Dr Uday Dokras

The Big Book on the

Tantric Mandala of Sewu

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COVER 0000Thangka painting of Manjuvajra mandala

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INTRODUCTION

Bhairawa Tantrayana in Java and Sumatra

Vajrayāna lit. 'vajra vehicle', also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Mantranāya ('path
of mantra'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric
Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a Buddhist tradition of tantric practice that developed
in Medieval India and spread to Tibet, Nepal, other Himalayan states, East Asia,
and Mongolia. This secret lineage that emerged from the syncretism of Tantrayana
Buddhism and Shaivism first appeared in the 6th century AD in Bengal. From there it quickly
spread across the land and maritime routes of Asia through Tibet, China, Japan, Malaysia and
Indonesia. It first appeared in Java in 674 AD in the Kalingga kingdom, led by Queen Shima.
It also flourished under King Dharma Udayana Warmadewa and his empress Mahendradhatta
around the 10th century.

Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north
coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java,
and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.

Tantrayana was widespread in Indonesia for a thousand years, in Java, Sumatra, Bali and
Kalimantan, in both its Buddhist and Shaivist form. Its most powerful and elitist aspect was
the Kala Bhairava lineage. Followers of the Bhairava Tantra tried to achieve enlightenment
(moksa) in the shortest possible way. In pure Shaivite tradition, meditations were conducted in
the cremation grounds, to remind the practitioner of the impermanence of existence.
Bhairava Tantrayana was an elite lineage that merged the teachings of both Saivism and
Buddhism and was at the core of Indonesian civilization for almost a thousand years.
Buddhist tantric literature which refers to the vast and varied literature of the Vajrayāna (or
Mantrayāna) Buddhist traditions were composed from 7 th Century onwards and were a
genre of Indian Buddhist tantric scriptures, variously named Tantras, Sūtras and Kalpas,
which were composed from the 7th century CE onwards.

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Buddhist Tantric texts may have begun appearing during the Gupta Period (320–550 CE).
However, the earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is the Awakening of Mahāvairocana
Tantra, which was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing c. 680 CE who
reports that at the time he visited India (7th century), the Mantrayana “teaching about
mantra”,was already very popular.

Amoghavajra (704–774), a scholar translator who traveled to China, reports a canon of

eighteen tantras during the 8th century.Over time the number of texts increased with
numerous Tantric scholars writing commentaries and practice manuals. Buddhist Tantric
traditions draw on the Mahayana sutras, and older Buddhist esoteric practices
like dhāraṇī recitation texts. Furthermore, earlier Buddhist traditions had maintained a
collection of scriptures focused on magical practices, called the Vidyādhara Piṭaka (Wizardry
Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyā). In the account of a
Buddhist spell master by Yijing, he even mentions erotic practices associated with this
collection.

There are 2 Inscriptions that mention Kaalinga.

1. The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the
analogue of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and
imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu (water
jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red lotus), those are
symbols of Hindu gods.
2. The second is the Sojomerto inscription, discovered in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan
Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in the Kavi script in Old Malay
language and is estimated to be from the 7th century. The inscription tells about a
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, the son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and the husband
of Sampula. Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta
Selendra was the ancestor of the Sailendras who later ruled in the Mataram Kingdom.

Both inscriptions suggest that in the 7th century, a Hindu Shivaist kingdom flourished on the
northern coast of Central Java, now identified as the Kalingga Kingdom. Some of the oldest
Javanese candis can also be found in the mountainous surrounding areas of northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau and the Gedong Songo temples, but they
were probably built in a later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historians suggest
that there was a link between this old kingdom and the later kingdom that flourished in the
southern part of Central Java, specifically the Kedu Plain, known as the Sailendra of the
Mataram Kingdom.

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Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers
to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in
the 7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya.[1] This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China
and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of
a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities
saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism. Java
under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire of
Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.The decline of Buddhist states and
the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–16th centuries saw the steep decline of
this tradition.

13th century Javanese statue of Prajnaparamita, from the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple

The diffusion of Esoteric Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist
monks in the 7th century. These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese
Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing (635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th-century teacher of Kukai).[4] The Chinese
Buddhist monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century, there was a Buddhist center in Java
named Kalinga (Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled to study.

Another source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a
well-known center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch
monastery in Central Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage. In the course of time,
Abhayagiri had developed into a well-organized religious and educational institution having
well-established relations with China, Java, and Kashmir during 5th-6th century CE.
Abhayagiri Vihāra was a major monastery site
of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism that was situated in Anuradhapura, Sri
Lanka. It is one of the most extensive ruins in the world and one of the most

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sacred Buddhist pilgrimage cities in the nation. Historically it was a great monastic center as
well as a royal capital, with magnificent monasteries rising to many stories, roofed with gilt
bronze or tiles of burnt clay glazed in brilliant colours. To the north of the city, encircled by
great walls and containing elaborate bathing ponds, carved balustrades and moonstones,
stood "Abhayagiri", one of seventeen such religious units in Anuradhapura and the largest of
its five major viharas. One of the focal points of the complex is an ancient stupa,
the Abhayagiri Dagaba. Surrounding the humped dagaba, Abhayagiri Vihara was a seat of
the Northern Monastery, or Uttara Vihara and the original custodian of the Tooth relic in the
island.

The term "Abhayagiri Vihara" refers not only to the complex of monastic buildings, but also
to a fraternity of Buddhist monks, or Sangha, which maintained its own historical records,
traditions and way of life. Founded in the 2nd century BC, it had grown into an international
institution by the 1st century AD, attracting scholars from distant locations and encompassing
all shades of Buddhist philosophy. Its influence can be traced to other parts of the world,
through branches established elsewhere. Thus, the Abhayagiri Vihara developed as a great
institution vis-a-vis the Mahavihara and the Jetavanavihara Buddhist monastic sects in the
ancient Sri Lankan capital of Anuradhapura.

According to the Chinese text Biqiuni Zhuan, the biography of the bhikkhuni compiled by
Shi Baochang in 526 AD, and the biography of Gunavarnam and Sanghavarnam, the Sinhala
nuns gave the second Upasampada, or higher ordination, to the Chinese nuns. According to
another Chinese source, in 426 AD, eight Sinhala nuns arrived in Nanjing, the capital of
the Liu Song dynasty (420–77 AD), on a merchant ship owned by a man named Nandi.
Consequently, three more nuns, headed by Tissara, arrived in Nanjing. Thus in the year 434,
over three thousand nuns received their higher ordination for the second time in the presence
of more than ten Sinhala nuns headed by Tissara at the Nanjing Temple in China.

It is also recorded that there were religious contacts between Sri Lanka and Java through the
Abhayagiri Vihara, at least toward the end of the 8th century, as described by a fragmentary
inscription from the Ratubaka plateau in central Java. This inscription records the
establishment of "the Abhayagiri Vihara of Sinhalese ascetics trained in the sayings of jinas
[Buddhas]." Commenting on this record, J.G. de Casparis observes, 'The most important
detail is the name of the foundation, the Abhayagiri Vihara.

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Bronze statue of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. Sri Lanka, ca. 750 CE

A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra
on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there before making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:

In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are
bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just
as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to
the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two
years and practice the proper rules.
Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large number of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden
Light Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks
Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his
adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various
local peoples.

In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large-scale Buddhist building projects
such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric
themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas. In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in
Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized
Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit
Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many annual festivities
for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were Vajrayana practitioners,
such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he was "always concentrated
on Hevajra". A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification and worship of kings as
Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included Prajnaparamita, Tara, Bhairava
and Lokesvara.

The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of
Majapahit rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism.
This process of merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however,
and many textual sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and
Buddhism are both two paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five
forms of Shiva. Likewise, some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva
elements.

Architecture

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Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom/
Borobudur Stupas

The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside

the Mendut temple
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia; the
most common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been
interpreted as a symbol of Mount Meru.

The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the

massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and
Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such
as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional
capital at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran.

Other architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes.

Borobodur
The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is the 9th-century complex at Borobudur in central
Java, built as a Mandala, a giant three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist
cosmology. The temple shows Indian and local influences and is decorated with 2,672 relief
panels and 504 Buddha statues. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara
Sutra, Jataka tales and the Gandavyuha sutra.

Borobudur was abandoned sometime in the classic period, whether caused by human activity;
of war or political turmoil, or natural disasters, as it lies on a volcanic plain of Merapi and
other active volcanoes in central Java. There is no mention of Borobudur in any of Majapahit
sources, implies that this structure already forgotten in the last classic-period. A major

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restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government
and UNESCO and the monument is now a World Heritage Site. It is the most visited tourist
attraction in Indonesia and it is still used by Buddhists for pilgrimage.

Candi Sukuh
Candi Sukuh is a fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple (candi) that
demonstrates strong tantric influence. Candi Sukuh is located on the western slope of Mount
Lawu (elev. 3,000 feet (910 m) above sea level) on the border between Central and East
Java provinces. The monument was built around 1437, as written as a chronogram date on the
western gate, meaning that the area was under the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom during its
end (1293–1500). The distinctive Dancing Ganesha relief in Candi Sukuh has a similarity
with the Tantric ritual found in the history of Buddhism in Tibet written by Taranatha. The
Tantric ritual is associated with several figures, one of whom is described as the "King of
Dogs" (Sanskrit: Kukuraja), the mahasiddha who taught his disciples by day, and by night
performed Ganacakra in a burial ground or charnel ground. Importantly, Ganesha also
appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also portrayed
as a Hindu demon form also called Vināyaka.[21] Ganesha's image may be found on Buddhist
sculptures of the late Gupta period.[22] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, Ganesha is often shown
dancing, a form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal
and then into Tibet.

