r e ua ti on s
q
1 Th e gr a ph i c m e th od
. .
2 El i m i n a ti on by a ddi ti on or sub tr a cti on

. .
3 El i m in ati on b y s ub s ti tuti on
. .
EXER CIS ES
S om e y our cl a ssm a te s m ayb e i nte re ste d to l ea r n a fourth

of
m e th od ca ll e d e l im in ti n b y c mp a o is n Tur n to a s ta nda r d
o ar o .
a l ge b ra a n d r e por t to y our cl as s m a te s on th i s m e th od .
M I X T U RE P R O B L EM S
S olve th e foll owi ng pr ob l em s b y any m eth od
1 A gr oce r h a s tw o k i n ds of coffee one w or th 30¢ pe
.
,
r
po un d a n d a n ot h e r w or th 2 0 ¢ pe pou n d H o w m a n y p n ds
ou r .
of th e 30 ce nt coffee m ust b e m i xe d wi th 12 l b of th e 2 0 ce n t
-
.
—
coffee to m ak e a m i x t ur e w or th 2 4 ¢ pe r poun d
380 G EN ER AL M ATH EMATI C S
'
2 .
g r
-
ocA
e r m a k e s a m i x tur e O f 2 0 ce n t n u ts a n d 32 c n t - -
e
n ut ts o s ll a t 2 8 9
5 a p und W h a t q ua n ti ti
e f ach g rad
o . f es o e e o
n uts m us t h e ta k e t m a k e 6 0 l b f th e m i x tur
o . o e
3 H ow m uch m ilk te ti n g5 7 b utte r fa t a n d cr e a m t s ti n g

. s 0 e
b utte r fa t m ust b e m i x e d to m a k e 30 ga l th a t te st 2 2 % .
b utte r fa t
4 H ow m uch m ilk te ti n g
. b utte r fa ta n d cr ea m te s ti n g
s
b utt r fa t m u t b e m i x e d to m a k e 15 g a l th a t te st 2 07
e s .
0
b utte r fa t
5 . “ '
h a t n um b e r of oun ce s O f go d 7 5 70 pu e l r and 85 70 pu re
m us t b e m i xe d to giv e 10 oz . Of
go d 80 % pu e l r
6 . ll y of c ppe r a n d s ilve r we i gh i n g 5 0 oz con ta i n
An a o o . s
5 oz of C oppe r H ow m uch ilve r m ust b e a dde d so th a t1 0 oz

. . s .
of th e n e w a ll y m a y c n ta i n } oz o f C oppe r
o o 7 .
7 . Th e a n da
st rd da ily di e t for a n ad u l t r e q uir e s a b out 75 g .
of p r o te i n a n d 100 g O f fa t M u tt n l
( )e g c
. n t
a i n s . o o
pr ote i n a n d fa t B ea d (a e ra ge ) con ta i n s pr ote i n

‘
. r v
a nd fa t Fi n d h ow m a ny gr a m s e ach of b re a d a n d m utton
.
a e r e q uir e d t f u
r r n i h th e r e q uir e d a m ount f prote in a n d fat
o s o
in a s ta nda r d r a ti on fo on e day r .
H IN T . Le t x and y r pre e se n t th e n um be r Of g r am s r q uired

e Of
m utto n a nd b r e ad r es
pe ctiv l y e .
1 : y z 75 ,
a : y 100 .
So lv e q
th e e ua t on s i 1
( ) and
(2 ) s i m ult n a e o usly .
If x or ytu rn s o utn e ga t iv e, we k n w th
o a ti ti s n otpo ss ib l e to m a k e
r
up a sta n d a d d e t out of th e tw o i f d m
oo s i
e n t on e d .
8 . Th e ab
t le on th e foll owi n g page give s th e “
a m oun ts
of pr ote i n an d fa ts in th e v a ri us f d s O ften us o oo ed in th e
da ily di e t .
382 G ENER AL M A THEMATIC S
EXER C IS ES
Re d uce to th e a n da
st rd for m ,
a nd so v e l
z + y m -
3y m + l 1
+ “ ’
3 3 u + 1 2
4 .
2 x + u 3 y+ c
c 5 m —
l 1
3 4 4 n —
1 4
i
3 15 7
5
-
, t+ 3 s + 4 5
i 5 10 2
’
T 35 + y 2
2 t —
3 s
3 3
.
7 3
07y .
x 5
+ y = 7z 2 x —
4 y= —
4 .
435 . Lin ea r system s Of th e c; wo k r

prob l em s In th e pr ob l e m s of Art 4 34 e h a v e
. . w se e n th e
ad v i sa b i l i ty of r e d ucin g e ach of th e e q uati on s in a s y ste m
to th e d ar d f orm b y e l i m in ati n g th e f ra cti on s an d
stan
coll e ctin g s i m i l a r te r m s Th e r e are som e pr ob l em s h ow

.
,
e v e r in wh i ch it is ad v i s a bl e t
, o sol v e w i th out e li m in ating
th e f racti on s An e x a m pl e w i ll i ll us tra te wh at is m e an t
. .
T w o p pe s ca n i15
fill 9
i r if th e fir st run s 2 h
of a c ste n r .
a nd th e se cond uns 3 h r r b ut if th fir st r un s 3 h r a n d th e
.
,
e .
s e cond run s 2 hr . th ey ca n fi ll
,
1
73 of th e ci st e rn .
l
S o ut
i on . Le t th num b r
x fh u
e i t w ill t k th fi r t
e o o rs a e e s
pi p l n t fi ll th ci t rn
e a o e o e s e ,
y 5:th nu mb r f h u it will t k th
e e o o rs a e e
e c n d pi p l n t fi ll th ci t rn
S o e a o e o e s e .
T he n th p rt f th ci t rn th fi t pi p c
~
e a o e s e e rs e an
fi ll in 1 h r .
th p t f th
e
‘
ci t r art h
'
o
’
c n d pi p e
'
s e n e se o e
ca n fi ll i n 1 h r
‘
'
.
S I M U LT AN EO U S L I N EAR EQ U ATI O N S 383 “
F r om th e fi rs t co ndi tio n
F r om th e secon d co nd t on, ii
3 1
4
2
. r y 1 3)
M ul ti pl y i ng ( 1) b y 3 an d (2 ) b y s ,
6 9 27
7
’
, 16
4 2
6
x 1
8
y
'
0
r
S ub t act n g, i
; $3 3
a 2
(Note th a t th is is a li nea r qu ti
e a on in un k n ow n .
)
So lvi ng ,
P r ob l e m s li k e th e p r e ce d ing are ca ll e d w or kp ro b l em s .
WORK PROB LEM S
1 . A and B ca n b u d il fe nce in 4 da I f A work

a . s 6 da . a nd
q uits ,
fi n is h th e
B ca n work in 3 da I n h w m any
day s ca n . o
ea ch d o t h e work a l on e
2 A ta n k ca n b e fill e d b y tw o pi pe s o ne of w h i ch r un s 3 h r
. .
and t h e oth e r 7 h o b y th e s am e tw o pi pes if one r uns 5 h r

r .
,
r .
a nd t h e oth e r 6 h r H ow l on g will it t
. a k e ea ch pi pe a l on e to
fi l l th e ta n k
3 A m e ch a n i c a n d a n a ppr e n tic e r e ce iv e
. fo a j ob of r
work Th e m ech an i c work s 5 h r a n d th e a pprenti ce 8 h r

'
. . .
W orki ng a t a n oth er ti m e a nd a t th e sam e rate pe h our th e

,
r ,
m e ch a n i c w ork s 1 0 h r a n d th e a ppr e n ti ce 1 1 h
. a nd t h ey r .
,
r e ce ive W h a t a e th e wa ges pe h our fo e ach ?

r r r
384 G EN ERAL M ATH EM ATI C S
4 . S olve th e foll owi ng pr b l e m s wi th out getti n g

o r id of th e
fr acti on s , a n d ch ck e
1 1 5
+ _ ,
x y 6
'
1 1 1
a:y 6
2 3 19
_ ’
n 15
7
n 5
436 . li st of v erb a l pr ob l em s Th e f oll o w in g

R ev iew .
p r obl e m s r e v i e w ty p es s tudi e d in e a rli e r ch a t

p e r s I II act ua l .
p r a cti ce m a ny
pr ob l em s m a
y b e so lv e d b y u s i n
g e i th e r on e
or tw o un k n ow n s In g e n e r a l itis a d v i s a b l e to use on e un
.
k n ow n b ut s om e ti m es it is e as i e r to tr an s l a te th e pr ob l e m
,
in to a lg e b r a ic l an g uage i f tw o un k n ow n s a re use d It will .
b e h e l pful if s om e m e m b e r of th e cl a ss w i l l sh ow th e tw o
m e th ods in con tr ast .
M OTION P ROB LEM S
l . A cr e w ca n w nstre a m in 4 0 m in a n d 12 m i
ro w 8 m i do
. . .
ups tr ea m in 1 h r a n d 30 m in Fi n d th e ra te in m il e pe h our
. . s r
of th e cu rr e n ta nd th e r ate of th e cre w in still wa te r .
S ol uti n L t o . : th r t f th cr w in till w t r
e a e a e o e e s a e ,
and y th r t f th curr t e a e O e en .
Th if w pr th r t i n m il p h ur
e n, e ex e ss e a es es er o ,
8
$0
6 0
12
x y 9 0
6 0
20 .
x 10, th e r ate Of r w in till w

th e c e s ate r ,
y 2 , th e r ate Of th e curr t en .
GEN ERAL M ATH EMAT I C S
6 . we i gh ts b al ance w h e n one is 14 in a nd th e Othe r

T wo .
10 in fr om th e f ul cr um
. I f th e firs t we i gh t is i n cr ea sed b y
.
2 l b a n d pl aced 1 0 in fr om th e f ul cr um th e b a l a nce is m a i n
. .
,
tai ne d Fi nd th e n um b e r of pound s in e ach w e i gh t

. .
w h e n one is 12 in a nd th e oth e r .
T h e b a l a n ce is m a i nta i ne d if th e
n ea r e r th e f ul cr um a nd if 3 l b is .
s ub t ra cte d Fi n d th e w e i gh ts .
8 An ir on b a 6 f
. r s use d b y t wo
b oy s on e a t e ach e nd to ca rry
, ,
H ow m a ny
pounds m ust e a ch b oy ca rry if th e l oa d
ri gh t e nd (C on si de r th e we i gh t of th e e ntire b a as h a ngi ng r
at t h e m i dd l e of th e b ar ) .
9 A wagon b e d 1 2 ft l on g is l oad e d wi th 2 0 ca k e s of ice

. .
we i gh i ng 2 5 0 l b Th e b e d e x te nds 2 ft ov e r th e fronta x l e of
. .
th e run n i n g gea r s a n d 3 ft b e h i n d th e r ea r a x l e Fi n d th e l oa d
. .
s uppo rt e d b y ea ch a x l e .
10 Th e m a te r ia l in a 30 f oot b ri dge we i gh s 3600 l b

.
-
Th e .
b ri dge suppor ts tw o l oad s :7 00 l b at 3 ft fr om 0118 e nd a nd . .

,
15 00 l b at 5 ft fr om th e oth e r e n d
. . Fin d th e l oa ds b or ne b y.
th e tw o s uppor t s .
1 1 T h r e e m e n ha v e to ca rry a n oa k b e a m 15 ft l on g w e i gh
’
. .
ing 2 5 0 lb T w o O f th e m e n lif t a t th e e n ds o f a n ir on b a
. r
placed cr os swi se b e n ea th th e b ea m an d th e th ir d m a n lif ts a t ,
th e r e ar e n d O f th e b e a m W h e r e m us t th e ir on b a b e pl ace d
. r
in or de r tha t e ach m an wi ll ca rry on e th ir d of th e l oa d
REC REATION P ROBLEM S
12 . A m an upon b e ngi
k e d th e a ge of h is tw o sons
as
a n s we r e d I f to th e sum of th e ir a ge s 1 8 b e a dde d th e r e sul t

, ,
will b e doub l e th e a ge of th e e l de r ; b ut if 6 b e ta k e n from th e

d i ffe r e n ce o f th e ir a ge s th e r e m a i n de r will b e e q ua l to th e a ge
,
of t h e y oun ge r ”
F i n d th e a ge of e ach
. .
S IM U L TAN EO U S LIN EAR EQ U A I O N S T 387
13 . In a gue s s i
n g ga m e th e l ea de r
y I fsa
you a dd
s, will
10 y e ar s to y our a ge divi de th e ,
y r
s um b y ou a ge , a dd 6 to the
q uoti e n t a nd te ll m e th e r e s ul t I will
,
.
,
e ll you y our a g e
t ”
. H ow
did h e fi nd it?
14 . A b as e b a ll te a m h a s p l ay e d 4 0 ga m e s , w h i ch it h a s
of
w on 2 8 . H ow m a ny ga m e s m ust it w in in s ucce ss i on in or de r
to b ri ng its a v e ra ge of ga m e s w on up to
15 A girl h a s w ork e d 12 pr ob l e m s I f s h e S h oul d w or k 1 3
. .
m or e pr ob l e m s a nd ge t 8 of th e m ri gh t h e a v e ra ge woul d b e ,
r
H ow m any pr ob l e m s h as S h e work ed corr ectly th us fa 7 r

‘
16 T w o b i cy cl e ri de r s ri de toge th e r a r oun d a cir cul a r tra ck

.
,
on e a l on g t h e outs i de e dge w h e r e th e ra d i us of th e cir cl e is

,
R a n d th e oth e r a l on g th e i n s i de e dge w h e r e th e ra d i us is
, ,
r .
O ne r e v ol uti on of th e pe da l s ca rri e s th e f or m e r s b i cy cl e 2 0 ft ’
.
a nd t h e l a tte r s 2 5 ft Wri t
’
e a for m ul a e x pr e s s i ng t
. h e d i ffe r
e n ce b e t wee n th e num b e r of pe da l re vol ution s m a de b yth e tw o
cy cli sts in goi ng a r ound th e tra ck once ; fi v e ti m e s ; n ti m es .
17 I f 1 0 m a r b l es of on e s i ze a re dr oppe d i n to a b uck et of
.
wate r and th e wa te r ri ses i n ch e s an d 15 e q ua l m ar b l e s of

,
a ,
a n ot h e r si ze a e dr oppe d i nto th e s am e b uck et a n d th e wate r

r ,
ri se s b i nch es wri te a for m ul a s h owi ng h ow m any tim e s large

'
,
r
one of t h e fir sts i ze is th a n on e of th e second s i ze .
18 An autom ob il e tir e w h en f ul ly i n fl a te d h as a ra d ius of

. .
18 in O wi ng to a l e a k a ge of a i th i s is r e duce d to 1 7 i n I nd i
. r, .
ca t e h ow m a ny m or e r e v ol ut i on s pe m il e a e ne cessa ry b e ca use
r r
Of t h e l e ak a ge I f th e ori gi n al r ad ius is R a n d th e r e duced

.
ra dius w h a t is th e for m ul a w h i ch coul d b e used to ca l cul ate

r,
th e d i ff e r e nce of r e v ol uti on s pe m il e r
19 D ivi de 3183 i n to tw o pa r ts s o tha t 4 o f th e fi r st pa rt

.
,
S h al l b e e q ua l t e s e con d pa r t
3
o of t h
15
.
2 0 Ea ch
. f tw o b r oth e r s wa nte d to b uy a l ot v a l ue d a t
o
32 40 Th e e l de r b r oth e r sa i d to th e y ounge r You l e n d m e

.
,
of y our m on e l
“ ”
sa id t h ”
y a n d I ca n purch ase t
, h e ot B ut e .
,
y oun g r b roth e r y u le nd m e
e f y our m o n y a nd I c n
,
o o e ,
'
a
”
p u r ch a se th e l ot H o w m uch m one y d id e ach h a v e .
‘’
I
2 1 A gr up of b oy s b ough t a touri ng ca
. o Af te r payi ng f r . or
it th ey d iSco e re d th a t if th e r e h a d b e e n on e b oy m r e , th y
‘
v o e
woul d h a ve pa i d $ 30 a pi e ce l e s b ut if th e r e h ad b e n On s, e .
e
b O y l e ss th e y w oul d h a v e pa i d $ 6 0 a pi ece m r e H ow m any

,
o .
b y s w r e th e r e a nd w h a td id th e y pay fo th e ca ?
o e ,
r r 1
2 2 T h C h a m pi on Am e ri ca n L e a gue tea m n e y ea r
‘
. e 1
( 9 14) o
wb n 4 6 m or e ga m e s th a n it l s t Th e t a m s ta nd i n g s e co nd o . e
p l a y e d 15 3 ga m e wi nni ng 8 l e s s th an t h e fir s t a n d l s i n g
s, o
9 m or e th a n th e fir st Fi n d th e n um b e r O f ga m e s w on a n d
'
.
lost b y e ac h t
e am .
23 i d th a t th e foll owi ng pr ob l e m w as as s i gn d b y
. I t is sa e
Eucli d t h is pupil s a b out th r e e ce n turi e s

o c : A m ul e a n d B . .
a d onk ey w e r e g oi n g t m a rk e t l a de n wi th w he a t Th e m ul e
“
‘
o .
o th e d on k ey I f you w e e to giv e m e one m e a s ur e

‘
said t
' ‘ '
f r
, ,
'
I woul d ca rry twi ce as m uch a s you ; if I we r e to give youon e
‘
mea sur e O u b ur de ns w ould b e j eq ual \ V h a t w a s th e b u d e n

’
-
r e . r
of ea ch
?
MIS CELLANEOUS PR OBLEMS
4
l ong s b al a n ced by a 40 pound w e ightat n e
A b ar 30 in ;
’
1
'
—
'
o
e nd po un d w e i gh tatth e oth r n d F i n d th e pos i ti n

a n d a 32 =
'
e e . o
Ama n h a s a $ 2 000 e xe m t
p idn fr om I n co m e ta x , b utpa y s
.
25
:
.
attlie r a te Of ‘
th e r e s tof h is i n c om e H e fi n d s th a ta f te r .
pa yi n g i n co m e t
a x h
”
is a ctu a l I n com e is 334 10 O n W h a t a m oun t .
does h e pa y th e 6 % ta x ?
A ch e m i st h a s t
26 . he sa m e a c d i in tw o st ren gth s If
h e se con d ar e m i x ed
of t wi th 24 1 . of first th e
th e ,
m ix tm e is
42 % pu e , a n d r
6 1 of th e fi rst a r Of the
if . e m i x e d wi th
Se condfth e m ixture is 43 % pu e nd th e pe r ce n t o f pu t ri y r Fi
‘
'
O f ea
lch ac d P ob e m s
'
e th s a r e O te n g e n a s p a c
i r l. lik tca i f iv r i l
r F i n d Outfr om m e ch e m i stw h y it is n ot practi cal
"
p O b l e fnS . so — -
.
C H APTER X VI
GEOM ETRI C AND ALGEB RAIC INTERP RETATION OF

R OOTS AND POWER S
44 1 . Introductory w or k ; sq ua r e root. Th e foll o w ing

ex e r cises ar e in tr od uctory to th e w or k of th e ch apte r .
EXER CIS ES
1 . W h a t n um b e r m u tpl i li e d i
b y ts e lf e q ua s l 9 ? 16 ? 12 1 ?
f
2 ?
16 9 x i
2 . H ow m an y a ns we r s a re h e re
t to ea c h pa r t of Ex 1 ? .
(W h ?
y )
3 . O ne of th e tw o eq ua l factors of a n um b e r is call e d th e
s
q ua r e root of th e n um b e r W h at is th e s qua re r oo t of 4 9 ?
.
of 64 ? of 62 5 ? “
of x ? of 4 x
2 ? of
4
? of
4x
— ?
g
9
4 . i iv e s quar e r oot of a n um b e r is i n di ca te d b y a
Th e pos t
si gn ca ll e d th e d ic l ign a n d e i th e r th e r ad i ca l s i gn
ra a s ,
a l on e o th e r a d i ca l s i gn pr e ce de d b y th e pl us s i gn
r
m ea n s th pos i tive s q ua r e r oot of th e n um b e r un de r

e
n ea t h th e s i gn Th e n um b e r un de r n e ath th e r ad i ca l s i gn is
.
ca ll e d the d ic nd ra Th e n e ga tiv e s q ua r e r ot is in di ca te d b y
a . o
th e r a d i ca l s i gn pr e ce de d b y th e m i n us s i gn f ) Wi th .
th e pre ce d i n g d fi n i ti on s in m i n d g iv e th e v a l ue of th e fol
e
“
V at ;
5 . Ex pr e ss th e foll owi n g s tate m e n t b y m ea n s of a form ul a

A n um b er y e q ua l s th e s q ua r e o f a no t i
l e r n um b er at .
390
IN TERPR ETATI O N OF R OO T S AN D P O WER S 39 1
6 . If x for m ul a y x W hat is th e v al ue of y?
= 1 in th e 2
,
If x 2 w h a t is th e v al ue of y
,
7 C a l cul a te th e corr e spond i n g v a l ue s of y in th e for m ul a

.
a ch of t e f oll owi n g v a l ue s of x : 1 ; 2 3
2
y x f e or h ; ;
—
3; + 5 4
8 Fill in th e pr ope r v al ue s in th e f oll owi n g ta b l e of
.
squa re s a n d s q ua re r oots fo u e in th e n xt a rti cl e

r s e .
F ro . 2 85 . D n v rcn F OR F ND NG
I I SQ UA R ES AN D U
S Q AR E R o o m
Gr a ph of : “
y x ; a dev ice for fi nding sq uares and
sq uar e roots. Th e v a l ue s of r
th e
p e ce ding tabl e h a v e
be en pl otte d in F ig 2 85
. . V al ues for x w e r e l a id O ff
39 2 G ENER AL M A TH EM AT I C S
'
h or izon tal ly on th e af a x is an d th e corr espon din g va lr1 e s
'
’
~ '
-
for y v e r ti ca lly on th e y a x i s T h e poin ts wer e th e n con -

.
nect ed ib y a sm ooth curv e ; a s sh ow n Th is curv e S e rv e s

‘
‘
~
. . .
as ; a de v iee :
—
for d e te rm in ing s q ua r es an d s q ua r e r oo ts a s -
,
-
w e sh a ll n ow s ee .
n q r
'
1 D e e m
t
. r i ne b yth e g ap
r h i F ig 2 85 th e s ua e r ootof 5 .
9 ? 20 ; 3 ; 2 H ow m an a n s we s d o you ob t a n fo r the y r i
-
s q ua r r oo t o f
e
-
9 4 25 for th e r
s q ua e r oot of e a c h '
n um ber
s h ow n ‘?
q ua r e
'
B y m ea n s of th e gra p h
in F ig 2 85 fi nd th e s of 2 ;
39; 1 r . .
k y our r e sul ts fo Ex 2 b yj q u n g th n umb er

'
3 . C he c r . s a rr e s
g i en
v Th e s q ua r e s s h ul d b e ppr x m a te ly t os e y u f oun d
. o a o i h o
b y m a n s o f th e gr a ph
e _ .
_
4 H w w oul d yen m a k
. o a g a ph th a t w ould gi v y u e r e o -
c
S q ua r e a n d s q ua e r oots m o e accu a t
s e ly tha n th e gr a ph in
r r r
F
z
ig t
2 85 — 9
443 A pos i tiv e r oots T h e gr aph

num b e r h a s tw o sil ua r e .
Sh ows th at th e sq uare root of 4 eq ua l s e ith e r 2 or 2 ; _ _
h at is th e re a re two an s we r s for th e sq u ar e r oot of a

’
t ,
p os t v e
r r n u m be r T h us I . as a lso d oe s ,
—
3
3) Note th e s ym m e try of th e curv e in F ig 2 85 .
and see i f yen can e x pl a i n it .
444 Q ua dra ti c s ur d
. T h e i n d i ca te d sq ua r e r oot of a
: .
'
'
n um b e r w h i ch is n o t a e rf e ct s q ua r e is ca ll e d a q u d r t i c a a
p
l e V3 V V
2
'
s u l ; for e x a m 0 n a ”
rr
p , ,
44 5 Q ua dr ati c tri nom i a l

