The Three LOVE TEMPLES of the Kedu

Plain

Dr Uday Dokras

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 The Three LOVE TEMPLES of the Kedu Plain

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and
mystery. No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the
temple is based on artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia
and elsewhere throughout Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced
arrived in what is now present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent
beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE
onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in the region,
intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the
Javanese blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.
Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the traditions of Esoteric
Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the
maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra as well as
in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims and Tantric masters who received
royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was
also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism
in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to
separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of
Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw the growth of Esoteric
Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism. The diffusion of Esoteric
Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist monks in the 7th century.
These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing
(635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th-century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese
Buddhist monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century, there was a Buddhist center in Java
named Kalinga (Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled to study.

Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with
monumental architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist
empire of Srivijaya in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.Another source of this
Indonesian Tantric tradition was Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a well-known center of
Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery in Central Java in
the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.

A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra
on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there before making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:

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In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are
bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just
as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to
the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two
years and practice the proper rules
In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large-scale Buddhist building projects
such as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric
themes such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.

Many Hindu and Buddhist temples built in the 8th to 10th centuries are found in the
Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia, including Prambanan and Sambisari temples. Based on
petrographic and geochemical observations, both temples are built using basaltic to andesitic
lavas and pumice breccias. The rock types are relatively similar to those the basaltic to
andesitic lavas around the Quaternary age Merapi volcano, and the pumice breccia of the
Tertiary age Semilir Formation in the Piyungan area situated at the south of the Prambanan
temple. Selected rocks samples were analized using petrographic and X-ray fluorescence
methods to identify minerals, textures and geochemical characteristics. Petrographic
observations show that the rocks used to build Prambanan temple are hornblende-pyroxene
andesite and pyroxene basalts, while the rocks of Sambisari temple consist of
hornblendepyroxene andesites and pumice breccias. Hornblende-pyroxene andesite is
generally gray, showing porphyritic texture, 1-3 mm crystal size; phenocrysts are composed
by plagioclase, hornblende, pyroxene, and opaque minerals set in groundmass of plagioclase
microcrysts and volcanic glass. Pumice breccia, showing a light gray colour, moderate
sorting, fragments, consist of andesite and pumice clasts in size range 2-6 cm, embedded in
sandy to clay matrix. Most of the rocks are generally weathered or oxidized, which is
reflected by the presence of secondary iron oxide. This is probably most of the basaltic to
andesitic lavas used had a high vesicular texture, and that Yogyakarta has a tropical climate.
Rock types characteristics of Prambanan and Sambisari Temples, Yogyakarta Province,
Indonesia, author Sutarto,from IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 212
(2018)
Prambanan Temple Compounds today consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro
Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple itself
is a complex consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned temples form the Prambanan
Archaeological Park and were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in
Java in the 8th century AD. These compounds are located on the border between the two
provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java Island.
Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of two groups of buildings which includes Loro
Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone temples of
various shapes and sizes are either in a complete and preserved condition or have been
retained as ruins.While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example
of Hindu religious bas-reliefs, Sewu, with its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is
Indonesia’s largest Buddhist complex including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu
(Gana temple).
The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the
Ramayana epic which are masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by
hundreds of shrines that have been arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone

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building technology and architecture from the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500
temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural
treasure, but also a standing proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation.
Prambanan was designed as three concentric squares.

The LARGER Temples

The SMALLER Temples

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The east-facing complex measures about 110m (360 ft) on a side. It is dedicated to the
Trimurti - Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu - and the temple of each god is faced by the temple
of his vehicle. Smaller shrines, a few of which have been reconstructed, are also found in
the complex. Shiva, the central and largest temple, measures 34m (111 ft) on a side and
47m (154 ft) high. Each of the three major temples retains its principal statue in the central
chamber (the Shiva temple also has statues in three side chambers); most of these were not
accessible in 2008, due to the ongoing repair work.

In all there are 224 temples in the entire complex. The inner square contains 16 temples, the
most significant being the 47 meters high central Siva temple flanked to the north by the
Brahma temple and to the south by the Vishnu temple. These three ancient masterpieces of
Hindu architecture are locally referred to as the Prambanan Temple or Lorojonggrang
Temple (Slender Maiden). A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-
plane walls. In the middle of the last enceinte stand the temples dedicated to the three great
Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva, Eagle
for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates
or outside the central enceinte (four ensembles).
The Siva temple had four statues: located in the centre chamber is the Siva statue; in the
north chamber stands the Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber
stands the Ganesya statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya. Inside the
Brahma temple there is Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu statue.
In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses
the continuous story of the Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are
decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama,
written around 300). Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia
The neighbouring Buddhist ensemble at Sewu comprises a central temple surrounded by a
multitude of minor temples. Surprisingly, it shares many design attributes with the Hindu
Loro Joggrang Temple, perhaps indicating the degree to which such temples also reflect
state policies and control. Three other temples in ruins set between Sewu and Loro Joggrang
complete the ensemble around Prambanan: Lumbuna, Burah and Asu.
Candi Vishnu

Vishnu's temple is seen here from the vicinity of Candi Garuda, the temple of Vishnu's mount
(see plan on previous page). The tripartite division of the typical Javanese temple, into
superstructure, main structure, and substructure, or head, body, and foot, is evident here. This
form is standard during both the Central Javanese (8th to 10th centuries AD) and East
Javanese (10th to 15th centuries AD) periods.

The temple's pyramidal roof and its wide base are decorated with innumerable miniature
shrines with kalasha finials; its vertical body is divided into two tall courses, each decorated
by a band of simple rectangular frames, that form an abrupt transition from the base. The
effect is to make the body seem narrow, and therefore tall, by contrast with the much wider
base, while also providing a graceful yet solid support for the massive roof.The temple's
sculptures and decorations, including its Krishna reliefs, are illustrated on the following
pages.

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 A worn but still impressive statue of Vishnu occupies the cella of his temple. The four-
armed god holds the usual chakra and conch in his upper hands. A club, now broken in the
middle, extends downward at the viewer's left. The now-erased lower right attribute is
harder to identify, but a lotus would be typical in this murti. An offering run-off channel
extends to the viewer's right from the base of the statue.

Complex and Complexity of Rakai Pinkatan buildings

Featuring the many temples of SEWU & Prambanan

Rakai Pikatan- Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat- Great King of Mataram was also known as..
1. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Saladu=(Wanua Tengah inscription)
2. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Kamulyan Sang Prabhu Linggeswara
Sakabhumandala=(Wangsakerta script)
3. Rakai Mamrati Sang Jatiningrat(Wantil inscription)

He was a king of the Sanjaya dynasty Mataram Kingdom in Central Java who built
the Prambanan temple, dedicated to Shiva, which was completed in 856 AD. Rakai Pikatan
was also called Mpu Manuku.
The monarch of the Mataram Kingdom before Rakai Pikatan was Samaratungga of
the Shailendra Dynasty. He had one son, Balaputra, and one daughter, Pramodhawardhani.
Rakai Pikatan and the Sanjaya dynasty were Shivaite Hindus and is recorded in the Wantil
Inscription as having married a daughter of another religion. This is most likely
Pramodhawardhani, the Mahayana Buddhist daughter of Samaratungga.
It's believed that Pikatan fought his brother in law Balaputra, forcing him to move
to Srivijaya in 856. Other interpretations based on the Kayumwungan inscription put
Balaputra as Pramodhawardhani's uncle rather than her brother as inscriptions only list
Pramodhawaradhani as a child of Samaratungga. Hence, Balaputra went to Srivijaya not
because of force but because he had no claim as a brother of the monarch.
According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was
the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple. Rakai built many temples surprisingly
both Hindu and Buddhist having 1 foot in each religion consequent to his marriage to a
Buddhist lady. His region boasted of a trend of having multiple temples in a single
compound.This could be also attributed to Rakai Pikatan.Temples such as Sewu which we
will deal with in details here as well as Ploasan, Sambirejo (Ijo), Lubrung, Burbah,
Prambanan and perhaps other temples that no longer exist above ground but may be
discovered ion future. One does not know.
We will consider a few of these with main and ancillary temples. In this context one can
describe the following offsprings:

1. Perwara means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian word for an

escort temple.
2. Vahana is from Sanskrit word Vahana, from Old Javanese wāhana, from
Sanskrit वाहन, from वह्, a word for wagon. Also means carrier. Hindu Gods had
Vahanas . See my paper Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu
Gods.https://www.academia.edu/44665352/Vahanas_the_vehicles_of_Hindu_Gods

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 3. Apit temples means dry temple may also indicate squeezed as in Malay language.

4. Patok Temple would mean a Pole or Stake- something sticking out of the ground.

Candi Plaosan, also known as the Plaosan Complex, is one of the Buddhist
temples located in Bugisan village, Prambanan district covering an area of 2,000 square
metres (22,000 square feet) with an elevation of 148 metres (486 feet) above sea level.
The Dengok River is located nearby, about 200 metres (220 yards) away

One of the twin main temple of Plaosan Lor compound/Avalokiteśvara on Plaosan main temple wall.//
Dvarapala, the giant guardian in front of Plaosan Temple.

Plaosan temple was built in the mid 9th century by the wife of Rakai Pinkatan. But whether
it was built by Rakai himself and attributed to his wife Sri Kahulunnan
or Pramodhawardhani, the daughter of Samaratungga, descendant of Sailendra Dynasty,
could be possible. The complex currently comprises two Buddhist temples, Plaosan
Lor and Plaosan Kidul and made up of 174 small buildings, 116 are stupas and 58 are
shrines. Many of the buildings have inscriptions. Two of these inscriptions denote the temple
as a gift of sanctuary by Rakai Pikatan. The dates of the inscriptions are between 825-850
AD. Although similar to the Prambanan 856 AD date, the complexes are not related. A new
building technique distinguishes Prambanan from Plaosan temples.
The main temples at Plaosan are made up of an upper and lower level, separated in three
rooms. In the lower level, multiple statues resided. Today, only two statues of Bodhisattva
seated on each sides of each rooms, flanked an empty pedestal. However, as the position of
the false windows dictate, there was only one statue rested on the bottom basal level on
central pedestal. This statue today is missing, it was probably some bronze statues
depicting Buddha with two stone Bodhisattva statues flanked it. Historians suggests that a
main temple once contains nine statues, six stone Bodhisattvas, and three bronze Buddhas
(now missing). This means there was 18 statues resided in the twin main temples.
On the upper walls in each rooms, there are the traces of stones indentions that once
supported wooden beams and wooden floors, creating upper rooms. There is also traces of
stones as the base of wooden stairs.Rows of exquisite carvings of Bodhisattvas divinities are
found adorning the outer walls, with the majority of them being male. Smaller and less
occurring carvings by the windows represent female figures.One exceptional example is
carved on inner wall of the room depicting a representation of a Khmer prince which is
identified by his crown.
Ijo temple is Hindu candi (temple) located 4 kilometers from Ratu Boko measuring 0.8
hectare compound at present. The main temple is on the higher ground on the hill with

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several terraces. It was estimated that more than 10 Perwara or lesser temples ruins are still
buried in this terraces.

Sambirejo, Prambanan, Sleman Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the

perwara temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union

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between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
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“Not very far from Borobudur,” writes Dr. Raghuvira an erudite member of India’s
Constituent Assembly' “is the complex Prambanam, the like of which is known neither to
India nor to any other neighboring or distant land...Here are the life-cycles of Lord Krsna
known as Krsnayana parallel to the Ramayana, the powerful dragon being torn asunder by the
superb arms of the Divine Krsna. In another place is the scene of Kumbhakarna being
awakened by conches and screeches of elephants, a portrayal of the highest order...."

Of the sculptures in Prambanam, Sir Stamford Raffles (1781-1826) the British Governor of
Java and author of History of Java says:

"In the whole course of my life I have never met with such stupendous and finished
specimens of human labor, and of the science and taste of ages long since forgot, crowded
together in small a compass as in this little spot."
(source: History of Java. volume II p. 15).

Many civilizations in South East Asia have been closely patterned on the Indian model.
Wonderful monuments such as Angkor wat, Pagan, Prambanan and Borobudur stand
testimonial to Indian cultural influence.

Prambanan Temple is situated 18km east of Yogyakarta city in Central Java. It is the largest
Hindu temple compound in Indonesia and is dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in
Hinduism. It is known locally as the Loro Jongrang temple, after the nearby village, or the
temple of Durga or the ‘Slender Virgin’.

There are a total of 237 temples in this Shivaite temple complex but many are in ruin. The
architecture is tall and pointed and the central building is the tallest at 47m high. It is
dedicated to Shiva. Hence is known as Chandi Shiva Mahadeva temple. Prambanan is a

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stunningly beautiful building built in the 9thcentury during the reign of two kings, and Rakai
Pikatan Balitung. Rises as high as 47 meters (5 meters higher than Borobudur temple). The
temple complex is huge, much more spread out than Borobodur. It's a pity that the glory of
this temple is largely shadowed by the more monotonous architecture of the Borobudur
Temple nearby.

Todays temples in India or for that matter elsewhere may boast of a large compound but they
have largely one single structure which is the main and in most cases the only structure.
Many dieties are installed inside this main venue as seen in the Shivagriha of Pranbanan. The
Ram Mandir at Ayodhya is a classic example. There is need to distinguish between Ram
Janmabhoomi (lit. 'Birthplace of Rama') and Ram Mandir ( the temple od Ram) both in the
same ancient city.is the site that is hypothesized to be the birthplace of Rama, believed to be
the seventh avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. The Ramayana states that the location of
Rama's birthplace is on the banks of the Sarayu river in a city called "Ayodhya". Modern-
day Ayodhya is in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
The Ram Mandir according to some Hindus is the exact site of Rama's birthplace is where
the Babri Masjid once stood in the present-day Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. According to this
theory, the Mughals demolished a Hindu shrine that marked the spot, and constructed a
mosque in its place. People opposed to this theory state that such claims arose only in the
18th century, and that there is no evidence for the spot being the birthplace of Rama. Several
other sites, including places in other parts of India, Afghanistan, and Nepal, have been
proposed as birthplaces of Rama. The political, historical and socio-religious debate over the
history and location of the Babri Mosque, and whether a previous temple was demolished or
modified to create it, is known as the Ayodhya dispute. That apart, Ram Lalla Virajman, the
infant form of Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, is the presiding deity of the temple. Ram Lalla was
a litigant in the court case over the disputed site since 1989, being considered a "juristic
person" by the law. He was represented by Triloki Nath Pandey, a senior VHP leader who
was considered as Ram Lalla's next 'human' friend. According to the temple trust, the final
blueprint includes temples dedicated to Surya, Ganesha, Shiva, Durga, Vishnu and Brahma in
the temple premises.

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The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished under couple of
dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and
Buddhism.The common relationship between Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore , Angkor

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Wat and Prambanan is that they share the same South Indian architectural style – Pallava-
Chola. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara temples (discussed above)
of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the Somapura Vihara ruins in
Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

These various structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture,

Pala architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. Temples of
Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi (pronounced as
Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan while Koil are
those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g., Mariamman Koil in Aceh
in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount
Bromo. All temples here are called Candi. A word is derived from the Sanskrit word
Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in
Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.
Prambanan Temple Compounds.