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 II

SEWU
Sometimes Geography decides the harmony between people andm precipates a peaceful
future in their society and culture. This is a Tale of one such happening in Indonesia in the
Kalingaa Kingdom.The Legend of Roro Jonggrang is a Javanese popular legend
from Central Java telling the story of love and betrayal, the warrior and the cursed princess. It
also explains the mythical origin of Ratu Boko palace, Sewu temple, and the Durga statue
in Prambanan temple compound. The title Roro (pronounced /rɔrɔ/ in Javanese) is an ancient
honorific title to address unmarried princesses and female nobility, thus the name Rara
Jonggrang in Javanese means 'slender maiden'.
The legend tells the story about two ancient and neighbouring kingdoms in Java, Pengging
and Boko.
Pengging was prosperous, and wisely ruled by its king Prabu Damar Moyo who had a son
named Bandung Bondowoso. By contrast, Boko was ruled by a cruel man-eating giant named
Prabu Boko, supported by another giant Patih Gupolo . Despite his unpleasant nature, Prabu
Boko had a beautiful daughter named Roro Jonggrang.
The story relates that Prabu Boko desired to expand his kingdom, and so began training an
army and raising taxes for an invasion of Pengging. His forces launched a surprise attack on
Pengging, and the ensuring war caused devastation and famine on both sides. In order to
defeat the invader, Prabu Damar Moyo sent his son Bandung Bondowoso to fight Prabu
Boko. After a furious battle, Prabu Boko was killed by the prince's supernatural powers. His
assistant, the giant Patih Gupolo, led his armies away from the battlefield in defeat.
Returning to Boko Palace, Patih Gupolo told princess Rara Jonggrang of the death of her
father. The princess was heartbroken, but before she could recover from her grief the
Pengging army besieged and captured the palace. Prince Bandung Bandawasa was
mesmerized by the beauty of the mourning princess and proposed marriage, but his offer was
swiftly rejected. Bandung Bandawasa insisted on the union, and finally Rara Jonggrang
agreed on two impossible conditions: first the prince must build a well named Jalatunda, and
second, he must construct a thousand temples in only one night.
The love-struck prince agreed, and immediately started work on the well. Using his
supernatural powers once again and summoning all manner of demons, the prince swiftly
finished construction and proudly displayed his work for the princess. As a trick, she urged
him to enter the well and when he did so, Patih Gupolo piled stones into it and buried him
alive. With great effort Bandung Bandawasa escaped, but his love for the princess was so
strong that he forgave her the attempt on his life.
To fulfill the second condition, the prince entered into meditation and conjured up a
multitude of spirits from the earth. With their help he built the first 999 temples and started
work on the final one. To thwart his efforts the princess and her maids lit fires in the east
direction and begin pounding rice padi, a traditional dawn activity. The roosters crowed.
Fooled into thinking the sun was about to rise, the spirits fled back to the darkness, leaving
the last temple unfinished.
The prince was furious when he learned of this deception, and He did not want to pay the
blood price of sorcery alone. She tried to plead for mercy, as the prince seemed possessed by

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preternatural powers. But he placed a curse on Rara Jonggrang, turning her into stone. In this
way she herself became a feature of the final temple, completing its construction and
fulfilling the conditions for their marriage.

A depiction of the legend on an Indonesian stamp

Statue of Durga Mahisashuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cella of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

A local popular folklore it connects and explains the supernatural origin of Central Java's
famous archaeological sites; such as of the Ratu Boko palace, the Durga statue in northern
cella/chamber of the main Prambanan shrine, and the Sewu temple complex nearby.
Although the temples itself dated from circa 9th century, the legend was composed in later
times, probably during Mataram Sultanate era.
According to tradition, this thousandth temple is part of the Sewu temple compound
(sèwu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north
cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.
Another interpretation mentioned that this legend could be a collective but vague local
memory about past historical events that happened in the area, staged around the 9th century
struggle for power between the Sailendra and the Sanjaya dynasty for control of Central Java.
King Boko is probably inspired by the King Samaratungga of Sailendra dynasty, Bandung
Bondowoso is Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya dynasty, and Rara Jongrang
is Pramodhawardhani, wife of Rakai Pikatan and the daughter of Sailendran king. The actual
historical event was probably the contest of power between Balaputradewa, the Sailendran
heir, against his sister, Pramodhawardhani, aided by her husband, Rakai Pikatan, which led to
Pikatan as the victor, thus ending the Sailendran rule on Central Java.

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 Port cities are a staple of world history. They are hubs of world commerce and also of
regional trade between coast and hinterland. They are facilitators of both immigration and
emigration. They are transit points for the spread of disease as well as goods and people.
They are also markers of patterns of colonialism and development. The capitals of most
developing countries betray their colonial roots, having ports as their capital and/or largest
cities that today remain the loci of virtually all post-colonial national administrative,
educational, and medical institutions. They are prime drivers of urban sprawl and slums as
well as economic growth. Yet, the tolerant, permissive and multicultural atmosphere of port
cities in developing as well as developed societies also make them rich centers of world
culture,. The relationship between land development and distance from the port shows that
the areas with strong land development intensity gradually moved from coastal to inland
areas over time. Port shipping has a profound influence on port city land use patterns.
Industrial transfer drives the development of surrounding towns during the metaphase. This
trend was used to build a second port to realize the division of transportation capacity, as the
old port’s carrying capacity tended to become saturated.

THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic
plain that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and
the Progo River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta
Special Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many
archaeological sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as
an important religious, political, and urban center.

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 MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both
the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram
Sultanate in the 16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history
and culture for over a millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of
historic significance. If each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central
Java period could be said to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng
Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and
hills around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia.
Adjacent to the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple;
to the east are found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and
further is the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the
south. The discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that
this area was once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite
the smaller scale of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in
this plain are comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and
Prambanan in particular, are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to
rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central
Java Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan
should be treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring
measured 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies.
The area includes major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan
temples. The sanctuary is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor
archaeological area in Cambodia, which suggests that the government should prevent or
regulate permits to construct any new buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as
well as BTS towers. This was meant to protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern
day visual obstructions and the encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related
buildings and businesses. There are a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and
Buddhist:

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Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on
each chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple
adorned with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by
Hindu Mataram Kingdom.

 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.

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 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main
sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for
a buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on
the roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this
area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the

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west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant
location in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of
the Sailendra dynasty as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the
colonial Dutch East Indies period, the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which
at that time covered what are now the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung
Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its

17
 reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

18
 The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing
in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees.
The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very
orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice,
and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the
official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga; 訶 陵 Hēlíng or 闍 婆 Dūpó in Chinese sources[1])
was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was
the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the
exact location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between
present-day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern
coast of Jepara Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang
regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an
altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was
one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this
kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central
Java . Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records
from China . In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because

19
this kingdom was part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara
Kingdoms which Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong
competitors of the Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for
communication between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon,
to the west, and Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came
under control of the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in
the 18th century, it granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch
built a fort in Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as
an internment centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II.
The structure has continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the
Pekalongan, (city) is the capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
situated on the northern coastal plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan
city is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other
goods. Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s
fertile river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city,
17 square miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.

HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue
of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such

20
as trisula, kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red
lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered
in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi
script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula.
Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor
of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once
flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest
Javanese candis are also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are
probably built in later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that
there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central
Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining ( 會
寧 Huìníng) had arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and
with the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous
Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition,
one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the
famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not
belong to them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally
touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was
over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the
prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through
mutilation.[3] According to Carita Parahyangan, a book composed in later period,
Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom,
and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps
in response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to

21
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

22
 CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple og Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
Rediscovery

23
Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events

Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.

24
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

25
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple
near Prambanan shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara
temples.

Candi Sewu Layout

26
An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of
the 8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.
There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.

27
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

28
As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture:

Case Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and
Humanities Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture
(ICALC 2019)

29
Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.
While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

30
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

31
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-

century Buddhist temple located within the complex of the Prambanan Temple
Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located within Prambanan

32
or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples
dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple, visitors can go through
the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest
that the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha
complex), as the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This
suggestion is based on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called
Candi Gana that marking the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western
sides around 300 metres from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however,
the stones are too scarce to reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of
four vanguard temples placed around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple
of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian temple of southern direction, according to mandala
and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins
for many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a
Buddhist temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram
kingdom that ruled Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related
to Sewu temple which is located around 300 metres to the north. [2] Bubrah temple believed
was constructed around the same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu
and Lumbung temple, all three being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built
by Rakai Panangkaran hailed as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra
dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu
mandala as the southern shrine dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah
temple was constructed after the reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign
of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which means the temple was constructed in the
early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with
nearby Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form
of a 2 metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means
"ruins". Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct
the temple, as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan
temples, registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy,

33
Indonesian Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion
rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico
and portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu
temple compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller
stupas, with larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

PRAMBHANAN COMPLEX

34
 The Sister Temples of Kalasan and Sari
Dr Uday Dokras
Sanjaya dynasty was an ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java
during first millennium CE. The dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by
the Sailendra dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on
the Kalasan inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence
and cooperation.
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism.[3] The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).
Sanjaya (AD 716 – 746) complete name Narapati Raja Śrī Sañjaya and Rakai Matarām
Saŋ Ratu Sañjaya, was the founder of Mataram Kingdom during the eighth century. His
name was revealed in the Sanskrit Canggal inscription[1]: 87–88 carved in a stone found
at Gunung Wukir temple that stood on Wukir or Ukir hill (about 340 m (1,120 ft) high) on
the southern Kedu Plain in Central Java. suggested that Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya Dynasty, and there were two dynasties that ruled Central Java; the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states that Sanjaya
was an ardent follower of Shaivism. The latter was forced to move eastward by Sanjaya as
written in an old Chinese report, which named Sanjaya as Chi-Yen
Sanjaya and MATARAM
Some researchers say that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is
called Mataram with the capital in Poh Pitu area, and the ruling dynasty is Shailendra. He
holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially
were Shivaist. The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the
conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism

35
King Sanjaya established the The Mataram Kingdom a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later
in East Java. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and Ishana dynasty.
It benefited from maritime trade. According to foreign sources and archaeological findings,
the kingdom seems to have been well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom
developed a complex societyhad a well developed culture, and achieved a degree of
sophistication and refined civilization.In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-
9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture
reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city
of Yogyakarta. At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not only in Java,
but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and
the Khmer in Cambodia.