. Tr m om ia l s l i ke 32
F 2 ab . 1 —
d e s e co n d d e gr ee a n d are ca ll e d
2 2
2 a r e of t h
a n fry1
.
y ,
q
”
ua d ra tic trzn om ia ls T h e w or d u a d r ati c c om es f r om
~
q .
394 G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATIC S
ILLUS TRATIV E EXERCIS ES
1 . Fi nd
qua re r oot of 1 6 x 4 0 my th e s
2
25 y “
S ol ution If th i tri mi l i p rf ct q u r
. s no a s a e e s a e o f s om e i l it
b in om a ,
m yb ill u tr t d b yF ig 2 87 i w h i ch th
a e s id a e .
, n e s e of th e l rg t q u r
a es s a e
ob t i n d b y i n p cti n
a e d c rr p di g t s e o an o es on n o a
2
is 4 1Th r f r
. e e o e
th i d f ch r ct ngl c rr p di g t
e s e o ea e a e o es on n o
a +
'
b
ea ch b i nd t
a h r c rr p nd
s a e a ea o es o
'
i n g to 2 a h I) m ust b e 40 reg
2
2 5 yz . Th e
r l
p ob e m t e e o h r f re co n s sts i i n de te m r i i n ng
i h
th e w dt o f th etri p w h i ch w g s e a re a dd i n
on tw i d n d wh i ch c rr p nd t th
o s es a o es o s o e
b f th f rm ul
o I n th i c
e b i 5 y N w
o a . s a se s . o
1 m yb
5 3 b t i d b y divi di g 40 y b y
a e o a ne n n
a 3
th e s um of 4x a nd 4 x, or 8 33 . H e n ce
d o ubli n g th t rm lr dy f un d (4 ) th e
F
e
2 87
a ea o x e
IG
r ult 8 : rv d ivi r f
.
es 1 d t m in
se e s a s a. so or e er
i n g th n t t rm F ig 2 87 h w th t w
e ex d ub l 4 b c u
e . . s o s a e o e x e a se
8x i ppr i m t ly th c m b i d l ngth f th trip t w h i ch

s a ox a e e o ne e o e s o
w ddi g Th i i ill u tr t d m r cl rl y i th n t pr b l m
e a re a n . s s s a e o e ea n e ex o e .
2 . y s w e r e a sk e d to
Tw o b o sta ke out a s q ua r e l
p ot of
g r oun d wi th a n a r ea of 4 2 2 5 sq . ft .
W h a t is th e l e n gth of a s i de ?
S ol uton i . y s th i n ki n g g outth e
Th e b o
’
pr bl m
o e m i gh t ta k e som e such for m a s
f ll w :
o o s
(a ) It i s ob vi ous th a t w e ca n au a k e it
at l e a st 60 b y 60 . W e sh a ll hat
s uppos e t
th i s r qua re w i th 5
i s con st ucte d . S ee th e s
un b rk
li o
( F ig
en nes F 2 88 . T h i s use s u p ro .
36 00 Sq ft l vi g 6 2 5 q ft W c
. .
, eadd n s . . e an a
t th
o q u r lr dy c n truct d b y ddi g t tw i d
e s a e a ea d ti ll o s e a n o o s es an s
k p it q u r
ee a s a e .
b
( ) T h e c m b i n d l g th f th d g o t w h i ch w edd i g en o e e es o e a re a n
is 12 0 ft H n c th ppr i m t l ngth f th trip dd d i

. e e e a ox a e e o e s a e s
12 0 ft IV h y ppr . im t ? a ox a e
c) 12 0 i c n t i n d fi ti m i n 6 2 5 (wi th r m i nd r )
( s o a e ve es a e a e .
IN T ERPR ETATION OF ROOTS AND P O W ER S 395
d
( ) I f w e m a k th trip 5 ft wi d th t t l l gth wil l b 12 5
e e s . e, e o a en e
(f n
or o tri p will b
e s 6 0 ft n d th th r 6 5 e . a e o e
1 2 5 i nt in d l y fi i i n 62 5
( ) e c ct s t m o a e e xa ve es .
( f ) H n c th q u r m u t b c n truct d t b 65 b y
’
e e e s a e s e o s e so a s o e
th t i
a th s, qu r r t f 42 2 5 i 6 5
e s a e oo o s .
3 Fi n d th e s q ua r e r o t of th e poly n om i a l
2 2
.
+ 2 b b o a a -
2
2 ac + 2 be c
( se e F ig .
S ol uton i i d f th l rg t qu r i
. Th e th r f r th
s tri l
e o e a es s a e s a, e e o e e a
divi r i 2 Th wi dth f th fi r t tri p i b th r f r th divi r

.
so s a . e o e s s s , e e o e e so
i 2
s ab M ul ti pl y i n g b yb n d ub tr cti n g th
. a s a e
+ b + c
r m i n d r giv 2
e a e 2 b Th l n gth f
es at e C
2
. e e o
a
th qu r n w c n truct d
e s a e o b Th dg
o s e rs a . e e e
t wh i ch w
o dd i g i 2 e are 2 1 u it l n g a n s a 1 n s o
(t ri l d
a ivi r ) 2 2 b i
so c n t i n d. c ti m a s o a e es
in 2 2 b c If w
ao m k th tri p c un i t
. e a e e s s
wi d th t t l l ngth f th trip t wh i ch w
e, e o a e o e s o e
a dd i 2 s 2b a
(c m pl t divi r) (W h y? ) 0 o e e so .
M ul ti ply i ng n d ub tr cti n g th r m i n d r i
a s a , e e a e s
P 2 89 ro
z r i d f th t t l qu r i + b c
i .
e o.Th e s e o e o a s a e s a , or
a + b + c .
Th e w rk m y b o a e a rr a n ge d a s f ll w :
o o s
La rg t qu r
es s a e, a
2
2 ab b2 2 ac 2 be |
c2 a + 1; c
W
m —
F ir s ttri a l
ivi r 2 d so , a Ba b
‘
112
F ir tc m pl t d ivi r 2
s o e e so , a b l2 ab b2
Se c d tri l divi r 2
on a so , a 2 1)
Se c n d c m pl t d ivi
o r o e e so , 2 a 2 b c
4 Fi nd th e fir st di gi t in th e s q ua re r oot of
.
S ol uti n T d t r m i n th i fi r tdi gi tw m u tr m m b r ( ) th t
o . o e e e s s e s e e e a a
th qu r f n um b r f n di gi tc i t f n
e s a e o a tw di gi t th e o o e on s s s o o e or o s, e
squ r f n um b r f tw di gi t c i t f thr
a e o a ef ur di gi t th
o o s on s s s o e e or o s, e
squ r f n um b r f thr di gi t c n i t f fi
a e o a i d i gi t
e o nd ee s o s s s o v e or s x s, a so
on ; (b
) th tt h um b r f dai gi t i n th i t gr
e nl p r t f th q u r e o s e n e a a o e s a e
of n um b r i
a twi c l rg e l th n twi c
s l rge as th a e or on e e ss a e as a e as e
n um b r f di gi t i n th i t gr l p r t f th
e o giv n
s um b r Th i e n e a a o e e n e . s
sugg t th f ll wi g d vi c f d t rm i i ng th um b r f di gi t
es s e o o n e e or e e n e n e o s
39 6 G ENE R AL M AT H EM AT IC S "
;
i n th ei nt gr l p rt f th q u r r t f um b r B gi nni ng t
e a a o e s a e oo o a n e . e a
th d ci m l p i t m rk ff t w rd th
e e a o nl ft gr up f tw di gi t
, a o o a e e o s o o s
ea ch T h n th
. n um b r
e f di gi t i th eq u r r t wil l b th e o s n e s a e oo e e
sa m e th n um b r
as f gr up e Thu i nc i m d up f
e o o s . s, s e s a e o
th r gr up
ee f tw o d i gi t s th
o qu r r t f o s e s a e oo o
c nt i n th r
o a di gi t i n i t i nt gr l p rt W
s ee th u bl t
s ti s e a a . e a re s a e o es
m t th
a e l rg t q u r
e a 4 00 (th t i th fi r t di gi t i 4 ) n d th n
es s a e as a s, e s s a e
pr c d
o i E 3 T h w rk m y b
ee as n r n g d f ll ws
x . . e o a e ar a e as o o
1 7 72 4 1 400
3 20 1
1 6 00 00
Fir i l di vi r 800
sttr a 1 7 2 41 so
F irt c m pl t d ivi
s r 82 0 1 6 4 00
o e e so ,
S c n d tri l d ivi r 840

e o a so ,
S c n d c m pl t d ivi r 841
e o o 8 41 e e so ,
T her f r V 17 7 2 4
e o e 42 1 .
S teps inv olv ed in fi nding sq ua r e r oots T h e f o ll ow .
ing steps w e r e use d in Ex s 1 4, a b ov e ; th e s tud e n ts h oul d —

.
-
d y th e m r f lly ’
s tu ca e u .
1 . Es tim a te th e la rg e st sq ua re i n th e n um b er .
2 . D oub le th e y f oun d f or a t r ia l div isor

r oot a lr e a d .
3 D iv ide the fi r st ter m of th e r e m a inder b y the tria l

.
div isor p la cing th e quotie nt a s th e n ex t term of th e root

,
.
4 Anne x th e ter m j ustf oun d to the tri a l div isor to f or m a

.
com
p l ete div isor a nd continue th e p r oces s il th e
unt h
ot e r te r m s
of th e root a r e f ound .
EXERCIS ES
F i nd th e s q uar e r oots of th e foll owi n g poly n om ia l s

2
+ 2 ab + b
2
r
f
1 . a . .
4
s . x
2 2 2
3 . 49 y —
1 4 yz + z . 7 . 1 —
4 a + 6 a
‘ 4— 3 2
—
4 . x + 8 . 16 a 16 a + 9 —
12 a + 32 a .
V
9 . 93
6
+ 4 am “ —
2 a x
3 8
+ 4 a x
2 2
/ 1o .
‘
IN TER P R ET AT IO N OF R O O TS AN D PO W ER S 39 9
Thi s th e or e m is on e of th e m ost f am ous th eore m s of

g e om e try C e n turi es b ef or e C hr i st th e Egypti an s us e d a
.
ro e di v id e d by k n ot s so t h a t its t hr e e l e ng t h s w e r e in
p
th e r a ti o T h i s rope w as use d in l an d surv eyi n g
a nd a l s o in t h e or i enta ti on of th e i r te m pl e s In f a ct .
,
“ ”
w e r e a d of pr of e s si on a l r O e f as t
p en e r s ( surv e y or s
F ur th e rm ore th e pr oof of th e th e ore m i tse lf h as a lw ay s
,
a pe a l e d t o th e in t e r est of m a t h e m ati ci an s W h e n w e sh a ll
p .
h av e ad v a n ce d in our stud y of m ath e m ati cs it will b e

os s ibl e for t h e st u d en t t o fi n d m a n y pr oof s of t h i s th e or e m
p
th at h e can un d e r stan d Th e e a rl i e st g e n e r a l pr oof is
'
.
cr e di ted t o P yt h ag or a s w h o l i v e d a b out 5 00 B C , . .
T h e stud e n t h a s pr ob ably f oun d th i s th e or e m to b e th e

ba si s for on e of th e m ost usef ul r ul es of a r i th m e ti c Th e
-
.
p r o of g i v e n i n a r i th m e ti c c l asses is us ua lly t h a t g i v e n in
th e e x e r ci se a b ov e H ow e v e r a g en e r a l pr oof d e m an d s
.
,
th a t w e pr ov e th e th e or e m i n d epe n d e n t of th e a ccur acy

of t h e fi gur e ( th a t is i n d epen d e n t of th e m e as ur e m en ts
,
an d con str uct i on s i n v o lv e d ) W e sh a l l pr e se n tl y g i v e .
such a pr oof Th e e x e r ci ses w hi ch f oll ow are i n te n d e d

’
to r e v i e w th e m ate r i a l n e cessa ry to estab li s h thi s pr oof

'
.
X
E ER CIS ES
1 I n F ig 2 9 1 A AB C is a
. . ri gh ttri an gl e ri gh ta n gl e d a tC wi th
,
-
_ AB
C D _1 R e e th e p oo
. vi w r f w h i ch h ows th a tA AD C R A AB O
s V .
a nd
2 . P r ove that in
th a t 1
1
2
cm .
F ig 2 9 1
.
g m
3 . Re vi e w th e pr oof w h ich sh ows

c
4 . P rov e tha t m F 1g 2 9 1 .
a F 2 91
a nd thata 2
no ,
ro .
5 . S h ow b y us i n g Ex s 2 . and 4 th at a 2
b 2
0
2
.
“
45 0 . Th eo r em of P yth a gora s rov ed No d oub t th e
p .
str ide n t n ow se e s t hat th e th e or e m of P y th ag or as is
p r ov e rb by Ex s 1 5 a b o ve W e .
—
, .
s h a ll h ow e v e r se t up th e pr oo f
, ,
for r e fe r e n ce .
G iv n th e ri gh t tri a ng l e AB C
e ,
A
ri gh ta ngl e d a t C t pr ove th a t th e
-
,
o
s q u re h e h y p te n use i e q ua l
' "
a n t o o s
F ro 2 02
to th e s um o f th e s q ua r e s o
. .
n the
‘
s i de s i n cl ud i n g th e ri gh t an gl e 1
“
.
‘
11 te r ms of
m ea n s to pr ov e th a t
P roof
S T AT E M EN T S R E AS O N S
In F ig 2 9 2 -
d r aw
l fi gure wn
.
and ette r th e as sh o .
T he n if i ri ghttri a gl
B e ca us e n a n e
li i dr w fr m th rtex
"
a ne s a n o e ve
of righ t gl p rp n d i cul ar t
a
‘
an e e e o
th hyp t u
e i th r i d b ut
o en se , e e s e a o
'
th e ri gh t gl i m e n pr an e s a a o
p rti
o l b tw n th ew h l h y
on a e ee o e
po te n use a nd th e s e g m e n to f th e
hy pote nuse j
a d a ce n t to it .
In ( 1) b2 i nc and B e ca use w h e n f ur q u ti ti o an es
n pr p r ti th pr d uct
2 i
a no .
a re i o o on e o of
m a S q u l th pr d uct
'
th e e n e a s e o of
th e ex tr m e es .
q u ti
.
B y a ddin g th e tw o /
e a on s
in
Addi ti on i
'
)
2 2
‘
b me + no
1
(4
ia x ro m
a .
. a
2
‘
+ b 2
c m ( n
) (5 )
. Byfct ri n g ut c a o o .
T h e wh l i cin l t the Sum

“
B ut m n 6
( ) o e s < a i
o
o f ll it p rt :
a s a s
(1
2
[
1
2 I "2
t B y ub ti tuti n s s o .
4 02 G EN ERAL M A TH EM AT IC S
l l rs r o uw A r N o r E .
'
. P t y h agor a s (c 5 6 9 B C . . .
—
C . 5 00 n o ) th e
, se co n d
of th e g r e a tp h il osoph e rs o f G re e ce , is sa id t o h a ve h
c a nge d th e stud y
of ge o m e t ry i nto th e f rm
o of a li b r l e a e d uca t o n i .
”
Afte r som e wa n de r
i ng h f un d d th
s, e o u P yth g re n S ch e fm
l tC r t n D i n
a o s a o ea oo a o o , a or a
c l n y in th
o o uth f It l y H r
e so nth u i ti c udi nc c m p d
o a . e e e s as a e es o o se
o f ci tiz n f ll r nk
e s o p ci ll y th upp r cl
a a cr wd d t h
s, e s e r a e e a sse s, o e o ea
h im It i
. i d th t th w m n w t t h r h i m i n di r ctvi l ti n
s sa a e o e en o ea e o a o
o f l w g i n t th ir pub li c pp r c
a a a a s e a e a an e .
Py th g r d ivi d d h i
a o as udi nc i nt tw cl e :th Pr b s a e es o o a sse s e o a
ti on e r s ( li t r
or) n d th P y th g r
s e ne s n
( m th m ti ci n )
a e a o ea s or a e a a s .
Aft r thr e y r i th fi r t cl
ee ea s li t n r c ul d b i ni ti t d
n e s a ss a s e e o e a e
i n t th c n d cl
o e se t wh m w r c n fi d d th
o a s s, m i n d i c v rio o e e o e e a s o e es
o f th che l s oo .
T h P yth g r n f r m d
e ab r th rh od i n w h i ch
o ea s ch m m b r
o e a o e o ea e e
w as b un d b y o th n t t r v l th t ch i g
oa cr t o f th o e ea e ea n s or se e s o e
s ch l Th ir f d w i m pl th ir di cipli n
oo . e oo v r nd th ir
as s e, e s e se e e, a e
m d o f lif
e o rr ng d t n c ur g lf c m m n d t m p r nc puri ty
e a a e o e o a e se -
o a , e e a e, ,
a nd b di n c
o e e e .
T h tri pl i n t rw v n tri n gl
e e p n t gr m ( t r h p d r gul r
e o e a e , or e a a s a -
s a e e a
p n
e t g ) n a w ou d ,
i g n f r c gn i t
as i n se dw t th m
as a S ym b l o e o o , an as o e a s o
o f h l th Iti r l te d th t P yth g r n wh il tr v li n g f ll ill n d

ea . s e a a a a o ea e a e e a ,
a lth ugh c r full y ur d b y ki d h rt d i n nk p r w un b l

o a e n se a n -
ea e ee e , as a e
t ur iv
o s vB f r dyi n g h w v r h i n cri b d th pe n t gr m t r
e . e o e , o e e , e s e e a a s a
o n b a rd n d b gg d h i h t t h ng itup ut i d T h i th h t
oa a e e s os o a o s e . s e os
did ; n d ft r a c n i d r b l l n gth
a e f tim
a o th r P yth g r
s e a n e e o e ano e a o ea ,
p i g b y n tic d th i gn n d ft r h i ng th i nn k p r t ry
a ss n ,
o e e s a , a e e ar e ee e
’
s s o ,
r w rd d hi m h n d m ly O n m tt f th b r th rh d w
e a e a so e . e o o o e o e oo as
A fi gu nd t p f rw r d ; n t fi gur t g i n thr b li
"
re a a s e o a s o a e o a ee o o .
Th vi w e f ci ty dv c t d b yth
e s o b r th rh d w r
so e
pp i t
a o a e e o e oo e e O os e
t th f th d m cr tic p rty f P yth g r ti m nd h nc

’
o o se o e e o a a o a o as s e, a e e
m t f th
os o b r th rh d w r e ri t cr t F
o e h rt ti m th
oo e e a s o a s . or a. s o e e
P yth g r n a ucc d d i n d m i n ti n g
o ea s s ff ir b ut p pul r r v l t
ee e o a a a s, a o a e o
i n 5 01 l d t th m urd r f m n y pr m i n n t m m b r
e o e f th e o a o e e e s o e
s ch l n d P yth g r h i m lf w kill d h rtly ft rw rd

oo , a a o as se as e S o a e a s .
T h ugh th b r th rh d n l n g r
o e i te do p li ti c l p rty th
e oo o o e ex s as a o a a , e
Pyth g r n c n ti n u d t
a o ea i t l ng ti m
s o ph il eph i c l n d o ex s a o e as a os o a a
m th m ti c l
a e ci ty b utt th
a a nd r m in d
so e cr t r g n i z ti n
, o e e e a e a se e o a a o ,
p u b li h i n g
s n th i n g nd t h u lo vi g u li ttl i n f rm t
, a i n t th s ea n s e o a o as
‘
o e
“
d t il f th ir h i t r y S B ll A H i tory f M th m ti c p 19 ’ ”
e a s o e s o . ee a s s o a e a s, . .
IN TERP R ETATION OF R OO TS AN D P O WER S 4 03
EXER CIS ES
l . Th e b a se l ti tude of a ri gh t tri a ngl e (F ig 2 93) a e

a nd a . r
6 a n d 8 r e s pe cti ve ly W h a t is th e l e ngth of th e h y pote n us e

.
h h e or e m of P y t h a gor as
( U se t e t
) .
2 H ow l on g m ust a r ope b e un fr om th e
. r
t o p o f a 16 f oot t e n t pol e t
-
o a poi nt 2 0 ft fr om s .
th e f oot of th e pol e
3 A b aseb a ll d i a m ond is a s q ua r e a S i de of
.
wh i ch is 9 0 ft W h at is th e l e n gth f a th r ow
.
F 2 93
o
ro
”
from h om e to se cond 7
.
‘
4 Fi nd th e f or m ul a for th e di a gon a l of a s q ua r e w h ose

.
s i de is U se th i s f or m ul a t de te r m i n e th e d i a gona l w h e n
3 . o
w h e n = 15 s .
5 P r ov e fr om th e P y th a gor e a n th e or e m th a t
2 2
. V b a 0
a nd t rans l ate th e e q uati on i nto w ords .
6 P r ov e a l s o th a tb
. Vc a nd tr ans l a te th e e q uati on
2
a
?
i nto w or ds .
7 A l adde r 2 0 ft l on g j us t r e a ch e s a wi n dow 15 ft a b ov e
‘
-
. . .
th e gr ound H ow fa is th e f oot of th e l a dde r fr om th e f oot

. r
of t h e w a ll if th e gr und is l e v e l ? o
8 . Th e h y pote nus e of a ri gh t tria ngl e is 35 ft . an d th e

a l ti tude is 2 1 ft . Fi n d th e b a se .
9 . Us i ng th e for m ul a of Ex . 6 , fi nd th e v a l ue of a wh en
c= 22 a nd b = 20 .
10 . A tree st i
l e v e l groun d w as b r ok e n 2 4 ft fr om
a nd n g on .
th e gr oun d a n d th e top s tr uck th e gr oun d 1 8 ft fr om th e s tum p

,
.
,
th e b r ok e n e n d r e m a i n i n g 0 th e s tum p H ow ta ll w a s th e tr e e
11 .
b e for e b r ea ki n g
1 1 C on stru
. ct on s q ua r e d pa pe r a ri gh t tri a n gl e us i ng ,
th e f oll owi ng pa ir s of n um b e r s fo th e b a s e a n d a l ti tude

"
r
re s pe ctiv e ly :1 a nd
1 ; 1 a n d V 2 ; 2 a nd 2 ; 2 a n d 3 ; 4 a r1d 4;
4 a nd 5 ; l a nd 5 ; 2 a n d 5 ; 3 a nd 5 ; 12 a n d 1 .
H IN T . U se th e li n e se
gm e n t you ob i
ta ne d for h e fi r st pa rt
t .
12 . C a l cul a te for eac h pa r t of Ex . 1 1 th e l e n gth of th e

hy pote n us e .
45 1 . rem of P y th a gor a s furnish es a m eth od of

Th e th eo
constructing w ith r ul er a n d com pa sses th e sq ua re root of a
num b er Ex e r ci se s 1 1 an d 1 2 Art 4 5 0 sugg e s t a m e th od
.
, .
,
of fi n di n g t h e s q ua r e r oot of a n um b e r b y
'
m e an s of r ul e r an d com pa sse s Th e m e th od .
is i ll ustr ate d by th e f oll ow in g e x e r ci se -
C on str uct th e s q ua r e r ot of 4 2 o .
Th e f oll ow i ng stud y (a n a ly s i s) of th e e x e r
ci se w i ll h e l p us to un d e r stan d th e pr ob l e m .
S upp th t w h v th fi gur c n tr uct d ;

o se a e a e e e o s e
th ti l tu i m gi n th t F i g 2 9 4 i th r q uir d
a s, e s a e a . s e e e
fi g ur n d th t AB i th r quir d l n gth V 42
e a a s e e e e .
N w nd b c n b
o a a f v ri u l n gth pr vi d d a e o a o s e s o e
(1
2
b2 42 .
( t y? ) Le tus suppose t a t C B h 6 F 2 94
\ k w h
ro .
t hen h ow l on g 42 is b ?
Ve n o t a t 36 b 2
w ul d b th q u ti fr m w h i ch th v l u f b c b f u d
o e e e a on o e a e o an e o n .
It i cl r th t b w ul d h v t
s ea qu l V 6 a o a e o e a .
Th th pr b l m m r l y b c m
en e f l r i g h w t c
o e e e e o e s on e o ea n n o o on
struct V 6 S m m mb r . f th cl m y lr
o dy k
e w h w e e s o e ass a a ea no o
t d
o th i
o b ut w h ll pr c d with u
s, ly i e ' s a o ee o r ana s s .
B
I m gi th r tri gl A B C ( F ig
' ’ ’ ’
a ne a n o c e an e, . so on
tr uct d th tth hy p t u tur ut t b V6 d