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 Entrance

Complex of Complexes

Prambanan temple compounds, has 5 major temples complexes and more than five-hundred
temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 240 temples though the striking feature is the
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.Prambanan
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temple complex is the most popular one among these various temples.
Inside the Temple Complex

The temple complex has 240 temples. They are organized as follows
1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.
2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68. According to the brilliant article by Dr Subhash Kak, the concentric
circular placement of the Prambanan temples is after a Tantric diagram followed at that time
and his technical details and knowledge is fascinating
1. The total varies from 249 to 239 ( calculated by me). Be as it may, it is a large number

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That apart, which I do not want to focus upon and also lack the knowledge to do so, Rakai’s
contribution is bringing a synthesis of Buddhism and |Hinduism in the same compounds
while keeping things seperate

Prambanan (LEFT) and SEWU ( RIGHT) Aerial views showing the compounds and temple arrangements.

The striking feature of the Prambanan is the architecture, which is a typical representation of
the South Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall
Vimanas and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also
the Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra. Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored
while the Pathok and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

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The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
Expansion. Though the temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya
dynasty around 850 AD it was expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples
surrounding the centerpiece in concentric squares.This is an indication that the large
compounds were specifically kept for later expansions without destruction or alteration to the
main temple. There was, nothing ofcourse, to stop subsequent Kings from building another
Main Temple near the older one.

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.

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Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side

Candi Bubrah: Hundred or so meters to away is Candi Bubrah, which is a Buddhist temple
constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was
discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x 12 meters platform where I
could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my conversation with the workers,
the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

Candi Lumbung: The next temple - Candi Lumbung was built around the same time frame
as Candi Bubrah but predates Prambanan temple. The main temple is a Buddhist temple
dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva. There are sixteen Perwara temples similar to the Perwara
temples of Prambanan. On top of the main temple is the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple.
The main temple can be accessed from the 4 cardinal points. Just like other temples in the
compounds, Lumbung is going through renovation but is in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Sewu:is a large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah is the second
largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in
its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara temples
arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at
least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigriha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

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 Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.
There are very few Buddhist Temples in India only STUPAS, in Indonesia however we see a
trend of Buddhist Rock Fractal temples of complex design and varying sized which is
ubiquitous to the Javanese Landscape. We know that stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical
structure containing relics.(such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns)
that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a
prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Let us see the evolution of Buddhist TOPOLOGY in
India in order to trace itsreplicatio and inspiration as taken into the Indonesian design
landscape.
Stupas
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard
rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And
whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap
benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Temples
Saurashtra Janapada coins from the stratigraphic phase I dated 600-300 BC provide evidence
of elaborate Apsidal Chaitya temples along with domed temples (or stupa), square, cruciform
and octagonal temple plans, these coins also provide one of the first representations of Hindu
pantheon for instance Gaja Lakshmi etc. Elliptical Hindu temples
with mandapa from Nagari, Chittorgarh and Vidisha near Heliodorus pillar have been dated
to 4th century BC or 350-300 BC.

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In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

ButkaraStupa/The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans,
and contained coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.[14]
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE)
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

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The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on
top.RIGHT PIC Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s// model resembling the Saidu Sharif
Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). PYRIMIDAL temples to right

Origin of the pyramidal temple

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the
design of the stepped stupas which developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh
Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha
images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure is crowned by the shape of an
hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan
stupas such as those seen in Jaulian.
Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the Gupta period (5th
century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in Kumrahar and dated to 150-
200 CE based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins,
suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to
the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.
Expansion in Asia

The Chinese Songyue Pagoda /Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh (523 CE) is thought to
derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model
Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as
a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relicsThe Indian gateway arches,
the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold
that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century
BCE – 11th century CE). In Tibet, the stupa became the chörten, and the pagoda in East Asia.
The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the
Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general,
however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia while

20
 "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be used for
secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma
tend to be referred to as "pagodas."
Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to
Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built
over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, being one of the tallest
ancient structures in the world. The Asian words for pagoda (tā in Chinese, t'ap in
Korean, tháp in Vietnamese, tō in Japanese) are all thought to derive from the Pali word for
stupa, thupa, the Sanskrit pronunciation being stupa.[36] In particular the type of the tower-
like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second Kanishka
stupa (4th century), is thought to be the precussor of the tower stupas in Turkestan and the
Chinese pagodas such as Songyue Pagoda (523 CE).
Gupta Architecture in SE Asia

It is variously claimed that Angkor Wat's architecture is distinctly Khmer, its inspiration was
essentially Indian- GUPTA architecture, Its builder sought to immortalise his presiding deity,
Vishnu, in a mountain of stone. The Gupta and post-Gupta artists of Bengal transmitted
Mahayana Buddhist imagery to Indonesia. Monks and traders traveled back and forth
between the two regions taking the scriptures and the votive statues from India to Indonesia.
The ease with which Mahayana was accepted in Indonesia was due to the association of the
ruler/king with a bodhisattva. The temporal authority of the ruler reinforces this concept.
Indonesia is a nation in Southeast Asia comprised of roughly seventeen thousand islands.
Indonesia has been an important trade destination since at least the seventh century, but trade
with both India and China began as early as the first few centuries BCE. It was through
contact with these two countries that Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism were introduced,
thriving from the eighth to the tenth centuries. During this period, the grand monuments such
as Borobudur were built. The approach to Borobudur, c. 800, is from the east, which is the
only staircase used to ascend the monument. The approach gets narrower closer to the
top. Any staircase was used to go down.

The reliefs on the lower level, which are now under the earth, depict the causes and effects of
good and evil. The main, first, level contains two sub-levels. The lower illustrates five
episodes from the former lives of the historic Buddha. The upper illustrates the jataka stories
of the conception of his mother, Buddha’s birth, his four encounters with poverty, illness,
death and aestheticism, the Enlightenment, and his first sermon at Deer Park.

On each side of the structure is a different Buddha that corresponds to the 4 cardinal points:

1. bhumisparsamudra (earth-touching gesture/Enlightenment)

2. varadamudra (fear-not gesture)

3. anjalimudra (prayer gesture)

4. abhayamudra (fear-not gesture)

There are three phases of Buddhist development and decline in these areas. The first five
hundred years were a period of development. By around year 1000, great Buddhist dynasties
had been created in Indonesia, Thailand, and Burma (Myanmar). More Buddhist images have
been produced in Burma than any other region in south-east Asia and no other country has
21
produced more temples and stupas than Burma. The Cambodian Buddhist dynasties
developed a bit later. The tenth to the fifteenth centuries marks the peak of Cambodian power
and the waning of the Indonesian influence. Only in Thailand did Buddhist and Thai politics
continue to flourish. Thailand and Burma are still the most viable Buddhist areas. Cambodia
and southern Vietnam are still Buddhist, but the political situation makes them less visible.

Brief introduction to the RELIGIOUS SHRINES of Indonesia

Brief introduction to the ‘temples’ of Indonesia: Temples of Indonesia are of three

different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil.
1. CANDI (pronounced as Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the
Candi Prambanan
2. PURA: The first type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in
Mount Bromo.
3. KOLI are those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g.,
Mariamman Koil in Aceh in the 19th century.
The Colloquil term for all 3 temples is Candi. Candi itself is derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in Indonesia, during the
‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries. Most of these structures are
built in that period when Indian culture was at its peak in these parts of the world.

Pallava-Chola architecture of the Prambanan Temple Compounds and others of the same era

Significance of Chola Architecture: Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top.
It had elaborate and carefully made carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in
tonnes is placed without the help of cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in
Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara, Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in
South India and Sri Lanka followed their style.
Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of
architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).

Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas

Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.

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Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.

1. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in

temple walls.

2. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.

3. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls

with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.

4. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.

5. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.

6. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.

7. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff

sometimes decorated with ribs.

8. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.

9. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are

characteristics of Chola temple architecture.

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 10. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.

11. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.

12. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.

Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture

 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.

Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art

and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are
the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Apit Temples of SEWU

Candi Sewu main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near Prambanan

24
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic
plain that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and
the Progo River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta
Special Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many
archaeological sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as
an important religious, political, and urban center.

MATARAM KINGDOM

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Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both
the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram
Sultanate in the 16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history
and culture for over a millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of
historic significance. If each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central
Java period could be said to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng
Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and
hills around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia.
Adjacent to the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple;
to the east are found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and
further is the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the
south. The discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that
this area was once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite
the smaller scale of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in
this plain are comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and
Prambanan in particular, are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to
rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central
Java Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan
should be treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring
measured 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies.
The area includes major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan
temples. The sanctuary is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor
archaeological area in Cambodia, which suggests that the government should prevent or
regulate permits to construct any new buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as
well as BTS towers. This was meant to protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern
day visual obstructions and the encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related
buildings and businesses. There are a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and
Buddhist:

Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on
each chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple
adorned with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by
Hindu Mataram Kingdom.

26
 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main

27
 sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for
a buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on
the roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this
area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the
west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant
location in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of
the Sailendra dynasty as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the
colonial Dutch East Indies period, the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which

28
at that time covered what are now the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung
Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung

29
 Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing
in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees.
The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very
orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice,
and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the
official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.

30
Kalingga was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central
Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the
exact location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between
present-day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern
coast of Jepara Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang
regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an
altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was
one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this
kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central
Java . Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records
from China . In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because
this kingdom was part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara
Kingdoms which Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong
competitors of the Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for
communication between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon,
to the west, and Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came
under control of the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in
the 18th century, it granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch
built a fort in Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as
an internment centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II.
The structure has continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the
Pekalongan, (city) is the capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
situated on the northern coastal plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan
city is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)

31
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other
goods. Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s
fertile river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city,
17 square miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue
of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such
as trisula, kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red
lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered
in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi
script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula.
Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor
of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once
flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest
Javanese candis are also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are
probably built in later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that
there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central
Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived
in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance of
Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition,
one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the
famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not
belong to them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally
touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was
over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the
prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through
mutilation.[3] According to Carita Parahyangan, a book composed in later period,
Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom,
and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps
in response to the Buddhist Sailendras

32
The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the

33
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

CONSTRUCTION
Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.
According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple was
the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was completed
37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple

34
that served as an important religious site.

Candi Sewu main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made

35
 earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original
held and digitised by the British Library.

36
Candi Sewu Layout

37
An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of
the 8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples,
while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples
located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different
statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the
current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the

38
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.

39
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture:

Case Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and
Humanities Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture
(ICALC 2019)

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

40
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

41
42
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-

century Buddhist temple located within the complex of the Prambanan Temple
Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located within Prambanan
or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples
dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple, visitors can go through
the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest
that the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha
complex), as the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This
suggestion is based on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called
Candi Gana that marking the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western
sides around 300 metres from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however,
the stones are too scarce to reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of
four vanguard temples placed around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple
of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian temple of southern direction, according to mandala
and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins
for many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part

43
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a
Buddhist temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram
kingdom that ruled Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related
to Sewu temple which is located around 300 metres to the north. [2] Bubrah temple believed
was constructed around the same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu
and Lumbung temple, all three being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built
by Rakai Panangkaran hailed as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra
dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu
mandala as the southern shrine dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah
temple was constructed after the reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign
of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which means the temple was constructed in the
early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with
nearby Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form
of a 2 metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means
"ruins". Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct
the temple, as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan
temples, registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy,
Indonesian Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion
rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico
and portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu
temple compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller
stupas, with larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

44
 The Real Mandala of Sewu

The real mandala of Sewu that few know or have the capacity to understand is the mandala of the 2
kingdons-one Hindu and the other Buddhist that gave birth to the Sewu temple. I am referring to the
marriage of Pramodini, daughter of Sailendran king Samaratungga- a Buddhist with the Hindu
King Pikatan, the prince of the Sanjaya dynasty, was believed as the political reconciliation
between Buddhist Sailendra and with Hindu Sanjaya dynasties.

Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit word meaning 'circle'. The mandala is a model for describing the
patterns of diffuse political power distributed among Mueang or Kedatuan (principalities)
in medieval Southeast Asian history, when local power was more important than the central
leadership. The concept of the mandala balances modern tendencies to look for unified
political power, e.g. the power of large kingdoms and nation states of later history – an
inadvertent byproduct of 15th century advances in map-making technologies. In the words
of O. W. Wolters who further explored the idea in 1982:

The map of earlier Southeast Asia which evolved from the prehistoric networks of small
settlements and reveals itself in historical records was a patchwork of often overlapping
mandalas.It is employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such
as federation of kingdoms or vassalized polity under a center of domination. It was adopted
by 20th century European historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of
avoiding the term "state" in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast
Asian polities except Vietnam not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially
defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably
in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it
could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative
integration. In some ways similar to the feudal system of Europe, states were linked
in suzerain–tributary relationships.

The term Mandala draws a comparison with the mandala of

the Hindu and Buddhist worldview; the comparison emphasises the radiation of power from
each power center, as well as the non-physical basis of the system. Other metaphors such

45
as S. J. Tambiah's original idea of a "galactic polity" describe political patterns similar to the
mandala. The historian Victor Lieberman prefers the "solar polity" metaphor, referencing the
gravitational pull the sun exerts over the planets.

Intersecting mandalas c. 1360: from north to south: Lan

Xang, Lanna, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Khmer and Champa.

Historically, the main suzerain or overlord states were the Khmer

Empire of Cambodia; Srivijaya of South Sumatra; the successive kingdoms
of Mataram, Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit of Java; the Ayutthaya
Kingdom of Thailand; Champa and early Đại Việt. China occupies a special place in that the
others often in turn paid tribute to China, although in practice the obligations imposed on the
lesser kingdoms were minimal. The most notable tributary states were post-Angkor
Cambodia, Lan Xang (succeeded by the Kingdom of Vientiane and Luang Prabang)
and Lanna. Cambodia in the 18th century was described by the Vietnamese emperor Gia
Long as "an independent country that is slave of two". The system was eventually ended by
the arrival of the Europeans in the mid-19th century. Culturally, they introduced Western
geographical practices, which assumed that every area was subject to one sovereign.
Practically, the colonisation of French Indochina, Dutch East Indies, British Malaya and
Burma brought pressure from the colonisers for fixed boundaries to their possessions. The
tributary states were then divided between the colonies and Siam, which exercised much
more centralised power but over a smaller area than thitherto.

The advent of Islam in the archipelago saw the application of this system which is still
continued in the formation of the government, such as the formation of the 18th
century Negeri Sembilan coalition which focused on Seri Menanti as a center flanked by four
inner luak serambi and four outer districts. Another example is the post-Majapahit Islamic
kingdoms in Java.