The immediate successor of King Sanjaya was Dyah Pancapana (7 October 746 – 1 April
784) or regnal name Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ Pañcapaṇa Kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa Śrī
Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya, was the second king of Mataram from the Shailendra dynasty whose
kingdom was centered on the Java island Indonesia.
Amrati Kings or Amravati Kings
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The
first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and
Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings.

The Sanjays who were Hindus competed over their power and religious influences with
the Buddhist Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779..
Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time,
the rivalries between the two is still unclear.
From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there were stated that Panangkaran granted
permission requested by the collective guru of the Sailendra king to build
Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess Tara. The construction
was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by Sailendra's expenses. In
order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the building of the shrine by
giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.
Kalasan

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple of Kalasan was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja
Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja
Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in another part of the inscription also called Kariyana
Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a holy building for the goddess
(boddhisattvadevi) Tara . Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century
Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on
the way to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between

36
Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon)
of Sleman Regency.
In addition, a Vihara (monastery) was built for Buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's
realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist monastic community).
[2]
According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in
the Prambanan Plain.Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial
era, the temple currently is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as
Prambanan, Sewu, and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.

The giant Kala's head on the southern door\ One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3.5 square meters. No statue is to be found
in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the
rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist
figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues
would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer
wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the
celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.
The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisattvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the

37
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room.
In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and
elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According
to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall)
statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of
the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing,
probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal
over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu
temple, and Plaosan temple. It is estimated that the Sari temple was built at the same time as
Kalasan temple on the 8th century AD during the rule of King Panangkaran.So the Sari
temple is the sister temple of the Kalasan.

Sister temple to Kalasan- THE Sari Temple

Sari temple is located in Bendan hamlet of Tirtamartani village, Kalasan, Sleman about 10
kilometers from Yogyakarta, and only around 3 kilometers from Kalasan temple. The temple
is also named after the hamlet where it is situated.

It is estimated that the temple was built at the same time as Kalasan temple on the 8th
century AD during the rule of King Panangkaran. The two temples indeed have many
similarities either in its architecture or relief. That these temples are correlated is stated in

38
Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD). The inscription mentions that the spiritual advisors
of Syailendra dynasty suggested King Tejapurnama Panangkarana or Rakai Panangkaran to
build a shrine and a monastery for Buddhist monks. Following the suggestion, the king built
Kalasan temple to the worship of Dewi Tara Sari temple as a monastery for Buddhist monks.
That Sari temple serves as a monastery is indicated in the temple’s structures, structural
components, and interior. The bell-shaped stupa on top indicates that this is a Buddhist
temple.

Sari temple was discovered in ruins in the early 20th century. The first restoration was
conducted between 1929 and 1930. Kempers said that the first restoration was not satisfying,
as it failed to restore the temple to its original form because parts of the temple could not be
found. In addition, parts of the temple had crumbled when they were discovered.

In the 19th century, ruins of temple, probably a monastery, were found around 130 meters
from Kalasan temple. Sari temple is only a part of a group of temples no longer in existence.
It is estimated that the temple was surrounded by stonewalls. As that of Plaosan monastery,
the entrance door of the Sari temple is guarded by a couple of Dwarapala statues holding a
cudgel and snake.

ARCHITECTURE

Sari temple is laid out on a rectangular plan 17.30 x 10 m in dimension, although it is

believed that the original dimension was wider because the temple’s original base projects
around 1.60 meters. The temple stands around 18 meters from bottom to the top. The
temple’s gate, which is around one-third of the temple’s face and half of the temple’s height,
has already gone, leaving only traces connecting the gate and the front wall.

According to Kempers, Sari temple was originally a building with two or even three floors.
The upper floors served as storage of religious objects, while the lower floor was to
accommodate religious activities such as teaching and learning, discussion, and so on. The
wall of the temple is coated with vajralepa (bajralepa), similar to the wall of Kalasan temple
is. That the temple is divided into two floors is already visible from the outside with the
presence of projecting part like a belt around the temple’s body. The division becomes more
apparent with the pillar arrangement along the wall of the lower floor and with niches along
the wall of the second floor.

39
Niches along the outside walls of the upper and lower floors, which had probably held
Buddha statues, are empty. The temple’s outer walls are adorned with statues and other
beautiful ornaments. Each of the door and window frames is flanked by statues of man and
woman standing and holding lotus flowers. There are a total of 36 statues; 8 on the front wall
(east), 8 on south wall, and the 12 on the west wall (back). The size of each statue is as big as
human figure.

At the other parts of the wall, there are various designs of decoration, such as Kinara Kinari
(man-headed bird), twining plants and kumuda (leaves and flowers creeping out of a
spherical jar). There is a Kalamakara above the window frame and niches sculptured without
its lower jaw. The Kalamakara looks very decorative and far from being frightening. As it is
the case at Kalasan Temple, there is Vajralepa coating applied over the walls of Sari Temple.
Vajralepa is an agent that preserves and brightens stones.

The stairway accessing the temple base has crumbled. Next to the stairway, there is a stone
pedestal. It is unclear though, whether the pedestal belongs to that place or not. However, the
pedestal was half buried to the ground.

The entrance is located in the middle of east side. In the original design, the entrance was
preceded by a corbelled roof. As the corbelled roof has fallen into ruins, the entrance is
clearly seen from outside. The embellishment on the entrance frame and the Kalamakara on

40
the frame are simple because the more beautiful decorations were on the corbelled roof.

There is a row of three chambers inside the temple. Each chamber is 3.48 meters x 5.80
meters. There are windows and doors connecting the middle chamber to the flanking
chambers. Those chambers are designed to be two-storeyed chambers. Each chamber is
divided into two storeys using planks of wood supported by 14 wooden beams. Therefore,
there are actually six chambers inside the temple. At the back wall of each chamber, there is
a shelf placed rather high on the wall. People used to use the shelf to pray or to place relics.
At the lower storey, there are pedestals and recesses on the wall for holding statues.
However, no statue is found here. At the south and north chambers, there are niches on the
wall to place illumination.

Although the floors and other wooden parts of the structure are not seen at the site, there are
holes in the walls in which people used to fit wooden beams. At the south chamber, there are
stones on the wall that with slanting markings. Those markings are meant to support the
edges of wooden steps.

41
The temple roof is a rectangular block of stones ornamented with three niches on each side.
The niche frame is decorated with sculptures of twining plants and there is a Kalamakara
above the frame. At the top of the temple, there are rows of stupas. There is a stupa on each
corner of the roof, and there is a stupa at the middle of each roof side. Sari Temple was
undergoing restoration when the pictures shown here were taken in March 2003.

42
 III
The Many Temples of the Sewu Mandala
Read my book on Perwara temples
https://www.academia.edu/116335427/PERWARA_TEMPLES?sm=a

The word Perwara comes from Sanskrit प्रावर (prāvara, “fence, enclosure”).There are a bunch of
meanings to the word:

1. (archaic) female escort of the king.

2. (archaic) queen. synonyms
3. guardian or peripheral temple. synonym
Synonym: candi pewara

Perwara as ” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and
Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia,
2016.

Exactly when the idea of the design of the Perwara temples came up in the history of Hindu Mandir
development is not clear and difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say that just as the Various Hindu
Gods have vehicles to travel and consorts ( both male and female) so also cme the idea that a temple
diety should have a bodyguard, guardian, accompanying assistant, chaperon. Companion, guardian,
body-guard and then the building of smaller temples adjescent to the main ones came up. Also parallel
is the development of the Apit temples.

Modern historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and cultural events that led
to Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism. It is
possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on
the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete
their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. Some other theories
see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious
patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there
were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished under couple of
dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and
Buddhism.The common relationship between Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore , Angkor
Wat and Prambanan is that they share the same South Indian architectural style – Pallava-
Chola. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara temples (discussed above)
of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the Somapura Vihara ruins in
Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.

43
Paharpur an important archaeological site in Bangladesh, situated in a village named
Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of Naogaon district. The village is
connected with the nearby Railway station Jamalganj, the district town Naogaon and
Jaipurhat town by metalled roads. It is in the midst of alluvial flat plain of northern
Bangladesh. In contrast to the monotonous level of the plain, stands the ruins of the lofty
(about 24m high from the surrounding level) ancient temple which was covered with jungle,
locally called Pahar or hill from which the palace got the name of Paharpur.
The site was first noticed by Buchanon Hamilton in course of his survey in Eastern India
between 1807 and 1812. The site was declared to be protected by the Archaeological Survey
of India in 1919 under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. The temple-type at
Paharpur has been frequently described as entirely unknown to Indian archaeology. The
Indian literature on architecture, however, often refers to a type of temple, known as
sarvatobhadra - a square shrine with four entrances at the cardinal points and with an
antechamber on each side (chatuhshala griha). The temple at Paharpur, as now excavated,
approximates in general to the sarvatobhadra type.