A C m u t qu l V 2 “
s e a e o en se ns o o e an so
th tB C i 2 u i t l g ; th h y? 7
’ ’ ’ ’
a s n s on en s e a .
O u pr b l m fi
r ll y r duc th t pr b l m f A
o e na e e s, en, o a o e o
c tr ucti g V2
on s If w c fi d th i g m t i c ll v w
n . e an n s eo e r a e
F 2 95 IG
c lv th rigi l rci
a n so e u e o l i h hw na exe se , a s o r a n a ys s as s o n .
W lr dy k w h w t c truct 2 b y c tr ucti g ri gh t
e a ea no o o on s on s n a
tri gl w i th th tw l g
an e b ut th ri ght gl q u l t 1 T h
e o e s a o e an e e a o . en
th hy p t u
e qu l
o en W h y? se e a s
EXERCIS E
C on str uct th e qua re r oot of 2 1 ; 6 ; 5 ; 18 ; 42 ; 84 ; 6 6 ;

s
'
76 . C om pa r e th e e sul ts wi th th e ta b l e O f A t 44 9 Y our
r r . .
re sul ts ough t to a ppr ox i m a te th e se cond deci m a l pl ace .
45 3 . r
La ge num b e rs under th e W h e n th e
ra dica l s i gns .
n um b e r un d e r t h e r a di ca l S i gn is l arg e th e v a r i ous ge o ,
m e tr i c con str ucti on s for fi n ding s q ua r e r oots a re n e i th e r

con v e n i e n t n or in g e n e r a l suffi ci e n tly accur a te
, , In thi s .
cas e it is of a d v a n tag e to r e d uce th e g i v e n qua dra t ic sur d

to an e q ui v a l e n t e x pr e ss i on wh i ch h a s a sm a ll e r n um be r
un d e r th e r a di ca l S i gn S uppos e w e wi sh to fi n d th e v a l ue
.
th e n um b er i n to tw o e q ua l gr oups of f actors ; th us
w h en th e n um b e r is n ot a pe rfe ct s q ua r e factor
Ev e n ,
in g will of te n en ab l e th e stud e n t to fi n d its s q ua r e r oot

m uch m or e e as ily as w i ll b e S h o w n l ate r
, .
EXER C IS ES
Fi n d th e foll wi n g i n d i cate d s q ua r e r oot

o s
45 4 . Th e sq ua re root of a p r oduct Th e pr e ce d i n g oxe r

.
i
c se s S h o w th a t th e s q ua r e r oot of th e pr oduct of s e v e r a l
f actor s e ach of wh i ch is a sq ua r e
, ,
m a yb e f oun d b y ta k in g
th e r r oot of
s q ua e e ac h f actor r
se pa a te ly , as in th e f oll o w
ing e x am
pl e s
IN TERPR ETATI ON OF ROO TS AN D P O WER S 4 07
T hi s is tr ue b ecause 9 2 5 can b e wr i tten as th e pr od uct

of t w o gr oups of e q ua l f a ctor s ( 3 5 ) ( 3 H en ce b y th e ,
d e fi n i ti on of a sq ua r e r oot ( 3 5) is th e sq uar e r ootof 9 2 5

, .
Th i s is tr ue be cause 16 r y m ayb e wr i tten as th e pr od uct

4 6
of t w o gr oups of e q ua l f a ctor s ( 4 a y ) ( 4 a y3)

z 3 z
H en ce .
4 v 3 is th e s q ua r e r oot of 1 6 r 4y6
; .
Th e pr e ce di ng e x e r ci se s S h o w th a t th e sq ua r e r oot of a
p r duct is ob t
o a in ed b
y fi n ding t h e s ua r e r o t f ea ch f a ct
q or o o
se a a t
p el
r
y a nd t h n t a king t eh e
p f
r od uct o t h se r oot s Th at e .
is, i n ge n e ra l,
Va b \
/d Vb .
Th i s pr in cipl e m ay b e us e d to s i m pli fy r a di ca l sur d s in

th e f oll o w in g m ann e r S uppose w e w i sh to fi n d th e v a l ue
.
of V 11 85 8 .Th e n
11 7 V2
“
77 V )
B y th e ta b l e of r oots, V2
T he n 77
H e n ce V 1185 8
It wil l b e h e l pf ul to ob s e rv e
f ol l o w ing
th e
( )
1 Th e
p ri n ci l e e n ab l e s us to s i m lify t
p p h e r a di ca n d to
oi n t w h e r e w e ca n e a s ily fi n d t h e r oot b th e t a b l e or
a
p y
b y se v e r a l g e om e tr i c con str ucti on s .
'
( )
2 A q ua d r at i c s ur d is i n it s s i m pl e s t f or m wh e n t h e
n um b e r un d e r t h e r a d i ca l S i g n d oes n ot con ta in a pe rf e ct
sq ua r e f a ctor .
In g en e r a l if th e e x pr e ss i on un d e r th e r a di ca l S i gn
, ,
con ta i n s a f actor wh i ch is a S q ua r e th i s f a cto r m ay b e ,
r e m ov e d b y wri ti n g its sq uar e r oot b efor e th e r adi cal S i gn .

EXERCIS ES
C h a n ge th e foll owi ng so as to l e a v e no fa ctor w hi ch is a
s q ua r e un d e r th e ra d i ca l S i gn :
V 53
7
2 . V 171 . 7 . V 15 . 12 .
2
.
45 5 . V al ue of m em orizing r r oots of certa in num b ers sq ua e .
Ex e rcis es 1 9 Art 4 5 4 s ugg est th e m an n e r in wh i ch th e

—
,
.
,
s ua r e r oot s of a fe w s m a ll n um be r s l ik e 2 3 5 are
q , , , ,
m a d e to d o s e rv i ce in fi n di n g th e r oots of m an y l a rg e
n um b e r s In f act m a n y s tud e n ts in o th e r fi e ld s fi n d th at
.
,
m e m or izin g th e se n um b ers wh i ch occur ag a in an d ag a in ,
in th e i r pr ob l e m s i n cr e a se s th e i r e ffi ci e n cy
, .
EXER CIS ES
F rom l e of r oots w e k now th a tV 2 : 1 4 14 V 3 : 1 732

th e tab .
,
.
,
a nd V 5 U s i n g th e se fa cts c m pute e ach of th e fol ,

o
l owi ng corr e ct to tw o de ci m a l pl ace s

7 . V 50 + 75 —
V6 .
4 56 . Th e sq ua e r r oot of a fra ction A fr acti on is sq ua r e d .
b y s q ua r ing its n um e ra tor a n d its d e n om i n a tor se pa r a te ly

2
:
a a a
and in d i catin g th e pr od uct th us X 2
H en ce , to
b b 5
r
e x t act th e r r oot of a fracti on w e fi nd th e
s
q ua e , s
q ua e r
r o ot of its n um e r a to r an d d e n om in ator se pa ra te ly .
F m pl 9 3
_
or e x a fe, '
5 11108
4 g 18
-
,
2 . Th e s
q ua re r oot o f the n ew fr a ction e
q ua ls th e s ua r e
q
r oot of its n um er a t
or d iv ided by th e s ua r e
q r oot o f its
d en om ina tor .
3 If desir ed,
. ex
p re ss th e r e sult in si m
p l est de ci m a l f or m .
Th e pr ocess h an g in g
of c a r adi ca l e x pre ss i on so as to
le av e no d en om in ator un d e r a r adi ca l s ig n is ca ll e d r a tion
1
é
1
a l izin
g th e d en om in a tor Thus V3 ; 1
5
.
,
3 a
EXER CIS ES
1 Fi n d th e v a l ue o f th e foll owi ng s q uare roots (fi n d va l ue s

.
a ppr ox i m a te ly accura t e to t h e s e con d de cim a l pl a ce ) :
(a ) (b ) f} (c) 5 i
(d)
.
(e) (f) If (g) £3
. .
2 . Ra ton ali ize de n om i n ator s of th e foll owi n g ,

an d s i m plify
_ L .
V 251)
( )
b (d) f
( ) (j )
3 . W h a t is t
h e v a l ue of th e r
e x p e ss on s i i n Ex 2 . fr om (e)
to j
() i n cl us iv e if
, ,
a 3 and b 2
45 8 . Addi ti on and sub tra ction o f s urds . S om etim es th e

ari th m e ti c in a pr obl e m m ay b e s i m pl ifi e d i f th e su r ds are
com b in e d in to on e te r m . Th us ,
V 2 0 + V 45 = 2 V 5 + 3 V5
5 V 5 or 5 ,
B y addi n g i x/ 5 j ustas w e
s a dd 24 pl § 3 4, w e
B
_
n ee d on ly to l ook up the V 5, wh e re as V 2 0 + V 4 5 cal l s for
tw o sq ua r e r oot
s .
IN TERP R ETAT IO N OF R OO TS AN D P O WER S 4 1 1
In th e f oll owin g li st s i m pl i fy e ach e x pr e ss i on a s far a s

oss i b l e wi t h out us i ng a ppr ox im at e r oo ts ; t h a t is l eave
p ,
y our r esul t in i n di ca te d f orm P r acti ca lly thi s is of ten .
b e tte r th an fin din g a n appr ox i m a ti on for in th i s m an n e r ,
y o u s u b m i t r esul ts th a t are a b sol ut e ly a ccur a t e I t l e av es .
th e appr ox i m a ti on to th e n ex t pe r son w h o m ay fi n d as ,
m an y d e ci m a l pl a ces as t h e n ee d s of h is pa r ti cu l a r pr ob l e m
d e m an d .
X
E ER CIS ES
3 . 6 V 2 88 4 V 18 V 12 8 .
10 .
5 . 2 V2 7 3 V5 V 75 . 12 .
6 . 3 V20 + 2 V 12 5 —
V I 8O .
13 ,
,/g V
“
7 .
V1 3 1 A
} 14 . 4 V28 8V6 V 112 .
459 . M ul tipl icati on and div i s i on of q ua dra tic sur ds T h e s e .
r
tw o p ocesses i be w ll tr eate d br i e fly In e l e m e n ta ry m ath e
.
h r
m a ti e s t e e a re fe w v e rb a l pr ob l e m s wh i ch i n v olv e th is
pr o ce ss . F urth e r , th e p r i n ci l es i n v o lv e d do n ot ofi e r a n
p y
thin g n ew for us .
T h us , to di v id e V 2 by V 5 , w e m ay wri te thi s in th e
V2
f or m of a fr acti on an d
pr ocee d as we o r din a r i ly do
V5
wh e n fi n ding th e v a l ue of a f r acti on w hi ch in v olv es
ua d rat i c sur d s
q .
Th e r ul e in m ul ti l ication is e q ua lly f a m i l i a r Th e
p .
e q uat i on V E = V t m ay b e r e a d j ust as w e l l fr om
r igh t t o l e ft a nd w e h a v e V d v 5 = V d5 Thus V 2 V 5 is
’
, .
,
pr e cis e l y th e s am e as V T0 .
4 12 G EN E R AL M AT H EM AT IC S
EXER C IS ES
1 . F i nd th e p r o d uct of th e f ll owi n g
o
()
a V 3 V
b
( ) V Q VE .
e \/
( ) s as
( )
a V sV B f
( ) VN i x/ — —
W;
f )(f V5 + V 5 )
S ol ution . We m u tp l i l y ch t rm ea e o f on e
po ly n om i l by
a e ac h r
te m
of th e ot eh r and s i m plify th r ul t e es as f ll w
o o s
V2 V§ VS
‘
+ —
V2 —
V§ + VS
_
2 + V6 —
V 10
—
V6
V l z)
'
O 6
h
( )
( ) (
i 4 V 2
(i )
k
( ) —
5 V 3) .
1 V
( ) ( s V B)
—
.
2 . D ivi de ,
a n d e x p e ss r th e r e sul t in s i m pl e st form
( )
a i b y V 5 . .
( )
0 V 6 b y V s .
b
( ) 2 4 b y Vs . d
( ) 2 V 1 5 V 1 5 b y V5 .
460 F ractiona l ex ponents anoth er m eans of indica ting

.
.
roots a nd pow er s Th us far w e h a v e n ot use d a f r acti on

.
a s an e x on e n t an d e v id e n t ly it c o ul d n ot b e s o u se d
p ,
“
wi th out e x ten din g th e m e an in g of th e w or d e x pon en t .
Th us 95 m ean s a:x
3
, b ut e v id en tl y cann ot m e an
as,
th at cc is to b e us e d a s a f a ctor on e h a lf of a t im e .
4 14 G EN ERAL M AT H EM ATIC S
EXERCIS ES
1 . Wri te in s i mpl e st for m

( ) a 4% 9% 16 % 25 % 36 1 .
1
b 1 ? 83 6 4 01
( )
”
1
+
1 + gt+ 16 } s2 )i
( ) 6 4 1 7
c
‘
2 41 + 5 4 2 e zy
_
5
18 + 3 % V T2 8 + V 2
( ) e 2 .
( 42
t
f
( ) so
(g) (812 2 < 2 4> i + m
100 ”L
h % V7 1
( ) (3 m )
2 . M ul ti ply
3134
( ) a $ .
( ) 0 0 0
( )
b 1 03 10} 1 0?
1
3 . Tran s la te (c) an d (d) ,

Ex 2 , i nto e x pr e ss i on s W i th
. com m on
fracti ons as e x pon e n ts an d e sti m ate h ow la r ge th e n um b e r s

woul d b e if w e h a d a w a y of fi n di ng th e r e sul t .
N E 10
OT m
. n
03 75
th i ghth r t f 1000 An th r
ea s or e e oo o . o e
w y to l
a k t it i th t 10 i t b r i d t th 375 th p w r d
oo a s a s o e a se o e o e an
th th u ndth r
e o satt k n Th id
oo f v r y gr ti m p rt c
a e . e se e a s a re o e ea o an e
i n g tti n g
e cl r und r t n di n g f th ch pt r n l g ri th m n d
a ea e s a o e a e s o o a s a
the s li d rul In th ch apt r w h ll l rn h w t fi d r t

e e . e se e s e s a ea o o n a oo
(sa y th ej u t il y t h q
s u r r t
a s e as as e s a e oo .
46 1 . Zero ex ponents. l aw s w h i ch g ov e r n U n der th e

in te gr a l e x pon e n ts a o
1 a s is s h ow n by th e f oll ow in g : ,
a
5
a
5
a
°
B
( y th e D i v i s i on. L aw
) .
( Th e q uoti en t of a ny n um b e r d iv id e d
5 z a5 =
a 1 —
.
b y i tse lf is
H e ce a
n °= 1 B
( y th e e ua l i t
q . y a x i om
) .
Th us th e zer o
p ow er f
o an
y n um b er
( ex ce
p t zero) is 1 .
Th us , 10°
I N TERP R ETATI O N O F R OO TS AN D P O W ER S 4 15
46 2 . Nega tiv e ex ponents . If :

a sa m e
i n te gr a l e x pon e n ts, t h en
1 3 x
3
x
1
th at is,
3
23
Sim i l a rly , if w e m u tp l i ly th e n u m e a to r r a nd d en om in ator

“
if
b y we b ta i n m
‘
a
l
1
o
x
“
1 1 02
us , or 100 ;
1
1Th
S ee i f you can state in s i m pl e l an guage th e m e an n i g of
a n e g ati v e ex pon en t .
EXER C IS ES
S mpi lify
2
1 10 x x X 10
—
2 .
3
10 x 1 0 x
°
x 1 01 .
4 m
6 16 2 9 m
—
3 . . .
4 . 1000 1
( 00 W . 7 .
2
—
3
.
10 9” w
2
‘
x
°
5 . 2 98 4
x 2 . 8 . 1 4
4 24 .
m "
11 . m at .
m }
12 .
y,
13 .
or ; ( r
u
o ; (our .
H IN T .
( 5 6
8 z x
2
x
2
.
14 .
15 .
16 . r
t a ns l ate th e f r m ul a ( z
o a
m
as
b ra ic rul e .
Nom . Th e 3 in W m ean s fi n d th e cub e r oo t .

N
’
n
19 . S i n ce C ) u
m "
a; w ha t s i m " 9 x
7" ‘
7
M
’
Tra ns l a te th e form ul a V 56
7 ”
as
”
i nto an a l g b ra c rul e
e
0
i .
2 0 Fi nd th e v a l ue f
. o
46 3 . C ub e of a b inom ia l W e s h a ll n ow se e h ow ce rta in
.
h r Sh or t cuts
ot e in fi n din g pow e r s m ay b e illustr ate d an d
e x pl a i n e d .
IN TRODU CTOR Y EXER C IS ES
1 . F i nd th e cub e
’
of 23 + y by fir st fi n d i n g th e s qua r e of
:
a
y a nd mul ti plyi n g th e r e sul t b y : a y .
2 . l i li
B y m u tp ca t on fi n d i (a b) 8
3 Fi n d th e cub e of (x
. _
y) of (a b) . C om pa r e th e se
cub e s wi th th e r esul ts of Ex s 1 .
a nd 2 .
4 . It will y our cl ass

be h e l pf ul to
m a tes if y u will m a k e a s e t of b l ock s
o ,
a s s h ow n n F ig 2 9 8, i n oI r de r t . o
s h ow t h at
(
a : y)
3
96
3
3x y 2
y a
.
H ow y b l ock s a e n e e de d
m an r
5 Fi n d th e fo
. ll owi n g cub es doin g ,
a lly :
F 2 98
a s m a n y a s you ca n m e n t
IG .
( ) (
a 0 dl a
( ) (
G 0 d) 3
() (e 90
0
2 3 3
.
(8) 2
( f” 3 ” 3
f h a:
3 3 8
( )
b ( ) (
d m n
) .
( ) (2 36 y) .
( ) (2 3 y)
Ex e r ci se s 1 5 —
S h ow th at th e cub e o f a b inom ia l is e
qual
t
o th e cub e f
o th e fir st term , p lus th i
r ee t m es th e s
qua re f
o
th e fir st term ip lied b y th e
m ul t s e con d,
p lus th re e tim h
es t e
fi rst term ip lied by th e

m ult s
qu a re f
o th e se con d,
p lus th e
cub e o
f th e s e con d term .
H I S T O R I C AL N O T E . Th e fi rst use of
po s t i iv e a n d n e ga t iv fr c e a
i
to n s a s e x po n e n ts k writt n b y th is f o un d in a b oo e e gr t Engli hea s
m th m ti ci n
a e n d phy ici t S i
a I
a c N wt n ( 16 42
a H s s ,
r saa e o e
d i c v r d th
s o e e b in m i l th r m d n um r u l w
e f phy i c ;
o a eo e an e o s a s o s s
for e x a m pl th l w f gr vi t ti n th l w b ut l n
e, e an d pri m o a a o , e a a o e ses a s s,
a n d th pl n ti n f th r i b w Am n g h i n um r u b
e ex a a o k o e a n o . o s e o s oo s a re
U n iv r l Ari th m ti c (r ll y
e sa lg b r ) d Principi ( n f e ea an a e a an a o e o
th gr t t b
e k f ll ti m )
ea es oo s o a es .
Th b i gr phy f N wt n ( B ll A S h rt Il i t y f M th
’
e o a o e o se e a s o s or o a e
“
m ti a pp 32 8 36 2
e s, d C j i . A H i t ry f El m t ry M th
—
, an a or
’
s s o o e en a a e
m ti pp 2 38 2 4 0) i v ry i t r ti g d i piri g A b y n e es n an ns n
—
a e s, . s e . s a o
h ew p ct d t b
as ex l rni ng h w t t k c r f h i f th r
e e o e ea o o a e a e o s a e
'
s
f rm b ut h p nt m uch f h i ti m tudyi n g nd try i ng m ch n

a , e s e o s e s a e a
i c l p ri m n t Th u w r d f h i c tructi ng cl ck un
a ex e e s . s, e ea o s on s a o r
b y w t r wh i ch k pt v r y f ir ti m
a e H i m th r n ti ci n g th i
e e a e . s o e o s
se n i b ly r
s lv d t n d h im t C m b ri dg H r f ll w d b rilli t
e so e o se o a e . e e o o e a an
c r a eer f th i tyfi y r
o tud t n d t ch r A
r .
pr f
ve r it ea s as s en a ea e . s a o e s so
w h i pr cti c t l ctur pub li cl y n c

as s a ew k n d th o l y fr me e o e a ee , a e n on o
h lf n h ur t n h ur t ti m In th w k f ll wi g h g v
a a o o a o a a e . e ee o o n e a e
f ur h u f c n ul t ti t tud n t w h wish d t di cu th
o o rs o o s a on o s e s o e o s ss e
r ult f th pr vi u l ctur It i i d th t h n ver r p t d

es s o e e o s e e . s sa a e e e ea e a
c uro nd t h t n c ur b g n t th p i nt wh th pr c di n g
se a a o e o se e a a e o e re e e e
'
c uro h d n d d T h r ul t f h i
se a e c n d tudy d uri g th i p ri d
e . e es o s se o s n s e o
h asd d m t r m i nd w h h v
a ze ttem pt d t u nd r t n d ll th t
as e s o a e a e o e s a a a
N wt e cc m pli h d
on P rh p y u w il l l t r gr
a o with m f
s e . e a s o a e a ee so e o
th f ll wi n g tri b ut t h i m :
e o o es o
Na tu r e a nd N a tu r e s
’
l aw s l a y h id in n igh t
G od sa i d
“L e t N e w ton b e a n d a ll w as ligh t .
—
PO PE
,
Th e r e, P ri e s to f N a tu r e d os tth o u Sh i ne ,
N ewt
on !a k ing a m on g th e k ings di vi n e . SO U H Y
T E
Tak i ng m a th e m a t cs f i
th e b e g nn n g of th e w or om i i rl d t th ti m w h
o e e en
Ne wt liv on e d , w h a t h e h ad d on e w as m uch th e b ette r h lf L BN

a .
—
EI ITZ
I d on t k n o
’
w w h at I m a y se e m to th e w o rld ,
b ut as to m y se lf ,
I
se em v
to h a e b e e n on ly as a b oy p a l yi n g on th e s e af sh or e , a n d iv rti g d e n
m yself in n ow a n d th e n fi nding a sm oothe r

pe b b e o r a l pr tti r h ll
e e s e
th a n o d n a r i ry ,
wh il st th e g r e a t o ce a n r
of t uth l a y a ll u di c v r d
n s o e e
be fr o e me . NE W N TO
IN TERPR ETAT IO N OF ROO TS AN D P O W ER S 4 19
464 . C ub e r oots . Th e e q uaton i y = x3 a sserts th at

is th e cub e of x , or, i n v e r se ly x ,
is th e cub e r oot of
If th e e q ua
ti on is g r aph e d
w e sh a ll oh
ta in a curv e
an a l og ous to
th e curv e for
s q ua r e s an d
s q ua r e r oots
wh i ch m ay b e
us e d to fi nd
b r oots a nd
cu e
cub es W e pro
.
ce e d to find
co rr e spon d in g
v a l ue s for y
a n d x in or d e r
th at w e m ay
p l o t suffi ci e n t
po nti
s for th e
curv e .
F IG . 2 99 . GR A PH OF y
EXERCIS ES
1 W ha t is th e va l ue of y in th e e q uati on
. 9 when y : 6
3
as
e q ua l s 0 ? wh e n wh e n a: 1 ? w h en cc = + 2 ? —
when x 2
2 C al cul a te v a l ue s a s in Ex 1 a nd fil l th e b l a n k spa ce s of
. .
th e f ll owi n g ta b l e I f th e curv e is n ot ob vi ous e x pa n d th e

o .
,
ta b l e un til y u h a v e e n ough poi n ts to d r a w th e cu v e

o r .
420 GEN ERAL MATH EM AT I C S
Fr om th i s b ta i n th e curv e in Fig 2 99
tab l e w e m ay o . .
O n e sm a ll s q uar e v e r ti ca lly r e pr ese n ts 1 un i t an d 5 sm al l ,
s q uar e s h or izon t a l l y r e r ese n t 1 un i t

p .
Fr om th is curv e w e can r e ad ofi appr ox i m a te ly th e , ,
cub e or t h e cub e r oot of any n um b e r ; th us th e cub e of

is s ee n to b e a b out ( by t h e ta b l e a ctua l l y
th e cube r oot of 1 3 is se en to b e a li ttl e ov e r ( s ee
th e ta bl e for v a l ue s accur a te to tw o d e ci m al pl a ce s) M or e .
a ccur a t e r e sul ts ca n b e o b t a in e d b
y d r a w in g t h e cu rv e to
a l a rg e sca l e .
46 5 . C ub e r ith m etical num b er s An ar i th m eti ca l

roots of a .
m e th o d for fi n din g cub e r oots b a se d on a n a l ge br a i c for

m ul a for ( a + b ) coul d b e d e vi s e d
3
B ut thi s m e th o d is
.
se ld om u se d be cause cub e r oots a s w e ll as h i gh e r r oots

,
ar e m or e q ui ck ly f oun d b y m e a n s of l oga r i t h m s T hi s .
m e th od w i ll b e taug h t in th e n e x t ch apte r In th e m e an .
ti m e th e stud e n t m ay for a ll p r a cti ca l pu r pose s use th e

tab l e in Art 44 9 . .
F urth e r m or e w e coul d d e v i s e an a l og ou s r ul e s an d curv es

,
for f ourth r oots fif th r oots f ou r th po w e r s an d so on b ut

, , , ,
th e se too a r e m or e r e a d ily f oun d b y l oga r i th m s .
46 6 . Indica ting hi gh er roots . B ym e a n s of a n in dex figure

th e r adi ca l S i gn is m a d e to i n d i cate ot e h r r oots th an s ua r e
q
r oots .
Th us th e cube r oot of 8 or on e of its th r e e e q ua l f actors

2 T h e f our th r ootof 1 6 is wri tte n Vfi
0
is wr i tten { 78 . 2 .
Th e 3 in {V8 is th e ind ex of th e r oot

’
Anye x pr e ss i on wh i ch con tai n s a n i n di cate d r oot is ca ll ed

a r a dica l ex r ession
p .
T h e pr in ci pl e s of r e d uci n g sur d s to s i m pl e r f orm s dis ,
cusse d in d e ta i l for q ua d r ati c sur d s , m ay b e a

pp li e d to
h i gh e r indi cate d r oots .