The obligations on each side of the relationship varied according to the strength of the
relationship and the circumstances. In general, the tributary was obliged to pay bunga mas, a
regular tribute of various valuable goods and slaves, and miniature trees
of gold and silver (bunga mas dan perak). The overlord ruler reciprocated with presents often
of greater value than those supplied by the tributary. However, the tributary also had to
provide men and supplies when called on, most often in time of war. The main benefit to the

46
tributary was protection from invasion by other powers, although as South East Asia
historian Thongchai Winichakul notes, this was often "mafia-like protection" [14] from the
threats of the overlord himself. In some cases, the overlord also controlled the succession in
the tributary, but in general interference with the tributary's domestic affairs was minimal: he
would retain his own army and powers of taxation, for example. In the case of the more
tenuous relationships, the "overlord" might regard it as one of tribute, while the "tributary"
might consider the exchange of gifts to be purely commercial or as an expression of
goodwill .

The emphasis on personal relationships was one of the defining characteristics of the mandala
system. The tributary ruler was subordinate to the overlord ruler, rather than to the overlord
state in the abstract. This had many important implications. A strong ruler could attract new
tributaries, and would have strong relationships over his existing tributaries. A weaker ruler
would find it harder to attract and maintain these relationships. This was put forward as one
cause of the sudden rise of Sukhothai under Ramkhamhaeng, for example, and for its almost
equally steep decline after his death (Wyatt, 45 and 48). The tributary ruler could repudiate
the relationship and seek either a different overlord or complete independence. The system
was non-territorial. The overlord was owed allegiance by the tributary ruler, or at most by the
tributary's main town, but not by all the people of a particular area. The tributary owner in
turn had power either over tributary states further down the scale, or directly over "his"
people, wherever they lived. No ruler had authority over unpopulated areas.

The personal relationship between overlord and subordinate rulers also defined the dynamic
of relationship within a mandala. The relations between Dharmasetu of Srivijaya
and Samaratungga of Sailendra, for instance, defined the succession of this dynastic family.
Dharmasetu was the Srivijayan Maharaja overlord, while the house of Sailendra in Java is
suggested to be related and was subscribed to Srivijayan mandala domination. After
Samaratungga married Princess Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became his
successor and the house of Sailendra was promoted to become the dynastic lineage of later
Srivijayan kings, and for a century the center of Srivijaya was shifted from Sumatra to Java.

Pramodhawardhani (also known as Çrī Kahulunnan or Çrī Sanjiwana) was the queen
consort of King Rakai Pikatan (r. 838-850) of Mataram Kingdom in 9th century Central Java.
She was the daughter of Sailendran king Samaratungga (r. 812—833).Her royal marriage to
Pikatan, the prince of the Sanjaya dynasty, was believed as the political reconciliation
between Buddhist Sailendra and with Hindu Sanjaya dynasties.

47
Sojiwan Buddhist temple, dedicated for the queen mother Sanjiwana, which identi

fied as Pramodhawardhani.
She was credited for the inauguration of Borobudur and the construction of several Buddhist
temples in Prambanan Plain; among others the small pervara temples
in Sewu compound, Plaosan, and Sajiwan Buddhist temples. Her name was mentioned in
several inscriptions, such as the Karangtengah inscription, Tri Tepusan inscription,
and Rukam inscription. Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax-
free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan to ensure the funding and maintenance of
a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra (Borobudur), while the Rukam inscription dated 829 Saka
(907 CE) mentioned about the inauguration of Rukam village restoration by Nini Haji
Rakryan Sanjiwana, previously the village was being devastated by a volcanic eruption, and
the obligation of Rukam village inhabitants to take care of a sacred building located in
Limwung. This sacred building was identified as the Sajiwan temple.

According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was

the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple.

SECULARISM in the KEDU Plain

Buddhist philosophers of this period conflated the notion of the universal monarch with the
idea of a king of righteousness and maintainer of moral law. In Buddhism, for example, the
Chakravartin was considered to be the secular counterpart of a Buddha (“enlightened one”),
with whom he shared many attributes.

A chakravarti (Sanskrit: चक्रवर्तिन्) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the history,
and religion of India. The concept is present in Indian subcontinent cultural traditions,
narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: chakravala chakravarti, an
emperor who rules over all four of the continents (i.e., a universal monarch); dvipa
chakravarti, a ruler who governs only one of those continents; and pradesha chakravarti, a
monarch who leads the people of only a part of a continent, the equivalent of a local king.
Dvipa chakravarti is particularly one who rules the entire Indian subcontinent (as in the case
of the Mauryan Empire. The first references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in
monuments from the time of the early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, in
reference to Chandragupta Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.

The word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvrīhi compound word, translating to "one whose wheels are
moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling everywhere without obstruction". It can
also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvrīhi: "through whom the wheel is moving" in the
meaning of "through whom the Dharmachakra ("Wheel of the Dharma) is turning" (most
commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent (khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po)
translates to "monarch who controls by means of a wheel".

48
14 Ratnas of Chakravartin, 17th century manuscript/Chakravarti, from Amaravati Stupa, 1st century CE, using
the "Imperial Gesture" and surrounded by his attributes. Possibly represents Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire.

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a Buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. In
both religions, the chakravarti is supposed to uphold dharma, indeed being "he who turns the
wheel (of dharma)".
The Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into the concept of devaraja – the divine right
of kings – which was adopted by the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast
Asia through Hindu Brahmin scholars deployed from India to their courts. It was first
adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist empires such as Majapahit; through them by the Khmer
Empire; and subsequently by the Thai monarchs.In Buddhist chronicles, Buddha supposedly
told the boy that he would indeed become an Chakravarti emperor in next life as a result of
his act of generosity in offering sand and the boy in next life born as Ashoka.

It was believed that once a chakravarti emerged the "Future Buddha" Maitreya would appear
on earth. In early Buddhist art there are more than 30 depictions, all from the Deccan. In most
the Chakravarti King uses the "Royal Gesture" in which the king "clenches his left hand at his
chest and reaches up with his right hand". He is surrounded by his seven attributes:
the Chakraratna wheel, his state elephant, charger horse, "the octagonal gem which is so
luminous it can light the path of his army by night", his queen, defense minister and finance
minister. The early Buddhist Mahāvastu and the Divyāvadāna, as well as
the Theravadin Milindapañha, describe the marks of the chakravarti as
ruler: uṣṇīṣa, chhatra "parasol", "horn jewel" or vajra, whisk and sandals. These were the
marks of the kshatriya. Plastic art of early Mahayana Buddhism illustrates bodhisattvas in a
form called uṣṇīṣin "wearing a turban/hair binding", wielding the mudras for "nonviolent
cakravarti rule".

49
 list of 12 chakravartin
of Avasarpini as per Jainism is as
follows
1. Bharata, son
of Tirthankara Rishabhanath
a
2. Sagara, ancestor
of Bhagiratha as in
the Puranas
3. Maghava
4. Sanata Kumara
5. Tirthankara Shantinatha
6. Tirthankara Kunthunatha
7. Tirthankara Aranatha
8. Subhauma
9. Padmanabha
Tibetan mandala of the six 10.Harishena
chakravartis 11.Jayasena
12.Brahmadatt

Mahāmaṇḍala-cakravartin, royal title andis defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it

can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian
languages. Mahāmaṇḍala (महामण्डल):—[=mahā-maṇḍala] [from mahā > mah] m. Name of
a king, [Buddhist literature] The Great Chronicle of Buddhas (by Ven. Mingun Sayadaw)
Biography (2-3): Sāriputta and Moggallāna Mahātheras [Chapter 43 - Forty-one Arahat-
Mahatheras and their Respective Etadagga.

The Man who Built the THREE

All the temples of the vicinity of Prambanan including the Prambanan have similar design
made of circular puzzles in a square plot of land. The circularity stems from the security to be
awarded to the |Main diety- sort of bodyguard temples. Whether this is the idea if the King
Rakai Pinkatan or his designers is not clear. But one thing is clear that the SEWU underlines
the Buddha as a chakravarty. Which of course may complement the fact that the King also
considered himself a Chakravartin.

Rakai Pikatan or Pangataran- Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat- Great King of Mataram was also
known as..
4. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Saladu=(Wanua Tengah inscription)
5. Rakai Pikatan Dyah Kamulyan Sang Prabhu Linggeswara
Sakabhumandala=(Wangsakerta script)
6. Rakai Mamrati Sang Jatiningrat(Wantil inscription)

He was a king of the Sanjaya dynasty Mataram Kingdom in Central Java who built
the Prambanan temple, dedicated to Shiva, which was completed in 856 AD. Rakai Pikatan
was also called Mpu Manuku.

50
The monarch of the Mataram Kingdom before Rakai Pikatan was Samaratungga of
the Shailendra Dynasty. He had one son, Balaputra, and one daughter, Pramodhawardhani.
Rakai Pikatan and the Sanjaya dynasty were Shivaite Hindus and is recorded in the Wantil
Inscription as having married a daughter of another religion. This is most likely
Pramodhawardhani, the Mahayana Buddhist daughter of Samaratungga.
It's believed that Pikatan fought his brother in law Balaputra, forcing him to move
to Srivijaya in 856. Other interpretations based on the Kayumwungan inscription put
Balaputra as Pramodhawardhani's uncle rather than her brother as inscriptions only list
Pramodhawaradhani as a child of Samaratungga. Hence, Balaputra went to Srivijaya not
because of force but because he had no claim as a brother of the monarch.
According to the interpretation of Loro Jonggrang legend, Pramodhawardhani's likeness was
the model for Durga's image in the Prambanan temple. Rakai built many temples surprisingly
both Hindu and Buddhist having 1 foot in each religion consequent to his marriage to a
Buddhist lady. His region boasted of a trend of having multiple temples in a single
compound.This could be also attributed to Rakai Pikatan.Temples such as Sewu which we
will deal with in details here as well as Ploasan, Sambirejo (Ijo), Lubrung, Burbah,
Prambanan and perhaps other temples that no longer exist above ground but may be
discovered ion future. One does not know.
We will consider a few of these with main and ancillary temples. In this context one can
describe the following offsprings:

5. Perwara means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian word for an

escort temple.
6. Vahana is from Sanskrit word Vahana, from Old Javanese wāhana, from
Sanskrit वाहन, from वह्, a word for wagon. Also means carrier. Hindu Gods had
Vahanas . See my paper Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu
Gods.https://www.academia.edu/44665352/Vahanas_the_vehicles_of_Hindu_Gods

7. Apit temples means dry temple may also indicate squeezed as in Malay language.

8. Patok Temple would mean a Pole or Stake- something sticking out of the ground.

Candi Sewu: is a large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah is the second
largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in
its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara temples
arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at
least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigriha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

51
 Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.
There are very few Buddhist Temples in India only STUPAS, in Indonesia however we see a
trend of Buddhist Rock Fractal temples of complex design and varying sized which is
ubiquitous to the Javanese Landscape. We know that stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical
structure containing relics.(such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns)
that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a
prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Let us see the evolution of Buddhist TOPOLOGY in
India in order to trace itsreplicatio and inspiration as taken into the Indonesian design
landscape.
Stupas
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard
rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And
whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap
benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Temples
Saurashtra Janapada coins from the stratigraphic phase I dated 600-300 BC provide evidence
of elaborate Apsidal Chaitya temples along with domed temples (or stupa), square, cruciform
and octagonal temple plans, these coins also provide one of the first representations of Hindu
pantheon for instance Gaja Lakshmi etc. Elliptical Hindu temples
with mandapa from Nagari, Chittorgarh and Vidisha near Heliodorus pillar have been dated
to 4th century BC or 350-300 BC.

52
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

ButkaraStupa/The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans,
and contained coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:

7. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
8. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE)
9. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
10.The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
11.The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
12.The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

53
The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on
top.RIGHT PIC Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s// model resembling the Saidu Sharif
Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). PYRIMIDAL temples to right

Missing Pieces of the Sewu Mandala

Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign
and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–
780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang
Mataram Kingdom. Modern historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and
cultural events that led to Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism
and Shaivism. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a
Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were
unable to complete their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty.
Some other theories see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and
that religious patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus
is that there were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The Temple of Borobudur or sometimes "Barabudur" is a Mahayana Buddhist temple located

close to Muntilan on the island of Java in Indonesia. Built during the rule of the Sailendra
Dynasty (c. 650-1025 CE), Borobudur remains the world's largest Buddhist temple.
Borobudur is located about 40 km (25 miles) to the northwest of Yogyakarta and some 86 km
(53 miles) west of the city of Surakarta in central Java. The temple lies in an area between
two volcanoes - Mt. Sundoro-Sumbing and Mt. Merbabu-Merapi - as well as two
rivers - Progo and Elo. Borobudur is situated very close to two other Buddhist
temples in the Kedu Plain: Pawon and Mendut. Scholars and archaeologists surmise
that some sort of relationship must have existed between the temples as all three are
positioned along a straight line. However, what this signifies is still a matter of
scholarly debate. What is known is that the ancient and medieval Javanese,
whether Hindu or Buddhist, associated the Kedu Plain with tremendous agricultural
production, and it was thus considered one of the most sacred places on the island of
Java. Ancient peoples regarded the two rivers as especially auspicious as they
evoked the sacred Ganges and Yamuna rivers in what is present-day India. Not
surprisingly, given the area's favorability, the Hindu Gunung Wukir temple
sanctuary, which dates to c. 732 CE, lies only 10 km (6 miles) west of Borobudur in
the Kedu Plain too.

The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a
lingering mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from
the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while
others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more than a Javanese place name. A
stone tablet dating from 842 CE makes mention of Bhumisambharabhudara or the
"Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is probable that the name
"Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

54
Candi Sewu:is a large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah is the second
largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in
its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara temples
arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at
least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigriha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.
There are very few Buddhist Temples in India only STUPAS, in Indonesia however we see a
trend of Buddhist Rock Fractal temples of complex design and varying sized which is
ubiquitous to the Javanese Landscape. We know that stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical
structure containing relics.(such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns)
that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a
prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Let us see the evolution of Buddhist TOPOLOGY in
India in order to trace itsreplicatio and inspiration as taken into the Indonesian design
landscape.
Stupas
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard
rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And
whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap
benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.