P
e
r
w
a
r
a

Paharpur Mahavihara/Ground plan of Paharpur Mahavihara

Systematic excavation were started here in 1923. After independence (1971)

the DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY of Bangladesh brought the site under further excavation.
Architectural remains Pre-1971 expeditions have revealed the architectural remains of a vast
Buddhist monastery, the SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA, measuring 274.15m N-S and 273.70m E-
W. This gigantic establishment with surrounding 177 monastic cells, gateways, votive stupas,
minor chapels, tank and a multitude of other structures for the convenience of the inmates, is
dominated by a central shrine, conspicuous by its lofty height and architectural peculiarities.
It is distinguished by its cruciform shape with angles of projection between the arms, its three
raised terraces and complicated scheme of decoration of walls with carved brick cornices,
friezes of terracotta plaques and stone reliefs.

44
The monastery The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, has high enclosure
walls, about 5m in thickness and from 3.6m to 4.5m in height. Though the walls are not
preserved to a very great height, but from their thickness and massiveness it can be assumed
that the structure was storied commensurate with the lofty central shrine.
In plan it consists of rows of cells, each approximately 4.26 x 4.11m in area, all connected by
a spacious verandah (about 2.43 to 2.74m wide), running continuously all around, and
approached from the inner courtyard by flight of steps provided in the middle of each of the
four sides.
There are in all 177 cells, excluding the cells of the central block in each direction; 45 cells
on the north and 44 in each of the other three sides. The central block on the east, west and
south sides is marked by a projection in the exterior wall and contains three cells and a
passage around them, while in the north there stands a spacious hall. In the monastic cell No.
96 three floors have been discovered. Here the level of the last one (upper) is within 30cm
from ground level, that of the second 1m, while the third (lowest) is about 1.5m from the
surface.
A lofty shrine, the central temple, occupies the central part of the vast open courtyard of the
monastery, the remains of which is still 21m high and covers 27sq.m of area. It was built on a
cruciform plan which rises in three gradually diminishing terraces. The shape of the terminal
structure is still unknown to us. A centrally placed hollow square right at the top of the
terraces provides the moot point for the conception of the whole plan of the spectacular form
and feature of this stupendous monument. In order to relieve the monotony and to utilise the
colossal structure to serve its basic purpose, provision was made in the second as well as in
the first terrace for a projection, consisting of an ante-chamber and a mandapa on each face,
leaving out a portion of the whole length of the square at each of the four corners. The
ambulatory passage with the parapet wall was made to run parallel to the outline of this plan.
This arrangement resulted in a cruciform shape with projecting angles between the arms of
the cross. An enclosure wall strictly conforming to the basement plan, with only a slight
deviation near the main staircase, runs round the monument. There is ample evidence that this
complete plan, from the basement to the top, along with different component elements,
belonged to a single period of construction, but the later repairs, additions and alterations did
not fundamentally affect the general arrangement and plan.
Structures outside the monastery area An open platform measuring 32m x 8m is situated at
a distance of about 27m from the outer wall of the southern wing. It runs parallel to the
monastery. It stands about 3.5m above the adjoining ground level and is accessible from a
raised pathway across room 102.Several remains of Perwara shrines have been marked by
some experts but not by others because the remains are fragementary. This could be the
earliest reference to this perwara concept.
To our knowledge, it is one of the earliest and very rare examples of this type of construction,
proving that vaults were known in ancient India before the advent of the Muslims. The entire
southern face of the platform is marked with a series of water-chutes, each 30 cm in width
and 1.30m in length occurring at interval of 1.2m. The channels are provided with fine
jointed brickwork. It was used probably for the purpose of both ablution and toilet.
Bathing ghat There is a bathing ghat at a distance of 48m from the outer wall of the
monastery towards the southeastern corner of the monastery. It is not parallel to the south
wall of the monastery, but is slightly inclined towards the north. On either side of it there is a
parallel wall paved with brick-on-edge and concrete. The head of the ghat is laid with huge
stone blocks along with brickwork, 3.6m in length. It descends in a gradual slope to 12.5m,

45
where occurs a band of lime stone slabs. The bed of the ghat is also covered with sand which
shows the existence of a stream close by. A tradition in relation to the ghat is still current
among the local people that Sandhyavati, the daughter of a king named Mahidalan, used to
bathe at the ghat every day and she is supposed to be the mother of Satyapir through
immaculate conception.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

These various structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture,

Pala architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. Temples of
Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi (pronounced as
Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan while Koil are
those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g., Mariamman Koil in Aceh
in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount
Bromo. All temples here are called Candi. A word is derived from the Sanskrit word
Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in
Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.
Prambanan Temple Compounds.

46
 Somapura
Mahavihara (Sanskrit; Bengali: সোমপুর মহাবিহার Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Naogaon,
Bangladesh (25°1'51.83"N, 88°58'37.15"E) is among the best known Buddhist viharas in the Indian
Subcontinent and is one of the most important archaeological sites in the country.It was was one of the
major learning centres during the heyday of Buddhism in Bengal under the Pala kings (8th-11th
centuries AD). The quadrangular structure consists of 177 cells and a Buddhist temple in the centre. The
rooms were used by the monks for accommodation and meditation. In addition to the large number of
stupas and shrines of various sizes and shapes, terracotta plaques, stone sculptures, inscriptions, coins,
ceramics etc. have been discovered. The central lofty pyramidal structure lies in the middle of the 22
acres courtyard. The structure rises upward in a tapering mass of three receding terraces, which, even
ruins, reaches a height of 23 meters. Each of the terraces has a circum-ambulatory passage around the
monument. At the topmost terrace (of the existing ruin) there were four antechambers on the projecting
arms of the cross. The overall design of this complicated architecture is cantered on a square hollow
shaft, which runs down from the present top of the mound to the level of second terrace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area.The
other Buddhist temple is Kalasan. The Sambisari and Prambanan are both Shivaite temples
that also feature Goddess Durga asMahishasuramardini.
The remarkable thing about the design elements is that almost all could be said to be
Mandalas and though some are ruined so that the mandala is not seen. All have Perwara
temples surrounding the main diety temple like the armies protecting the main King.
Sanjaya dynasty was an ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java
during first millennium CE. The dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by
the Sailendra dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on
the Kalasan inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence

47
and cooperation.
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism. The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).
Sanjaya (AD 716 – 746) complete name Narapati Raja Śrī Sañjaya and Rakai Matarām
Saŋ Ratu Sañjaya, was the founder of Mataram Kingdom during the eighth century. His
name was revealed in the Sanskrit Canggal inscription carved in a stone found at Gunung
Wukir temple that stood on Wukir or Ukir hill (about 340 m (1,120 ft) high) on the
southern Kedu Plain in Central Java. suggested that Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya Dynasty, and there were two dynasties that ruled Central Java; the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states that Sanjaya
was an ardent follower of Shaivism. The latter was forced to move eastward by Sanjaya as
written in an old Chinese report, which named Sanjaya as Chi-Yen
Sanjaya and MATARAM
Some researchers say that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is
called Mataram with the capital in Poh Pitu area, and the ruling dynasty is Shailendra. He
holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially
were Shivaist. The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the
conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism
King Sanjaya established the The Mataram Kingdom, a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later
in East Java. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and Ishana dynasty.
It benefited from maritime trade. According to foreign sources and archaeological findings,
the kingdom seems to have been well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom
developed a complex societyhad a well developed culture, and achieved a degree of
sophistication and refined civilization.In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-
9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture
reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are
1. Kalasan,
2. Sewu,
3. Borobudur and
4. Prambanan,
At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not only in Java, but also

48
in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and
the Khmer in Cambodia. The immediate successor of King Sanjaya was Dyah Pancapana (7
October 746 – 1 April 784) or regnal name Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ Pañcapaṇa Kariyāna
Paṇaṃkaraṇa Śrī Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya, was the second king of Mataram from the Shailendra
dynasty whose kingdom was centered on the Java island Indonesia.
Amrati Kings or Amravati Kings
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The
first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and
Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings.
The Sanjays who were Hindus competed over their power and religious influences with
the Buddhist Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779..
Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time,
the rivalries between the two is still unclear.
From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there were stated that Panangkaran granted
permission requested by the collective guru of the Sailendra king to build
Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess Tara. The construction
was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by Sailendra's expenses. In
order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the building of the shrine by
giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.

Kalasan

According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari
script, the temple of Kalasan was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja
Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja
Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in another part of the inscription also called Kariyana
Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a holy building for the goddess
(boddhisattvadevi) Tara. Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century
Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on
the way to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between
Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon)
of Sleman Regency. In addition, a Vihara (monastery) was built for Buddhist monks from the
Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to Sangha (buddhist
monastic community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest
of the temples built in the Prambanan Plain.Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt
during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently is in poor condition. Compared to other
temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu, and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained.

49
The giant Kala's head on the southern door\ One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple
adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka
The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped,
and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates
adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3.5 square meters. No statue is to be found
in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the
rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist
figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been
photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the
artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues
would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer
wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the
celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas.
The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the
polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on
lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is
in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue
of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisattvas. The top part of the roof is almost
circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the
structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some
interpretations of the early Borobudur structure.
The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room.
In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and
elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According
to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall)
statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of
the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze. Now the statue is missing,
probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal
over centuries.
On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond
plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster
was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off.
The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters
north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the
monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu

50
temple, and Plaosan temple. It is estimated that the Sari temple was built at the same time as
Kalasan temple on the 8th century AD during the rule of King Panangkaran. So the Sari
temple is the sister temple of the Kalasan.

The Mandala of the Sewu temple

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------E
olution of
Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case Study of Sewu Temple
Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 421 4th
International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang). Here we see a clear Mandala and remains of several Perwara temples.