42 2 G EN ER AL M AT H EM AT I C S
473 . Th e ch apte r ta ugh t a m e th od fi ndi ng th e sq ua re of
r oot of a lg eb r a i c poly n om i a l s a n d a ri th m eti ca l n um b e rs .
4 74 Th e ch apte r in cl ud e s a s im pl e ta b l e of sq ua r e
.
r oots a nd cub e r oots .
475 Q u a d r a ti c s i m ay of te n b e s i m pl i fi e d by a pply
.
ld
ing th e pr i n ci pl e V a b = V 1 V 5 2 .
4 76 W e fi n d th e s q ua r e r oo t of a fr a cti o n b y di v idi n g
.
th e s q ua r e r oot of th e n um e r a tor b y th e s q ua r e r oot of
f a
th e d e n om inator ; th a t i s ,
V5
’
4 77 R a ti on a l i zin g th e d en om in a tor i m plifi es th e ca l
’
. s
£
6
l i
cu at on ; th a t is, is m r d iffi cul t th an
o e
478 . W h en th e s am e n um b er o ccu s r as th e r a d i ca l in
a se ries r s th e te r m s m ay b e com b i n e d b y th e
of te m ,
r ul e for addin g s i m i l a r te r m s T h i s usua lly s i m pli fi e s .
th e ca l cu l a ti on .
479 T h e th e o r e m of P y th a g or as w a s pr ov e d
. .
480 Th e th e or e m of P y th ag or a s f ur n i s h e s a m e th od of
.
con str ucti n g th e s q ua r e r oot of a n um b e r .
481 T h e m e an pr opor ti on a l con str ucti on fu rn i s h e s

.
a n oth e r m e t h o d of fi n d i n g th e sq ua r e r oot .
482 A fr a cti on a l e x pon e n t is a n oth e r m e th od of in d ica t

.
ing r oots a n d pow e r s ; th us x g m e a n s Th e n um e r a tor

,
i n di cate s th e po w e r a n d th e d e n om i n ator th e r oot

,
.
4 83 a is d e fi n e d as 1
.
o .
4 84 A n um b e r w i th a n eg ati v e e x pon e n t is d e fi n e d s o
.
as t o b e e q ua l t o th e r e ci pr oca l of th e s a m e n um be r w i th
1
os itiv e e x pon e n t; th a t is, 5
"
a a
p
v
5
a
IN TER PR E TAT IO N OF R O O TS AN D P O WERS 42 3
485 . Th e bcu e of a b i n o m i a l m ay b e f oun d by th e

f ol l ow i ng f orm ul a
3 2
( a b
+ )
3
a 3a b + 3 a b 2 + b3
486 . C ub e r oots m ay b e f oun d b y th e tab l e gr aph or , ,
m o r e e a s i ly by l og a r i th m s a n d th e s li d e r ul e ( th e l as t tw o
m e th od s w i ll b e sh ow n in th e n e x t tw o ch apte r s ) .
C H APTER X V II
“
LOGARI THM S
’
AP PLIED TO MULTIPLIC ATION, DIV IS ION,
R OOTS AND PO WER S , AND V ERB AL P R OB LEM S INV OLV
ING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
LOG AR IT H M S
487 . La b or -
sa v in g dev ices . In C h apte r IV w e S h ow e d
h ow ex ten s iv e l
ca cul ati on sv e n w i th on l y f our or fi v e
e
p l ace n u m be r s are apt to be com e l a bor i ous an d in s om e ,
cases , in accur ate an d in v ol v in g un n e ce s sary s teps We .
sh o w e d h ow to m in i m ize t h e in accur acy a n d h ow som e of

th e un n e cessary s teps m ay b e e l i m i n ate d espe ci a lly w i th ,
r eg ar d to th e pr oce sse s of m ul tipl i cati on an d di v i si on by

“ ”
th e s o cal l e d
-
a b b r e vi a te d m et h od B ut in m an y cas e s
.
th e w or k r e m a i n s l on g an d te di ous e v e n w i th th e use of
,
th ese a bb r e v i ate d m e th od s .
In Art 44 9 w i ll b e f oun d a tab l e of pow e r s an d r oots

.
which are g i v e n for th e purpose of s a v in g ti m e an d l a b or .
S ci en tifi c b ook s i n cl ud e sim i l a r tabl es w hi ch h e l p to s a v e tim e

a n d co nse rv e our e n e r gy } O t h e r l a bor sa v in g d e v i ce s com
_
-
m ouly use d are a ddi ng m ach i n e s ca s h r e g is te r s gr aphs etc

, , , .
O n e of th e gr e ates t l a b or sa v i n g d e v i ces b y wh i ch di t
-
h
cul t pr ob l e m s m ay b e r e a di ly s olv e d is t h e m e th od of
ca l cu l ati on by l og a r i th m s T hi s ch apte r w i l l b e d e v ote d
.
to a s i m pl e e x pl an a ti on of thi s m e th od If th e s tud e nt
.
w ill stud y th e ch apte r car e f ul l y a n d so lv e th e pr obl e m s

corr e ctl y h e w i l l g e t a f oun d ati on in l og a r i th m i c w or k
,
th a t wi ll b e v e ry h e l pf ul in sub se q ue n t w or k .
42 4
42 6 G EN E R AL M AT H EM AT IC S
poss ibl e for w or k o ut a t

us to a b l e w hi ch w i ll g i v e us th e .
p o w e rs of 1 0 whi ch e q ua l a nd Th e ta bl e
b e l o w sh o w s h ow th e diff e r e n t v a l ue s are ob ta i n e d T h e .
tab l e is n otcom pl e te as wil l b e sh o w n l a ter b ut it con ta i n s

, ,
th e a ppr ox i m ate v a l ue s of se v e r a l i n te gr a l an d fr acti on a l

o w e r s of 1 0 wh i ch w e n e e d a t t h is poi n t
p .
W k n w th t 10
e. o 1 10a 10 10 z 100 10
0
, 1000 n d 1
n ,
2
,
3
, a so o .
W c fi n d th v l u f 10
e an e f ll w
a e o
°5 -
as o o s
10 1oi V IO 05
-
( ppr ) a ox .
F r om the se va l ue s th e ot e h r va lue s in th e ta b l e a re e a s il y f o un d ,
as th e stude n t ca n v rify
e .
T AB L E O F P O W ER S O F
’
10
100
2
_
1 02 5 z 10 % V IO
0 76 1 3 V 31
10 -
( 1 0 -
0 2 . 62
101
1 01
101 5 101 1 0° 5 -
102
2 101
10 “ 1 01
101 - 5
102 75 2 101
103
W e m ayn ow r e sum e th e sol uti on of th e pr ob l e m pr opose d

a b ov e n a m e ly m ul t
, ipl y i ng, by W e can se e
b y r e f e rr i g to t e tab l e th at
n h 1 0 13 5
an d th at
= 10 05
-
. He n ce 1 , x 10 1 25-
x 10 1 75
-
w hi ch , b y r e fe rr i n g to th e ta bl e , w e s ee is l to e
q u a
( thi s
p r od uct is accu a te r to th e se con d d e ci m a l pl ace ) .
L O G AR I TH M S 42 7
EXERCIS E
C h e ck th e pr e ce d i ng r e s ul t b y a ctually m ul ti plyi ng
by a n d a ccoun t for t h e d i ffe r e nce in r e s ul ts 18 th e r e . a
si gn ifica nt d i ffe re nce I s th e re sul t ob ta i ne d b y a ctua l mu t li

p li ca ti on a ccu a te to m or e t
r h a n tw o de ci m a l pl a ce s
ri th m s ; l oga ri th m s In th e e q ua
'
49 0 . Loga notation for .
ti on
25-
th e e x pon e n t ( w h i ch in d i ca te s
th e po we r to wh i ch 1 0 m ust b e r a i se d to g i v e is
ca ll e d th e loga ri th m of to th e b a se 1 0 .
T h us th e loga ri th m of a n um b e r to th e b a se 10 is th e
ex on e nt o f th e p ower to w h ich 1 0 m ust b e r a ise d to e ual

p q
th a t n um b e r . Fr om h a ll assum e th at th e b a se
n ow on we s
is 10 w h e n w e spe a k o f th e l oga r i th m of a n um b e r Th e .
s y m b o l for l og a ri th m is l g Th us l og 1 000 3 is r e a d th e
o .
,
l og ar i th m of 1 000 e q ua l s th e b a se 1 0 b e i n g un d e r stood .
EXERCIS E
B ym e a n s of th e ta b l e of po we r s of 1 0 in Art 4 89 fi n d l og 1 ;
.
l og 10 l og 1 00 ; l og l og
49 1 l oga ri th m is an ex ponent Th e stud e n t w i l l do

. A .
we ll to r e m e m b e r th e tw o w ay s of th i n kin g of an e x po
n e n t; for e x a m pl e in t h e e q uati on 1 02 =
, 1 00 th e 2 can b e
th ough t of ( a ) a s th e e x pon e n t of th e po w e r to w h i ch 1 0
m uStb e ra i se d to e q ua l 1 00 th at is 1 0
'
2
100 ; ( b ) a s th e
‘
z
,
l og ar ith mof 1 00 to th e b ase 10 ; th at is 2 = l og10 100 , .
EXER CIS ES
R e ad th e foll owi ng in tw o w ay s
1 10 = 10 2 1 0 = 1 00
1 2 8 4
. . . . 3 10
. 1 000. 4 . 10
42 8 G EN ER AL MATH EMATIC S
492 . C h aracter i stic; m anti ssa . A gl an ce at the tabl e of
Art 4 89
. w i l l sh ow th a t e ach ex pon e n t of 10 ( e a ch l og a
r ith m of th e corr e spon din g n um b e r s to th e righ t) m aycon

ta i n an in te gr a l pa r tan d a f r a cti on a l pa r t F or e x a m pl e in .
,
th e e q uati on th e ( th at is l o
g ,
h as 1 for its i n te gr a l pa rt an d . for its d e ci m a l ( fr a c

2 =
tion al ) pa r t In 1 0
. 1 00 th e e n tir e l og a r i th m is i n te gr a l .
( Why ? ) Th e i nte gr a l
pa r t of a l og a r i t h m is ca ll e d th e
ch a r a ct ic of th e l og a r i th m an d th e d e ci m a l pa rt is
er i st
'
ca ll e d th e m a nt issa of th e l og ar i th m .
Th e ch a r acte r is ti c of a l og a r i th m of any n um be r can

a l w ay s b e d e t e r m in e d a t s i gh t F or e x am pl e
.
1
l og 10 1, b e ca use 10 10 ;
2
l og 100 2 , b e caus e 10 1 00
3
l og 1000 3, b e caus e 1 0 1000
an d s o on . B ut th e se b e r s are all in tegr a l pow e r s of

n um
10 H ow e v e r th e ch a r acte r i sti c of th e l og a r i th m of any

.
,
:
ot h e r num b e r m ay b e obta in e d as w e ll by ob se rv ing wh at

po w e r s o f 10 i n cl os e it F. or e x am
p l e t h e c h a r a cte r i sti c ,
s 2 b e ca us e 5 2 5 li es b e t w d
of l o
g 5 25 i ee n th e se c on a n d
th e th ir d pow e r s of 1 0 ; th at is b e tw een , an d
h a bl e Art
( se e t e t , .
It is n ot so e asy to d e te r m in e th e m an ti ssas ( th e d e ci
m al pa r t) of th e l og a r i t h m s of num be rs W e h a v e w or k e d .
out a fe w of t h e se in th e tab l e of Art 4 89 b ut to com pute .

,
-
th e m an ti ssa s for al l oth e r n um b e r s in th i s w ay w ould b e

“
'
a t e dious t as k M or e ov e r th e m eth od s n e cessa ry to com
.
,
p te th e m w ould b e be y on d us in diffi cul ty

u H ow e v e r .
,
th e se m an ti ss as h a v e b e en com put e d for all t h e v ar i ous

o w e r s of 1 0 by m or e a d v an ce d m e t h od s nd t h y r
p ( ) a e a
pp e a ,
in th e ta bl e of m an ti ssas wh i ch f ol l ow s S o th at n ow wh e n .
TAB L E O F M ANT I S S AS
L O G AR I T HMS 4 31
TAB L E O F M ANTI S S AS
4 32 G ENER AL M ATH EM ATI C S
Th e p r i
e ce d n g w rk m
o a y b e b ri e fl y a rr a n ge d a s f ll w
o o s
Let N 48 55
‘
l og 4 8
l og N
N : 2 6 40 .
493 . Loga rith m of a product . Th e di scuss i on an d ex
a m p es l in Art
h a v e sh ow n th at to th e pr obl e m of
. 4 92
m ul ti ply i n g tw o pow e r s of 1 0 th e r e corr e spon d s th e pr obl e m
of a ddi n g t h e i r l og a r i th m s ( ex pon en ts) T hi s m ayb e state d .
br i e fly as th e fir st l a w th us :Th e loga rith m of the p roduct

f
o wo num b er s
t is th e s um f th e
o loga r ith m s Qf th e fa ctors ,
or, byf or m ula , log ( a b ) log a log b .
It is e asi ly s h o w n th a t th e l aw a sol h ol ds for an ynum b e r

of factors in a pr od uct th atis , l og ab c l og a l og b l og 0,
an d so on .
EXER CIS ES
C h e ck b ya ctua l m ul ti pli cati on th e

1 . l oga ri th m i c m eth od of
fi n di n g th e pr oduct of 4 8 a n d 5 5 .
2 Fi nd b y m e a n s of l ogar i thm s th e pr oducts of th e foll ow

.
in g n um b e r s
()a 10 x 100 x 1 000 ( )

b 5 1 x .4 0 ()
c 83 x 6 x 2 . .
3 Fi n d b yu
. s i n g loga ri th m s th e ar ea of a tri a n gul ar ga r den
p l ot w h ose b a s e is 38 ft a n d w h ose a l t i t
.ude i s 1 7 ft .
S ol uti on T h f rm ul f
. e tho r f nytri ngl i
a or e a ea o a a e s
ab
H e n ce , in t h i s ca se , A 19 17 .
l og 19
l og 1 7
l og A
A 32 3 .
495 . Loga r ith m of a .i g

q uotient Th e m e th od of com putn
by l og a r i th m s is as use f ul i n di v i si on as in m ul tipli cati on .
In o r d e r to m a k e th e m e th od cl e a r l e t us r e v i e w our tw o ,
m e th od s of di v id in g on e n um b e r b y an oth e r .
10
0
60
3
0
( )
a 1000, b y actua d l ivi s i on .
5
10
b
( ) 1 0 : 1 000, b ys ub tra ctm g th e
3
e x pon e nt
s .
100
Her e , as in m ul ti pl i ca ti on , w e o b ta in th e sam e r e s ul t
by ith e r m e th od
e , b ut th e s e co n d m e th od r e d uce s th e
ope r a t i on of a ctua l d i v i si on to a s i m l e pr obl e m of s ub
p
tr a cti ng e x pon en ts .
EXER CIS ES
1 Fi nd th e foll owi n g
. i
q uote n ts b y th e tw o m e th ods j ust
di s cuss e d :
1 00,000 1 000
( ) a
1 000 (b ) 10,000
2 . D ivi de 100 b y b y us i n g th e ab
t le of Art 4 89
. .
100 102
S ol uti on 100 _
5 9
1015
NO T E . Th e stude nts h oul d che ck thi s r e sult b y a ctua l divi si on .
3 . D ivi de by b y us i n g th e ta b le of Art 4 89
. .
We y m a Ob ta in th e q uo te ir
n t of a n
in
y tw o n um b e s
l ik e m an n e r b y sub tr a cti ng th e e x pon en t of th e pow e r of

-
1 0 e q ua l to th e di v i sor fr om th e e x pon e n t of th e po w e r o f
1 0 e q ua l to th e di vi d en d K e e pin g in m i n d th e d e fi n i ti on
'
of a l og a ri th m it is cl e a r th atth is f act m ayb e e xpr esse d as

a l a w ; th us, th e l oga ri th m of th e quotien t of tw o n um b er s is
.
th e loga ri th m of the dividen d m inus th e loga ri th m of th e ,
div isor ; or, as a f or m log a log b .

L OG AR I TH M S
EXER CIS ES
1 . iv en log 2 = 0 3010 l og 3 = 0 4 77 1 fi n d l g % ; l og };
G .
,
. o
2 Fi n d th e v a l ue of th e f oll owi n g fra cti on s t th r e e

. o
s i gn ifi ca n t fi gur e s b y us i n g l oga ri thm s

5 9 x 85
3
381 X 1 1
( )
a
43
( )
e
43 .
7 5 2 x 35 0 71 x 4 8 x 2 5 3
(b ) 683
( )
d
47 x 81
H IN T . rith m
T o fi n d th e l og a o f e a ch fr i
a ct o n , a dd th e
ga t m s l o ri h
of th e f ct r f th n um r t r
a o s o e e a o an d from th i s s um sub t a ct t r
h e s um
of th e l g ri th m f th f ct r
o a s o e a o s of th e d e n om n a t
o i r .
496 . Position l point S in ce th e m ul tipl i

of th e decim a .
ca ti on or di v i s i on of a n um be r by 1 0 a m oun ts to a m ov i ng
of t h e d e ci m a l poin ton e pl a ce to th e r i gh t in m ul ti pli ca ti on

a n d on e
p l ac e to th e l e f t in di v i s i on a n d s i n ce th e m ul ti ,
p l i cat i on or di v i s i on of a n um b e r b
y 1 0 0 a m o un ts to
m o v i n g th e d e ci m a l poi n t tw o pl a ce s to th e r i g h t or l e f t ,
an d so on , th e p osit f th e de cim a l p oin t in

ion o a n um b e r
wh ose loga r ith m w e a r e seekin

g a
fi e ct
s th e ch a r a cter ist
ic on ly .
Th e tru th of th e f oreg oin g state m e n tca n be s ee n b e st b y

m e an s of th e ta bl e in Art 4 89
. . In thi s tab l e , for e x am
p l e ,
035
10 or l og
If w e m ul ti ply b oth si d e s of th is e q uat on i b y 1 0, w e ge t
10 1 25
-
or l og
Ag a i n , m u tp l i ly in g b oth s id e s of thi s l ast e q uati on by 1 0,

2 25
10 -
or l og
a n d so on d e n t w i ll obs e rv e th a t on ly th e i n te gr a l
. Th e stu
pa r t of th e e x pon e n t of 1 0 ( th e l og a r i th m of th e n u m b e r )
is ch an g i n g an d th at th e arr a y of fi ur es r em ai n s th e
,
g
4 36 G ENER AL M AT H EM ATI C S
sa m e e v en th oug h th e de ci m a l poi n t m ov e s on e pl a ce to
th e r i gh t a f te r e a ch m ul ti pl i cati on In l i k e m a n n e r i f w e .
,
di v id e b oth s id e s of th e e q uati on 1 0 by 1 0 an d ° 25
-
con tin ue t h e d iv i s i on w e ob ta i n ,
1
10 035
l og 1
“
or
10 0
or l og 2,
J
l og 3,
—
or
an d so on .
Th e l og a ri th m s 1 2 —
3 e tc a re
, , , .
n e g a ti v e q ua n t i ti e s b ut th e y are n ot in th e f or m in w hi ch
,
w e us ua lly wr i te n e ga tiv e n um b e r s H o w e v e r i f w e a d opt .

,
th ese f or m s th e m a n ti ss as of a ll o ur l og a r i th m s w i l l n ot
,
on ly b e os i ti v e b u t th ey w i l l b e t h e s a m e for t h e am e
p s
a rr ay of fig ur e s n o m a t te r wh e r e t h e d e ci m a l poi n tis f ou n d .
T h us th e m a n ti s sa of l og is th e s a m e a s th e
m an ti ss a o f l og a s w as sh o w n ab ov e T h e s e tw o .
l og a r i th m s d i ffe r th e r e for e on ly in th e ir ch a ra cte ri s ti c

, , s.
I n s om e te x ts l og is wr i tte n in ste a d of 1 .
To agr e e w i th th i s s ta te m e n t th e d a s h ab ov e th e 1 m e a n s
th a t on ly th e 1 is n ega ti v e S o m e b ook s pr e f e r th e f or m
.
—
10 i n s te a d of —
1 or Th e stu d e n t ca n
eas ily se e th a t —
1 0 h a s th e v a l ue a s sam e —
1 .
W e s h a ll l a te r se e a n ot h e r a d v an tag e o f th e f o rm 10 .
T h e pr e ce d i n g d i s cuss i on m a y b e s um m a ri ze d in tw o
state m en ts
1 . We a
g ree to ex
p r e ss th e loga r ith m f
o an
y n um b er in a
f or m s uch th a t its issa

m a nt s h a llb e p ositiv e T hi s ca n .
alw ay s w h e th e r th e
b e don e , n u m b e r is
g r e ate r or l e ss th an
un i ty In e i th e r ca se th e pos i tiv e n e ss or n e g ativ e n e ss o f

.
th e n um b e r is sh o wn e n tir e ly b ym e an s of th e ch a r acte r i sti c .
2 . Tw o n um b er s con ta inin
g th e sa m e succession of digits,
th a t is, d if
fer ing onl
y i n th e
p osition o
f th e d ecim a l p oin t
,
4 38 G EN ER AL M ATH EM AT IC S
to v a ri ous l oga r i th m s wh i ch w e m ay ob tain in ca l cul a ti on ,
it is n e ce ssary for us to l e ar n h o w to m a k e f ur th e r use of

th e ta b l e in Art 4 9 2 W e sh all pr ocee d to con sid e r tw o
. .
ty pi ca l e x a m pl e s .
1 Fi nd th e l oga ri th m of
.
S ol uti on F r m th t bl f A t 49 7 it i cl r th t th ch r
. o e a e o r . s ea a e a
act i tic f th
er s l g ri th m i 2 T fi n d th m nti w i g r th
o e o a s . o e a s sa , e no e e
d ci m l p i n t n d l
e a k in th t b l f A t 4 92 f th m n ti
o a oo e a e o r . or e a ssa
of 2 316 R di ng d wn th l fth n d c l um n f th
. ea t bl h d d
o e e -
a o o e a e, ea e
N w fi d 2 3 Th n um b r i n t
e n h m h ri nt l
. w wi th 2 3 e e s e sa e o zo a ro
a re th m n ti e f th l g ri th m 2 30 2 31 2 32
a ssa s o nd n e o a s , , , a so o .
W w n t t fi n d th l g ri th m f 2 316 W c n n w wri t
e a o e o a o . e a o e
l og 2 32
log 2 31
Ta b u l r di ff r
a e e n ce
N ow i
s n ce is 1 6
6
of th e w a y fr m 2 31
o to 2 32 , w e a dd
6
{ 5
of th e ta b u l r difi
a e r e n ce to th e l g ri thm
o a of 2 31 . T us, h
6
l og 16 x
Th e rfr
e o e log
T h e pr oce ss of ob ta in i n g th e l og ar i th m of a n um b e r
in th i s w ay is ca ll e d interp ol a tion T h e s tud e n t sh oul d .
r h h by fi n di ng t g a r ith se v er a l
'
p a cti ce t i s m e t od h e l o m s o f
f our di g i t n um b e rs
-
.
2 Fi n d th e n um b e r w h ose l oga ri th m is
. 1 —
.
S ol uti n W k n w t n c th t th n um b r i
o . e d ci m l fr cti n
o a o e a e e s a e a a o
ly i g b tw n th m i u I t n d th 0 p w r f 10 Th i t ll u
n e ee e n s
°
s a e o e o . s e s s
th t th a d ci m l p i n t c m
e e j u t b f r th fi r t i gni fi c nt fi gur
a o o es s e o e e s s a e
i th
n um b r
e n I f w l k i n th t b l
e . f A t 49 2 w d n t fi n d
e oo e a e o r . e o o
th m e ti 3883 b ut w fi n d 389 2 wh i ch i
an ssa l i ttl gr t r
, d e , s a e ea e , an
3874 wh i ch i
, littl l ; th t i s a e e ss a s,
1 l og
1 l og
.
S i n ce —
1 i s th e l og a ri th m of th e num b e r we w an t, th e
n um be r li es b et w ee n and No w 1 is 9
1 8 of th e
LO G AR IT HM S 4 39
w ay fr om l og t o l og h e nce th e n um b e r co rr e spo n d n g i
l
ri th m 1 li 4 f th w y f m
9
to th e o ga -
es
13t , or , o e a ro o
T h r f r th n um b r d ir d i
e e o e e e es e s
H e re th e pr ocess of i n te rpol ati on is use d on th e in v e rs e

p r o bl e m th a t of fi n din g a n um b e r w h e n it
,
s l og a r i th m is
g i v en .
EXERCIS ES
1Fi n d th e l ogari th m s of th e foll wi ng n um b e r s :745 ;