55
Temples
Saurashtra Janapada coins from the stratigraphic phase I dated 600-300 BC provide evidence
of elaborate Apsidal Chaitya temples along with domed temples (or stupa), square, cruciform
and octagonal temple plans, these coins also provide one of the first representations of Hindu
pantheon for instance Gaja Lakshmi etc. Elliptical Hindu temples
with mandapa from Nagari, Chittorgarh and Vidisha near Heliodorus pillar have been dated
to 4th century BC or 350-300 BC.
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

ButkaraStupa/The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans,
and contained coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE)
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

56
The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on
top.RIGHT PIC Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s// model resembling the Saidu Sharif
Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). PYRIMIDAL temples to right

Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was
completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well-
known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom. Modern
historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and cultural events that led to
Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism. It is
possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on
the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete
their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. Some other theories
see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious
patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there
were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The Temple of Borobudur or sometimes "Barabudur" is a Mahayana Buddhist temple located

close to Muntilan on the island of Java in Indonesia. Built during the rule of the Sailendra
Dynasty (c. 650-1025 CE), Borobudur remains the world's largest Buddhist temple.
Borobudur is located about 40 km (25 miles) to the northwest of Yogyakarta and some 86 km
(53 miles) west of the city of Surakarta in central Java. The temple lies in an area between
two volcanoes - Mt. Sundoro-Sumbing and Mt. Merbabu-Merapi - as well as two
rivers - Progo and Elo. Borobudur is situated very close to two other Buddhist
temples in the Kedu Plain: Pawon and Mendut. Scholars and archaeologists surmise
that some sort of relationship must have existed between the temples as all three are
positioned along a straight line. However, what this signifies is still a matter of
scholarly debate. What is known is that the ancient and medieval Javanese,
whether Hindu or Buddhist, associated the Kedu Plain with tremendous agricultural
production, and it was thus considered one of the most sacred places on the island of
Java. Ancient peoples regarded the two rivers as especially auspicious as they
evoked the sacred Ganges and Yamuna rivers in what is present-day India. Not
surprisingly, given the area's favorability, the Hindu Gunung Wukir temple
sanctuary, which dates to c. 732 CE, lies only 10 km (6 miles) west of Borobudur in
the Kedu Plain too.

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and
mystery. No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the
temple is based on artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia

57
and elsewhere throughout Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced
arrived in what is now present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent
beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE
onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in the region,
intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the
Javanese blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a
lingering mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from
the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while
others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more than a Javanese place name. A
stone tablet dating from 842 CE makes mention of Bhumisambharabhudara or the
"Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is probable that the name
"Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

A chakravarti (Sanskrit: चक्रवर्तिन्) is an ideal (or idealized) universal ruler, in the

history, and religion of India. The concept is present in Indian subcontinent cultural
traditions, narrative myths and lore. There are three types of chakravarti: chakravala
chakravarti, an emperor who rules over all four of the continents (i.e., a universal
monarch); dvipa chakravarti, a ruler who governs only one of those continents;
and pradesha chakravarti, a monarch who leads the people of only a part of a
continent, the equivalent of a local king. Dvipa chakravarti is particularly one who
rules the entire Indian subcontinent (as in the case of the Mauryan Empire. The first
references to a Chakravala Chakravartin appear in monuments from the time of the
early Maurya Empire, in the 4th to 3rd century BCE, in reference to Chandragupta
Maurya and his grandson Ashoka.

The word cakra-vartin- is a bahuvrīhi compound word, translating to "one whose

wheels are moving", in the sense of "whose chariot is rolling everywhere without
obstruction". It can also be analysed as an 'instrumental bahuvrīhi: "through whom the
wheel is moving" in the meaning of "through whom the Dharmachakra ("Wheel of
the Dharma) is turning" (most commonly used in Buddhism). The Tibetan equivalent
(khor los sgyur ba'i rgyal po) translates to "monarch who controls by means of a
wheel".

58
14 Ratnas of Chakravartin, 17th century manuscript/Chakravarti, from Amaravati Stupa, 1st
century CE, using the "Imperial Gesture" and surrounded by his attributes. Possibly
represents Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire.

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a Buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth. In
both religions, the chakravarti is supposed to uphold dharma, indeed being "he who turns the
wheel (of dharma)".
The Indian concept of chakravarti later evolved into the concept of devaraja – the divine right
of kings – which was adopted by the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast
Asia through Hindu Brahmin scholars deployed from India to their courts. It was first
adopted by Javanese Hindu-Buddhist empires such as Majapahit; through them by the Khmer
Empire; and subsequently by the Thai monarchs.In Buddhist chronicles, Buddha supposedly
told the boy that he would indeed become an Chakravarti emperor in next life as a result of
his act of generosity in offering sand and the boy in next life born as Ashoka.

It was believed that once a chakravarti emerged the "Future Buddha" Maitreya would appear
on earth. In early Buddhist art there are more than 30 depictions, all from the Deccan. In most
the Chakravarti King uses the "Royal Gesture" in which the king "clenches his left hand at his
chest and reaches up with his right hand". He is surrounded by his seven attributes:
the Chakraratna wheel, his state elephant, charger horse, "the octagonal gem which is so
luminous it can light the path of his army by night", his queen, defense minister and finance
minister. The early Buddhist Mahāvastu and the Divyāvadāna, as well as
the Theravadin Milindapañha, describe the marks of the chakravarti as
ruler: uṣṇīṣa, chhatra "parasol", "horn jewel" or vajra, whisk and sandals. These were the
marks of the kshatriya. Plastic art of early Mahayana Buddhism illustrates bodhisattvas in a
form called uṣṇīṣin "wearing a turban/hair binding", wielding the mudras for "nonviolent
cakravarti rule".

59

Tibetan mandala of
chakravartis
list of 12 chakravartin of Avasarpini as
per Jainism is as follows
13. Bharata, son
of Tirthankara Rishabhanatha
14. Sagara, ancestor
of Bhagiratha as in
the Puranas
15. Maghava
16. Sanata Kumara
17. Tirthankara Shantinatha
18. Tirthankara Kunthunatha
19. Tirthankara Aranatha
20. Subhauma
21. Padmanabha
22. Harishena
23. Jayasena
24. Brahmadatt
the six

Mahāmaṇḍala-cakravartin, royal title andis defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be
found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.
Mahāmaṇḍala (महामण्डल):—[=mahā-maṇḍala] [from mahā > mah] m. Name of a king, [Buddhist
literature] The Great Chronicle of Buddhas (by Ven. Mingun Sayadaw)
Biography (2-3): Sāriputta and Moggallāna Mahātheras [Chapter 43 - Forty-one Arahat-Mahatheras
and their Respective Etadagga
Garga Samhita (English) (by Danavir Goswami)
Verse 8.13.136 < [Chapter 13 - A Thousand Names of Lord Balarāma]

In Buddhism, a chakravarti is the secular counterpart of a buddha. The term applies to

temporal as well as spiritual kingship and leadership, particularly in Buddhism and Jainism.
In Hinduism, a chakravarti is a powerful ruler whose dominion extends to the entire earth.
Ikeda, Daisaku (1977) in Buddhism, the first millennium. Quotes Buddha as saying that-

“One hundred years after my death, this boy will become a Chakravarti king at Pataliputra
who will rule over all regions. His name will be Ashoka, and he will rule through the true
Dharma. In addition, he will distribute my relics abroad, will build eighty-four thousand
stupas.”
(Internet Archive. Tokyo ; New York : Kodansha International ; New York : distributed through Harper &
Row. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-87011-321-5. )

According to Hindu traditions, "Vishnu, in the form of Chakra, was held as the ideal of
worship for Kings desirous of obtaining Universal Sovereignty", a concept associated with
the Bhagavata Puranas, a religious sanction traceable to the Gupta period, which also led to
the chakravartin concept. There are relatively few examples of chakravartins in both northern
and southern India.

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Bharata, the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala, was conferred the title of cakravartin samrāj,
according to some legends. Another emperor of the same name, who was the son of
Rishabha, was also given the title cakravartin.

In Southern India, the Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575–900 CE) was a
transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, establishment of
(bhakti) sects of Alvars and Nayanars, flowering of rural Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit
learning, and the establishment of Chakravartin model of kingship over a territory of diverse
people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of territorially segmented people, each with their
culture, under a tribal chieftain. The Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on
ritual purity as enjoined by the shastras. Burton distinguishes between
the Chakravatin model and the Kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based
warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in
south India the kshatriya model did not emerge.

Sewu Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran
(746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang
Mataram Kingdom.
Guardians of the directions concept and the Saraswati River

The Guardians of the Directions (Sanskrit: दिक्पाल-Dikpāla) are the deities who rule the
specific directions of space according to Hinduism, Jainism and Vajrayāna Buddhism—
especially Kālacakra. As a group of eight deities, they are called Aṣṭa-Dikpāla (अष्ट-
दिक्पाल), literally meaning guardians of eight directions. They are often augmented with two
extra deities for the ten directions (the two extra directions being zenith and nadir), when they
are known as the Daśa-Dikpāla. In Hinduism it is traditional to represent their images on the
walls and ceilings of Hindu temples. They are also often portrayed in Jain temples, with the
exception that Nāga usually takes the place of Vishnu in the nadir. Ancient Java and Bali
Hinduism recognize Nava-Dikpāla, literally meaning guardians of nine directions, that
consist of eight directions with one addition in the center. The nine guardian gods of
directions is called Dewata Nawa Sanga (Nine guardian devata). The diagram of these
guardian gods of directions is featured in Surya Majapahit, the emblem of Majapahit empire.

There are strong similarities between the concept of the guardians of the directions and the
lore surrounding the Chinese four symbols, four ancestral spirits who are responsible for four
of the cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West).

Directions in Hindu tradition

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 Brahma, Lord of the Zenith (center) with
(from left) Varuna, Kubera, Yama and Indra.
Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Diśā, or Dik. There are four cardinal directions, six
orthogonal directions and a total of ten directions, however infinite combinations are
possible.

English Sanskrit

North Uttara, Udīcī

South Dakṣiṇa, Avācī

East Pūrva, Prācī, Prāk, Aruna

West Paścima, Pratīcī, Aparā

Northeast Īśāna

Southeast Agni

Northwest Vāyu

Southwest Nirṛta

Zenith Ūrdhva

Nadir AdhaH

Lokapālas
In Hinduism, the guardians of the cardinal directions are called the Lokapālas (लोकपाल), or
Dikpalaka. Three main distinctions of Dikpalaka are recognized, being:

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 T
he diagram of Surya Majapahit shows the arrangements of Hindu deities each resided in main
cardinal points.(Called Dewata Nawa Sanga in ancient Java and Bali Hinduism)

The Ashta-Dikpala with Brahma in the centre denoting Zenith

Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions")

Name Direction

Kubera, God of Fortune North

Yama, God of Justice and Death South

Indra, Lord of Heaven and God of the Weather,

East
Sky, Rain, and Storms

Varuna, God of the Seas, Oceans, and Rain West

Ishana, God of Birth, Death, Resurrection, and

Northeast
Time

Southeast (in the image incorrectly

Agni, God of Fire
shown on southwest)

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 Vayu, God of the Winds and Air Northwest

Southwest (in the image incorrectly

Nirṛta, God of Death, Sorrow, and Decay
shown on southeast)

Daśa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Ten Directions")

Besides the eight guardians, the following are added:

 Brahma (Zenith, meaning "the farthest up from the gravitational force")

 Vishnu (Nadir, meaning "the direction in which gravity pulls")
Nava-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Nine Directions")

 Shiva (Center)
 Vishnu (North)
 Brahma (South)
 Isvara (East)
 Mahadeva (West)
 Sambhu (Northeast)
 Mahesora (Southeast)
 Sangkara (Northwest)
 Rudra (Southwest)

Giant Mandala Named Sewu Temple

The Complex of Sewu Temple is located inside the complex of Prambanan Temple,
exactly in the northern part of the complex. According to the inscriptions that have been
found, this temple was built at the same time while building Kalasan temple in 782 AD,
according to the Kelurak inscription. Meanwhile, according to another inscription,
Manjushrigriha, this temple was expanded in 792 AD. So it can be concluded that the
making of this temple in the beginning before the expansion. If looked at the
architectural design of the building Sewu Temple, The temple has a possibility to inspire
the design of Plaosan and Prambanan Temple.

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The name of the temple itself is based on the number of temples located in the complex.
Sewu which means a thousand in the Javanese language describes the number of temples
that actually consists of only 249 temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara
temples. The main temple is in the middle with its four sides surrounded by flanking
temples and ancillary temples. On some inscriptions, are written that Sewu Temple was
built as a giant Mandala, with the geometry of the building illustrated the universe. In
this Mandala, Vairocana Buddha is placed in the middle and surrounded by five
tathagatas (personification from the quality of a Budha), namely Akshobhya,
Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amogasiddhi.

Sewu temple has four gates on the front side of the outer court which each part is
guarded by a pair of Dwarapala statues that are facing each other. In the inner court also
has four gates with a pair of Dwarapala statues on each door. The four flanking temples
that lie outside the main wall are divided by the east, west, south and north sides. Each
part has a name, that is Bubrah Temple on the south side, Asu Temple on the east side,
Kulon Temple on the west side, and Lor Temple on the north side. Currently only temple
Bubrah and Asu temple that can be enjoyed by visitors, while Kulon Temple and Candi
Lor just leaving only with stone composition.

The uniqueness of this temple is also located in its location which is in complex of
Prambanan temple. Sewu temple is a Buddhist temple while Prambanan temple is the
largest and complex of Hindu temple. This indicates that in ancient times the Hindus and
Buddhists were very harmonious and lived together. Historically, Sewu Temple was built
during the reign of King Panangkaran of the Sanjaya dynasty. This temple was later
expanded during the reign of Rakai Pikatan who later married Hindu descendants namely
Pramodhyawardani of the Syailendra dynasty. This marriage then successfully united
both two great dynasties at that time, the Sanjaya dynasty and Syailendra dynasty.

The central temple enshrines Vairocana and the surrounding housed the 4 Tathagatas :

1. Aksobya- (Sanskrit: अक्षोभ्य "Immovable One ) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, a
product of the Adibuddha, who represents consciousness as an aspect of reality. By
convention he is located in the east of the Diamond Realm and is the lord of the
Eastern Pure Land Abhirati ('The Joyous'). His consort is Lochanā and he is normally
accompanied by two elephants. His color is blue-black and his attributes include a
bell, three robes, and staff, as well as a jewel, lotus, prayer wheel, and sword. He has
several emanations.

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2. Ratnasambhava (Sanskrit: रत्नसम्भव, lit. "Jewel-Born") is one of the Five Dhyani
Buddhas (or "Five Meditation Buddhas") of Mahayana and Vajrayana or Tantric
Buddhism. Ratnasambhava's mandalas and mantras focus on developing equanimity
and equality and, in Vajrayana Buddhist thought is associated with the attempt to
destroy greed and pride. His consort is Mamaki and his mount is a horse or a pair of
lions.

3. Amitabh (Sanskrit: अमिताभ 'Infinite Light') is the principal Buddha of Pure Land
Buddhism. which is understood to be his enjoyment body (Saṃbhogakāya).
In Vajrayana Buddhism, Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment, pure
perception, and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of
all phenomena.In the Mandala of the Two Realms, Amitābha is associated with
the Diamond Realm, while Amitāyus appears in the Womb Realm. He is widely
represented in Borobudur.See Chapter ….below for a discussion of the Amitabh in
Borobudur.