51
Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

52
Perwara temples surrounding the Prambanan- above right

CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before the Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.

53
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
12. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
13. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
14. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
15. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
16. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
17. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
18. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
19. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
20. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
21. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
22. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are

54
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple. The Sewu
Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

55
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Prambanan courtyard shows the Perwara ARPIT are RED

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 Candi Sewu Layout Mandala

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the 8th
century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia. PERWARA temples

57
Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the perwara
temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
Apit temples and smaller shrines. Apit in Javanese means "flank". It refers to the position of
the two temples that flanked the inner courtyard on the north and south sides. The room
inside the Apit temples is now empty. It is not clear to which deities these Apit temples were
dedicated.

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Apit (अपित् means Dry, waterless, as a river.Not having the इत् (it) or अनुबन्ध प्
(anubandha p). सार्वधातुकमपित् (sārvadhātukamapit) Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Apit as an adjective would mean barren, dry.A temple that does not feature an Idol. But they
can have a depiction on the outer walls. For example:
Prambanan Apit temple of Saraswati is an Apit temple from the 9th-century located within
the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. Apit
temple and smaller shrines, Between these rows of the main temple, on the north and south
side, stand two Apit temples. However, examining the southern Apit temple bas-reliefs on
the outer wall, a female deity is depicted, most probably Sarasvati, the Shakti (consort) of
Brahma. Considering the Hindu pantheon represented in Prambanan temples, it is possible
that the southern Apit temple was dedicated to Sarasvati, while the northern Apit temple was
dedicated to Lakshmi.
Complex of Complexes

Prambanan temple compounds, has 5 major temples complexes and more than five-hundred
temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 240 temples though the striking feature is the

59
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.Prambanan
1
temple complex is the most popular one among these various temples.
Inside the Temple Complex

The temple complex has 240 temples. They are organized as follows
1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68. According to the brilliant article by Dr Subhash Kak, the concentric
circular placement of the Prambanan temples is after a Tantric diagram followed at that time
and his technical details and knowledge is fascinating.

1. The total varies from 249 to 239 ( calculated by me). Be as it may, it is a large number.
That apart, which I do not want to focus upon and also lack the knowledge to do so, Rakai’s
contribution is bringing a synthesis of Buddhism and |Hinduism in the same compounds
while keeping things separate

Prambanan (LEFT) and SEWU ( RIGHT) Aerial views showing the compounds and temple arrangements.

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The striking feature of the Prambanan is the architecture, which is a typical representation of
the South Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall
Vimanas and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also
the Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra. Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored
while the Pathok and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

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The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
Expansion. Though the temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya
dynasty around 850 AD it was expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples
surrounding the centerpiece in concentric squares.This is an indication that the large
compounds were specifically kept for later expansions without destruction or alteration to the
main temple. There was, nothing ofcourse, to stop subsequent Kings from building another
Main Temple near the older one.

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side

Candi Bubrah: Hundred or so meters to away is Candi Bubrah, which is a Buddhist temple
constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was
discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x 12 meters platform where I
could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my conversation with the workers,
the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.

62
There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

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The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest

64
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

65
66
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

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 IV
The Tantric Candi Sukuh
Tantric traditions and Shaktism

Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant place
in Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the godhead
conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual
power and ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases
(mantras), symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known
as Tantras (“Looms”).

In many respects the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal with
knowledge, or philosophy, Yoga, or concentration techniques, ritual, which includes the
construction of icons and temples, and conduct in religious worship and social practice. In
general, the last two subjects are the most numerous, while Yoga tends to centre on the
mystique of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that sum up esoteric doctrines. The philosophy
tends to be a syncretistic mixture of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with special and at
times exclusive emphasis on the god’s power, or shakti. The Tantric texts can be divided into
three classes:

(1) Shaiva Agamas (traditions of the followers of Shiva),

(2) Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed from the Vedic
Samhitas), and
(3) Shakta Tantras (“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess Shakti”). However, they all have
the common bond of venerating the Goddess.

The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much later than many of those of
Tantric Buddhism, hich may have heavily influenced the Hindu texts. Although there is early
evidence of Tantrism and Shaktism in other parts of India, the chief centres of both were in
Bengal, Bihar, and Assam. hakta Tantras.

Shaktism in one form or another has been known since Bana (c. 650) wrote his Hundred
Couplets to Chandi (Chandi-shataka) and Bhavabhuti his play Malati Madhava (early 8th
century), about the adventures of the hero Madhava and his beloved Malati; both of these

68
works refer to Tantric practices. There is no traditional authoritative list of Tantric texts, but
many are extant.

Shaktism is an amalgam of Shaivism and mother goddess traditions. The Shaiva notion that
Shiva’s shakti, not Shiva himself, is active is taken to the extreme—without Shakti, Shiva is a
corpse, and Shakti is the creator as well as creation. Another important notion (partly derived
from Yoga philosophy) is that throughout the body there are subtle canals that carry esoteric
powers connected with the spinal cord, at the bottom of which the Goddess is coiled around
the lingam as kundalini (“coil”); she can be made to rise through the body to the top,
whereupon release from samsara takes place. Important among the Shakta Tantras are
the Kularnava-tantra (“Ocean of Tantrism”), which gives details on the “left-handed” cult
forms of ritual copulation (i.e., those that are not part of traditional Hindu practice);
the Kulachudamani (“Crown Jewel of Tantrism”), which discusses ritual; and
the Sharadatilaka (“Beauty Mark of the Goddess Sharada”) of Lakshmanadeshika (11th
century), which focuses almost exclusively on magic. The goddess cults eventually centred
around Durga, the consort of Shiva, in her fiercer aspect.

Nature of Tantric tradition

Tantrism, which appears in both Buddhism and Hinduism, influenced many religious trends
and movements from the 5th century CE, but some of it was meant for esoteric circles.
Claiming to show in times of religious decadence a new way to the highest goal, Tantrism
bases itself upon mystic speculations concerning divine creative energy (shakti). Tantrism is
thought to be a method of conquering transcendent powers and realizing oneness with the
highest principle by Yogic and ritual means—in part magical and orgiastic—which are also
supposed to achieve other supranormal goals.

Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism

The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana all
mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, Mahishamardini,
identified with Durga-Parvati. These suggest that Shaktism, reverence and worship for the
Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st
millennium.] Padoux mentions an inscription from 423 to 424 CE which mentions the
founding of a temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers".However, this does not mean
Tantric rituals and practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart
from the somewhat dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 CE",
states David Lorenzen, it is only 7th-century Banabhatta's Kadambari which provide
convincing proof of Tantra and Tantric texts.
Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly
the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group
of Shaiva ascetics, the Pasupatas, practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking
and disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and
smearing themselves with ashes.
Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava,
the Kapalikas ("skull men", also called Somasiddhatins or Mahavartins). Besides the
shocking fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is
known about them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas. Samuel also
states that the sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated
with terrfying female spirit-deities called yoginis and dakinis, and that they were believed to
possess magical powers, such as flight.
69
 .

Kushan sculpture of a yakṣiṇī (2nd century), Mathura region/ Dancing Bhairava in the Indian Museum,
Kolkata

Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and
Jain texts of the 1st millennium CE. In Hāla's Gatha-saptasati (composed by the 5th century
AD), for example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is
cremated, she takes his cremation ashes and smears her body with it. The 6th-
century Varāhamihira mentions Kapalikas in his literary works. Some of the Kāpālika
practices mentioned in these texts are those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana
Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who influenced whom.
These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are
not detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic
references to the Kaulas Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century
to vama (left-hand) Tantras of the Kaulas. Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was
probably flourishing by the 7th century. Matrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are
closely linked to Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature
between the 7th and 10th centuries.

Tantric Hindu temples in India

Tantra is an ancient Hindu tradition which is mainly related to Goddesses. This ancient
practice still exists and is also followed in various temples. Especially, the 'Shakta' or Shakti
Peethas are mainly associated with this tradition. Tantric Practices can be seen in several
literatures and even in carvings at some temples like Khajuraho. In this article, we are taking
you around some famous Tantric temples in India that have been following this ancient
practice.
Khajuraho Temples The Khajuraho Group of Temples are an ancient relics which are popular

70
for the erotic carvings. Researchers believe that these erotic carvings reflect the Tantric
practices. Yes, Tantric Tradition has different sections and eroticism forms an integral part of
it. Hence, Khajuraho Temples are considered to be a part of Tantric customs.

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the
traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th
century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by
pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like
the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes
with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China
and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of
a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities
saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with
monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist
empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–
16th centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition.

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13th century Javanese statue of Prajnaparamita, from the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple /To
the right an erotic sculpture from Candi Sukuh

The diffusion of Esoteric Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist
monks in the 7th century. These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese
Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing (635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese
Buddhist monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century there was a Buddhist center in Java
named Kalinga (Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled in order to study.

Another source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was from Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a
well known center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch
monastery in Central Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.
A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra
on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:
In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are
bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just
as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to
the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two
years and practice the proper rules.

Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large numbers of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden
Light Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks
Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his
adventurous journey to Srivijaya and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various
local peoples.

In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large scale Buddhist building projects
such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric
themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.

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In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of
King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under
the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many
annual festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were
Vajrayana practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he
was "always concentrated on Hevajra".A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification
and worship of kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included
Prajnaparamita, Tara, Bhairava and Lokesvara.

The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of
Majapahit rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism.
This process of merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however,
and many textual sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and
Buddhism are both two paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five
forms of Shiva. Likewise, some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva
elements.