. o
912 00 ; N o int r ol a ti
( e p on
) .
2 Fi n d th e l oga ri th m s o f th e f oll wi n g n um b e r s :
. 65 42 ; o
e r pol a ti
912 4 3 ; (I nt on
)
3 Fi n d th e n um b e r s w h o e l ogari th m s a e
. s r
2 ; 1 (N o i n te r pol a ti n ) . o .
4 Fi n d th e n um b e r s w h ose l oga ri th m s a e
. r
2 (I n te rpol ati n ) . o
499 . Ex tr a ction of r oots b y m ea n s of l oga ri th m s . In

Art 4 6 0 w e di scuss e d
. th e m e an i ng of fr acti on a l e x pon e n ts
an d s h o w e d th at
al era s
d; d h;
a ; a etc .
If w e a s sum e th a t th e th e o r e m o f Art 4 94 r eg a rd in g .
,
th e l og a r i th m of a n um b e r r a i se d to a
power h o l d s for ,
fr acti on a l e x pon e n ts th en ,
L
l og V h l og a
9
5 g
l o a,
l og V a l og h l
z a z z
g -
og —
a,
an d so on . Thi s i ll ustr a te s th e tr uth of . a n ot e h r th e or e m ,
n am e ly th a t th e
, log a r ith m o f an
y r oot o f a n um b er is e
q ual
to th e l og a r ith m f
o th e n um b er divided b yth e i ndex o f th e r oot
.
No w is th e l og a r i th m of T h e r e fo r e th e
s
q ua e r r oot of 5 42 is a ppr o x i m a te ly
If th e l og a r ith m of th e n um b e r is n egati v e , th e r oot
m ay b e f oun d as in th e f oll ow i n g e x a m pl e s .
Fi n d by l og a r i th m s :
(b )
S ol ut on i . L og if w tt m pt t t k 5 1 . N ow e a e o a e
o f th i n g tiv l g ri th m w
s e a h ll b t i n fr cti n l ch r ct i ti c
e o a , e s a o a a a o a a a er s
th t w ul d b
a c nf u i n g
o Th r f r e i n rd
o t m k it p ib l
s . e e o e, o er o a e o ss e
t k p th
o ee m ti p i tiv e n d th ch r ct ri ti c ( ft r th
an s sa os e a e a a e s a e e
d ivi i n ) n i n t g r w wri t
s o a e e , e e
lo g 2 0,
a n um be r wh ich th e stude n t ca n
'
r e ad il y se e is e qu l a to 1,
a nd w h ich h a s th e a dd e d a d v a n ta ge r f rr
e e ed to a b v o e . We n ow ge t
(a ) l o g V O 4 T2 . 2 0) 10 .
In lik e m a nn e r ,
( b ) l og g
,(
2 9 6 789 . 30) -
10,
a nd
( c) l og V 0 4 72 . 4 0) 10 .
In v e l o V 0 4 72
ab o 1 0 Th i hat
( ) a
g
, , s m ea ns t .
-
.
th e ch a r a cte r i s ti c is 1 an d th at th e m an ti ss a is —
B y r e f e r e n ce to th e tabl e w e fi n d th at is th e m an ,
ti ssa of th e l og a r i th m of 6 87 S i n ce th e ch ar a cte r i sti c is .
1 th e n um b e r l i es b etw ee n th e m i n us I stan d th e 0 pow e r

,
of 1 0 h e n ce th e d e ci m al poi n tcom es j ust b ef ore th e 6 an d ,
V Th e s tud e n t s h oul d ch e ck th i s r es ul t b y
’
a ct ua lly e x tr a cti n g th e s q ua r e r oot of by th e m e th od

i v e n in Ar t 4 4 6
g . .
EXERCIS ES
1 . Fi n d by l oga ri th m s :
2 . G iv e n a z: b a nd c fi nd b y l oga ri th m s
th e va l u e of t h re e s i gnifi can t fi gur e s .
4 42 G EN ERAL M AT H EM ATI C S
*10 . Th e ave rage ve l oci ty o f th e pi ston h e ad in i nch e s pe r
v
se con d for a stea m e n gi n e is give n b y th e for m ul a
uz i 7
.
w h ere 3 de n ote s th e d s ta ncei

i nch e s) ove r w h i ch th e pi ston
(in
h ea d m ov e s a nd p is th e n um b er of pounds o f pr e ssure f
,
o
ste a m in th e cyli nde r Fi n d if s . in a n d p 115 l b

v . .
*11 I n th e e q uati on :
. = 10” w h a t is th e v a l ue of x w h e n
9
0 ? w h e n y= 1 ? w hen y 2 ? whe n
y 1 ? —
g
*12 Fill in th e foll owi ng ta b l e for th e e q ua ti on :
. 3
NO T E . F or ye qu li ng
a 1 5 , »2 4, etc, . use th e ta b l e of m i
a n t ssa s,
Art 49 2
. .
13 . l otth e re sul ts in th e ta b l e of Ex 12 a n d d ra w th e curve

P .
,
h ob ta ining t h e g a ph fo x 1 03/ (o y l og x ) (F ig
‘
t us r r r .
F IG . 300 . GRA PH OF L 10”
*14 . S h ow h
t at th e g ap r h for x = 10” F ig 300 m a
( ) . k e s cl ea r
th e foll owi n g pri nci pl e s
( )
a A n e ga tiv e n um b e r doe s not h av e a r eal n um b e r for its
l ogari th m .
L O G AR I T HM S 443
b
( ) T h e l oga ri th m of a pos i tiv e num b e r is pos i tive o n e ga r
tiv e a ccor d i n g a th e n um b e r is gr ea te r
s l e ss th a n 1 or .
()
c T h e g r eater t h e v a l ue o f x t h e gre ate r its l oga ri th m , .
As x ge ts s m a ll e r a n d s m a ll e r its l oga ri th m de cr ea se s ,
a n d b e com e s s m a ll e r a n d s m a ll e r .
Fi nd b y th e gra ph of Ex 13 th e l oga ri th m of .
of of of
*16 . Of w h a tn um b e r is th e l oga ri th m
C h e ck y our r e sul ts fo r EXS . 15 an d 16 b y th e r e sul ts
g iv e n i n th e ta b l e of A t 4 92 r . .
*5 00 . Ex ponentia l fi n di ng th e log
eq ua tions . I n s te a d of
a r ith m of 1 000 to th e b a se 1 0 w e coul d a rr i v e a tth e s a m e ,
r esul t b y s ol v i n g th e e q uati on 1000 for th i s e q ua ,
ti on a sk s th e q uesti on W h a t po w e r of 1 0 e q ua l s 1 000?
,
In oth e r w or d s W h at is th e l og a r i th m of 1000 to th e
,
'
b ase 1 0 An eq ua ti on l ik e th i s in w h i ch an un k n ow n is ,
i n v olv e d in th e e x pon e n t is ca l l e d an exp onentia l equa tion

, .
EXER CIS E
G ive fi ve e xa m p es l of e x pon e n ta i l i
e q ua t on s w h ere 10 is
th e b a s e .
M eth od of lv ing ex ponential eq ua ti ons T h e sim

so .
l s t e x on en t i a l e u at i ns m a b lv d b i n s e cti
p e p q o y e so e y p o n
j ust as th e l og ari th m s of m a ny n um b e r s ca n b e g i v en by
i n spe cti on Wh e re a n ex pon enti a l e q uati on cann ot b e
.
so lv e d r e a di ly b i i l og a r i th ay b e e m pl oy e d
“
y n s e ct
p on m s m ,
to s i m pl ify th e pro ce ss We w i ll ill ustr ate e a ch ca se

. .
S ol uti on I (b y in p ction) s e .
( )
a If 2 30
4, t h en x 2 .
( ) e If 10” 100, th e n y 2 .
(b ) If 3 ”
5
9, th e n x z 2 . f
( ) If 10 ” 1000, t hen x 3 .
(c) If 2 31 8, th e n y 3 .
(g) If 10” th e n y 4 .
(d ) If 3 1"
h
81, t e n x 4 .
"
4 44 G EN E RAL M AT H EM AT IC S
S ol ution II (b y us i ng l og ith m ar s
) .
So lv e th e e qu tia on 6 fo r x .
Ta ki ng th l e o
ga ri th m s of b oth s id
es
log lo g 6 ,
at l o g 2 l og 6 .
l og 6
l og 2
O
l og 6
Th e stu d e n t m ust re m e m b e r th a t is n ot e q ua l to
l og 2
6
l og Th e firs t is a fra cti on ob ta in e d by di v idi n g one
5
l og a r i thm by an oth e r a n d in v olv es divisi on ; th e se con d
,
i n di ca te s th a t th e l og a r i th m of a fr acti on is to b e f oun d ,
a n d i n v o lv es sub t ion
r a ct .
EXERCIS E
So lve th e fol l ow m g e q uati ons for x
( ) a 2 2
7 .
( )
b 3 "
z 5 .
(c ) (d) (1 8 .
5 02 . Interest prob l em s sol v ed b y l oga rith m s . S om e im

por tan t pr ob l e m s in i nter e st m ay b e solv e d by me an s of
e x on e n t
p i a l e q ua ti on s a n d l og a r ith m s Th e f o ll o w i n g .
s i m l e e x a m l e w i ll ill us t r a t th r i n cipl e
p p e e p
I n h ow m a n y y e a r s will a s um of m on e y doub l e i tse lf a t6 7 0
if th e i nte re st is com poun de d a n n ua lly ?

S ol ution . In on e y e a r 31 will a m o un tto i n tw o ye ar s th e
a m oun t w i ll be x h re e y e ars th e a m oun t
or in t
will be a n d s o on T h e re for e i n x y e a r s th e a m oun t o f $ 1
.
will be T h e n if th e m on e y i s to doub l e i tse lf i n 2:

, y e ars ,
th e
r
e on ditio n s of th e p r b l m w ill b r pr nte d b y th q u ti n
o e e e e se e e a o
( 1 0
.6 )
x
2 . So lvi ng t h i q u ti n f
s e w g t a
(appr )
o or x , e e x ox .
T he re fore a sum of m n y will d ub l i t lf t 6 % (c m p un d d

o e o e se a o o e
a n n ua ll y i a b o ut yr
) n .
8 . A b oy de po s i te d 3095 in a s a n gs b an vi k on 3% i n te r e st ,
th e i nte rest to b e lly forgota b outh is

com pounde d a nnua He .
d e pos i t until fifte e n y ea r s l a te r w h e n h e f ound th e r e ce i pt ,
cov e ri ng th e ori gi na l de pos i t W h a t d id th e 30¢ a m ount to in .
th e fiftee n y e a r s
9 W h a ts um wil l a m oun tt
. o $ 1600 in 10 yr a t i n te r e st .
b e i n g com pound e d a n nua lly

10 W h a t s um will a m oun tto $ 2 5 00 in 5 yr a t
. i nte re st .
b ei n g com poun de d a nn ua lly

11 I n h ow m a ny y e a r s will $ 4 000 a m oun tto $ 85 00 a t
.
i n te r e stb e i n g Com poun de d a n n ua lly 7 ‘
12 W h at woul d b e th e a m ount to d ay o f 1 ce n t w h i ch
.
—
n i ne t e e n h un d r e d a n d t we nty y ea r s a go w as pl aced n i n te r e st o
com poun de d a nn ua lly Fi nd t h e a dius in m il e s of a

at 6
7
'
r
0,
S ph e r e of gol d w h i ch h a s t h i s va l ue .
N O TE A cub ic f t f g l d w i gh 12 06 p un d
. oo o v irdup i
o e s o s a o o s,
on e p un d b i g w rth ppr
o e n i m t ly $ 2 90
o a ox a e .
T h v l um e f o ph r i
e o gi v n
a Sb y th f rm ul V 3 wh r
e e s e e o a
4
77 7
3
, e e
V i th v l um
s e d th r di u
o e an f th
r ph r e a s o e s e e .
No d oub t th e pupi l is con v i nce d of th e v a l ue of l og

a rit h m s as a l ab or sa vi n g d e v i ce in com pl i cate d a r i th m e ti c
-
com puta ti on s S i n ce h e w i ll m e et n um e r ous O ppo rtun i ti e s

.
for appl i ca ti on s th e li sts of pr obl e m s in th e ch apte r a re

,
br i ef th e a im b e i n g to g i v e j ust e n oug h i ll ustr ati on s to

,
m ak e cl e a r th e m e an in g of th e pr i n ci pl e s in v olv e d .
H I S T O R I C AL N O T E Loga ri th m s we r e i nve n te d b y J oh n N a pi e r
.
1 5 5 0 b a r o n o f M e r ch i ston i n S cot l an d H i s gr e a te st purpo s e

( .
i n study i n g m a th e m a ti cs w a s to si m plify a n d sy ste m a ti ze a ri th m e ti c ,
al e b ra a nd t ri y en t s h o ul d r e a d a b out N a pi e s
’
g ,g o n o m e tr Th e stu d . r
“
rods o b on e s wh i ch h e de si gn e d to si m plify m ulti pli cati on a n d
,
”
r ,
”
divi i o n ( En cy cl opae di a B ri ta n n i ca 11th

s ,
It w a s h i s e a rn e st de sire to si m plif y th e proce ss e s th a t le d h i m

to i n ve n tl oga ri th m s ; a n d stra n ge a s i tm a yse e m h e did n otcon si de r
, ,
a l o ga ri t h m a s a n ex ponent:In h is ti m e th e th eory o f e x pon en ts w a s

LO G AR I TH M S 44 7
n tk w A S wi b y th m f J b t B urg i ( 15 5 2 1 632 ) m y na
—
o no n . ss e e o o s a
h v c c iv d th i d
a e on f l g ri th m
e e rly rli r th n
e ea o o a s as ea or ea e a
N pi r n d q ui t i n d p n d tl y f h i m b ut h
a e a n gl ct d t
e
pub e e en o , e e e e o
li h h i r ult until ft r N pi l g ri thm w r k n w ll Ov r

s s es s a e a er s
’
o a s e e o n a e
Eur p o e .
H nry B ri gg ( 15 6 1
e wh i N pi r ti m s w pr f r f o, n a e
’
s e, as o e sso o
r y r h v r y uch i t r
°
geo m t ie G m C ll g L n d b c m es m a t d o e e, on on , e a e e n e es e
N pi r w rk d p i d h im vi i t It i r l t d th t up n
’
in a e s o an a a s . s e a e a o
B ri gg rriv l h d N pi r t d p ch l b rvi g ch th r
’
s s a a e an a e s oo s ee e ss, o se n ea o e
for l m t qu r t r f
a os h ur At l t B ri gg p k
a a ef ll w o an o . as s s o e as o o s
M y l rd I h v u d r t k
o ,
th i l g j ur n y purp s l y t
a e n y ur e a en s on o e o e o se e o
pe r nd t k
s on , a w b y wh t n gi n f w it
o i g ui ty y u c m
no a e e o or n en o a e
fi r t t thi k f th i m t c ll t h l p i
s o n o tr m y n m l y th s os ex e en e n as on o , a e , e
l g ri th m b ut m y l rd b i ng b yy u f un d ut I w d r n b dy
o a s, , o , e o o o , on e o o
f u d it ut b f r wh n n w k n wn i t i
o n o e o e, y e o o s so e a s .
Aft r th i vi i t B ri gg
e n d N pi r b th
s m t h v
s n th s a a e o se e o a e se e e
u f ul n
se f tbl f l g ri th m t th b
e ss o a 10 ad B ri gg d v t d
e o o a s o e a se , an s e o e
hi m lf t th c n tr ucti n f uch t b l F th i r
se o e o s l g ri th m o o s a es . or s e a so n o a s
t th b
o e 10 ft c ll d B rigg i n l g ri th m
a se a re o en a e s a o a s .
Ab b tt y th twh o N p l n h d f w m m n t f d iv r i n
sa s a en a o eo a a e o e s or e s o ,
he ft p nt th m v r b k f l g rith m w h i ch h lw y
o en s e e o e a oo o o a s, e a a s
f u d r cr ti l
o n e ea on a .
M ill r in h i H i t ri c l In tr ducti
e
’
t M th m ti c l Li t r
s s o a o on o a e a a e a
tur (p 7 0)
e y . Th f ctth tth sal g ri th m h d t b c m put d
s e a a e se o a s a o e o e
on ly c f ll ti m
on e
pl i th ir gr
or a t v l u t th i t ll ctu le ex a ns e ea a e o e n e e a
w rld It w ul d b ed i ffi cul tt ti m t th
o . o rm u m u t f ti m o es a e e eno o s a o n o e
sa v d b y tr n m r d th r thr ugh th u f l g ri th m t b l
e as o o e s an o e s o e se o o a a es
“
l
a on e
( F . f ur th r r di g or C j i H i t ry f El m t ry e ea n se e a or
’
s s o o e en a
M th m ti c
a e pp 15 5 1 6 7 C n ul t l
a s, th N w In t r ti n l C y
.
—
. o s a so e e e na o a
cl p d i
o ewh i ch c nt i
a, gr td l f c ll th i t ri c l m t ri l )
o a ns a ea ea o ex e en s o a a e a .
S U M M AR Y
5 03 Th i s ch apte r h as taugh tth e m e an i n g of th e f oll ow
.
in g w or d s an d ph r a se s : l og a r i th m ch a r acte r i sti c m an ti ssa , , ,
i n te rpol a tion an d e x pon e n ti a l e q uati on , .
5 04 Th e th e ory a n d pr acti ca l v a l u
. e of l og a r i th m s h as
been discusse d in as e l e m e n tary a w ay as possi bl e so th at
th e stud en t m y
a b e ab e l to app e c a ter i th e v a l ue of thi s
pow e rful l a bor sa v i n g d e v i ce
-
.
5 05 T hi s ch apte r h a s ta ug h t th e
. d en t f our i m po r
s tu
tan t l og a r i th m i c f or m ul as :
( )
a l og a b l og a l og b .
( )
0 l og a
b l
( ) og % l og a l og b . d
( ) l og {77
1 .
506 . Th e pos i ti on d e cim a l pom t in a ny r e sul t

of th e
d epe n d s e n tir e ly upon th e ch a r acte r i stic of th e l og ar i th m

of t h e n um be r s ough t Th us tw o n um be r s h a v in g th e
.
,
sa m e succe ssi on of di g i t s will h a v e t h e s am e m an ti ss a .
Th e m an ti ssa of th e l og ar i th m of a n um be r is a lw ay s
p os i ti v e ; th e c h a r acte r i sti c m a
y b e e ith er or
507 . Th i s ch apte r h a s taugh t m e th od s of so lvin g l og a

r ithm ic an d e x
p i l
on e n t a e
q ua ton s i .
508 . Th e stu d en t h as b e e n ta ugh t h ow to solv e v e rb a l

pr ob l em s by m e an s of l og ar ith m s ,
for ex am
pl e , th e i n te r e st
pr ob l e m .
45 0 G EN ERAL M A TH EM ATIC S
M antis sas of l og a r i th m s of n um b e r s fr om 1 to 10 ( wh i ch ,
a s w e h a v e s e e n a re t
,
h e s a m e for n um b e r s fr om 1 00 to 1 000
o r fr o m 1000 t o a re l a id off to a ce rta in s ca l e on
tw o pi e ce s o f r ul e ( s e e Fig 301) w hi ch a re m a d e to s l id e by
.
F IG . 301 . S LI D E R U LE
e ach oth e r so th at th e sum s or diffe r e n ces of th e l og ar i th m s

can b e ob t a i n e d m e ch a n i ca ll y .
Th e sca l e is n um be r e d f r om 1 to 1 0 at th e pom ts w h i ch
m ar k th e l og a r i th m s of th e se v e r a l n um be r s use d Th e com .
m on s ca l e is 5 in l on g a n d th e com m on r u l e 10 in l on g so
. .
,
th atth e se r i e s of l og a r i th m s is puton tw i ce an d th e n um b e r ,
in g e i th e r r e pe a te d for th e s econ d se t or conti n ue d f r om 1 0
F IG . 302
to 1 00 . Th e m ostcom m on f or m of th e r ul e is th e M ann h e i m
S l id e Rul e O n th i s r ul e wh i ch is m ad e esse nti a ll y a s sh ow n
.
,
in F i g s 302 and 303 th e r e are tw o sca l es A an d B j usta l ik e

.
,
( A on th e r ul e an d B on th e s lid e ) an d tw o oth e r scal es , ,
0 an d D j ust a lik e ( D on th e r ul e an d C on th e sli d e )

, .
Th e stud en t w i l l n ote th at th e di stan ce f r om 1 to 2 on

s ca l e s A an d B is t h e sam e a s th e di stan ce f r om 2 to 4 an d
TH E S LI D E R U L E 45 1
f r om 4 to 8 . Th i s m ean s t h at if we a dd th e di stan ce f r om
1 to 2 on s ca e l di stance f r om 1 to 2 on sca l e A by
B to th e
m e an s of th e s lid e B w e sh a l l obta in th e pr od uct 2 x 2
, ,
or 4 . In l ik e m an n e r if w e add th e di stan ce fr om 1 to
,
4 on s ca l e B to th e di s ta n ce f r om 1 to 2 on sca l e A w e ,
sh a l l ob tai n th e pr od uct 4 x 2 or 8
.
,
.
C an d D d iffe r fr om A an d B in b e i n g gr ad ua te d to a
un i t tw i ce as l a rg e as th e un i t to w hi ch A an d B are
gr a d uate d so th a t th e l en g th r epre sen ting th e l og a r i th m of

,
a g i v en n um b e r on C a nd D is t w i ce a s l on g a s th e l en g th
F IG . 303
on A an d B r epresen ti ng th e l og ar i th m of th e s a m e n um be r
. .
T h e r e for e any n um b e r on th e l ow e r r ul e or s l id e is O ppo

,
sit e it s S q ua r e on t h e uppe r r ul e or s l id e ; a n d if t h e uppe r

rul e an d sl id e b e r eg a rd e d as stan d a r d l og a r i th m i c sca l e s ,
th e l o w e r ru l e a n d s l id e w ill b e s ta nd a r d l og a r i th m i c s ca l e s
of t h e s q ua r e s of th e n um b e r s sh own Th e s tud e n t can
.
e as i ly un d e r st a n d f r om t h e pr e ce di n g s ta te m e n t h ow th e
s q ua r e r oot s of n um b e r s are f oun d .
I t s h oul d b e sa i d h ow e v e r th at th e v a l ue s of th e l og a
, ,
r ith m s th e m se l v es are n ot sh ow n on th e s ca l e s W h at w e .
fi n d is th e n um b e r s wh i ch corr e spon d to th e l og ar i th m s .
Ea ch un i t l e ng th on th e sca l es ( gr a d uate d l en gth s) re pre

s e ua l
se n t
q pa rts of th e l og ar i th m i c ta b l e Th us i f th e .
,
l og ar i th m of 10 b e se lecte d as th e un i t th en th e l og ar i th m ,
of 3, or will b e r e pr esen te d b y of th at un i t;
4 by 5 by a n d so on a s ca n b e se e n b
,
y
r e fe rr in g to th e f oll ow i n g ta b l e of corr e spon din g v al ue s
Th e numbe rs be tw een 1 an d 2 2 an d 3 3 and 4 an d , , ,
so on a re r epr ese n t
, e d on t h e l og ar i th m i c sca l es by in te r
'
m e di ate di v is i on s an d th e e n ti r e sca l e h as be e n gr ad ua te d
,
a s cl os e l y as is pos s i b l e for con v e n i e n ce in r e adi n g .
Th e pr e ce din g discuss i on sh ould th e r e f or e m ak e it cl e a r

th a t a tth e 7 0 0 5 1511 di v i si on a l on g th e scal e on th e s l id e r ul e
301 -
w e sh ould fi n d 2 an d n ot its l og a r i th m an d a t t h e Tfigfigf’fi th ,
di v i si on w e sh ould fi n d 5 an d n ot an d s o on .
It is cl e a r th at th i s s ch em e e lim in a te s e n ti r e ly th e
p r oc e ss of fi n d in g t h e n u m b e r s corr espon din

g to ce rt ain
l og a r ithm s as w e h ad to do wh en w e com pute d by m e an s

,
of t h e ta b l e in Art 49 2 . .
Th e stud en t w i ll ob se rv e f urth e r th at th e l e f t i n d e x of
, ,
th e s ca l es ( th at is th e d i v i s i on m a r k e d 1) m ay as s um e
,
any v a l ue wh i ch is a m ul t ipl e or a d e ci m a l part of 1 ( for

e x a m pl e 10 1 00 1 000
, , , , b ut wh e n
th e se v a l ue s are assum e d thi s sam e r ati o m ust b e h e ld
,
thr ough outth e e n ti r e scal e In th is ca se th e pr ope r v a l ues

.
for th e sub se q ue n t d i v i si on s of th e s ca l e in or d e r w ould b e