4. Amoghasiddhi (Devanagari: अमोघसिद्धि) is one of the Five Wisdom Buddhas of

the Mahayana and Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism. He is associated with the
accomplishment of the Buddhist path and of the destruction of the poison of envy. His
name means Unfailing Accomplishment. His consort is Tara, meaning Liberator and
his mounts are garudas. He belongs to the family of karma whose family symbol is
the double vajra. (Pic Below left)

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 Amitabh
5. The niches with Parivar Devatas (The family gods)
Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to the “subsidiary deities”, as discussed in chapter
10 (Kriyāpāda) of the Padmasaṃhitā: the most widely followed of Saṃhitā covering
the entire range of concerns of Pāñcarātra doctrine and practice (i.e., the four-fold
formulation of subject matter—jñāna, yoga, kriyā and caryā) consisting of roughly
9000 verses.—
Guardians of the cosmic directions at Sewu

In each of the five courtyards it is proper to install certain aspects of the Lord in the form of
parivāradevatā. Parivāradevatā (परिवारदेवता) refers to a “group of Gods” that are not
positioned in garbhagṛha (the temple’s main room), yet the corridor instead (Liebert, 1976,
p. 214). And are divided into subs parivāra and main parivāra. The small parivāra have
specific names, but their existence is not known specifically in the mythology of Indian Gods.
For examples-

1. First Courtyard: Garuḍa, Viṣvaksena, Śaṅkara, Kṣetrapāla, Ṣaṇmukha, etc., are in the
first courtyard (94-99);
2. Second Courtyard- Sūrya, Candra, Hayagrīva, and others will be located in the second
courtyard (100-105); the
3. Third Courtyard- twelve Ādityas, Manmatha, the Pitṛgaṇas, Gaṇeśa, etc., will be
found in the third courtyard (106-1102);
4. Fourth Courtyard: Upendra, the Gaṇadevatās, etc., will be placed in the fourth
courtyard (110b144a—no mention is made of the fifth courtyard). Description of the
chapter [parivārādidevatā-kalpana]:

Chapter 22 (parivāra-vidhi says the following about attendant dieties

“rules regarding the attendant deities”): Iconometry continues, this chapter being
given over to rules for the attendant deities [parivāradevatā]:

1. Hayagrīva
2. Garuḍa
3. Sūrya
4. Soma
5. Kāma
6. Gajānana
7. Ṣaṇmukha
8. Dhanada

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 9. Rudra
10. Kṣetrapāla
11. Viṣvaksena
12. Brahmā
13. Vīrabhadra ,
14. Vināyaka
15. Ajāmukha
16. Āditya ,
17. Pitṛs and
18. Viśvedeva (From : Shodhganga: The significance of the mūla-beras (śilpa)

One can also understanbd Parivāradevata to refer to the “gods related in a family” whose
images are found scattered within Hindu temples.Each temple is filled with numerous images
of :
a. Gods, goddesses,
b. Narivāra-devatas (gods related in a family),
c. Devas (attendants to the gods),
d. Sālagrāmās (cakra–an ammonite shell),
e. Bānaliṅgās (egg-shaped pebbles),
f. Yantras (mystic and magical diagrams engraved upon metallic plates),
g. Navagrahas (the nine planetary divinities),
h. certain divine animals and birds,
i. certain holy rivers, tanks, trees and
j. Sepulchers of saints.

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 II
Explaining Sewu
Manjusrigrha
Manjusri is a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle
glory" of transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of
eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of
his successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Sewu an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha. Sewu which means a thousand in the
Javanese language describes the number of temples that actually consists of only 249
temples, with one main temple and 240 perwara temples. The main temple is in the middle
with its four sides surrounded by flanking temples and ancillary temples.

The Shiva Temple’s Lokapalas – Guardians of the Directions of Space

On the outside-facing walls of the Shiva temple’s central cella there are a total of 24 relief
panels. Eight of these figures collectively represent a group of Deities called the Lokapalas
— the guardians of the eight directions of space. Vedic cosmology associates six of the eight
Lokapalas with six of the planets of ancient astronomy: Kubera (Venus), Varuna (Mercury),
Yama (Mars), Agni (Saturn), Issana (Moon) and Indra (Jupiter). In addition, the Lokapalas
Nirriti and Vayu were assigned stations in the sky that corresponded with certain star signs of
Vedic astronomy, called the nakshatras.

The Temple Complex

69
The architecture of the Prambanan temple complex follows Vastu Shastra and was built on the
model of Mount Meru, the Cosmic mountain. The whole temple complex is a model of the
Universe according to Hindu cosmology.
The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, in what would later
become Yogyakarta. Hundreds of brahmins lived with their disciples within the outer wall of
the temple compound.
Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The temple complex
consist of:
• 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva Mahadeva
• 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of
each gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
• 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on
north and south side
• 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main
gates of inner zone
• 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
• 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers
of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68. Today, only 2 out of the
original 224 perwara temples are renovated.
The Tri Mandala principle
The Prambanan temple consists of 3 zones, according to the Indonesian Hindu tri
mandala principle:
• Nista Mandala (outer zone) — a large space marked by a walled perimeter, which
originally measured about 390 m per side, and contained a sacred garden, an ashram for
monks and accommodation for the priests.
• Madya Mandala (middle zone) that contains hundreds of small temples
• Utama Mandala (holiest inner sanctum) that contains 8 main temples and 8 small shrines.
Just like Borobudur, Prambanan is structured in three mandalas, from the less holy to
the holiest realms. Both the compound site plan (horizontally) and the temple structure
(vertically) represents 3 layers of the Universe:
• Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of
life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of
bhurloka.
• Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and
the body of each temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.
• Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods.
Also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the
realm of svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna
(sanskrit: jewel), the shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent
diamonds. In ancient Java temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist
stupa, and served as the temple’s pinnacle.

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The Shiva temple
The inner zone or central compound is the holiest among the three zones. It is the square
elevated platform surrounded by a square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal
points. This holiest compound is assembled of 8 shrines or candi. The 3 main shrines, called
are dedicated to the three Gods of the Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva Mahadeva.
The Shiva temple is the tallest and largest structure in Prambanan Loro Jonggrang
complex. Candi Shiva — the central shrine — rises 47 m high and contains 4 inner chambers
that face the 4 points of the compass. The eastern gate of Shiva temple is flanked by two small
shrines, dedicated to the guardian gods Mahakala and Nandhisvara.

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The Shiva temple is encircled with galleries adorned with bas-reliefs telling the Ramayana. To
follow the story accurately, visitors must enter from the East side and began to
perform pradakshina.
The Shiva shrine is located at the center and contains five chambers, four small chambers in
every cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in the central part of the temple. The
east chamber connects to the central chamber that houses the largest temple in Prambanan, a
three-metre high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.
The statue bears the lakçana (attributes or symbol) of Shiva such as the skull and sickle
(crescent) at the crown, and third eye on the forehead. The four hands that holds Shiva’s
symbols: prayer beads, feather duster, and trisula (trident).
The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Shiva’s consort Durga
Mahisasuramardini, Rishi Agastya — one of the Saptarishis who took the yogic sciences
across South Asia — and Ganesha.
The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Rara Jonggrang, after the Javanese legend
of Rara Jonggrang. Indeed, Javanese folk religion was always superposed with the more
elitist Shiva-Buddha syncretism.
A well containing the peripih was discovered under the center of the Shiva temple. The stone
casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold
and silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga
serpent, padma, altar, and an egg).

The sacred peripih is the core of the shrine in all Indonesian temples

Shiva and Saraswati

Goddesses Lakshmi, Saraswati, and Durga are the same?
They all were the menifestation of goddess adiparashakti , the supreme mother of the whole
universe from whom everything in this universe have born from her .

When the Tridevas ie lord shiva, lord brahma , lord vishnu started the formation of universe ,
lord brahma was unable to complete the formation so they started praying the supreme energy
ie devi adiparashakti to guide them on a right path how to establish life and this universe .
They started tapasya of the supreme mother …….
After the long time of prayer devi adiparashakti listened to them and devi adiparashakti
showed herself to them (gave them darshan) in her real form. She told them who is she, the
mother of all beings and the tridev also originated from her then tridev told them about the
problem and wanted to know why they are unable to complete the creation of the universe
then she told that nothing in this universe can be accomplish by the prsence or contribution of
shakti or woman presence . Then they ask what is the solution, she gave a solution so to help
you i will separate myself into three halves

Without knowledge brahma cannot complete the creation of the universe so he with have a
consort the goddess of knowledge- Sarasvatī

Without luxuries the universe cannot be managed so with Vishnu the consort will be one who
will be the goddess of wealth ie goddess lakshmi

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Saraswati is the sister of Shiva. The story of birth of Ganga that I have read in my childhood.
Narada and Tumburu are the two celestial musicians of the Devaloka. Their rivalry over
mastery of music leads them to Lord Shiva. Shiva directs them to Lord Vishnu.

Lord Vishnu points out to them that Hanuman is the better of them. They decide to try him
out and prove their mastery. At the appointed time, Bramha, Vishnu, Shiva, Narada,
Tumburu and Hanuman gather. To make the test interesting, Shiva freezes everyone in ice till
their abdomen, with only their head and limbs movable. The test is to melt the ice with your
music and free yourself. Both Narada and Tumburu fail, and Hanuman succeeds in thawing
himself out.After accepting his greatness, both Narada and Tumburu request Hanuman to free
them too. Upon their request, Hanuman sings and the soulful and celestial music melts the ice
and both Narada and Tumburu are free. But Hanuman is now in a different universe and
continues to sing. The song is so powerful that Vishnu enters trance, and a part of his aura
melts and trickles down to the feet. Bramha promptly collects and stores the aura in his
kamandala. This aura of Vishnu melted by the divine and mellifluous song of devotee
Hanuman, now collected by Bramha is Ganga.

Descent from heavens.

Pleased by Bhagirath’s penance to bring peace to his ancestors’ souls, Ganga agreed to
descend from the heavens. But the force for her descent would crush the earth and lead to
devastating catastrophe. To prevent the same, Bhagirath started penance unto Shiva. Shiva is
pleased with the penance and agrees to arrest Ganga’s descent of destruction.

When at the opportune moment Bramha releases Ganga from the heavens to the earth, Shiva
is ready with his locks open to contain Ganga’s destructive dance. In her arrogance, Ganga
swelled up to cause maximum destruction but Shiva caught her in his locks and imprisoned
her, to teach her a lesson. Bhagirath was distraught and did penance unto Shiva a second
time. Shiva softened and released Ganga, falling on the ground and flowing into 7 streams. 3
to the east, 3 to the west and one followed Bhagirath, who led the waters over his ancestors’

73
ashes and their souls were redeemed. This having completed the incomparable task,
Bhagirath brought Ganga to earth.

Bramha ordained that Ganga would also be known as Bhagirathi.

For the symbolism:

1. Ganga (Knowledge) flows from Shiva (God) to man (consciousness) to free the
cursed souls (mind)

2. Knowledge has the power to enrich or crush you. Only the enlightened ones
(Bhagirath) with their penance can bring the knowledge to the masses.

Sewu is only 1.7 Km away from Prambanan. Prambanan is built in 850 AD and Sewu
Temple was built by the end of the eighth century at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed during the reign of his successor, King Indra. Rakai
Panangkaran (Pinkaton ) (746–780 CE) was well-known as a devoted Mahayana
Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.

74
75
76
So when the northwestern region of ancient India experienced a major earthquake which
resulted in the loss of the flow of the sacred Saraswati River, it was seen that this incident had
major consequences for the existence of Hinduism above Indian civilization, the loss of an
element of purity and holiness mentioned in its holy book (Veda).

Could it be that the big earthquake that obliterated the Saraswati River was the turning point
for Hinduism in India? which in the course of its history after the holy river which was
mentioned repeatedly in his holy book it actually dried up and disappeared without a trace,
then followed by Prayag which is the holy place where for the first time Lord Brahma
received his offerings also it was controlled by the Muslim Mughal Empire even later
controlled by the British Empire until it changed its name to Allahabad.

It seems that since the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of the Saraswati
River in northeastern India is an early sign of the fading of India's brilliance from a Hinduism
side and it could be that the belief in the Saraswati River as a mystical river is a religious
effort and a political step to defend India's existence against Indian Hindus. which dominates
Indian society and the recognition of India itself in world civilization as a place where the
gods reside in the greatness of Hinduism.

In the year 2006 a fault was detected during the Yogyakarta earthquake along the Prambanan
plain to the east towards the Ganwarno area.The Opak flows from its source on the slopes

77
of Mount Merapi in the north, heading southward and passes the west side of 9th-
century Prambanan temple compound, located to the east of Yogyakarta and west of Kota
Gede. It also passes the historical locations of Plered, Karta, and Imogiri before draining into
the Indian Ocean in the southern part of Bantul.
The river runs upon the major Opak tectonic fault, in southern Central Java responsible for r
earthquakes which have not only put focus on the opak, but also highlighted the existence of
the Opak River and a river that once existed along Prambanan and Sewu Temples just as the
Ganga and Jamuna are important to the Sacred buildings around it. It is therefore believed by
some that this point was chosen to base the location for the construction of the Prambanan
Temple as the river formed from the Prambanan-Gantiwarno earthquake path flows from east
to west towards the Opak River which is located right under the Prambanan Temple building.
So that the existence of the confluence of the 2 rivers resembles the confluence of the
Yamuna river in India which flows into the Ganges River which is referred to as "sangam".
In the "sangam" place between the Ganges and Yamuna in India there is a place called
Allahabad, Allahabad itself was formerly a place called Prayag. The word Prayag means "a
place to ask (blessings)", this place is an ancient place mentioned in the Vedas as the first
place where Lord Brahma received his offerings. In the course of its history, Prayag was
controlled by the Mughal Empire and changed its name to Ilahabad which in Persian means
"city of Allah", and after that, Illahabad was often called Allahabad by the British colonialists
until now.

Until now, Prayag is still used as one of the venues for the sacred Maha Kumbh-mela
( Kumbh Fair) procession which is held about once every 12 years based on the constellation
of the celestial body.As mentioned in the Vedas, there are 3 main rivers flowing in India,
namely the Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati. It is possible that these 3 rivers still existed when
Allahabad was named Prayag. However, after that, of the 3 rivers, only 2 remained physically
because the Saraswati River is no longer known, so for Hindus in India, the Saraswati River
is often considered a mystical river.The Saraswati River flowed from the mountains and
ended in the sea (Rgveda VII.95.2 ) . Using satellite photography technology, the experts
found traces that the Saraswati River used to exist in India, but now it is almost
unrecognizable because it has dried up for a long time and has changed its shape. The trail of
the river can still be observed, namely around the Himalayas crossing the edge of the Thar
Desert (passing through several countries) and ending in the Bay of Bengal.
It is thought that this river dried up as a result of a massive earthquake, and it is possible that
the same earthquake brought the end of civilizations along the Indus Valley (Migration of the
Aryans)

Sangam (meeting ) in-Java?

The earthquake fault, indicates that it once formed a river (call it the Gantiwarno River)
which flows into the Opak River, resulting in a meeting point for 2 rivers as the Gangga-
Yamuna "sangam", if Prayag is on the edge of the sangam/battle of the river, then Prambanan
Temple Instead, it was built in the middle of the confluence of the Opak River and the
Gantiwarno River by diverting the flow of the Opak River so that it formed a large pond
around it.