The oldest extant esoteric Buddhist Mantrayana literature in Old Javanese, a language
significantly influenced by Sanskrit, is enshrined in the San Hyan Kamahayanikan (possibly
8th century). The San Hyan Kamahayanikan claims that its teachings come from Dignaga.
The Tibetan Buddhist canon includes translations of texts written by Javanese masters, such
as the Durbodhaloka (a commentary on the Abhisamayalamkara) of Suvarnadvipa
Dharmakīrti, Another work by an Indonesian Tantric Buddhist is Bianhong's Ritual Manual
for Initiation into the Great Mandala of the Usnisa-Cakravartin which survives in the
Chinese Taisho Tripitaka (T. 959). The Japanese master Kukai wrote a biography of
Bianhong.

Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom.
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as
a symbol of Mount Meru.

The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the

massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and
Candi Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such
as Muara Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional
capital at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other
architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes.

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Pyramid of Candi Sukuh, Java, Indonesia (Enlarge)

Around the 7th to the 13th centuries, the reliefs, carvings and statues in the temple complex,
especially those of the Tantric sect, such as the Sukuh and Cetho temples, were very ‘vulgar’.
The body is a representation of the self, a symbol of creation and fertility. The very bottom of
Borobudur temple, which is called kamadathu, also displays erotic and ‘vulgar’ things as
symbols of lust.

Much later to the 3 temples and the 4 th less known temple that lie in a straight line in
Yogakarta Kingdom and far from it in distance of 128 K, though not in concept lies the
Candi Sukuh - a fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple that demonstrates
strong tantric influence.
There is another temple in the vicinity of the Sukuh,called Candi Ceto which is also a is
a fifteenth-century that is located on the western slope of Mount Lawu (elev. 1495 m above
sea level) on the border between Central and East Java provinces.
Ceto is one of several temples built on the northwest slopes of Mount Lawu in the fifteenth
century. By this time, Javanese religion and art had diverged from Indian precepts that had
been so influential on temples styles during the 8-10th century. This area was the last
significant area of temple building in Java before the island's courts were converted to Islam
in the 16th century. The temples' distinctiveness and the lack of records of Javanese
ceremonies and beliefs of the era make it difficult for historians to interpret the significance
of these antiquities.It is close to Sukuh temple.It is called by the guides as a Fertility temple.
In fact both Ceto and Sukuh are variously termed as Fertility and Esoteric Tantric temples at
the discretion of the observer or the writer. What they actually are is difficult to tell. From my
point of view both are Tantric temples Thervada tantric Buddhist sites. In case of Sukuh the
presence of the human organs such as the erct phallus on the body of a maleand the Yoni
carving do point strongly at the esoteric colors but whether they are Thervada or Hindu
remains a point of speculation as the images of Ganesh found could well be from both
religions. See my paper on Tantric Ganesh……………

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Candi Sukuh is located on the western slope of Mount Lawu (elev. 3,000 feet (910 m) above
sea level) on the border between Central and East Java provinces. The monument was built
around 1437, as written as a chronogram date on the western gate, meaning that the area was
under the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom during its end (1293–1500).

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 Ganesh naked to the core in one of the engravings( could also be a elephantine human )

Pyramid of Candi Sukuh, Java, Indonesia// Yoni or Vagina to left and a Yaksha (?) to right
Located near the village of Berjo at an elevation of 2990 feet (910 meters) on the forested
slopes of Mount Lawu, a dormant volcano in central Java, the Candi Sukuh temple is
stylistically unlike any other in Indonesia. Possibly constructed in the 15th century during the
declining years of the Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293-1527), Candi (pronounced Chandi)
Sukuh seems to have little to do with other Javanese Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Constructed with volcanic andesitic rocks and covering an area of approximately 11,000
square meters, the temple complex features three terraces, a remarkable pyramid, and
numerous enigmatic sculptures. The origins of its builders and their strange sculptural style
(with crude, squat and distorted figures carved in the wayang style found in East Java) remain
a mystery and it seems to mark a reappearance of the pre-Hindu animism that existed 1500
years earlier.

Two things in particular distinguish Candi Sukuh, which are its unique truncated, trapazoidal
pyramid, resembling those of the Maya in Yucatan, Mexico, and the numerous enigmatic
sculptures found throughout the site.

The pyramid rises to ten meters at the rear of the site and different legends have been
attributed to its meaning and function. One legend says it represents the mythological sacred
mountain of Meru, the dwelling place of the gods and ancestors. Another that it

76
represents Mount Mandera where Vasuki, the king of the serpents, allowed several gods and
demons to use him as their churning rope to extract the ambrosia of immortality from the
ocean of milk. There is currently nothing atop the pyramid yet there may once have been
various sculptures, altars or other structures. The pyramid may be climbed via a narrow
stairway and local folk legends assert that the steps are steep in order to test the virginity of
young girls in the community. Immediately in front of the stairs are two large tortoise statues
with flattened upper surfaces, these perhaps functioning as altars for purification rituals and
ancestor worship. In Hindu mythology, the tortoise symbolizes the support of the world and
is an avatar of the god Vishnu.

In 1815, Sir Thomas Raffles, the ruler of Java during 1811–1816, visited the temple and
found it in poor condition. In his account, he relates that many statues had been thrown down
on the ground and most of the figures had been decapitated. This vandalism of traditional
culture is likely to be an effect of the Islamic invasion of Java during the 16th century.
Raffles also found adjacent to the tortoises a giant 6-foot linga (phallus) statue broken into
two pieces. The linga has the distinctive feature that all of the phalluses on the temple have;
balls under tip. These are representative of a custom practiced by the aristocratic and priestly
castes of the Majapahit Empire, where some men would have marble or gold balls implanted
under the tip of their penis. The Candi Sukuh linga, which is now displayed in the National
Museum in Jakarta, has four.

The ruins of Candi Sukuh also depict the matter of spiritual liberation symbolized by
numerous sculptures, reliefs and statues associated with sexually related Tantric themes of
the Indian subcontinent. Several of these stone carvings explicitly show male and female
genitalia; hence one name of the ruins is the "erotic temple".

At the entrance to the site is an obvious depiction of sexual intercourse; a stone lingam
(phallus) entering a yoni (vagina). Whatever its purpose in ancient times, childless couples
today come to seek blessings and pray for children. Further on are sculptures depicting
Bhima, the great warrior-hero of the Mahabharata, and Narada, the messenger of the gods,
inside a stylized womb, and another showing Bhima passing through the womb at his birth. It
is important to note that Bhima was the central figure of a cult of the deliverance of souls
during the fifteenth century and a spiritual guide who knew the path that led to perfection.
Other carvings of an erotic nature include a large headless statue of a man grasping his erect
penis, a carving of a squatting man exposing his genitals, and a carving resembling a womb
with mythological creatures in it.

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Sculpture of metal forge with Bhima, Ganesh (?)and Arjuna

Near the pyramid is an important sculpture featuring Bhima, Arjuna and Ganesh working in a
metal forge. This scene is significant because in Hindu-Java mythology the smith, the metal
worker, is believed to possess not only the skill to alter metals, but also the key to spiritual
transcendence. Smiths drew their powers from the god of fire (which existed prior to the
introduction of Hinduism) and in some cases a smithy was considered a shrine.
In this particular scene Bhima is the blacksmith and his brother, Arjuna, is working the
bellows. They are forging a sword with purifying fire, which symbolizes various things here.
It represents the linga (phallus) and its sheath the yoni (vagina), as a weapon it makes Arjuna
invincible in battle, and it is a kris, the iconic Javanese dagger that legitimized and
empowered rulers. Between Bhima and Arjuna is a dancing Ganesh, the Hindu god and
Tantric deity who embodies the process of crossing from one state to another. This is an
unusual representation of Ganesh, for not only is he dancing but his genitals are also exposed,
there is a rosary of bones around his neck, and he is holding a small animal, probably a dog.
This carving shows a distinct similarity with Tantric practices found in Tibetan Buddhism,
where bone rosaries and dog deities figure prominently in rituals of spiritual transformation.

According to the scholar Stanley O'Connor, the relief shows in visual terms the
correspondence between metallurgy and human fate. Iron working was a metaphor for
spiritual transformation. By illustrating the process through which the metallic substances are
transformed (the reduction of ores, their purification, and then reconstitution into steel), the
sculptor has shown the connection between metallurgy and the liberation of the soul.
Additionally, in the sculpture it is the wild energetic dance of Ganesh, the guardian of
thresholds, who breaks open a path for the soul to a higher plane.

The first studies of the Candi Sukuh were done in 1842, 1889 and 1910. Between 2014 and
2017 the government archaeological department conducted an extensive reconstruction of the
site. The temple, originally built on a foundation of river sand and loose stones, had been
mined for these materials by local people and had begun to sink.

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Large stone turtles at base of pyramid, Candi Sukuh, Java-Martin https://sacredsites.com/asia/indonesia/candi_sukuh.html

79
 V

GRAPHIC PROJECTIONS IN THE BUDDHIST

STUPA
Dr Uday Dokras Phd SWEDEN
Architect Srishti Dokras, Visiting Architect Australia, Dubai & the United States Of
America

Including a special Paper on How Stupa are built today

1. References and direct quotes from brilliant articles such as:

2. Symbolism of a Stupa by Supriya Sinha
3. Conference: International Conference of Architectural Science Association
2019,Geethanjali Raman,Shubham Jaiswal,Avlokita Agrawal
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339676008_GENESIS_OF_STUPAS)
4. TETRADIC ( 4 SIDED) settings of Buddhist and Eastern
Religious Architecture.-https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/3-contemplation/3-
2-temples/3-2-5-eastern-religious-architecture/
5. STUPA: VERTICAL FORM & SYMBOLISM by Robert Aaron Gulick III
https://mind-matrix.net/the-ascension/the-mind-matrix-kingdoms/multi-dimensional-
realities/12c-3-stupa-vertical-form-symbolism/#:~:text=The%20base%20of%20the
%20domed,causes%20and%20abatement%20of%20suffering.