2 0, 30 ; 2 00, 300 ; 2 000, 3000 ;
It f oll ow s th at as th e v al ue of th e 1 at the b e g in
n n i g of e a c h sca e l v ar i es an y n um b er h
s uc as 382 m ay
h av e th e v a l ue 382 00, 382 0, 382 ,
an d s o on .
If a be r wh i ch th e stud en t h as to r e a d d oes n ot
n um
com e e x actly at a grad uati on h e m ust e stim ate th e v a l ues

co rr ect e v
f ur i gni fi c nt fi gur m yb b t i d H w v r
to en o S a es a e o a ne . o e e ,
i n th w rk f th i ch pt r w
e o o h ll b c nt n t if w m k u c m
s a e e s a e o e e a e o r o
p u tati n c rr oc t t t
o w p er h p th r
o i
o, or
g i fi c t fi geur b c u
a s ee , s n an e s, e a se
i n ctu l pr cti c th i i
a a a uffi ci t e s s s en .
5 11 Divi s i on w i th th e s l ide rul e

. T o di v id e 6 by 3 se t .
,
3 of s ca l e 0 O ppos i te 6 of s ca l e D ( s ee F i g 302 ) a nd r e ad
'
.
th e q uoti e n t 2 on sca l e D oppos i te I of sca l e 0 Th is .
p r oce ss is j us t i fi e d fr om t h e f ac t th a t fr om l o
g 6 w e s ub
tra ct l og 3 th us ob ta in in g l og 2 on s ca l e D
, .
In g e n e r a l to divide a ny con s t n t n um b er a by a noth er

, a
n um b er b, se t b f
o sca le 0 Opp osite a f
o s ca le D a n d r ea d the
! a
quot
i ent
b
on sca le D O
pp os i te 1 of s ca le 0 .
EXER C IS E
1 . U se th e s li de r ul e to fin d th e q u ti e n ts
o in th e foll wi n g
o
prob l e m s :
( 93 g
8 ; ; ( )
b
g i ; ; 4 it )
(
; 0
5 12 . Th e runne r . Each
l id e ru l e is e q ui ppe d w i th a s
runn r w h i ch S l id e s a l on g t
e h e r ul e i n a gr oov e a n d b y
m e an s o f w h i ch th e s tud e n tis e n a b l e d to fi n d m or e q u ick ly
coin ci d e n t po i nt
s on t h e s ca l e s It is a l s o v a l uab l e to m a r k .
th e r es ul tof s om e pa r tof a pr ob l e m w hi ch con ta i n s se v e r a l

co m putati on s Th us i f .
,
x x
w e can com pute i g of th e slid e an d

x by on e se ttn
th en b r in g th e runn e r to th e r e sul t W e th en br in g .
th e in d e x of th e s l id e to a n d m ul t ipl y by th i s
g i v es B r ing t h e runn e r t o th i s r e sul t
an d di v id e by th e q uoti en tS h ould b e
TH E S LI DE RU L E 4 55
Th e st d
u en t ca n e as ily d ete r m ine th e use of th e r un n e r
in fin din g pow e r s an d r oots a fte r h e h as read th e n e x t
tw o a rti cl es .
5 13 . R a ising to pow ers w ith th e slide rul e . Th e stu d en t

w i ll ob se rv e th at i f th e l og a r i th m of any n um be r in th e
ta bl e of Art 4 9 2 b e m ul ti pli e d by 2 th e l oga r i th m th us
.
,
ob t a in e d w i ll corr e s on d t o th e s q ua r e of t h at n um b e r
p .
Th us i f th e l og a r i th m of 2
, b e m ul ti pl i e d by 2 th e ,
r e s ul t is th e l og a r i th m of 22 or 4 Th i s is in , .
a ccor d w i t h th e l aw of Art 4 9 4 r e g a r di ng th e l oga r i th m .
of a n um b e r r a i s e d t o a po w e r .
In l ik e m a nn e r th e l og a ri th m of 2 m ul ti pli e d by 3 is
,
wh i ch is th e l og a r i th m of 2 3 or 8 an d so on S in ce th i s sa m e , , .
r e l ati on h ol d s for any n um b e r to any pow e r w e m ay ra i se ,
a n um b e r t o a ny po w e r b y u s i n g t h e s l id e r ul e as f o ll ow s
1 . S q ua r es f
o n um b er s .
To fi n d th e va lue of 32 look for 3 on sca le D a nd read
32 : 9 dir e ctly opp osite 3 on sca le A .
2 . Cub es o f n um b er s .
To fi nd he
t v a lue f 3
o
3
, se t 1 f sca le
o
pp B o osi t
e 3 of
s ca le A an d fi nd 3 3
, or 2 7, on sca le A opp osite 3 of sca l e 0 .
3 F . h p ow er of num b er s
our t .
To fi nd th e v a lue of 3 , set1
4
f
o sca l e C to 3 on sca le D
a nd
fi nd 34
, or 81 , on s ca le A opposi te 3 of sca le 0 .
4 .Hig h e r p ow er s .
I fig h er p ow er s Q f n um b e r s m ay b e f oun d by a m e th od
si m il a r t
o th e p r e ceding, b ut w e sh a l l n ot n eed to dis cuss
th ese h er e, as m ost of our
p r ob l e m s h th e l ower
w ill dea l w it
p rocess of n um b er s .
5 14 . S q uare roots found b y m eans of th e sl ide rul e T o .
fi n d th e s q ua e r r oot of any n um be r, br ing th e runn e r to

th e n um e b r on sca e l A , an d its s
q u a e r r oot w ill be foun d
at th e r unn e r on sca e l D e x act ly o

p pos i te th e n um b e r .
T his pr ocess is se en to b e th e e x act in v e r se of fi n ding th e

s ua r e of a n um b e r
q .
If th e n um b e r con ta in s a n odd n um b e r of d ig i ts to th e
l ef t of th e d e ci m al poin t its sq uar e r oot w i ll b e f oun d on
,
th e l e f t h a l f of th e rul e ; if it con ta in s a n e v en num b e r

its s q ua r e root w i ll b e f oun d on th e r i gh t h a lf If th e .
n um b e r is a fr act i on an d con tai n s an odd n um b e r of ze r os

,
to th e r i gh t of th e d e ci m a l poi n t th e r oot is on th e l e f t
,
h a lf ; if it conta i n s a n e v en n um b e r ( or n o ze r os) th e r oot

is on th e r i g h t h a l f If th e stud e n t pr e f e r s h e m ay d e te r
.
m in e th e fir st fi gur e of th e r oot m e n ta lly a n d th e n fi n d
th e pr ope r h a lf of th e r ul e to us e by in spe cti on .
1 .Fi nd th e s q uar e r oots of th e foll owi n g num b e r s b ym e a ns

of t h e s li de r ul e a n d com pa r e y our r esults wi th th ose o f th e
ta b l e i n A t 44 9 :
r . 1 6 9 ; 5 7 6 ; 6 2 5 ; 9 00 ;
2 W h a t is th e s i de o f a s q ua r e w h ose a r ea is 784 s q ft ?
. . .
5 15 . roots found b y m ea ns of th e slide rul e T o

C ub e .
fi n d th e cube r oot of a n um b e r b y m e a n s of th e sl id e r ul e ,
m ov e th e sl id e e i th e r f r om l e f t to r igh t or fr om r ig h t to
l e f tun ti l th e sam e n um b e r appear s on sca l e B oppos i te th e
‘
g i v e n num be r on sca l e A as appe ar s on sca l e D Opposi te th e ‘
'
l e f t or r i gh t in d e x ( di v i si on 1) on C Th e n um b e r wh i ch .
a e a r s on b ot h s ca l e s B a n d D is th e cub e r oot of t h e
pp
g i v e n n um b e r F or e x am pl e to fi n d th e cub e r oot of 1 2 5
.
,
~
m o v e th e s l id e to th e l e f t till 5 on s cal e B appe a r s O pposi te
1 2 5 of sca l e A an d 5 on sca l e 1) l i es opposi te I ( th e r i gh t

,
in d e x ) on sca l e 0 Th us 5 is th e cube r oot of 12 5

. .
A se con d m e th od of fi n din g th e cub e r oot is to i n v e rt

th e slid e (see Art 5 1 7) an d se t 1 on s ca l e 0 un d e r th e
.
Th e i n v e r te d s l id e is us e f ul , h ow n in fi nding cube
is
’
as s
r oots an d a l so in
pr obl e m s i n v ol v in g an i n v e r se r
p po o r
ti on , as in th e f ol l ow i n g e x a m pl e
i
If 1 0 p pe s ca n e m pt a c s te n in 2 2 h r y i r .
,
h ow l ong will it
k i
ta e 5 0 p pe s to e m pt th e c s t
e n y i r
S ol ut on i . In v rt th
e e s li de a n d s e t 10 o f s ca e l B at2 2 l
o n sca e D,
a n d oppo s it e 5 on C fi nd (th e r e su lt) on s ca e l D .
5 18 . P os ton
'
ii of th e decim a l
d e n t w il l b e point . Th e stu
p
a bl e in m os t r a ct i cal
pr ob l e m s to d e te r m i n e t h e p o s i ti on
of t h e d e cim a l poi n t I f th e r e is a n ycon s id e r a b l e di ffi cul ty

.
in a ny l a te r w or k h e s h ou l d con su l t som e stan d a r d m an ua l

on t h e use of th e s l id e r ul e .
MIS CELL ANEOUS EXER CIS ES
S olv e the foll owi ng pr ob l e m s b y m e a n s of th e s li de r ul e

1 . Fi n d th e pr oduct of x x X
x x x
2 . Fi nd th e foll owi ng q uoti e nts
x x x
3 . Pe rform th e i n di cate d ope ra ti on s :2 5 2

; 3
3
3 ; 2 x x 15 3
;
4
12 ; x x
4 . Ex tra ct th e i n dica te d r oots :V 2 ; V 3 ; V5 ; V7 V 12 ;
5 . F in ir
fe r e n ce of a circl e w h ose d i am e te r is 6 ;
d th e c cum
ee a s li de r ul e m a nua l f a s h or t cut
(S -
) or .
6 I f 10 m e n ca n d o a pi e ce o f work in 4 da
. h ow l on g .
,
'
will i t ta k e 5 m e n to do th e w ork if th e y w ork a t th e

s a m e ra te
7 t atwill b e th e costof 13% ft of r ope a t

.
per f oot .
TH E S LID E RU L E 45 9
W h atis th e v ol um e O f a cub i ca l ston e

8 . ft l ong ft .
,
.
wi de a n d,
ft h i gh .
9 W h a t d i st
. a n ce will a t ra i n tra v e l in 10 h r a n d 2 0 m in . .
a ta rate of 30 5 m i pe h our ? . . r
10 . Wh t i a s th e inte l e st on $ 5 6 00 for 1 yr . at 32 1
7 0
?
at at
11 . I n h ow m a n y h our s will a ta r i n tra ve l 75 6 m i . if it

r ve ls
ta at ra te of
th e m i pe . r h our ?
12 . . H O W m any m il e s in 2 783 ft in . ft .
13 . Fi n d th e a rea of a cir cl e w h ose '

d i am e te r is 1 0 in .
se A
z
in ; . in .
(U d .
)
14 . Fi n d th e v ol um e of a cub e on e of w h ose e dges is
in ; . of a cub e on e of w h ose e dges 18 in .
15 . If a m a n ca n ve
sa in 2 6 m o .
,
h ow m a n y do ll ars
will he sa ve a tthe sa m e r a te in 1 m o .
? 6 mo .
? 12 m o .
?
16 . F i n d th e m ean p r oporti onal b et we e n 6 and 27
17 I f good s cost 5 5 ¢ a
. a d, at y r w ha t pri ce m us t t h ey be
so l r li
d to e a ze 15 70 p o fi t on th e s e r lli ng pri ce
18 . Th e form ul a fo r th e r
a ea of th e ri n g in F ig 304 is .
A 711 3
2
7r r
2
S i n ce 2
. r d , th i s for m ul a m ay b e
M
2
d
writte n A , or
Us ing th e l a st for m ul a ,
fi nd t
he a ear of th e ri ng
when R in . a nd r in . F ro . 304
19Fi nd th e a m ount of $ 2 2 5 i n v ested fo 12 yr a t 6 %

. r .
s i m pl e i n te r est U se th f or m ul a foun d un d e r l oga ri th

( e . ms o r
re fe r to a sli de rul e m a nua l fo a sh or t cut)

-
r .
20 W h at force must b e a ppli e d to a l e ve r

. ft fr om . th e
ful crum to ra i se a w e i gh t of 74 2 l b w h ich is 1 % ft on . . th e
O ppos i te s i de of th e ful cr um 7
‘
21 . A s h a ftm a k e s 2 8 r e v ol uti on s a n d rive a noth e r sh a ft
is to d
w h i ch s h oul d m ake 42 re v ol uti ons . T h e d i st
a n ce b e twee n th e ir
ce n te r s is 6 0 in W h at s h oul d b e th e .
d i a m e te r of th e ge ar s ( S ee F ig .
H N I R f r t
T . li d rul m n u l
e e o a s e-
e a a
or, b tt r d v l p th
e e f rm ul b tw n
, e e o e o a e ee
th e di m t r af th g r
e e th n um b r
o e ea s, e e
o f r v l uti n
e o d th di t n c b tw n
o s, a n e s a e e ee
th i c n t r
e r e f ll w e s, a s o o s F ro . 305
2 8 circum f r n c f th l rg g r
e e 4 2 circum f r
es o e a e ea e e n ce s o f th e sm a ll
g r ea . ‘Vh y?
T he n 2 8 (60 x
) 42 3 :( se e F ig .
28 60 70 r . .
x 28
6 7
Th e n a pp ly th e s li d rul
e e .
22 . S i n ce F
% i r e pr e se n t
0 + 32 i n
g th e is th e e q ua t on
r e l ati on b e twe en th e Fa h r en h e i t a nd centi grade th e r m om ete r s ,
w e m ay com pa r e r e ad i n gs o f th e s e tw o th e r m om e t e r s b y th e
foll owi ng sch e m e
Wha tth e n is F w h e n 0 2 5 18 . .
° °
*2 3 Tri on om etri c a li cati on s a e r ea tly s i m li fi e d r b yth e

g.
pp g p
s li de r ul e Th e s ol uti on of a f orm ul a
.
be s nA
lik e A
g readily ob ta i n ed is .
S in A m ayb e use d d ir e ctly as a fa ctor

= '
in pe rf or m i n g th e O pe r ati on Fi n d th e b 3
.
4
a r ea of t h e cor n e r l ot in F ig 306 F 306 . .

IG .
2 4 Fi n d th e v a l ue of th e l ot in Ex 2 3 a t
.
pe acr e . r .
N F
O TE n um r u.
ppli c ti n
or f th li d r ul t pr ctic l
e o s a a o s o e s e e o a a
pr b l m th
o e tud n t h ul d c
s ul t
e s t n d r d li d rul m n u l
e s o on s a s a a s e e a a
-
.
C H APTER XIX
QUADRATICS ; QUADRATIC F UNCTIONS ; Q UADRATIC EQUA
TIONS GRAP ES OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ; F ORM ULAS
‘
INV OLVING QUADRATIC TERM S
5 24 . Q uadrati c eq uation prob l em An e ng in ee r i n cr e ase d

-
.
th e spee d of h is tr a in 2 m i a n h our an d m a d e a r un of .
1 80 m i in 1 hr l e ss th an sch e d ul e ti m e
. . W h at w a s th e .
s pe e d w h e n r unn in g a cc or di n g t o s ch e d ul e ?
S ol uti on Le t x th e or di n a ry r a te o f th tra i n
. e .
Then 2 th e r te fte r th e i n cre a se

as a a .
180
th e h
sc e d u e l ti m “
:
e .
(I
1 80
th e ti m e 1 tta k es a fter th e spe e d 18 1n cre a se d
x
.
2
1 80 180
Th e n
a: x 2
Th e L C D i s . . . x
(
x
M ul tipl yi n g t h rough b yx (x 2 ) w e ge t
1 80 (x 2) 180 2 : x
(x
2
1 80 56 36 0 180 10 x 2 x .
360 x
2
2 33
. W h y?
x
2
+2 x Wh y?
W e are n ota bl e to s i m pl ify th e e q ua ton 23 i 2

+ 2x 36 0 0
f ur th e r . Th e m e th od s
r ece di n g ch apte rs w i l l n ot
of th e p
solv e it In f act w e r h a v e com e to th e e n d O f
ap e a to
.
p
th e r oad It is cl e a r th a t th e pr ob l e m is sol v e d i f w e
.
can fi n d a v a l ue of x wh i ch w i ll m ak e th e v a l ue of th e
ua d r ati c tr in om i a l 2 x 36 0 ual t ze r o
q e q o .
46 2
Q U AD R AT I C EQ U AT I O N S 46 3
An i
e q ua ton wh i ch th e h igh estpow e r of th e unk n ow n
in
is th e se con d
p o w e r is c a l l e d a q ua dr a t i c e ua t
q i on M an y .
p r ob l e m s in g eo m e t ry s ci e n ce a n d m e ch a n i cs are s ol v e d
, ,
b y q ua d r a ti c e q uati on s It is our pur pos e in th i s ch apte r

.
to d e v e l op th e po w e r to s olv e q ua d r a ti c e q uati ons an d to

a
pp ly q ua d r a ti c m e th o d s t o v e r b al
pr ob l em s Th i s pr oc e ss .
w i ll b e i ll ustr a te d b y th e sol uti on of th e g i v e n e q uati on ,
36 0 z 0
2
x 2v . .
5 25 Q uadratic f unction
. Th e e x pr e s s i on 2
.
” 2 x 36 0
is a
q ua dra t
i c fun ction of x, or a f unction of th e secon d
degree ; w i th e v ery ch ang e v a l ue of a:th e v al ue of

in th e
th e f un cti on 36 0 ch an ge s W e sh a ll ge t s om e
2
2 + 2x .
l i gh t on th e q ue sti on W h a t v a l ue of at w i l l m ak e th e ex
,
p r e s s i on x +
2
36 0 e q ua l to 0 by s tud y i n g h ow th e
”
v alue of th e e x pr essi on a 2 x 36 0 ch ang e s a s w e g i v e
diff er en t v a l ues to x T hi s v a r i ati on is b e st sh ow n by
.
m e a ns of th e gr aph .
52 6 Gra ph of a q ua dra ti c functi on

. In or d er to un d e r .
st an d m ore ab out t h e gr aph of a q uad r ati c f un cti on w e

sh all con s id e r a fe w s i m pl e e x e r ci se s .
INTRODUCTOR Y EXERC IS ES
1 Fi nd th e v al ue f th e f un cti on x
. o
2
2 c
c 360 for h
ea c of
th e f oll owi ng v a l ues of c: 0 10 10 a , ,

—
,
-
15 , 15 , 2 0, 1 8, 19, 2 1 .
2 Fi ll in th e f oll owi ng tab l e of

. co rr e spondi ng v al ues
for : a nd t
a h e f un cti on x 2x 360 2
If w e t ans r fe r th e corr es pon di ng va l ue s of :
and t h e f uncti on
a
?
at 2 x 36 0 fr om th e tab l e t a s h ee t o f cr oss se cti on pape r
o -
F IG . 307 . SHO W NG
I TH E G R APH OF A QU AD R AT I C F UN C T IO N
so as tor th e poi nts w h i ch corr espond to th ese v a l ue s

s e cu e ,
w e s h a ll O b t
a i n a s e ri e s o f poi n ts w h i ch w h e n con n e cted b y ,
a s m oot h curve will b e lik e th e curve in F ig 307

,
. .
EXERCIS ES
1 . Fr om th e g r aph (F ig
r i n e h ow th e va l ue f
. 307) de t
e m o
x
2
2 : 360 ch a n ge s as a:
a ch an ge s fr om 2 5 to 2 0 ; fr om 0 to
15 ; fr om O to 1 5 ; fr om 2 5 to 30 ; fr om 2 5 to 30 .
2 W h a t v a l ue of :
. will m a k e th e functi on
a 36 0
e q ua l t 0
‘
2 30 7
2 5 0
‘
o 300 2 00 15 0 7
Th e pr e ce di ng r i
h ow us th a t th e gr aph e n abl es
e x e c se s s
us to se e wh a t v a l ue a: m ust h a v e in or d e r th at th e e x pr e s
i 2
s on x + 2 v 36 0 sh all h a v e a g i v e n v a l ue Th e pupil w i ll
.
.
r e call th at in th e spe e d pr obl em w i th wh i ch w e sta rte d th e

,
,
46 6 G EN ERAL M A TH EM ATIC S
th e f uncti on Tra n s fe r th e d a ta of th e
ar
2
+ br + e. 3
( )
tab l e to s q ua r e d pa pe r a n d con str uct th e curv e r e pr e se n t
ing th e f un cti on a x? b i : c Th i s cu rv e sh o w s th e v a l ues .
of a x2
+ b x + c whi ch corr e spon d to th e diff e r en t v a l ue s
Of x . 4
( ) B y i n spe ct i on d e te r m i ne th e p o i nts of th e curv e
wh er e th e e xpr e ssi on is ze r o Th e v a l ue s o f x for th ese .
o in ts a re th e sol ut i on s o f t h e e q ua ti on
p .
EXER C IS ES
S olve th e foll owi ng e q ua ti on s gra ph i c lly a ,

and h k
c ec
2 2
1 . x 6 . 4x
P l o tthe functi on b et w ee nth e P l t fr

o om 2 to 5 .
li m it 0 t 12 T h i m n c
s o . s ea s on
tructth t b l b yl tti n g :q u l
2
s e a e e 1 e a 7 4£
13 8 33 5 0
th ef ll wi g v lu :0 1 2 3
o o n a es , , , , P l tfr
o om 4 to 2 .
4, 12 .
2
2
8 . 100 x 5 9c 4 95 0.
2 . x
P l t fr
o om 5 to 5
l tfr
.
P o om —
1 to 7 .
9 6w z—
17 x = 2 0
3
2
3x 1O = O
. .
. x — —
.
P l tfr
o om 3 to 6
S ub t a ct 2 0 r fr om b oth m e m
r l
.
2
b e s a nd p ot 6 x 17 v . 20
,
4 . x
2 —
11 x + 2 4 = 0 .
10
P l t fr
o om 1 to 10 .
.
2
S ub t a ct 3 x r fr om b ot h m em
5' x —
11 m 25 0 °
be r an d l ot th e functi on
s p
P l t fr
o om 1 to 10 . 9 3x .
9 x + 3x + 20 = 2
2
+2 50
2
11 . x c+
c .
S ub t act 2 r 2
2
2 x 50 fr om b ot m e m bh r
e s of th e e qu ti a on .
529 Th e gra ph sol v es

. fa m ily of eq uations At th i s a .
oi nt th e stud e nt sh oul d n ot e th at a sing l e gr aph m ay b e

p
use d to s olv e a wh ol e f a m il y of e q uati on s Th us i f w e tur n .
,
to F ig 307 w e s ee th at th e curv e o
2
. f r 2 36 0 can
Q U ADR AT I C E Q U ATI ON S 46 7
b e use d n oton ly to so lv e th e e q ua ton x i ?

2 a: 36 0 0 b ut
l to so lv e e v e ry e q uati on of th e type v2 2 a: 360 c
a so
( wh e r e c is s om e a r i th m e ti ca l n um be r ) F or e x am pl e if w e .
,
a sk w h a t v a l ue of 2 w i l l m a k e x2 36 0 e q ual to 100 ,
w e can te ll by l ooki n g at th e curv e th atth e a n s w e r is

or a nd t h i s is pr e ci se ly th e sa m e as s ay i n g th atth e
tw o r oots of th e e q ua ti on 2 3 2x 36 0 1 00 are
a nd
EXER CIS ES
So lve b y th e g ra ph
1 . x
2
+ 2 a: 6 . x
2
+ 2 x = 4 00 .
2 ° 2 a: 360 180 °
H IN T . r
S ub t a ct 360 . W h y?
3 . 2 x 360 4 00 .
2
4 . x
2
+2 x —
36 0 -
25o .
7~ w + 2 w
5 . x
2
2 90 360 360 . Add 140 . W h y?
Th e l ast tw o e x e r ci se s sh o w th at th e graph s ol v e s a ll
e q ua t i on s in whi ch 232 + 2 as : c ( s om e a r i th m eti ca l n um b e r ) .
F or w e can wr i te th e g i v e n e q ua ti on x2 2x 5 00 0 in
t e f or m 2
h 3
2v 36 0 = 14 0 Th i s l ast f or m w e are a b l e
.
to solv e at si gh t by th e gr aph .
530 Th e para b ol a
. Th e curv e r e pr e se n ti n g th e f un c
.
ti on x + 2 x
2
36 0 sh ow n in F i g 307 is ca ll e d a p a ra b ola . .
S tud y a n d di scuss th e g e n e r a l sh ape an d sy m m e try of th e

curv e . C om pa r e th e curv es you an d y ou r cl a ssm ates h a v e
d r a wn in th e e x e r ci se s of th i s ch apte r an d se e i f you ca n
fi n d a pa r a b ol a in an e a rl i e r ch apte r of th i s te x t .
Th e gr aph f a q uad r a ti c f un cti on in on e un k n ow n is

a a r ab ol a I i y m m tr i c l curv N O th r ee oi n ts o f
p s. a s e a e p .
th e curv e l ie on a str a igh t li ne Th e par ab ol a is a com m on .
n ot i on in phy si cs an d m e ch an i cs Thus th e path of a .