Apart from the Opak River and the Gantiwarno River, there are 2 other rivers which can be
considered as to which one the Saraswati River is of Java, namely: the Bengawan Solo River

78
in the east which currently empties into Gresik, East Java and the Progo River to the west
which empties into Kulon Progo.
However, if we look at the historical flow of the loss of the Saraswati River in India, it seems
that there is a very small possibility that the Progo River is the Saraswati River of Java,
because throughout its history the Progo River has not experienced a drought like the
Saraswati River in India.

Personally, I am more inclined to the Bengawan Solo River as the Javanese Saraswati River,
but what I mean by Bengawan Solo is not the river which currently flows north and empties
into the Gresik area, East Java, but the Ancient Bengawan Solo River which empties into
Sadeng Beach, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta.

3 approximate river basins

The Bengawan Solo River (Ancient) has quite an interesting history to study. And has
become the icon of the city of Solo. It currently flows northwards towards the Java Sea by
meandering across several areas.It was stated that during the period of 4 million years ago
this river flowed southwards towards the South Sea (Indian Ocean), then a devastating
earthquake occurred as a result of the process of the Australian earth plate hitting the
mainland of Java Island so that the seabed of the Indian Ocean on the south side was lifted up
to become new land along Gunung Kidul (Yogyakarta), Wonogiri (Central Java) and Pacitan
(East Java). The elevation of the area made the mouth of the Bengawan Solo (ancient) River
which is in the south also bright and made the flow of the river reverse to change direction
from south to north, while the mouth of the river which was raised became a dry valley/basin
because the water of the Ancient Bengawan Solo was unable to erode it, now the community
named the dry valley as Telaga Suling and its estuary became known as a new area called
Sadeng Beach.

The disappearance of the Saraswati River from the map of mainland India due to a large
earthquake and the reverse of the flow of the Ancient Bengawan Solo River with dry
conditions at its estuary due to a large earthquake are a similarity of natural events that may
have the same philosophical meaning.

The missing river on the Saraswati River in India and the water that does not flow in the
direction it should be on the Bengawan Solo River in Jaws are similar from a philosophical
point of view that both are no longer purifying as they should be by referring back to the
passage of the Rig Veda II. 35.3 which reads:

"sama yanty upa yanty anyah

samanam urvam na-dyah prnanti,
guest u Sucim sucayo diivamsam
apam napatam pari tasthur apah"

A large amount of water, along with others, gathers into rivers which flow together towards
the reservoir. the pure water that flows, both from springs and from the sea, has a purifying
power.

There is a straightforward thought from the series of estimates above, throughout the span of
history that started from the time of the big earthquake which resulted in the disappearance of

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the Saraswati River in India, whether the construction of Çiwagrha (Prambanan Temple) on
Java Island is a series of efforts to purify Hinduism in India which is considered that the Gods
have departed from the “singhasana” which is marked by the abandonment of India by one of
its sacred rivers?

If Prayag in India is the place where Brahma first received offerings, could the Prambanan
temple our Shivalaya in Java led by Rakai Pikatan in presenting the palace to Lord Shiva? If
this is indeed the case, then the steps taken by the kings before, during the reign of Rakai
Pikatan –Pramodhawardani and afterward were steps of human civilization, not only steps to
maintain the hegemony of Ancient Mataram power.

If the Saraswati River in India can dry up and disappear without a trace, then the situation is
the same in Java, the river that is imaged as the Saraswati River of Java is experiencing the
same thing. Javanese history speaks of massive migration from the Ancient Mataram
Kingdom which was located in central Java to eastern Java by Mataram King Pu Sindok, this
move almost coincided with a natural process of MahaPralaya ( The great disaster/ Flood),
which is interpreted as a major disaster on the land of Java caused by the eruption of Mount
Merapi which is located on the north side of Prambanan Temple which is the headwaters of
the Opak River which is manifested as the Ganges River of the land of Java.

Some information states that around the Mahapralaya incident there was also another event,
namely the return attack from Srivijaya on Java, it seems that the old grudge for power over
Pramodhawardani's brother who had become the king of Srivijaya continued to grow into a
grudge that was passed down for several generations, if you look closely at the efforts this
attack carried out by Sriwijaya in the period leading up to Mahapralaya was an attempt to
thwart the migration preparations of the entire Mataram kingdom so that there would be a
delay in saving from Mahapralaya's rampage.

If Mahapralaya is referred to as a major disaster in the form of Mount Merapi which erupted
on a large scale which was able to completely bury the top of the Sambisari temple which
incidentally is located further south from the Prambanan point, then the fate of the Ganwarno
River lost its traces of being buried by volcanic material from the eruption of Mount Merapi,
so that the Yamuna-River disappeared. The island of Java, the support for the sanctity of
Prambanan who stands at the Ganges-Yamuna “sangam” (battle of the river) of Java.

The question is whether the reversal of the direction of the ancient Bengawan Solo River
from north to south to south to north is part of the Mahapralaya event?

So when Mahapralaya occurred, what caused Mount Merapi to erupt violently was it really a
purely independent eruption from within Mount Merapi, or was it triggered by other factors
in the form of a very powerful wave of earthquake energy from the same earthquake source
with the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. And the same earthquake that caused Mount Merapi to
erupt violently in Mahapralaya also made the ancient Bengawan Solo River turn north. Thus
the assumption appears that the Mahapralaya process (in terms of natural events) is a natural
disaster that starts with a major earthquake (megathrust) in the South Sea (Indian Ocean)
which causes the lifting of the ocean floor so that the flow of the Bengawan Solo Ancient
River reverses direction, then the energy spreads far to the north forced Mount Merapi to
erupt violently and the material buried a civilization that had previously been destroyed by a
large earthquake.

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So if it is equated with the depiction of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India, the
Mahapralaya incident in Java is: a big earthquake, the Saraswati River of Java reversed
direction, the Prayag building of Jawa (Prambanan Temple) collapsed in the earthquake,
Mount Merapi was flooded with earthquake energy and then erupted violently , the volcanic
material of Mount Merapi covered all ancient Mataram buildings.

However, if we look at the pattern of the disappearance of the Saraswati River in India,
which has similarities with the process of drying up the mouth of the Ancient Bengawan Solo
River due to the earthquake, and the existence of the Prambanan Temple in choosing an
unusual location for its construction, in my opinion there is a possibility that one day it could
be examined again.

And from this possibility at least a new question is opened, have we made a mistake in
calculating the historical time, have we miscalculated that in fact the event of the lifting of
the sea floor that forms the land of Gunung Kidul, Wonogiri and Pacitan did not occur 4
million years ago but several hundred years ago as ancient historians calculate based on the
artifacts they reveal

That the existence of Prambanan Temple on the island of Java is not as old as what ancient
historians say, but at the same age as the estimated formation of land along Gunung Kidul,
Wonogiri and Pacitan which is marked by the traces of the Ancient Bengawan Solo Valley
which were 4 million years ago.In relation to the above, it should be underlined that efforts to
search for traces of the Saraswati River in India using satellite imagery suggest that the
Saraswati River used to exist (around 2,500-2,000 BC) and disappeared due to a very
powerful earthquake, and the same earthquake which was indicated as the trigger for the
migration of the Aryans in the civilization of the Indus river valley sparked a controversy
regarding the age of the Vedas.

Hence
1. Should the brother (SHIVA) be near the Sister ( Sarswati)
2. Is not the temple of Prambanan better placed near the confluence of the rivers such
as in ancient India

opak

81
Ganges

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 III
Perwara Temples of the Sewu Mandala
Read my book on Perwara temples
https://www.academia.edu/116335427/PERWARA_TEMPLES?sm=a

The word Perwara comes from Sanskrit प्रावर (prāvara, “fence, enclosure”).There are a bunch of
meanings to the word:

1. (archaic) female escort of the king.

2. (archaic) queen. synonyms
3. guardian or peripheral temple. synonym
Synonym: candi pewara

Perwara as ” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and
Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia,
2016.

Exactly when the idea of the design of the Perwara temples came up in the history of Hindu Mandir
development is not clear and difficult to ascertain. Suffice it to say that just as the Various Hindu
Gods have vehicles to travel and consorts ( both male and female) so also cme the idea that a temple
diety should have a bodyguard, guardian, accompanying assistant, chaperon. Companion, guardian,
body-guard and then the building of smaller temples adjescent to the main ones came up. Also parallel
is the development of the Apit temples.

Modern historians disagree amongst each other as to the political and cultural events that led
to Construction of the Kedu Plain structures of Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism. It is
possible that the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on
the spot where Borobudur now sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete
their temple as they were driven out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. Some other theories
see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that religious
patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is that there
were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.).

The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished under couple of
dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and
Buddhism.The common relationship between Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore , Angkor
Wat and Prambanan is that they share the same South Indian architectural style – Pallava-
Chola. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara temples (discussed above)
of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the Somapura Vihara ruins in
Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.

83
Paharpur an important archaeological site in Bangladesh, situated in a village named
Paharpur (Pahadpur) under the Badalgachhi Upazila of Naogaon district. The village is
connected with the nearby Railway station Jamalganj, the district town Naogaon and
Jaipurhat town by metalled roads. It is in the midst of alluvial flat plain of northern
Bangladesh. In contrast to the monotonous level of the plain, stands the ruins of the lofty
(about 24m high from the surrounding level) ancient temple which was covered with jungle,
locally called Pahar or hill from which the palace got the name of Paharpur.
The site was first noticed by Buchanon Hamilton in course of his survey in Eastern India
between 1807 and 1812. The site was declared to be protected by the Archaeological Survey
of India in 1919 under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904. The temple-type at
Paharpur has been frequently described as entirely unknown to Indian archaeology. The
Indian literature on architecture, however, often refers to a type of temple, known as
sarvatobhadra - a square shrine with four entrances at the cardinal points and with an
antechamber on each side (chatuhshala griha). The temple at Paharpur, as now excavated,
approximates in general to the sarvatobhadra type.

P
e
r
w
a
r
a

Paharpur Mahavihara/Ground plan of Paharpur Mahavihara

Systematic excavation were started here in 1923. After independence (1971)

the DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY of Bangladesh brought the site under further excavation.
Architectural remains Pre-1971 expeditions have revealed the architectural remains of a vast
Buddhist monastery, the SOMAPURA MAHAVIHARA, measuring 274.15m N-S and 273.70m E-
W. This gigantic establishment with surrounding 177 monastic cells, gateways, votive stupas,
minor chapels, tank and a multitude of other structures for the convenience of the inmates, is
dominated by a central shrine, conspicuous by its lofty height and architectural peculiarities.
It is distinguished by its cruciform shape with angles of projection between the arms, its three
raised terraces and complicated scheme of decoration of walls with carved brick cornices,
friezes of terracotta plaques and stone reliefs.

84
The monastery The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, has high enclosure
walls, about 5m in thickness and from 3.6m to 4.5m in height. Though the walls are not
preserved to a very great height, but from their thickness and massiveness it can be assumed
that the structure was storied commensurate with the lofty central shrine.
In plan it consists of rows of cells, each approximately 4.26 x 4.11m in area, all connected by
a spacious verandah (about 2.43 to 2.74m wide), running continuously all around, and
approached from the inner courtyard by flight of steps provided in the middle of each of the
four sides.
There are in all 177 cells, excluding the cells of the central block in each direction; 45 cells
on the north and 44 in each of the other three sides. The central block on the east, west and
south sides is marked by a projection in the exterior wall and contains three cells and a
passage around them, while in the north there stands a spacious hall. In the monastic cell No.
96 three floors have been discovered. Here the level of the last one (upper) is within 30cm
from ground level, that of the second 1m, while the third (lowest) is about 1.5m from the
surface.
A lofty shrine, the central temple, occupies the central part of the vast open courtyard of the
monastery, the remains of which is still 21m high and covers 27sq.m of area. It was built on a
cruciform plan which rises in three gradually diminishing terraces. The shape of the terminal
structure is still unknown to us. A centrally placed hollow square right at the top of the
terraces provides the moot point for the conception of the whole plan of the spectacular form
and feature of this stupendous monument. In order to relieve the monotony and to utilise the
colossal structure to serve its basic purpose, provision was made in the second as well as in
the first terrace for a projection, consisting of an ante-chamber and a mandapa on each face,
leaving out a portion of the whole length of the square at each of the four corners. The
ambulatory passage with the parapet wall was made to run parallel to the outline of this plan.
This arrangement resulted in a cruciform shape with projecting angles between the arms of
the cross. An enclosure wall strictly conforming to the basement plan, with only a slight
deviation near the main staircase, runs round the monument. There is ample evidence that this
complete plan, from the basement to the top, along with different component elements,
belonged to a single period of construction, but the later repairs, additions and alterations did
not fundamentally affect the general arrangement and plan.
Structures outside the monastery area An open platform measuring 32m x 8m is situated at
a distance of about 27m from the outer wall of the southern wing. It runs parallel to the
monastery. It stands about 3.5m above the adjoining ground level and is accessible from a
raised pathway across room 102.Several remains of Perwara shrines have been marked by
some experts but not by others because the remains are fragementary. This could be the
earliest reference to this perwara concept.
To our knowledge, it is one of the earliest and very rare examples of this type of construction,
proving that vaults were known in ancient India before the advent of the Muslims. The entire
southern face of the platform is marked with a series of water-chutes, each 30 cm in width
and 1.30m in length occurring at interval of 1.2m. The channels are provided with fine
jointed brickwork. It was used probably for the purpose of both ablution and toilet.
Bathing ghat There is a bathing ghat at a distance of 48m from the outer wall of the
monastery towards the southeastern corner of the monastery. It is not parallel to the south
wall of the monastery, but is slightly inclined towards the north. On either side of it there is a
parallel wall paved with brick-on-edge and concrete. The head of the ghat is laid with huge
stone blocks along with brickwork, 3.6m in length. It descends in a gradual slope to 12.5m,

85
where occurs a band of lime stone slabs. The bed of the ghat is also covered with sand which
shows the existence of a stream close by. A tradition in relation to the ghat is still current
among the local people that Sandhyavati, the daughter of a king named Mahidalan, used to
bathe at the ghat every day and she is supposed to be the mother of Satyapir through
immaculate conception.

Ruins of the Perwara temples at Sompura Paharpur

These various structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture,

Pala architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. Temples of
Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi (pronounced as
Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan while Koil are
those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g., Mariamman Koil in Aceh
in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount
Bromo. All temples here are called Candi. A word is derived from the Sanskrit word
Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in
Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries.
Prambanan Temple Compounds.