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The beginnings of the Buddhist school of architecture can be traced back to B.C. 255 when
the Mauryan emperor Asoka established Buddhism as the state religion of his large empire.
Buddhism spread rapidly throughout India and other parts of Asia. Buddhism was, as it were,
a graphic creed, and correspondingly its expansion was accompanied by a distinctive style of
architecture that expressed the teachings of the Buddha. In India this early Buddhist art was
influenced to a large extent by Asoka. He was responsible for the construction of
several stupas, which are sacred mounds of brick commemorative of the Buddha. Asoka also
constructed stone pillars symbolizing his creed. These were lofty free-standing monolithic
columns erected on sacred sites. The most famous of these is at Sarnath.

The Mauryan dynasty crumbled after Asoka’s death in 232 B.C; in its wake came the
Sungas, who in turn were succeeded by the Andhras. Both these Brahmanical dynasties
treated the Buddhists with toleration. The initial steps of the new architectural movement
involved enlarging Asoka’s stupas. For instance, the stupa at Sanchi was enlarged to nearly
twice its size and elaborate gateways were added.

At about the same time that the Buddhist communities were elaborating Asoka’s stupas, an
entirely different form of architecture was developing in western India. These structures were
not, however, built of stone or wood, but carved out of living rock. It is therefore unfortunate
that these structures are now referred to as “caves”, as though they were natural grottoes in
the mountainside, since they are actually large and well planned temples. Some of the finest
specimens of this rock cut architecture are to be seen at Ajanta.

Under the reign of the 8th century ruler Lalitaditya, the central Kashmir valley became an
important artistic site. A magnificent Surya temple was constructed at Martand. Though now
ruined, this remains the masterpiece of Kashmiri architecture. Mahayana Buddhism
flourished in the arid valleys of Ladakh, beyond the first high range of the Himalayas. The
monasteries at Alchi, dating from the 11th century, have beautiful paintings depicting the
Mahayana pantheon. Cave temples were constructed in the 13th to 15th centuries at Saspol
and Karsha. The monasteries at Leh and Phiyang continue to be renovated even today, and
the recent resurgence of Indian Buddhism, associated not only with the conversion of lower-
caste Hindus to Buddhism under the influence of Ambedkar but with the establishment of
Tibetan Buddhist communities, particularly in north India, has introduced a fresh chapter in
the history of Buddhist architecture in India.

From at least the third century B.C., Buddhist ritual focused on stupas, stylized replicas of the
mounds of earth in which early Buddhists interred relics of the Buddha. Beginning in the first
century B.C., Buddhist monks in western India began manipulating the physical shape of monastic
stupas to make them appear taller and more massive than they actually were.
These manipulations were used to help assert authority over the Buddhist laity. Employing
theories of practice, materiality, and semiotics, later stupas became symbols of the Buddha and
Buddhist theology.
The Buddhist image cult and Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the first through fifth centuries
A.D. due to this change.The development of Mahayana Buddhism and Buddha images signified a
return to iconic worship of the Buddha. 1

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Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture
The Stupa in India first built in the second century BCE to house the Buddha’s relics was
later used as symbolic or commemorative purposes. Then Buddhism which started in India
reached China at the Han Dynasty (67CE). Together with the literature of teachings came the
need for architecture to receive the holy relics as well as to establish educational institutions
for Buddhism. So this is the beginning of Buddhist architecture in China. With the fusion of
Buddhism and the Han culture and technology, pagodas were built. These buildings find their
shapes and sizes in great variety as they appeared in different places. How these forms relate
to the philosophy of Buddhism will be discussed. On the other hand, Buddhism was
disseminated directly into Tibet in the seventh century. Indian Stupas were also transformed
through local culture and technology into Tibetan Chorten. These can be placed within
temples or individually. different symbolic meanings of these Stupa, Pagoda and Chorten in
the context of the philosophy of Buddhism.
___________________________________________________________________________
___
1. Stupa, Pagoda and Chorten: origin and meaning of Buddhist Architecture
W.Wong,2014https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Stupa%2C-Pagoda-and-Chorten%3A-origin-and-meaning-of-Wong/
512d89e26a97af79c13b81d7d231525fb4ab86ba#paper-header
 Stupas evolved over time from simple funerary monuments to elaborately decorated
objects of veneration.
 Emperor Ashoka, who ruled from 274–236 BCE during the Maurya Dynasty , is said to
have redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas of the Buddha into thousands
of stupas throughout India.
 All stupas contain a treasury , a Tree of Life, and small offerings known as Tsa-Tsas. It
is believed that the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s
energy.
 There are five types of stupas: Relic stupas, Object stupas, Commemorative stupas,
Symbolic stupas and Votive stupas. A stupa is thought to bring enlightenment to the
one who builds and owns it; it is also considered a placed of worship for many
Buddhists.

Structure and Style

While they can vary visually, all stupas have a few features in common. Every stupa contains
a treasury filled with various objects—small offerings, or Tsa-Tsas, fill the majority of the
treasury, while jewelry and other precious objects are also placed within. It is believed that
the more objects placed into the treasury, the stronger the stupa’s energy.
The Tree of Life, a wooden pole covered with gems and mantras , is an important element of
every stupa and is placed in the stupa’s central channel during an initiation ceremony , where
participants’ most powerful wishes are stored.
There are five types of stupas:
1. Relic stupas, in which the relics of Buddha and other religious persons are buried.
2. Object stupas, in which the objects belonging to Buddha or his disciples are buried.
3. Commemorative stupas, built to commemorate events in the life of Buddha and his
disciples.
4. Symbolic stupas, built to symbolize various aspects of Buddhist theology.
5. Votive stupas, constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual benefits.

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In the Buddhist religion, it is believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds
and owns it. In addition, the stupa is considered a place of worship, and many Buddhists
complete pilgrimages to significant stupas.

According to Shubham Jaiswal in his paper Genesis of Stupas (Conference: International

Conference of Architectural Science Association 2019,Geethanjali Raman,Shubham Jaiswal,Avlokita Agrawal
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339676008_GENESIS_OF_STUPAS)

Architecturally speaking, the earliest and most basic interpretation of stupa is nothing but a
dust burial mound. However, the historic significance of this built form has evolved through
time, as has its rudimentary structure. The massive dome-shaped “anda” form which has now
become synonymous with the idea of this Buddhist shrine, is the result of years of cultural,
social and geographical influences.

The beauty of this typology of architecture lies in its intricate details, interesting motifs and
immense symbolism, reflected and adapted in various local contexts across the world. Today,
the word “stupa” is used interchangeably while referring to monuments such as pagodas, wat,
etc. This paper is, therefore, an attempt to understand the ideology and the concept of a stupa,
with a focus on tracing its history and transition over time. The main objective of the research
is not just to understand the essence of the architectural and theological aspects of the
traditional stupa but also to understand how geographical factors, advances in material, and
local socio-cultural norms have given way to a much broader definition of this word,
encompassing all forms, from a simplistic mound to grand, elaborate sanctums of great value
to architecture and society as a whole.

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This word is now used for the pre-eminent type of Buddhist monument, which is at least a
freestanding mound, usually with a circular drum (Medhi) forming the base for a massive
solid dome (anda) topped by a turret (chattri), while the bell or dome-shaped mound covers
the relics or holy objects At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone.
Stupas exist all over the world and are one of the oldest Buddhist monuments.

Historically, stupas have been symbolize and represent the following elements:
1. The Buddha,
2. The path to Enlightenment,
3. A mountain and
4. The universe all at the same time.

A stupa, which was conceived as a simple monument for the Buddha’s corporeal relics, has
over time transformed in its form and nomenclature and resulted in various types of structures
all over the world. In some regions, even supplementary structures like monasteries have
come up alongside stupas, fuelling the inception of new Buddhist orders and sects.

However, the core ideology of the stupa remains constant throughout each new development,
as
does its symbolism and several crucial architectural features. These characteristics must,
therefore, be given due consideration and importance while designing any stupa project.

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In her article on Symbolism of a Stupa, Supriya Sinha (http://thesacredspace.in/?p=163#:~:text=In
%20its%20most%20fundamental%20essence,the%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20.&text=In%20its
%20earliest%20meanings%2C%20the,the%20remains%20of%20the%20Buddha%20. believes that
Containment finds significance in the vedic corpus, and, antedates it, as is evident from
depictions in Indus valley seals .This decryption at the emblematic level begs an obvious
question. What would compel a heterodox religion to attach itself with conventional
symbolism? The dichotomy is explicable if one views the stupa as a product of its times. A
time when structural aspects were based not on functional, utilitarian foundations but on
deeply spiritual conceptions. The act of creation, as Coomarswamy has famouly said, was an
act of replication.”We must do what the gods did in the beginning. Thus the gods did; thus
men do.” The stupa, in its meaning, is replete with this primordial injunction and its
appropriation reflects fundamental, primal, human motivations.

At another level, this inclusion may have been necessitated by the dynamics of the existing
religious milieu. A rudimentary situation analysis of the moment in time when this fledgling
religion operated, and, when the first stupa was instituted, reveals the case of a relatively new
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entrant jostling for space against a dominant ideology. Of an incumbent mythology replete
with cosmological interpretations and paradigmatic creator gods. In this setting, legitimacy
would require equally potent antecedents. What better way to consecrate the remains of the
one, who, like the Vedic god, Indra was born from his mother’s side than to have the sacred
place of his interment evoke the archetypal feat of Indra?