,
pr oj e cti l e ( for e x a m pl e a b ull e t) is a pa r ab ol a A k n owl

,
.
ed ge O f t h e th eory and appli cati on of m any such curv e s

46 8 G ENER AL M A TH EM AT IC S
w as of e x t e m e r
i m por tan ce in th e r ecen t w or ld w ar Th e .
s o l di e r s w h o h ad b e e n tra in e d in som e of t h e m or e a d v an ce d
m ath e m ati ca l courses espe ci a lly in tr i g on om etry an d gr aph i
,
cal w or k w e r e in d e m an d a n d w e r e g i v e n pl en t
, y of Oppor
tun it to put i n t o pr act i ce wh at t h e y h a d l e a r n e d in s ch ool ;
y
‘
I n p l otti n g f u n cti on s l ik e 2.
3
+ 2 x 36 0 w e p l ot th e
v a l ue s of 2; a l on g th e x ax i s an d th e corr e spon din g v a l ues -
of t h e f un cti on on th e yax i s Th is sugge sts th at th e -

. .
curv e O b ta in e d in F i g 307 is t h e gr aph of th e e q ua ti on

.
2
y x 2 x 36 0 .
I t f ol l o w s th at wh e n e v e r y is a q ua d r ati c f un cti on of v , .
or wh e n x is a
q ua dr ati c f un cti on of y, t h e gr aph of t h e
e q ua ti on is a pa r ab ol a .
EXER CIS ES
Gr a ph e ac h of th e foll owi n g e q uati ons

1 . =
y x
2 —
4 . 3 . x : 2
+ 5 y+ 4 .
4 . x : y2 —
7y l 6 - -
.
5 31 . M ax im a h e ory of m a xim a
and m inim a l Th e t
( gr e ate st v a l ue s) a n d m in im a ( l e a st v a l ues) of f un cti on s
h as m an y i m portant applicati on s in g e om e try phy s i cs an d , ,
m e ch an i cs .
Th i s a rti cl e w i ll presen t on e e x am pl e d r a w n f r om e ach

subj e ct A ca r e ful stud y of th e f ol l ow in g e xa m pl e w ill
.
sugg est t h e pr ope r m e th od of attack .
ILLU STRATIV E EXAMP LE
A r e cta n gul a r r
ga de n is to b e i ncl ose d on r ee i de s th e
s ,
fourth s i de b e i ng b oun de d b ya is h i gh wa ll . th e l a r ge st
ga r d en th a t ca n b e i n cl ose d wi th 2 0 r d O f f e n ci n g
2 .
S l uti n L t
o o .:r pr t th wi dth
e 3 e e se n e .
Th n e 20 2 : r pr nt th l gth 3 e e se s e en ,
and 20 : 2 r pr n t th r a e e se s e a ea .
EXERCIS ES
1 . If a ba ll is th r own
wa r d wi th a v e l oci ty up v ,
0
th e d is
ta n ce d fr om t h e ea r th to th e b a ll a f te r a g ive n ti m e t is g ive n
b y th e phy s i cs f or m ul a
2
d v
o
t 16 t .
H ow h i gh will a ba ll ri se w h i ch is th rown wi th an i n i tia l

ve l oci ty of 100 ft pe r . s e con d
H N I T . Th e fr o mu l a b e com es d 100 t 16 t 2
. P l ot th e functi on
and fi nd b y i n spe ct o n i i ts g r e a te st v lua e .
2 . D ivi de 10 i nto tw o pa rts s uc h th atth e ir s q ua re s s h all be

a i i
m n m um .
*3 Fi nd th e m osta d va n ta ge ous l ength of a l e ve r fo lifti ng

.
'
a w e i gh t of 1 00 l b if th e d i stan ce of th e we i gh t fr om th e
.
ful crum is 2 ft a n d th e l e ve r we i gh s 4 l b to th e foot

. . .
5 32 . Lim ita tions of th e gra ph ic m eth od of sol v ing q ua d

ratic eq uations . B y th i s ti m e th e stu d en t is d oubt con
no
v in ce d t h at th e h od of gr aphi c m et so lv i n g q ua d r ati c
e q uat i on s h a s its li m i tati on s W e m ay en um e r ate th e .
foll ow in g :( 1) Th e r esul ts are fr e q uen tly r ough appr ox

im ation s Th i s is e v id e n t th e m om e n t w e a ttack pr obl e m s
.
of som e s l ig h tdi ffi cul t y In fact th e e a rl i e r pr ob l e m s of th e

.
ch apte r a re a r ti fi ci a l ly b ui l t s o th at in a ll pr ob ab i l i ty th e
st ud en t w i ll a ccid en ta lly g e t an a ccur a te r e su l t W e m ust .
r e m em b e r th atth e graph i c m eth od d epen d s for its accuracy

upon t h e m e ch an i ca l ( or n on inte l l e ctua l ) con di ti on s such ,
as t h e ski l l of th e stud e n t at th i s ty pe of w or k th e e x a ct ,
n ess of sq ua r e d pape r an d our a b i l i t y to e sti m a te fracti on a l

,
p a r ts o f th e un i t 2
( ) A s id e f r om
. t h e f a ctth a tt h e s ign ifi
can ce of a gr aph is s om e ti m e s ob scur e th e w or k is a b it ,
cum b e r som e a n d te d i ous ( 3) It is n ot e con om i ca l of ti m e . ,
a s w e sh a ll
pr e sen tly sh ow .
Q U AD R AT I C EQ U ATIO N S ,
4 71
5 33 . M ore pow erful m eth ods r ati c eq ua of so v ing l q ua d

t i ons B e cause of th e f or e g oi n g l i m i ta ti on s of th e gr aph i c
.
m e th od w e are r e ad y to pr oce e d to th e stud y of m or e

e ffi ci e n t m e th od s Th ese m e th od s r est pure ly on an i n te l
.
l ectua l b asi s ( th at is th e a ccur acy is i n d e pen d en t of ,
con str uct e d fig ur e s ) W e sh a ll ob s erv e th at th e y ge t th e .
r e sul ts q ui ck ly an d w i th ab sol ute a ccur a cy .
Q ua dr a tic eq uations solv ed b y factor ing Th e fa ctor

534 . .
in g m e th od m ay b e ill ustr ate d b y th e f oll owi n g s ol uti on

of th e spee d pr ob l e m w i th wh i ch w e Open e d th e ch apte r :
S ol uton i G iv n . e 2 x 360 0 .
F a ct ri n g th
o l ft m e e em be r ,
: 18) 0 (a: 2 0) (a .
T h pr c di n g c n di ti n n m l y (
e e e o o , a e , x will b
1 8) z 0, e
“
sati fi d i th r if
s e 20 z 0 e if 18 e x or x —
0 f
, w l rn d i
or e ea e n
A t 2 36 th t th pr duct f tw n um b r i
r . a e o o o e s s z r if i th r f ct r
e o e e a o
i z r
s Thu
e o . s,
N w if o 20 z 0 x ;
th n e : a
An d if x 18 z 0 ,
th n e :
z 18 a .
H en c e :z 20 a ,
x 18 .
In th e n e x t so ut on l i we h a ll
s om it a con s de i r bl p rt a e a of th e d i s
cussi on a nd s h wh w
o o th e w rk o m a yb e a rr ng d in f
a e a ew s i m pl e
sta te m e n ts .
So lv e x
Q —
9 x + 14 2 0 .
ri g
F acto
( : 7) ( : 2 ) z 0
n , a a .
Thi qu ti n i ti fi d if x 7 0
s e a o s sa s e ,
or if :2 0 a .
F r m q u ti n (2 )
o e x 7 a o ,
an d fr m qu ti n (3)
o e x 2 a o .
T h n um b r ti fy th
e qu ti n c n qu e s sa s e e a o , o se ent ly 2 and 7 a re th e
r t f th qu ti n
oo s o 9 14e 0 e a o 2
2
v
. .
4 72 GEN ER AL M ATH EMAT I C S
EXERCIS ES
S olv e th e
foll owi ng q uadrati ce q uati ons b yth e m eth od of fac
'
tori ng a nd te s tth e e s ul ts b ysub sti tuti n in th e e q uati onsr

g
2
1 . x 15 . 2 0w
2
2 .
y 16 . 77 + 4 d = d 2
2
3 c=
2
. 3 17 . 2 x + 5 z 3 .
2
4 . (13 0 . 18 . 1 0 t + 33 t= 7
2
.
5 . w
2 —
2 w —
35 z 0 . I9 . 6 x
2
= 2 3 zc + 4 .
2
6 5 6
. x x .
20 2 + 1
r fr :
,
H IN T . S ub t a ct 6 om 2 2 a
b oth m e m b e r be fr ly 3
:4
s o e a
pp
2 1 ' 15
i n g th e m e t hod Wh y? .
a
5
7
2
+ = 56 i 33
. x x .
22 5 _ i _+
2
8 . 23
2 m m
H IN T r x from 21
. S ub t a ct 2 23 . 8
b oth m e m b e r
r rr s and ea a n ge 33
r
te m s b e o e f r f ct ri ng a o
E y
2
g
.
24 .
_ 0
10 . 90
2 49 7 4
«
0
11 0 2
2
= 10 2 24 .
2
12 . 70 91 6w .
2
13 . x so 42 .
+ 1 1 2 =z 2 3 m
2
14 . m . {II —
3
V ERB AL PROBLEM S
So lve foll owi ng prob l e m s b y th e factori n g m e th od a nd

th e
te s tth e r e s ul ts b y s ub sti tuti n g th e sol uti on in th e con di ti ons
of t h e pr ob l e m
1 A cr e w r ows acr oss a ca l m l ak e (12 m i l on g) On th e

. . .
r e tur n tri p itde crea ses th e r a te b y 1 m i pe h our a n d m a k e s th e '

. r
tri p in 7 h r Fi n d th e r ate of th e cr e w b oth goi n g a n d r e tur n i n g

. .
W h a t is th el e ngth of a si de of a s q ua e r (F ig . 311) w h ose

d i a gon a l is 2 ft l on ge r th a n a s i d e ?
.
Atte mp ted ion

sol ut b yfa ctor ing m e th od
Le t a a s id e of th e s qu r
a e .
T h e n a: 2 th e l e n gt h of th e d i a go n a l . a:
B y th e th e o r e m o f P y th a go r as
2 2 2
x + x x +4x +4 .
2 _
b l m pl l fyl n g, 4
N 0
x 0
F IG . 311
T hi s a ppe a s r to b e th e en d of th e r oa d
we ca n n ot f a cto r x
2
4, for w e ca n n ot ob ta in a com b n a ton i i
of wh l o e n um be r s or fr i
wh pr duct i 4 nd wh
a ct on s um ose o s a o se s
is 4 . An d ye t w e are pr
b b ly c nvi n c d th t uch
o a qu r d o e . a s a s a e oe s
i
e x stt oug h h we a re f rc d t dm itth tth l uti n f th pr b l m
o e o a a e so o o e o e
b yth e f a cto rin g m e th d i h p l

o s o e e ss .
5 36 S ol ution of th e q ua dratic eq ua tion b y th e m eth od of

.
com pl eting th e sq ua re If w e w e r e abl e to m ak e th e l e ft .
m em be r of th e rf ect sq ua re
e q ua ton 2 i 2
4 0 a pe
w i th out i ntr od ucin g th e un k n own (x) in to th e r i gh t m em

b e r w e coul d tak e th e sq uar e r oot of e ach m e m b e r of th e
,
e q uat i on a nd thus O b tai n a linea r e q uati on wh i ch w oul d

b e e as i ly solv e d Th i s is pr e ci se l y th e m e th od w e w i sh to
.
e m pl o y Ho w e v e r w e m ust fir st l e a rn to m ak e th e l e ft
.
,
m em be r 2 3 4 a pe rf e ct s q ua r e .
ORAL EX RC IS ES E
1 . Fi nd ( : (w a
( : ( : a a
2 . W h e n is a tri n om i a l a pe rfect s q uare (S e e A t r .
3 . M a k e a pe rfe cts quar e tri n om i a l of th e foll owi ng :

x
2
6 33;
“
2 2 2 2 2 2
23 —
10 23 ; 23 —
4x ; 23 —
8x ; 23 23 4 1 6 90 ; w + 5
-
x ;
2 9
7 90
59 4 7 23 ;
-
x + 9 az; 2 +
2
Q U AD R ATI C EQ U AT IO N S 4 75
Th e pr e ce di ng e x e r ci ses sh ow th at it is e asy to com pl e te

th e s q ua r e of a b i n om i a l of th e f or m (13 + a ss, for w e n e e d
2
on ly t
o a dd th e s
qua re f
o h a lf th e coe lcien t o
fi f 23
. T h en , too,
th e con stan t te m r of a tr in om i a l can a lw ay s b e m a d e to
a e a r in th e r i gh t m e m b e r of th e e q ua ti on l eav ing th e
pp ,
l e ft m em be r in th e f orm 2 + a sv W e n ow procee d to
2
.
,
so lv e t e e q u t
h a ion 2
2
4v 4 0 W r i te th e e q uati on .
th us :2
2 —
4 23 2 4. Add or 4, to m ak e th e fir st
s id e a r
t in om i a l r
s q ua e , a nd we o bta in
fi
T a ki ng th e s r r oot of b oth s id es
q ua e _
and r e m em b e r in g
th at 8 h as tw o s q ua r e r oots 8 or
, 8, w e get
x —
2 = +V8 a)
2
( )
F r om e q ua ton i 1
( ) w e ge tc
c 2 8, an d f r om e q uaton i
2
( ) w e g e t 23 2 .
If w e Ob ta i n 8 e i th e r by
r i th m eti cal m eth od taugh t
th e a
by Art 446 or by us i ng th e tab l e of Art 449 th e r esul t

. .
,
a ccur at hr e e pl a ce s ) is 2 82 8 T h 1 : 8 2 8
( e t o t en £ . or . 3 ,
Hen ce th e s id e O f th e sq ua r e w h ose di ag on a l 1s 2 ft .
l ong e r th an a sid e is 4 82 8 ft We can ch e ck th is r esul t by

. .
apply i n g t h e th eor e m of P y th ag or as .
W e r e j ect 2 or b e cause it d oes n ots ati sfy

th e con di ti on s of th e pr obl e m H ow e v e r th e stud e n tsh oul d
.
,
r e al ize th at is j ust as m uch a s oluti on of th e

e q uaton i 4L
e 4 8 as is
Th e m e th od of l etin g th e sq uar e is f urth e r i l l us
com p
trated by th e f ol l ow ing sol uti on of th e e q uati on
10 x 2
4 76 G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATIC S
Wri te th e e qu ti
a on 10 x 2
9 x
D ivi di ng b y 10 ,
N ote th a tth e l ftm em b r i

e e s n ow m o e ea sr ily c m pl
o eted . W h y?
2 2
9x
() ()
9 9 1
Th e n 95
2
10 20 20 5
9 x 81 I
_ °
10 466 4 00
Ta ki n g th e s qu r r
a e oot of e a c h m em b e r ,
W h e n ce x
1
5 or
537 . S um m a ry of th e m eth od for sol v ing q ua dra ti c eq ua

ti ons b y th e m eth od of l
com p eting th e sq uare .
1 . S imp lify th e e
qu i
at on a nd r educe to th e f orm dx
2
+
bx : c.
2 . If th e coe fi icien t f o is n ot 1 div id e b oth m em b er s of

x
2
,
th e e
q ua tion by th e coefi icien t so th a t th e equa tion ta kes th e
2
f or m
px
q x .
3 F in d h a lf th e
.
fl
coe ici en t o f x ; s
quare the r e sult; add
'
th e sq ua r e to b oth m em b er s f
o th e e
qu i
aton ob t
a in e d in st
p
e 2 .
Th is m a k es th e lef t m em b er a
p f
er ect s
q ua re .
4 . Expr ess th e r ig h t m em b e r in its sim

p l e stf or m .
5 . Ta k e th e squa r e r oot of b oth m em b er s, w riting th e doub le

sign 4 b ef or e th e squa r e r oot in th e r igh t m em b er .
6 . S et th e lef t squa r e r oot e

q ual tb th e
p os itiv e r oot in th e
righ t m em b er f
o th e e
q u i
at on in 5 . S olve f or th e unknown .
Th is giv es on e r oot .
7 R ep ea t th e pr ocess,
. using th e n ega tive r oot in 5 . Th is
giv es th e s e con d r oot o f th e e
q u i
aton .
8 Exp r ess th e
. r oot
s first in sim
p l estf orm .
5 . H ow l on g will itta k e a b od y to fa ll 800 ft . if it s ta ts r at
2 0 ft pe r . s e con d
6 . H ow l
k a b om b to fa ll from
on g will it ta e
.
a Ze ppe li n
1000 ft h i gh if it s ta r ts wi th n o i n i ti a l v l oci ty ?
. e
7 r i n s a e 1 75 m i a pa rt on pe r pe n di cul r r oad s a n d
. Tw o t a r . a
a e a ppr a ch i n g a cr ss i n g
r O n e tra i n r un s 5 m i a n h ur fas te r
o o . . o
th a n th e oth e r At w h a t r a te s m u t th e y run if th ey b oth

. s
rea ch th e cr oss in g in 5 h r ? .
N E T h 1 75 m
OT th d i t c
. el n g th tr ck ean s e s an e a o e a .
8 . Th e c cum ir
fe re n ce of th e fore wh e l f a c rri a ge is l e s e o a s
b y 3 ft th a n th e cir cum fe r e n ce of th e h i n d w h l I n tr v e li n g
. ee . a
1 800 ft th e f r e w h e e l m a k es 30 r e v l uti on s m or e th n th e
. o o a
h i nd wh e e l Fi n d th e cir cum fe r e nce f e a ch

. o
wh eel .
9 A wi n d ow (F ig 312 ) in th e f r m
. f a . o o
r ecta ngl e sur m ounte d b y a se m i cir cl e is found

to adm i t th e m os t li gh t w h e n th e wi d th a n d
h e i gh ta e e q ua l I f th e a r e a of such a wi n dow
r .
F 312 IG .
is 1 75 s q ft w h a t is its wi dth . .
,
10 A b oy h as a pi e ce of b oar d 16 in s q uar e H ow wi de a
. . .
st ri p m us t h e cut from e ach tw o a dj ace nt s i de s to l e a v e a

s q ua r e pi e ce w h os e a r e a is th r e e four th s th a t of th e ri gi n al o
p i ece I n w h a t f r m w oul d you s t ate y our r e sul t t

o o m e e t a ll
pra cti cal pur pose s
1 1 A l a wn is 30 ft b y 80 ft T w o b y
-
.
,
a gr e t m ow
. . o s e o
it Th e fir st b oy is to m w on e h a lf
. f it b y cutti n g a o O
st ri p of un iform wi dth a roun d it H w wi de a stri p m us t . o
h e cut
12 fa rm r h a s a fi e l d f wh e at 6 0 d wi de a n d 100 d
. A e o r . r .
l ong H ow wi de a stri p m ust h e out a r oun d th e fi e l d in rde r

. o
to h a v e one fifth of th e w h eat cut

Q U ADR AT I C EQ U AT I ON S 4 79
13 . In a c ceir l
ra d i us 10 in th e sh r t st d i s ta n ce from
of . o e
a g ive n p i n t n t h e cir cum f e r e n c t a give n d ia m e te r is 8 in

o o e o .
Fi n d th e se gm e nts i nto wh i ch th e
e
p p r e n d i cu l a r fr om th e p o i n t d ivi de s
th e d i am e te r .
H N I S tud y F ig 3 13
T . d ty t . an r o re
c ll th
a v ri u th r m w h v pr v d
e a o s eo e s e a e o e
i v lvi g m
n o n pr p rti l If y u f il
ean o o on a . o a
t g t
o e l uti r f r t th m n p
a so on , e e o e ea ro
p rti
o l c tructi (A t
on a on s on r .
14 . A b r ok e r se ll s a n um b e r of ra il
F IG . 313
w ay s hares for $ 6 00 A . fe w day s
l a te r ,
ri ce h vi n g ri se n $ 10 a h a re h e b uy s f th e sam e
th e p a s ,
or
s um th r e e l e s s h ar e s th a n h e s ol d
s Fi nd th e n um b e r of .
s h a re s t ran s fe rre d n e ach d y a nd th e pri ce pa i d

o a .
15 A b y s ol d a b i cy cl e fo $ 2 4 a n d l ost a s m a n y pe ce nt
. o r r
as t h e b i cy cl e h a d cos t h im in doll a r s Fi n d th e cos t . .
16 . A li n e 2 0 in . l ong is d ivi de d i n to tw o pa rts A C an d C B , ,
so t hat A C is th e m e a n pr opor ti on a l b e twee n C B a nd AB .
F i n d th e l e ngth of AC .
*538 M ax im a . a nd m ini m a al geb rai ca ll ydeterm ined . We

have se e n in Art 5 31 th at th e
. gr aph of a
q ua d r a ti c f unc
ti on m ay b e use d to d ete r m in e th e m ax i m um or m in i m um
v a l ues O f th e functi on T h is m e th od is not a s ex act h ow

'
.
,
e v er as t ,
h e a l g e br a i c m e th od O f d e te r m in in g m ax i m a a n d
m i n i m a a n d it is l on g e r
, T ak e for ex a m pl e th e probl e m .
, ,
of Ar t 5 31 t o fi nd t
. h e m ax i m um v a l ue for 2 0 x
I f w e r e pr ese n t th i s m a x i m um v a l ue by m th e n w e m ay ,
wr i te 2 0 x 2 2 2 m If w e di v id e b oth sid es of th e .
e q ua t i on b y 2 an d com pl e te th e sq uar e on th e l e ft sid e

of t h e e q ua ti on ,
77?
2 :
( x 5 ) 2 5
2 0
It is v id en t f r om th is e q uati on th at if x is a r e al
e
n um be r m ca nn otb e gr e at
,
er t h an 5 0 Th e r efore th e m a x i .
m um v al ue of m or of 2 0 x 2 x2 is 5 0
, , .
In li k e m an n e r by l e tti n g m r e pr ese n t th e m i n i m um
v a l ue of a f un cti on w e can d e te r m in e wh en m is a m in i
m um m or e q u i ck ly a n d m or e accur a te ly th a n w e can by
th e gr aphi c m e th od .
EXER C IS ES
r i ne
D e te m th e m a x m um i or i i
m n m um va l ue s of th e foll ow
i n g fun cti ons
2 z—
1 . 3x —
4x —
1 . x —
l . 5 . x 6 x + 8 .
2 2
2 . 2 + 2 x —
2 x .
—
x —
x .
S U M M AR Y
5 39 Th is ch apte r h as taugh t th e m e an in g of th e fo ll ow
.
in g w or ds : p a ra bol a m a x im a an d m in i m a , .
5 40 Th i s ch apte r h a s taugh t thr e e m e th od s of sol v ing

.
a u ad r a ti c e q uati on o f on e u n k n o w n :t h e ra h i cal
q g p
m e th od th e f actor i n g m e th o d an d th e m e th od of com
, ,
l e tin th e s ua r e
p g q .
541 Th e gr aphi ca l m e th od pr ov e d to b e th e m os t con

.
cr e te Itpr e s e n t
. e d a cl e a r pi ctur e of th e ch an g es in th e v a l ue
of t h e f un cti on wh i ch corr e spon d to ch an g es in th e v a l ue of

”
th e un k n o w n I t a ls o s e rv e d as a sort of r e ad y r e ck on e r
. .
5 42 Th e f actor i n g m e th od w a s m or e e x pe di e n t; th e
.
r es ul ts w e r e O bta in e d by th is m e th od m uch m or e q ui ck ly
an d w it h gre ate r accur a cy .
5 43 Th e m e th od of com pl e ti n g th e s q ua r e w as use d
.
to s ol v e q uad ra tic e q ua ti on s wh i ch w e r e n ot solv a b l e by

th e m e th od of f actorin g .
544 B oth th e graph i ca l an d a lge b ra ic m e th od s of de