Somapura Mahavihara (Sanskrit;

Bengali: সোমপুর মহাবিহার Shompur Môhabihar) in Paharpur, Naogaon, Bangladesh (25°1'51.83"N,

86
88°58'37.15"E) is among the best known Buddhist viharas in the Indian Subcontinent and is one of the
most important archaeological sites in the country.It was was one of the major learning centres during
the heyday of Buddhism in Bengal under the Pala kings (8th-11th centuries AD). The quadrangular
structure consists of 177 cells and a Buddhist temple in the centre. The rooms were used by the monks for
accommodation and meditation. In addition to the large number of stupas and shrines of various sizes
and shapes, terracotta plaques, stone sculptures, inscriptions, coins, ceramics etc. have been discovered.
The central lofty pyramidal structure lies in the middle of the 22 acres courtyard. The structure rises
upward in a tapering mass of three receding terraces, which, even ruins, reaches a height of 23 meters.
Each of the terraces has a circum-ambulatory passage around the monument. At the topmost terrace (of
the existing ruin) there were four antechambers on the projecting arms of the cross. The overall design of
this complicated architecture is cantered on a square hollow shaft, which runs down from the present top
of the mound to the level of second terrace.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area.The
other Buddhist temple is Kalasan. The Sambisari and Prambanan are both Shivaite temples
that also feature Goddess Durga asMahishasuramardini.
The remarkable thing about the design elements is that almost all could be said to be
Mandalas and though some are ruined so that the mandala is not seen. All have Perwara
temples surrounding the main diety temple like the armies protecting the main King.
Sanjaya dynasty was an ancient Javanese dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom in Java
during first millennium CE. The dynasty was an active promoter of Hinduism in ancient Java.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
Another suggests that the Sañjaya dynasty then was forced to the north of Java by
the Sailendra dynasty, which emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on
the Kalasan inscription. During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence
and cooperation.
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism. The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogyakarta).
Sanjaya (AD 716 – 746) complete name Narapati Raja Śrī Sañjaya and Rakai Matarām
Saŋ Ratu Sañjaya, was the founder of Mataram Kingdom during the eighth century. His
name was revealed in the Sanskrit Canggal inscription carved in a stone found at Gunung

87
Wukir temple that stood on Wukir or Ukir hill (about 340 m (1,120 ft) high) on the
southern Kedu Plain in Central Java. suggested that Sanjaya was the progenitor of
the Sanjaya Dynasty, and there were two dynasties that ruled Central Java; the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Shivaist Sanjaya dynasty. The inscription also states that Sanjaya
was an ardent follower of Shaivism. The latter was forced to move eastward by Sanjaya as
written in an old Chinese report, which named Sanjaya as Chi-Yen
Sanjaya and MATARAM
Some researchers say that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is
called Mataram with the capital in Poh Pitu area, and the ruling dynasty is Shailendra. He
holds that Sanjaya and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially
were Shivaist. The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the
conversion of Raja Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to Buddhism
King Sanjaya established the The Mataram Kingdom, a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom
that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later
in East Java. It was ruled by the Shailendra dynasty and Ishana dynasty.
It benefited from maritime trade. According to foreign sources and archaeological findings,
the kingdom seems to have been well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom
developed a complex societyhad a well developed culture, and achieved a degree of
sophistication and refined civilization.In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-
9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture
reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are
1. Kalasan,
2. Sewu,
3. Borobudur and
4. Prambanan,
At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant empire—not only in Java, but also
in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and
the Khmer in Cambodia. The immediate successor of King Sanjaya was Dyah Pancapana (7
October 746 – 1 April 784) or regnal name Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ Pañcapaṇa Kariyāna
Paṇaṃkaraṇa Śrī Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya, was the second king of Mataram from the Shailendra
dynasty whose kingdom was centered on the Java island Indonesia.
Amrati Kings or Amravati Kings
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The
first four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and
Garung), which was known as the Amrati Kings.
The Sanjays who were Hindus competed over their power and religious influences with
the Buddhist Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779..
Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time,
the rivalries between the two is still unclear.
From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there were stated that Panangkaran granted
permission requested by the collective guru of the Sailendra king to build
Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the goddess Tara. The construction
was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by Sailendra's expenses. In

88
order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the building of the shrine by
giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.

The Mandala of the Sewu temple

As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------E
olution of
Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture: Case Study of Sewu Temple
Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 421 4th
International Conference on Arts Language and Culture (ICALC 2019)

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang). Here we see a clear Mandala and remains of several Perwara temples.

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Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

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Perwara temples surrounding the Prambanan- above right

CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before the Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.

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And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
12. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
13. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
14. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
15. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
16. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
17. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
18. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
19. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
20. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
21. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
22. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are

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missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple. The Sewu
Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

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 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near
Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

Prambanan courtyard shows the Perwara ARPIT are RED

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 Candi Sewu Layout Mandala

An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of the 8th
century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia. PERWARA temples

95
Perwara temples

2 of three perwara temples.

The main temple compound located on the uppermost terrace, consists of a large main temple
facing west and three perwara temples on front of it facing east. These three perwara temples
was meant to honor Trimurti, having cella or room and there are windows perforated in the
rhombus shape. The roof is arranged in three stages adorned with rows of ratnas.

The main temple, showing the three niches. One of the perwara
temples can be seen behind it.
The main temple has square ground plan with a large linga and yoni adorned
with naga serpent. The union of phallic linga and yoni symbolize the cosmic sacred union
between Shiva and Parvati as his shakti. There are three niches on each sides of inner wall in
the room, each niches flanked with a pair of devata, Hindu lesser gods and goddesses flying
toward the niches.The roof of main temple is arranged in three ascending terraces decreased
in size to the top forming stepped pyramid.
In the case of Prambanan these 224 shrines are also the "Candi Perwara", guardian or
complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believed it was
offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the
central temples.
Apit temples and smaller shrines. Apit in Javanese means "flank". It refers to the position of
the two temples that flanked the inner courtyard on the north and south sides. The room
inside the Apit temples is now empty. It is not clear to which deities these Apit temples were
dedicated.

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Apit (अपित् means Dry, waterless, as a river.Not having the इत् (it) or अनुबन्ध प्
(anubandha p). सार्वधातुकमपित् (sārvadhātukamapit) Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit
Dictionaries: Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary
Apit as an adjective would mean barren, dry.A temple that does not feature an Idol. But they
can have a depiction on the outer walls. For example:
Prambanan Apit temple of Saraswati is an Apit temple from the 9th-century located within
the complex of the Prambanan Temple Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. Apit
temple and smaller shrines, Between these rows of the main temple, on the north and south
side, stand two Apit temples. However, examining the southern Apit temple bas-reliefs on
the outer wall, a female deity is depicted, most probably Sarasvati, the Shakti (consort) of
Brahma. Considering the Hindu pantheon represented in Prambanan temples, it is possible
that the southern Apit temple was dedicated to Sarasvati, while the northern Apit temple was
dedicated to Lakshmi.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.
There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This

97
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.
Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

98
The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.

While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest

99
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

100
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

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 IV
Shiva Temple’s Lokapalas – Guardians of the Directions of Space

On the outside-facing walls of the Shiva temple’s central cella there are a total of 24 relief
panels. Eight of these figures collectively represent a group of Deities called the Lokapalas
— the guardians of the eight directions of space. Vedic cosmology associates six of the eight
Lokapalas with six of the planets of ancient astronomy: Kubera (Venus), Varuna (Mercury),
Yama (Mars), Agni (Saturn), Issana (Moon) and Indra (Jupiter). In addition, the Lokapalas
Nirriti and Vayu were assigned stations in the sky that corresponded with certain star signs of
Vedic astronomy, called the nakshatras.

Perwaras of Sewu and Prambanan

850 AD
Prambanan Temple Compounds
contains the original structures that
were built in the 9th century AD. The
temples collapsed due to earthquake,
volcanic eruption and a shift of political
power in the early 11th century, and
they were rediscovered in the 17th
century.
Sewu Temple was built by the
end of the eighth century at the
end of Rakai Panangkaran's
reign and was completed
during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai
Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was
well-known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who
ruled the Medang Mataram
Kingdom.

Prambanan Perwara temples Sewu Perwara

Both Sewu and Prambanan were built around the same span separated by 50 years and
also feature similar MANDALA layout . Sewu was a product of a Political Mandala
resulting from the Royal Wedding of a Hindu Prince with a Budhist Princess. Had there
been no such wedding, Sewu would not have been built.

102
In the spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage. This is one of the mullti-religious
temple-complexes at the center of Java. While the site of Prambanan is best known for its
Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest enterable Buddhist temple in all of
Indonesia.

Composed of hundreds of small stupas surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex
covers more than twenty-seven square kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with
finely carved Buddhist deities.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions.

Empty Throne Headless Buddhas

Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are
due to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last
millennium. Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of
time. Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas
(minor deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement. A flight of stairs leads
through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness. In the
middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a semi-circular
platform

103
Sewu is still not complete as seen from stones lying in the courtyard

South Indian Lion………………………………………………………Sewui

Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this period. See,
for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base. Much like the
lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail upturned and
mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

===========================================================
The Prambanan temple compound is
located approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) northeast
of the city of Yogyakarta on the boundary between
Central Java and Yogyakarta Location
Bokoharjo, Prambanan, Sleman
Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta
& Prambanan, Klaten Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia

Coordinates 7°45′8″S 110°29′30″E

Originally built in 850 CE during the

Built
reign of the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty
Prambanan, the Most Beautiful and Graceful Hindu Temple in Indonesia. Located not far
from the Buddhist Borobudur temple, the proximity of the two temples tells us that on Java,
Buddhism and Hinduism lived peacefully next to one another. Prambanan is a magnificent
spectacle and an icon of Indonesia's cultural heritage. It is locally known in Javanese as Rara
Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its

104
shrines and statues of Hindu patheon and Ramayana bas relief. The Borobudur Temple
Compounds on the other hand, is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and
was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
monument is located in the Kedu Valley, in the southern part of Central Java, at the centre of
the island of Java, Indonesia.

Imaginary layout pf Prambanan

While Borobudur is a Buddhist temple, Prambanan is a Hindu temple. Furthermore, the

temple of Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the World and the largest temple in
Indonesia, while the temple of Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia.They are
both 50 Kmn from each other a drive of 1 hr 31 min via Jl. Magelang/Jl. Magelang -
Yogyakarta/Jl. Semarang – Yogyakarta

Etymology of the word Perwara. “perwira” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta:
Language Development and Fostering Agency — Ministry of Education, Culture, Research,

105
and Technology of the Republic Indonesia, 2016 is from Malay perwira,
from Malay perwira (“hero; brave”), from Sanskrit प्रवीर (pravīra). Doublet of prawira.
pêrwira (first-person possessive perwiraku, second-person possessive perwiramu, third-
person possessive perwiranya)
1. (military, law enforcement) officer.
Synonym: opsir
2. (obsolete) hero, brave.
Synonym: pahlawan
perwira
1. (obsolete) heroic, brave.
Synonyms: gagah, berani
Perwara means (archaic) female escort of the king. (archaic) queen.

The Prambanan main structure is surrounded by small temples called the temple Perwara.
Perwara as mentioned earlier means guardian or peripheral and perwara is an Indonesian
word for an escort temple.It also means an escort either by females or by soldiers

Pram
banan

106
 Model of the Sewu temple

Ruins of Perwaras surrounding Prambanan Shivagriha/ Prambanan Temple building in Sleman,

Yogyakarta, photographed from the air, Friday (27/6/2014). Prambanan Temple was built in the 10th century
during the reign of two kings, Rakai Pikatan and Rakai Balitung.

107
Worker measuring one of the Perwara Temple

Yogyakarta Cultural Heritage Conservation Center (BPCB) officers measure boulders at the
Prambanan Temple Tourist Park complex. The BPCB Yogyakarta Prambanan Temple Unit
team carried out trials constructing Perwara Temple number 14 on the south side of the
Prambanan Temple complex in order to restore its original form.
Baca selengkapnya di artikel "Trial construction of Perwara Temple in
Prambanan", https://tirto.id/bYaZ

108
The Preservation of Cultural Heritage of Yogyakara will temporarily postpone the restoration
of Perwara Temple in the Prambanan Temple Complex during the national Eid holiday-Head
of Protection, Develpment and Utilization Section the Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Yogyakara, Wahyu Astuti, said in Yogyakarta on Sunday.“We try to complete the restoration
of Perwara Temple by the middle of November. We aim to restore one temple within a
year.”
Perwara Temple surrounds the main temple in the complex of Prambanan Temple, during the
Dutch colonization, two temples have been restored, In 2018 they restored another temple.

109
110
Restoration of PERWARAS in Prambanan from 2022

111
 IV
I
Candi Plaosan
The temple complex is situated in Bugisan village, about a kilometer from Prambanan
temples. On the way, you would see Sewu temple on your left hand side. Candi Plaosan,
built by a Hindu prince for his Buddhist bride in Central Java .

A great love story began with an interfaith union between a Buddhist princess and a Hindu
prince. The site is officially called Candi Plaosan, a complex of Buddhist temples located in
Klaten, Yogyakarta, a short distance north of the Hindu temples of Prambanan. What makes
it truly unique is that both complexes were built by the same Javanese king.

A TEMPLE FOR MEN, A TEMPLE FOR WOMEN

Like Prambanan, the sanctuary follows a square grid system with groups of smaller ancillary
shrines laid out in orderly rows. The buildings were constructed without mortar, their stones

112
quarried and precisely cut. A small number have been reconstructed, standing amongst piles
of gray andesite blocks yet to undergo restoration. At the center of Plaosan Lor, the two
nearly identical structures were viharas, meaning they were designed as Buddhist
monasteries.Above the arched gate portal leading to the temple is a Kala head whose gaping
mouth symbolically swallows our mortal impediments and permits passage into the sacred
inner courtyard.Towering stalagmite-like spires crown the multistory vihara, rising like the
jagged peaks of Mount Meru, the holy mountain abode of the gods, and a pair of mythical
serpentine makara form the railings of the staircase leading to the monastery — a small
Kewpie-doll like dwarf figure stands within the creature’s gaping jaws.The monument sits on
a high rectangular stone podium with an apron that extends several feet outward, forming a
porch where visitors can circumambulate the structure.

Looking toward the female viharn (monastery) from the one for males

113
There were once many more of these smaller Perwara shrines

Its exterior walls feature false windows, an architectural element meant to maintain symmetry
on the façade. These are embellished with distinctive Kala-makara ornamentation, but unlike
the ones above the gateways, these depictions of include a lower jaw with a wide
mischievous grin.

114
The temples are quite similar —but we’re pretty sure this is the one for men

Kala is a giant who was born from Shiva’s sperm

Enshrined within the central hall are a pair of headless seated Bodhisattva statues, one that is
more or less a torso, presumably plundered and decapitated by relic thieves. An empty
pedestal between the pair possibility held an enthroned bronze Buddha.

115
seated statues of Bodhisattva, those who have reached enlightenment but remain behind to instruct others/
Some of the statues inside the temples are now decapitated

Intricately detailed reliefs of various demigods and deities adorn the exterior walls.
According to a theory presented by Nicholas Johannes Krom, head of the early 20th century
Dutch Archeological Society, the two vihara were sponsored by influential patrons and built
for male and female monastics — not as a tribute to love, as locals prefer to believe.