Parikrama or Pradakshina refers to circumambulation of sacred places to imbibe their energy

in Sikh, Hindu, Jain or Buddhist context, and the path along which this is
performed. Parikrama means "the path surrounding something" in Sanskrit, and is also
known as Pradakshina ("to the right"), representing circumambulation. Both words are
mostly used in the context of religious deities in a temple, sacred rivers, sacred hills and a
close cluster of temples, and "doing a parikrama" as a symbol of prayer is an integral part
of Hindu worship. In Hinduism and other Indian religions, the Parikrama inside temples or
sacred sites is traditionally clockwise.

Most Hindu temples and Buddhist Stupa include various Pradakshina paths. Pradakshina
paths are defined. as:
Circumbulatory or pathway around the shrine of the temples by keeping time is a common
form of prayer in India.It includes Narmada,Shetrunjaya,Girnar. This pathway made of
stone around the shrine is called Pradakshina path.
Parikrama is also practiced in Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

Pic shows circumambulatory path of a STUPA( Left Pic ) and Hindu temple.

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There could be one surrounding the main deity, other paths could be broader being concentric
to the main path. However, it is not uncommon to find non-concentric parikrama paths in a
single temple structure. At times the outermost parikrama path covers the whole
village/town/city, thereby implying that the length of the path can stretch.
Parikrama is done around sacred fire (Agni – the fire God), Tulsi plant (Ocimum
tenuiflorum) and Peepal tree. Parikrama of Agni or Agni Pradakshina is a part of
the Hindu marriage ceremony. Some of the Parikramas are Narmada River, Govardhan
hill, Vrindavan, Vraj Mandala, Dwadash Madhav parikrama Tirthraj Prayag, Ayodhya,
Girnar, Chitrakoot hill, Varanasi, Mathura, and Mathura-Vrindavan yugalabandi in Kartik .....
Typically, Parikrama is done after the completion of traditional worship (puja) and after
paying homage to the deity. Parikrama is supposed to be done with a meditative mood.
 The pathway made of granite stone around the shrine is called the Pradakshina path.
 Pradakshina around the sacred fire is a part of the Hindu marriage ceremony.

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Schematic drawing of traffic (in black) and circumambulation (in blue) routes around
stupa, south end of Zhongdian Town.

In Buddhism circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual since early

times. Sacred structures such as stupa or images have a pradakhshina path around them.
The chaitya is a distinct ancient type of building that only survives in Indian rock-cut
architecture, a hall with a stupa at the far end, always built with a rounded apse-like end, to
allow pradakhshina.[14] A mandapa (prayer hall), added in the front transforms the original
stupa into the stupa shrine — as a sacred entity which requires a circumambulatory path
around it for the purpose of worship. The whole structure is planned in such a way that it
becomes the centre of the mandala and symbolically represents Mount Meru.
Buddhist faithful may perform pradakhshina by prostrating themselves at every step, thus
greatly prolonging the process. The most extreme pradakhshina is that of the sacred Mount
Kailash in Tibet, a mountain trek some 52 km (32 mi) long, at altitudes between 15,000 ft
(4,600 m) and 18,200 ft (5,500 m). This may also be undertaken by Hindus and Jains, and
some pilgrims progress by prostration, taking some weeks.

Further according to Ms. Supriya Sinha in her brilliant article” Thus in the design of the
Stupa the vedika enclosure marks off a path (Pradakshina Path) for the ritual of
circumambulation. An important rite, it involved a physical engagement with the stupa and
was performed by entering the precinct through the east gate and walking clockwise. The
directional emphasis related the devotee to the passage of the sun, “the transcendent centre of
the universe” , “cosmic intelligence” whose light is “intellectual wisdom”. In vedic
mythology Indra is credited with releasing the sun , setting its “wheel in motion” and
“making a pathway through the darkness” . The Buddha, whose birth is likened to the rising
of the sun , compares his abhijana (“superknowledge”) to a rediscovery of ancient wisdom , “
clearing of an ancient jungle path from the brush that has overgrown and concealed it for
generations” – a veritable pathway, a casting of light on what has been hidden in the
darkness. And thence he proceeds to “turn the wheel of law”. With these inherent parallels,
the ritual act performs the important function of linking the worshipper with the wheel
turning Buddha, and the Sun , on a path that is homologous with the archetypal path .A
further instrument to re-emphasize this symbolism is seen in the alignment of the gateways,

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which form a cosmological diagram in the form of a swastika- a metonymical symbol
evoking the wheel and the movement of the light giving sun.
This act, replete with cosmological significance puts the worshipper in harmony with the
cosmos while it also reminds him of the Buddha and his odyssey across several lifetimes to
attain final liberation-transcendental nirvana.

At the centre of the stupa complex is the solid hemispherical dome described variously in
Buddhist texts as garbha, container or alternatively as anda . It bears within itself the seed
(bija)-relic. Symbolically this links the dome to the cosmic womb eg: the vedic hiranyagarbha
(golden womb) which emerges from the primordial waters of chaos . This analogy is explicit
in reliefs at Sanchi and on some early coins where the stupa is shown floating on water .So
deep are the cosmological interlinkages that the mythic womb, the embodiment of life and
prosperity, was said to encompass the riches of the universe. In a ritual enactment of the
myth, the relic caskets are often made of precious metals/stone and routinely suffused with
precious elements.
In the brahmanical context, the womb represents the creative unity. In the Buddhist context, it
is the enfolder of the seed and signifies the involutional tendency of the spiritual path- the
return to the centre, to unity. “The stupa symbolically designates this centre to which the
seeker directs his life’s pilgrimage”. and it bears within itself the “pivotal presence” of the
wheel turning Buddha .

This is significant in the light of inscriptions , which state that the corporeal remains of the
Buddha are “endowed with life” ( “prana sammada”) for it implies that the dome not only
allows the devotee to experience proximity to the Buddha, but also makes him aware of his
involutional unity.

The cosmological theme continues with the axial pillar which represents the world axis . This
pole is symbolic of the link between the human and the divine worlds. It indicates a pathway
of spiritual acscent, an upward movement away from the confines of the physical world , to
the limitless realm. In this sense, the pole is a beacon, a representation of the devotee’s goal,
for in its verticality, one can measure one’s own progress towards the supreme attainment, a
goal triumphantly achieved by the Buddha in nirvana. http://thesacredspace.in/?
p=163#:~:text=In%20its%20most%20fundamental%20essence,the%20remains%20of%20the
%20Buddha%20.&text=In%20its%20earliest%20meanings%2C%20the,the%20remains
%20of%20the%20Buddha%20.

Perspective or View or position in design architecture

Linear or point-projection perspective (from Latin: perspicere 'to see through') is one of two
types of graphical projection perspective in the graphic arts; the other is parallel projection.
Linear perspective is an approximate representation, generally on a flat surface, of an image
as it is seen by the eye. The most characteristic features of linear perspective are that objects
appear smaller as their distance from the observer increases, and that they are subject
to foreshortening, meaning that an object's dimensions along the line of sight appear shorter
than its dimensions across the line of sight. All objects will recede to points in the distance,
usually along the horizon line, but also above and below the horizon line depending on the
view used. The main characteristic of perspective is that objects appear smaller the further
they are from the observer. Perspective is often used to generate 'realistic' images
of buildings to help people understand how they will look on the inside, from the outside, or
within their context. Perspective is the space in which the drawings – and the architecture that

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they propose – occur. ' This unique wall hang according to the logic of vanishing points
and perspective lines provides the viewer with their own unique perspective on artwork by
some of the most talented designers in history.
Perspective works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary
rectangle (realized as the plane of the painting), to the viewer's eye, as if a viewer were
looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed
from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to
what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat,
scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window. Because each portion of
the painted object lies on the straight line from the viewer's eye to the equivalent portion of
the real object it represents, the viewer sees no difference (sans depth perception) between the
painted scene on the windowpane and the view of the real scene. All perspective drawings
assume the viewer is a certain distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to
that viewer. An object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a
square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening.
Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite
the viewer's eye, represents objects infinitely far away. They have shrunk, in the distance, to
the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to (and named after) the Earth's horizon.
Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or
more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that
the drawing has a single vanishing point, usually (though not necessarily) directly opposite
the viewer's eye and usually (though not necessarily) on the horizon line. All lines parallel
with the viewer's line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the
standard "receding railroad tracks" phenomenon. A two-point drawing would have lines
parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing,
one for each set of parallel lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing.
Perspectives consisting of many parallel lines are observed most often when drawing
architecture (architecture frequently uses lines parallel to the x, y, and z axes). Because it is
rare to have a scene consisting solely of lines parallel to the three Cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
it is rare to see perspectives in practice with only one, two, or three vanishing points; even a
simple house frequently has a peaked roof which results in a minimum of six sets of parallel
lines, in turn corresponding to up to six vanishing points.
Of the many types of perspective drawings, the most common categorizations of artificial
perspective are one-, two- and three-point. The names of these categories refer to the number
of vanishing points in the perspective drawing.

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 ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
Institute of International Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
7
Holder of the WORLD RECORDS
Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu
2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 7 x
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records
1 Institute of International Historiography
700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.
3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.

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Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories
for having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo
China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and
Wineroth Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the
labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of
the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English-
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded
him a copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant
in Vedic Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm,
SWEDEN and President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare ,
FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an

individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing

highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of
_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

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Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of Architects, New
Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in
CARONA times ( May 2020)

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 Meditation Center Project
for HARIOM Cow Shelter by
Dr Uday Dokras

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Design Consultant to
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 OCTAGONAL Meditation Center for REIKI
MASTER-
Mrs.Tracey Stanfield,Fish Creek, AUSTRALIA

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