.
te rm in in g m a x i m a an d m i n im a w e r e pr e sen t ed . .
4 82 G EN E RAL M ATH EM AT IC S
Ar e as , l l i ca cu a t ng, 2 05 i
C o e ffi c e n t, 39
p p rti n li ty f 341
ro o o a o ,
Co i ci d
n e, 34
Ari th m ti c v r g 2 44 e a e a e, ,
C om m uta t iv e l a w , 38, 85
Arr g m nt 16 7
an e e ,
C om passe s , 31
A c di g p w r 16 7
s en n o e s, m e asu ri ng se gm e n t, 32 , 33
A i m 2 1 2 2 37
x o s, , , C o m pe nsa t ng i e rr ro s, 255
C om p l e m e n t of a n a ng e , l 119
B ar d i gr m c tructi
a a ,
o ns o n o f, 224 C o nse cut iv e n um b e
-
r pr b l m
o e s, 13
i t pr ti g 2 2 2
n er e n , C on s ta n t, 301
B as e , 102 C oOrd ina te s, 2 6 5 , 36 8
r l
B e a m p ob e m s , 336 , 385 Co rr es po n d ng i
pa ts , 346 r
ri
B e a ng, of a n e , 353 li C os ine, 35 7, 35 8, 36 1
of a po i n t, 354 C ub e , 98
B h as k a ra , 108 C ub e r t f ri th m tic l num
oo ,
o a e a
B i n om a il ,
cub e o f, 4 16 b r 42 0
e s,
ge om e t c s ua ri q r e o f, 91 b y li d r ul
s 45 6 e e,
q r
s ua e of, 92 b yt b l 39 7 398
a e, ,
B i ct r c
se tructi o ,
on s on of, 66 , 6 8 C um ul tiv rr 2 5 5
a e e ors ,
p rp di cul r 6 6
e en a , C urv rm l di tri b uti 2 5 7
e , no a s on ,
Br c 1 75
a es , sk e w n ess of, 2 60
B r ck t 1 75
a e s, s ym m e try of , 2 59
B ri gg H y 5 9 44 7
s, e nr , ,
D a ta , 2 14
r r
C a tog a m s , 2 30 D e cagon , 44
ir
C e n t g ad e , 2 89 i l
D e c m a po n t, i l oga rith m s, 435
C en tr l a te n d e n c e s , i m r
ea s u e s r
D e g e e , O f a ng l e, 53
2 44 O f a r c, 53
Cha r a cte ri tic
s , 42 8 of l titud 53
a e,
ta b l e of, 437 o f l gi tud

on 53 e,
C ircl e , a r c of, 52 o f n um b r 166

a e ,
ce n te r of, 52 D e pe nd e n ce , 300
ir fr
c cum e e n cef 52 o ,
D epe nd e nt v ri b l 300 a a e,
c n tructi n f 5 1
o s o o ,
D pr
e i n gl f 352
e ss o ,
an e o ,
d fi ni ti
e f 51 on o ,
D c rt
es a 108 e s,
d gr e f c f 53
ee o ar o ,
D c di g p w r 16 7
es e n n o e s,
d i m t r f 52
a e e o ,
D i ff r n c
e e fm m i l 42
e, o on o a s,
qu d r t 5 2
a an ,
o f tw li gm
o-
t 38ne se en s,
r d i u f 52
a s O ,
D ir ctv ri ti n 308
e a a o ,
sem i circl 52 e, D i i m il r t rm
ss a 7 e s,
Cl i t v l 2 39
ass n er a ,
D i t nc 2 80
s a e,
Cl li m i t 2 40
ass s, Di i i
v s on , ch cki g l ng 2 09 e n o ,
I ND EX 483
D ivi i s on , de fi niti on of ,
19 4 Eq uil t r l a e a ,
44
la w Of s ig ns in , 19 5 Eucli d 88 ,
of il i l 195
m on om a b y m onom a ,
Ev l u ti n
a a o of r
fo m ul as , 93 2 79,
f o g tiv um b r
ne a 19 4 e n e s, 2 90
f p ly
O mi l b ym
o m i l 19 7
no a on o a ,
E x pone nt, i n di ca te s deg r ee , 166
f p l y m i l b yp l yn m i l 2 07
o o no a o o a ,
l oga rith m a s a n, 42 7
w i th li d rul 454 s e e, Ex pon e nts, 102 , 42 5
by r 2 11ze o, r cti l 4 12
f a on a ,
Dr w i g t c l
a 345 355
n o s a e,
—
n g t iv 4 15
e a e,
r 4 14
ze o,
l
E e m e n ts of geom e t ¢ 188 ry E tr m
x 32 3 32 8
e es , ,
El e v a tiofi ,
'
a ng e of, 35 0 l
li i
E m i
na ton , 373 F a cto s, r 198
bya ddi ti on o r sub r i
t a ct on , 374, co m m o n m on om il a , 198
”
375 "
cut a n d try, 199
b y sub st tuton , 377 i i of i r c f tw qu r
d ffe en e o o s a es,
su mm a ry Of m eth o d s o f, 379 qu l 102

e a ,
q l
E ua se gm e n t
s, 34 pri m 200 e,
Equ ti a on , ch e ck ng, 6 i f tri

o m i l qu r no 2 02 a s a e,
de fi ni ti on a nd pr ope rti es , 12 F h r h i t 2 89
a en e ,
l aw s for so lvi ng, 2 5, 9

-
F ll ci u pr f 2 11
a a o s oo ,
r
m em b 2 e s of, F rm ul
o d fi i tia, 78 2 73 e n on , ,
um b r
n ti fi 6 e sa s es, ev alu ti g 93 2 79 290
a n , , ,
qu dr ti c 462 a a ,
i t r t 2 73
n e es ,
r tf 7 oo o ,
m ti n pr b l m 2 79
o o o e ,
ub ti tuti g in 6
s s n ,
solvi g 2 76 2 94
n , ,
tr n l ti n f 12
a s a o o ,
um m ry f d i cu i
s a 2 79 o s ss on ,
Equ ti c n tr d i ct ry 371
a o ns, o a o ,
tr l ti g i t 2 87
a ns a n n o,
d e pe n d e n t, 372 w rk pr b l m 2 83 2 85
o o e ,
—
eq u iv la e n t, 372 F urth pr p rti

o l 334 o o o na ,
e x pon e n t a il ,
443, 448 c n tructi n f 334
o s o O ,
i d ti c l 372
en a ,
F r qu cy t b l
e en 2 39 a e,
i c i t t 372
n ons s e n , F ul crum 336 ,
i d t rm i t 370
n e e na e , F u cti n 359 on ,
o utli f y tm 373
ne o s s e s, d e fi n e d , 2 99
pupil t t f i m pl
’
s 2 43 es O s e, d epe n d e n ce , 300
s i m ul t n u li r 36 7 369
a eo s ne a , , r ph f 301
g a O ,
s y te m of 36 9
s , gr ph i c l
a luti 304 a so on ,
s y ste m s con tai n i ng fra cti on s, 381 li r 303

nea ,
in tw o unk now ns , 373 qu dr ti c 463

a a ,
Eq u i a ngu a l r , 149 F uncti n tri g n m tri c

o s, o o e ,
35 9
484 G ENERAL M AT H EM AT IC S
Ge om e t c p ob ri r l m 376 e s, L ab o r vi ng d vi c
-
sa e es , 42 4
Ge om e t , o g ry ri in f w d o or , 88 i
L a t tud e , 53
r
G a ph , 2 15 L aw of th e lvr e e , 336
of ir
ce ntg ad e , 290 La w s, 2 1, 38, 85 , 179, 195 , 336
of consta nt cost -
f rm ul
o a, 26 1 L east co m m on d e nom in t r a o ,
324
of d a ta , 2 14 L e as t com m o n m ul ti pl 11 e,
of F ah r e nh e i t 2 90
,
L e ngth , 2 6
of fu cti 301
n on s, m easu r e m e nt of, 27
o f li n r qu ti n 2 63 2 6 9
ea e a o s,
-
is of, 2 8
un t
o f q u d r ti c qu ti
a a463 46 9 e a on s,
—
Le vr e a rm ,
181
o f i m ul t n u li n r qu ti n
s a eo s ea e a o s, L in e, b ea ri ng of, 353
369 of si gh t, 35 1
of v ri ti
a a on , 308 311 —
L i n gm nt 2 6
e se e s,
o f :
a 442 di ff r c f tw 38
e en e O o,
of y 391 e qu l nd u qu l 34
a a ne a ,
rv c n tructi f
G ra ph i ccu e, o s on o , r ti f 35
a o o ,
i nt rpr ti ng 2 31
e e , sum of, 36
Gr ph i ng t rm u d i
a 267
,
e s se n, L i n r qu ti n d fi ni ti n
ea e a o s, e o ,
266
gr ph i c l uti n f i m ul t
a so o o s a n e ous ,
H e x ag on 44 ,
H i ppa rch us 360 , Locus , 266

H ype rb ol a 311 ,
L oga ri th m f pow r 433 ,
o a e ,
f pr d uct 432
7 o a o ,
I d e n tt iy ,
2 04 fo qu ti nt 434
a o e ,
I n d epen de n t v ri b la a e, 300 Log ri th m a 42 4 450 45 1 s, , ,
ppli d t li d rul
'
I n d e x , 42 0 a e 449 o s e e,
I nd ir ctm ur m nt 345 355

e eas e e ,
-
h i t ri c l n t n 446
s o a o e o ,
I n qu li ty 34
e a , n t ti n f
o a 42 7
o or ,
I n rti
e f l rg num b r 2 55
a o a e e s, p i ti n f d ci m l p i nt 435
os o o e a o ,
I t rc pt d
n e e 52 e a re , L ngi tud
o 53 e,
I nt r tf rm ul
e es 2 73 2 75
o a,
—
i nv lving m unt 2 77
o a o , M a nnh e m sl de i i rul e, 450, 453
I nt r t pr b l m gr ph i c l
e es luo e , a a so i
M antssas , 42 8
ti f 2 76
on o , tbl a e of, 430 431 —
lv d b y l g ri th m 44 4
so e o a s, M imax a, 468 469 , 480-
I t rp l ti n 43 7
n e o a o , r
M e an p opo ton a , 32 9 ri l
I t r cti n p i nt f 2 6
n e se o , o o , M e a ns, 32 3, 32 8
I nv r
. v ri ti n 309 311
e se a a o ,
—
r l
M e as u e m e nt, of ang es , 54
I b c l
s s e estri ngl 138 a e, of r 74
a eas ,
err r in pr ci 30
o s e se ,
Jo int ri ti
va a on , 312 i di r ct 345 355
n e ,
—
r
P e i m e te r ,
43 P r od uct, ri l
pa t a ,
89
Pe rp e n d cu a i l r , 65 of a po ly m i no a l a nd a m onom il
a ,
b me cto r , co ns t uct on r i of, 66 86

P i ct gr m o 2 14 2 2 0
a s,
-
of po w e rs, 103
P i t b
o n i ng f 354
,
ear o a, of tw o po ly n om a s , il 187
d t rm i
e e d b y 26 ne ,
P r
opo t on , ri 32 2
P l yg n cl
o o i fi d 44
s, ass e ,
r l m 337 385
b ea m p ob e s, ,
equil t r l 44 a e a ,
rr g m nt f 32 7
d i fi e r e nt a an e e s o ,
sim i l r 318 a ,
m n pr p rti
ea l 329 o o on a ,
P lyo m i l 40
no a ,
m n ead tr m
s an f 323 32 8 ex e es o , ,
d gr e f 16 7
ee o ,
m ix tur nd ll y pr b l m
e a 338 a o o e s,
P lyo mi l
no d di ti n f 168
a s, a o o , p cifi c gr vi ty pr b l m
s e -
340 a o e s,
cl ifi d 40
ass e ,
t t f pr p ti n li ty 324 32 8
es o o or o a , ,
di vi i f 2 08
s on O ,
P r p rti
o o l c n tructi ng m n
on a ,
o s a ea ,
m ul ti pli c ti n f 187 a o o ,
332
sub tr cti n f 1 73 a o o ,
f urth 334
o ,
P i tiv
os um b re n l 5 1 154 e s,
~
i nv r l y 309
e se ,
P w r 103
o e ,
P r tr ct r 54
o a o ,
P w r
o c di ng 16 7
e s , as e n ,
P y r m i d fru tum f 98
a ,
s o ,
d c nd i g 16 7
es e n ,
tri gul r 98
an a ,
tbl a f 397 398

e o , , P yth g r 401
a o as,
of te n , h i t ri c l n t n 402
s o a o e o ,
Pri m e n um b e r ,
198 th r m f 397 399 400
eo e o , , ,
Pr b l
o em s, a ll y o ,
338
b e a m , 337, 385 Quad ra nt 52 ,
l
c o ck , 2 84 Quad ra ti c e quati on 463 ,
conse cut e num b e iv -

r . 13 Q ua drati c e qua tions com ple ti ng ,
d igi t 378 379 th e qu r

—
,
s a e,
g m tri c 376 f ri g m th d 471 4 74

a ct
—
eo e ,
o n e o ,
i t r t 2 73
n e es , gr phi c m th d 465
a e o ,
l r 336
ev e ,
tw luti n f 46 5
o so o s o ,
m i tur x338 379 e, ,

Q u dr ti c functi 463
a a on ,
m ti o2 79 384
on , , gr ph f 463
a o ,
num b r r l t i n 378 e -
e a o ,
Qu d r ti c urd 392 406 407
a a s , ,
—
r cr ti n 386 388
e ea o ,
—
Q u d r ti c tri n m i l qu r 392
a a o a s a e,
p cifi c gr vi ty 340 Qu dril t l 44

'
S e -
a ,
a a e ra ,
w rk 2 85o ,
Qu ti t in p c nt 335
o en s er e s,
P r duct ccur cy f 93
o , a a o ,
g m tri c 89
eo e , i l pr i n 420
R ad ca ex ess o ,
l w f rd r 85
a o o e ,
R d i c l ign 390
a a s ,
m n m i l 85
o o a ,
l rg num b r und r 406
a e e e ,
IN DEX 4 87
i
R ad ca nd , 390 li rul i nd f 452
S de e, ex o ,
R a te , 2 80 i rt d lid 45 7
nv e e s e,
i
R a to, 35 , 315 , 345 pr p rtio o pr b l m 45 7 on o e s,
tri g m tri c 35 9
ono e ,
r i i ng t p w r 455
a s o o e s,
R ti a li i g d n m i
on a z n e o n ato r ,
409 ru r 454n ne ,
R ct gl
e 70
an e, S li d g m tri c 98 99
o s, eo e , ,
R fl e gl 49
ex an e, S lvi g qu ti n 6
o n e a o s,
R gi m nt u 360
e o o an s, S p ci fi c gr vi ty 340
e a ,
R m v l f p r th i 175 177 S ph r 98
—
e o a o a en e s s, e e,
R h om b us , 81 S qu r 71
a e,
i l
R gh t a ng e , 48 of th d i ff r c 192
e e en e,
i ri l
R gh tt a ng e , 135 of th e s um ,
192 , 193
Righ t tri gl i m il r an es, s a ,
355 ri
t nom a il ,
2 02
um f cut
s gl oi a e an es n, 137 q r r t 390 39 7 45 1
S ua e oo
-
, ,
R t foo qu ti n 6
o an e a o ,
a lg b r ic rul f fi di g 396
e a e or n n ,
R t fr cti
oo s, l p a on a ex on e nts, 4 12 o f fr cti
a 408 409
a on , ,
h i gh r 42 0 e ,
b y gr ph i c m th d 39 1
a e o ,
b y l g ri th m 439
o a s, b y l g ri th m
o a 439 440 s,
-
t bl f 397 398 b ym pr p rti n l 405

ean
—
a e o ,
o o o a ,
m m ri i g 408
e o z n ,
Sc l a e d r wi a ngs, 345 355 —

o f pr d uct 406
a o ,
S e con d s , of a n a ng e , l 53 b y rul r d c mp e 404 an o ass ,
S e cto r ,
2 17 b y li d r ul
s 455 e e,
S egm e nt, li n e, 26 t bla f 398 e O ,
i
un t, 2 7 S qu r d p p r 32
a e a e ,
Se m i circl 52 e, S t ti ti c l
a s r gul rity l w
a e a , a O f,
Se ri c nti u
e s, o n ous a n d i r
d sc e te , 2 37 2 54
i i i
0
S gn s, 15 1 S ta t st cs , 2 14
ch a nge of, 171 d e fi n e d , 2 38
law of, 1 79 , 195 hi t ri c l
s o a n ote on , 2 70, 2 7 1
m i n us , 15 1 15 2
—
li m i t ti a on s o f, 2 53
l
p us , 15 2 use of, 2 38
i i r r
S m la te m s , 40, 42 l
S te e ta pe , 349
S i m il r tri gla 315 an e s, ri
S t a g h t a ng e , 48 l
c tructi
on s f 314 316 on o i i
S ub s t tut ng, 6
-
c rr p
o di g i d
es f 315 330
on n s es o , , S ub tr cti alg b r i c 17 1
on , a e a
S i m il ri ty 345
a , gr ph i c l 38 170
a a , ,
S i m ul t n u qu ti n 36 7 36 9
a eo s e a o s, , S um f , gl o b ut an es a o a po i nt,
Si ne Of n ngl 35 7 a a e, 112 113 —
S li d rul 449
e e, of a ng es o f a l ri
t a ng e , 131 l
d ci m l p i t 45 8
e a o n , l
S upp e m e nt, 116 , 118
488 G EN ER AL M ATH EM ATI C S
r
S u ds , a ddi ton a nd sub i r i
t a ct on of, r
T i an g l e, ve rt ex , 47
4 10 ve rtic e s, 43
l i li i vi i
m u tp ca t on a nd di s on of, 4 11 w d n 136 oo e ,
S urv y i ng 58
e ,
T i ngl
r a c n tructi n f
e s, o s o o , 142 14 7
—
S urv y r ch i n 349
e o
’
s a ,
im i l r 314
s a ,
S y m m try 2 5 9e ,
Tri g n m tri c r ti
o o 359 e a os,
Sy t m
s e f qu ti n 36 9
s o e a o s, Trig n m try 355
o o e ,
Tri n m i l 40
o a ,
Ta b l e , of i
m a nt ssas, 430— 431 f ct ring 199
a o ,
of r t nd p w r 397 398
oo s a o e s, Tri n m i l qu r
o 202
a s a e,
:
-
o f tri g n m tri c r ti
o 36 1 o e a os, Turnin te nd e nc y , 181
Ta n g nt f n ngl
e 358o a a e,
Tape , 349 U n e ua q l ngl a e s, 60

r
Te m s, 7 Une qu l li
a n es , 34
d i i m il r 7
ss a ,
U n ts i of m e asu r e, 2 8, 74, 99
o rd r f 7 e o ,
s im il r 7 a ,
V a ue ,l b lut a so e, 156
T t f pr p rti n li ty 32 4
es O o o o a ,
Va ri b l 300
a e,
T tr h d r n 106
e a e o ,
d e pe nde nt, 300
Th r m f P y th g r 39 7 399
eo e o a o as ,
—
ind p nd nt 300
e e e ,
Tran s i t 58 ,
V ri ti n d ir ct 305
a a o ,
e ,
T r n v r l 68
a s e sa ,
i v r 309
n e se ,
Tr p
a i d 82
ezo , j i nt 312
o ,
T ri ngl
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U N IV ER S IT Y O F C AL IF O R N I A L IB R AR Y
Los Ange l es
T h is b ook is D U E o n th e l a std a te sta m ed
p b e lo w .
F or m L9 —
S e r ie s 4 44

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GENERAL M ATHEM ATIC S

ach i e v e m e n ts a re n ot t h e m e asur e of our d e sir e s to im

to pr e sen tsuch s i m pl e a n d s i gn i ﬁ cant p r i n cipl es of a lg eb r a ,

ge om e try tri g on om e try pr acti ca l d r aw i ng a nd stati stics

a l on g w i th a fe w e l e m en tary n oti on s of oth e r m ath e m a ti ca l

cati on s of ar i th m eti c as t h e a v e r ag e m an ( m or e a ccur a te ly

is h e r e an atte m pt to te ach pupi l s th i n g s w or th k n ow i ng

Th e a rg um e n t for a th or ough r e o rg an i zati on n e e d n ot

e n um e r a te som e of t h e m aj or e rr or s of se con d a ry m ath e -

m ati e s in str ucti on in curr e n t pr acti ce a n d to i n di cate

Th e f oll o w ing s e rv e to ill ustr a te its purpos e a n d pr ogr a m

te rize d by excessi ve f orm a lism an d t h e r e is m uch d rill

work l arg e l y on n on e ssen ti a l s T h e ex ce ss i v e f or m a l i sm is

gre atly r e d uce d in th is te x t an d th e e m ph as i s pl ace d on

ti on s of pr in cipl es an d th e in tr od ucti on of m or e s ig n iﬁ can t

st ructi on is spr e a d ov e r th e y e a rs th at pre ced e th e for m a l

m ent a e sur e m en t M a nyfor e igﬁ s ch ool s an d an

in cr e asin g n um be r of Am er i can sch ool s pr oce e d on th is

th e sy m b o l ism an d th e f un d am en ta l id e as of g eom e try

If th e pupil l e a v e s sch oo l or dr ops m ath em ati cs h e n e v e r ,

th e l ess h as a n e ff e cti v e org an izati on of g e om e tr i c r e l a ti on s .

O n th e oth e r h an d i f h e l ate r pur sues a f orm a l g eom e try

cour se h e can w or k far m or e e ff e ctiv e ly b e ca use h e can

con cen tr at e on t h e l ogi ca l org an izati on of s pace r e l ati on s

3 Th e tr adi ti on a l cour ses d e l ay th e con sid e ra ti o

m uch in te r estin g a n d v a l uab l e m a t e ri a l t h a t th e ﬁ e l d of

b e use d to g i v e th e pupil v e ry e a rly an id e a of w h a t

n int h y e ars is ofte n i n d e fen sib ly m e an in g l e ss wh en com

m e n t a stud y o f th e i m por tan ce of m e a s ur e m en t in m od e r n

l ife an d th e i n tr od uctory id e as of th e ca l cul us It appe ar s

th at th e m a th e m ati cs stud e n t sh oul d b e g i v e n a n oppor

Th ey l e n d to th e sub j ect a pow e r an d in te r estth atd r i l l s on

P a r ti cul a r e m ph as i s is g i v en to gr aph i ca l r e pr ese n ta ti on

o ss e ss e l e m ent a ry n ot i on s of st ati sti ca l m et h od s T h e

h un d re d s of a rticl es in th e curr en t m ag azin es so ex ten

in e v e ry d ay l if e or in th e cl a ss r oom Actua l cl assr oom

of m e t h od T h e in for m ati on w e n ow posse ss of i n di vid ua l

diﬁ eren ce s an d e ﬁ e ctiv e d e v i ces in supe rv i se d stud y sh ould

cour s e in w hi ch m or e eff e cti v e w or k can b e d on e

5 . Th e te a ch ing of a lg eb r a g e om e try an d trig on om etry

p e r m i t th e e asy sol uti on of pr o b l e m s con ce rn i n g pr oj e ct s

th at corr e l ate wi th pr ob l e m s m e t in th e ph y s ica l an d b io

un i t in ge om e try an d to pr ese n t th e s i m pl e pr in cipl e s of

th e v a r i ous b r an ch es of m a th e m ati cs in th e in tr od uctory

P o w e r is g a i n e d b e cause th e pupi l is e q ui ppe d w i th m or e

6 O n e of th e m os t curi ous ch a r acte r i sti cs of Am e r i can

th a tf un cti on a l thi n k i n g ( th e d e pe n d e n ce of on e m agn i tud e

th e e q u ati on ,th e f or m ul a th e f un cti on th e gr a ph ,an d th e

e a s i ly co rr e l at e d a r oun d t h e f un cti on i d e a as th e o g a nizing

e x pl i ci t ly ) d om in an tth roug h out h e l ps to l e n d con cr e te n e ss

to assum e th at thi s m ate r i a l is pr e se n te d to e stabli s h th e

p ri n ci pl e of co rr e l a t i on . O n th e con tr ary it h a ppen s th a t

corr e l ati on a r oun d th e fun cti on n oti on th ough i n cid en ta l

is a v a l uab l e i n strum en t for a ccom pl i sh i n g th e l a rg e r a im ,

wh i ch is to ob ta in a com pos i te i n tr od uctory course in m ath e

7 . Th e tr ad i ti on a l r e ti cen ce of tex ts h as m a d e m ath e

Th e styl e of th is b ook th oug h l ess r i g id ly m a th e m ati ca l is

m or e n e arly a d apt ed t h e pupil s m e n ta l age Th e r esul t

is a m i s l e a di n g l e ng th of th e b ook Th e b ook can e a si ly b e

ta ug h t in a sch ool y e a r of a ppr ox i m a te ly on e h un d r e d an d

S pe ciﬁ c r e f e r en ces a re g i v e n w h e r e m ate r i a l w hi ch is

te a ch e r s to be co m e f am i l i a r wi th th ese b ook s for r e ason s

i nte r e stis a dd e d b yr e l atin g som e of th e w e ll k n ow n stor i e s

D a vi d Euge n e S m i th on q ue sti on s r e l ati n g to hi stor i ca l