Bas-reliefs line the exterior of Plaosan

The south-facing vihara depicts male figures, while the north depicts female figures. The
south temple was probably a monastery for Bhikkhu monks, while the north housed
Bhikkhuni nuns.One can see the construction style in action: squares of interlocking
stone/Deities and demigods adorn the outer walls, which you can circumambulate on a
platform. Whether or not Plaosan was constructed as a symbol of Pikatan’s devotion to Sri
Kuhulunan or as a display of political reconciliation to placate the Buddhist Sailendra
Dynasty, it certainly makes for an interesting story.

116
 https://www.thenotsoinnocentsabroad.com/blog/beyond-prambanan-the-love-temples-of-plaosan

History of the temple:

Rikai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty ruled Medang Kingdom of Central Java from 838 to 850
A.D. He was a Hindu and constructed the Prambanan temple.His wife, Queen Sri Kahulunan
or Pramodhawardhani was the daughter of King Samarattunga of Sailendra dynasty. Queen
Sri Kahulunan embraced Buddhism and came to be known as Pramodhawardhani.The image
of Goddess Durga in Prambanan is said to be a reflection of the queen.Queen
Pramodhawardhani built Candi Plaosan in 842 with the support of her husband Rikai Pikatan.
No wonder you see a blend of both the religions here.
Some believed that the temple was built earlier and Rikai Pikatan with his short reign could
have only built the perwara temples. But the excavation of a gold sheet in 2003 with facts
written in Sanskrit strengthens the theory that the temple indeed was built during Rikai
Pikatan's reign.The temple has two complexes:

1. Candi Plaosan Lor ( In Javanese LOR means North)

2. Candi Plaosan Kidul. (Kidul is South)

Earlier they were one complex. During 8th to 12th century, many monasteries were built. An
inscription from Candi Plaosan states that many people came from Gujarat (India) due to
whom the temple was built.The construction of North and South complex
hypothesizes ubhato sangha or dual sanghas. Today there is just a road that divides the two
complexes.

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 The main figures are seen on the outside wall of the South temple while there are female
figures on the outside wall of North temple.The style and workmanship of figures very
closely resembles the work at Ajanta caves in India. Bhikkhuni(nuns)sangha was established
around that region in the 3rd century and this probably is the reason for the twin temples here
at Plaosan.

Twin temples
Plaosan Lor temple has two main identical temples (North and South). The one in left of the
picture, (North) and the other on the right (South). As I have already mentioned above
that ubhatho sangha or dual sangha had started by that time. This means that it was a
monastery for both bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
1. The north temple was for bhikkhunis or female monks
2. south temple for bhikkhus or male monks.

That is why the outer wall of the South temple has reliefs of male figures while that of North
has female figures. The are temple surrounded by perwara temples

Spread over an area of 2000 square meters, the temples are surrounded on all sides by small
temples which are mostly in ruins. Also surrounding the temple is an artificial moat.

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 On entrance are row of perwara or ancillary temples with very few still intact.///main temple
of south

Dwarapalas:
Dwarapalas or dvarapala are guardians who protect the temple. They are usually fierce
looking. This feature is seen mostley in temples in India and South-East Asia.

dwarapala

Two fierce looking heavily built dwarapala or guardians with long moustache sit facing each
other in front of the temple. They are the height of a human being and sit with their left leg to

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the back, with a mace under the left hand. The right knee is up on which the right hand rests
holding a coiled snake.
Both sport a head gear, armlet and wear ear rings and a necklace. The hair must be long for
they are tied at the back.

The complex is surrounded by a wall and has two identical main temples adjacent to each
other surrounded by a cluster of temples. That is why these two temples are known as the
"twin temples".

twin temples
There are two big temples in this west facing complex. The temple which is in the south is
the southern temple and the other on the north is the northern temple.

Southern temple:
As I have already mentioned, southern temple was meant for bhikkhus or male monks

t
Southern temple/Paduraksha or the entrance gate, it enters into a complex with two temples inside

The paduraksha gate is decorated with crowns above the kaal mukh. There are 3 gates, one
for entrance to each temple and one interconnecting gate between the two temples.

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 twin main temples of Plaosan Lor/ cluster of Perwara temples which surround the twin temples

On crossing the gate, the entrance to main temple is just in front. 8 steps lead to inside of temple

Similar to Buddhist Mandala concept, this temple too is constructed in three levels. As is
believed that the universe is divided into Kamadhatu, (kama: desire) where we are bound to
world of desires, rupadhatu, (rupa: form) where we abandon our desire but are still bound to
name and form and arupadhatu, (arupa: without any form) the ultimate where there is no
form or name.This concept is seen later in the construction of Borobudur. The world of
desires or kamdhatu is the lowermost tier or base. It is from ground to the entrance of temple.
Then from this platform to the roof of temple is rupadhatu and lastly from roof to pinnacle is
arupadhatu. The roof of the temple is adorned with 41 small stupas all around, a blend of
Hinduism and Buddhism architecture.

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 foot of the temple
The temple stands 60 meters above the ground.There are two levels in each temple. The first
or the ground level is accessible but the second one is not/makar can be seen on both sides of
the stairs

relief on the outer wall

There are 40 reliefs on the outside wall of temple. Twenty on the first level and twenty in the
upper level. Since the south temple was for bhikkhus, only male figures adorn the outside
wall.

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human sized Avalokiteshwara on side in tribhanga pose, the body is bent in neck, waist and legs and gives
a "S" formation. This greatly resembles the painting of Avalokiteshwara Padmapani at Ajanta caves,
India. Another interesting feature I noticed in the walls is there are faces which are enclosed surrounded
by trailing plants.

They represent the Bodhisattavas. Another feature is the variety of makars in the temple. Each one seems
different.Kaal mukh above a window. The window had images of Bodhisattva. The niche has impressions
of bars. There are different styles of makars in temple
North temple:There is a gate which connects the other temple in the north. the other temple,
both temples are connected to each other by an entrance gate.

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Mandapa:
On the north side of this temple is the mandapa with many Buddha images.

The mandapa is a rectangular courtyard with 22 Buddha images. It has no roof or walls.
Sadly, the images are in a very bad condition and what remains are just images without any
heads.The mandapa is accessed by 7 stairs from the west side. Stone indentations (arrow
pointing) in the courtyard point to it having pillars or wooden poles. It may have been used
for meditation purposes or as a place of offering.11 Buddha sit along east direction facing
west, while 5 are sitting on north with face towards south and 5 on south face north.It is very
difficult to analyze their hand position but all are sitting in Padmasana.

Perwara temples:
Perwara or complementary or ancillary temples surround the main temple building.

a perwara temple with kaalmukh at entrance/// Others in ruins

Two types of complementary or ancillary temples surround the twin temples. There are 174
temples out of which 58 are prasadhas and 116 are stupa perwara. Almost all the temples
are in ruins now. Just a few have been renovated. The innermost or the first row on east has
19 temples facing outwards towards east, 7 on south facing south, 17 on west towards west
and again 7 facing outwards towards north. These perwara temples were
called Prasadhas and originally housed images of Amitabha in west, Aksobhya in
east, Ratnasambhava in South and Amoghasidhi in north.

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The second or middle row has 54 stupa shaped structures and 4 prasadhas at four corners.
The outermost row has 62 stupa perwara and 4 prasadhas at the four corners.

Stupa perwara, right in front and the Candi perwara or prasadha/// Prasadhas

1. Stupa perwara has a square base and on top is shaped in the form of a stupa.

2. The prasadhas have a square base with a small chamber and 3 stairs. The entrance has
a kaal makar on top.

The grounds of temple Plaosan Lor started renovation in 1962 but the temple was restored in
1990s. The 2006 earthquake did a lot of damage to the building, not only in bringing the
stones down but also shifted the position of temple.Apart from this the looting by miscreants
has done more damage than the natural disasters. The last theft to Buddha's head was in 2010.

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 II
The love temple of Sojiwan a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple

Sojiwan is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple located in Kebon Dalem Kidul village,
Prambanan, Klaten Regency, Central Java. The temple is located nearly two kilometres
southeast of Prambanan temple. This temple is among number of temples scattered
in Prambanan Plain. It was built between 842 and 850 CE, approximately in the same era
as the Plaosan temple nearby and like Plaosan it is dedicated to Queen Pramodhawardhani. It
is known as 1 of the 3 love temples of King Rakai Pinkaton.

Sojiwan temple, in 2009 during reconstruction

In ninth-century Java when a large portion of the island was ruled by a Hindu king and his
Buddhist queen, a medium-sized Buddhist sanctuary better known today as Candi Sojiwan
was commissioned not too far from Prambanan, one the largest Hindu temple compounds
ever built in Southeast Asia. Following the gradual decline of both Buddhism and Hinduism
throughout the archipelago, except in Bali, shrines of both religions were eventually
abandoned. The frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on Java further damaged the
island’s hundreds- and thousands-year-old structures.

The Rukam inscription dated 829 Saka (907 CE) currently stored in the National Museum of
Indonesia mentioned the inauguration of Rukam village restoration by Nini Haji Rakryan
Sanjiwana, previously the village was being devastated by a volcanic eruption. In return, the
inhabitant of Rukam village was obliged to take care of a sacred building located in
Limwung. This sacred building was identified as Sojiwan temple, while the name of the royal
patron mentioned in this inscription: Nini Haji Rakryan Sanjiwana, was identified
as Queen Pramodhawardhani, the temple bears her name Sajiwan and believed to be
dedicated to her.

Sojiwan temple was rediscovered in 1813 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, a subordinate of Sir
Stamford Raffles. He examined the archaeological remains around the Prambanan plain and
rediscovered the ruins of the wall surrounding the temple. The temple was left in ruins for
decades until the government launched the reconstruction effort started in 1996. Since 1999
the temple become the training and education center for the temple reconstruction project.
During the reconstruction, the excavation discovered a wall structure surrounding the temple
and also a stone-paved causeway in front of the temple. In 2006 the reconstruction project
was halted and took a major blow because of the earthquake, which caused the reconstructed

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building parts and scaffolding to collapse. The reconstruction project was completed in
December 2011, and inaugurated by Mari Pangestu, Indonesian Minister of Tourism and
Creative Economy. The reconstruction took 15 years and 8.27 billion rupiah cost.

Sojiwan temple in 2014, after reconstruction

The temple was made of andesite stone, its size, style, and form are similar to those of the
Mendut temple near Borobudur. The temple complex measures 8,140 square meters, with the
main building measuring 401.3 square meters and 27 meters high. The base of the temple
contains 20 bas-reliefs connected to the Buddhist stories
of Pancatantra or Jatakas from India. From these 20 reliefs, 19 remain. The stairway is
flanked by two large makaras. The inner chamber of the temple contains two niches and lotus
pedestals, originally hosting Buddha and Bodhisattva statues. However, currently, the
chamber is empty. The temple roof took the form of a stepped pyramid crowned with stupas.

During the restoration project, the excavation works discovered two rows of walls
surrounding the temple, located 14 meters and 30 meters from the main temple. Other
discoveries include paved pathways, stairs, and temple stone block fragments surrounding the
main temple, suggesting that Sojiwan was a temple complex, there were perwara temples
(lesser complementary temples) that once stood within the temple complex.

Finally, the multi-year, inter-disciplinary endeavor was completed in 2011, the year when the
structure was restored to its 27-meter height. The west-facing sanctuary was formerly
decorated with carved floral patterns. But due to the lack of original pieces, the stone blocks
used during the reconstruction were left bare in accordance with the widely-accepted
guidelines for anastylosis – a technique to reconstruct ancient monuments using original
architectural elements to the greatest degree possible, combined with the use of modern
materials when necessary. This is to allow us to differentiate between the pieces from the past
and those from more recent times. However, since 2015 there has been a cautious change in
the way UNESCO lays out such guidelines, now allowing for a selective total reconstruction
as long as legitimate and complete documentation of the structure is available.

While from afar Candi Sojiwan’s rooftop stupas are undoubtedly eye-catching, ancient
architecture enthusiasts are particularly drawn to the relief panels adorning the temple’s base.
Inspired by the Jataka tales – a collection of stories about the previous lives and rebirths of
Gautama Buddha – these ancient works of art, or at least most of them, fortunately survived
the elements, the natural disasters, and the social upheavals on Java over the course of
centuries. I had almost zero knowledge about these stories, which was why upon my visit I
made sure to take clear shots of most of the panels so when I got home I could match these
with reliable online sources. This reconstruction of the ninth-century Buddhist temple was
completed in 2011

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Standing tall again after centuries in a ruined state

Distinctively Buddhist stupas of Candi Sojiwan

Kalpavriksha, a wish-fulfilling tree often found at Hindu and Buddhist temples/High

reliefs of Gana, dwarf-like creatures often depicted in a position of supporting a
temple’s base

First, a relief depicting two men. Unfortunately, I couldn’t find much information about it
except for some suggestions that this was inspired by a chapter in Kathasaritsagara. The
problem with this theory is, this collection of tales and legends is an 11 th-century creation,
while Candi Sojiwan was built two centuries earlier. Next, a panel of a monkey and a
crocodile. This tells a story of a bodhisattva (a being on the path to Buddhahood) in the form
of a monkey who outsmarts a cunning crocodile trying to eat it. The crocodile tells the
monkey that there are delicious fruits across the river, and it offers the simian a ride, only to
eat it later. But en route, the monkey tells the crocodile that its heart is hung at one of the
trees on the other side of the river. Believing the monkey’s story, the crocodile takes it across
safely and the monkey immediately runs away from danger. Probably the lesson here is to
always use our wit especially in the most pressing situations.

Another panel depicts two friends: a bull called Syatrabah and a lion. But because of a
provocation by a wolf called Dimnah, the two become suspicious of one another and start a
fight until they both die. This lesson teaches us to be careful of who we listen to and to never
trust a warmonger. On another side of the temple, a relief panel shows a man called
Bhimaparakrama who’s about to be attacked by a lion. But thanks to the sword and the shield
he carries, the lion runs away. Maybe this tells us to always be prepared for the worst in life.

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Other panels show a multitude of animals and celestial creatures, from kinnara (a part human
and part bird often associated with music and love), to a goose and a turtle, a Garuda and
another turtle, a mouse and a snake, an elephant and a goat, and my favorite… a wolf and a
bull. As the story goes, a wolf follows a bull because it is attracted to the bull’s testicles,
thinking they were fruits.

What’s really fascinating about Candi Sojiwan is despite the very simple depictions of
characters in each relief panel, and the worn-out state of some carvings, most are fortunately
still decipherable today. We can still learn a thing or two from those stories, although the rest
is anyone’s guess. Maybe one day, when we’ve managed to gather more knowledge from the
past, we can finally understand the full meaning of these reliefs that currently leave us with
more questions than answers.

The panel to the bottom left depicts the enigmatic two-men scene

When a monkey outsmarts a crocodile/A lion and a bull killing each other because of a
provocation from a wolf

A kinnara (a celestial being found in Buddhist and Hindu mythologies)/A man thwarting a lion

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This 27-meter temple is hard to miss amid the low-rise houses nearby

The temple viewed from the main entrance

Trees of the Song of India (Dracaena reflexa) in the temple’s ground, echoing Buddhism’s
roots in the Indian Subcontinent.

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