JOURNAL of the

Dieties Galore- The many Hindu Gods of Cambodia

Dr. Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

Did Hinduism come to Cambodia through the FUNAN KINGDOM IN CAMBODIA ? :

and How is it that the Hinduism in Cambodia was so deep that some of the deities found
there are uncommon even in India?
Ardhanareeshvara and Mukhalings or complicated combinations such as Vasudev- Vishnu- Narayan
have been discovered as Busts and adorn some Museums. Shiva and Vishnu are however, the dominant
themes of many temples wkth naga, Kubera, Yama, Mahabharata Characters and Ramayana cast in toto.

After 1st century A.D. complex polities began emerging in what is now Cambodia. The most
powerful of these was known as Funan by the Chinese, and may have existed across an area
between Ba Phnom in Prey Veng Province and Oc-Eo in Kien Giang Province in southern Vietnam.
Funan was a contemporary of Champasak in southern Laos (then known as Kuruksetra) and
other lesser fiefdoms in the region.

Funan was the first large Southeast Asian civilization. It was centered on the lower
Mekong Delta in present-day Cambodia and Vietnam and stretched into Thailand, and,
possibly, Malaysia. Funan lasted from the A.D. 1st century to 7th century. Archeologists are
still not sure where the Funanese capital was. They are currently excavating a site at Angkor
Borei in Cambodia, which they think may have been it. Funan is a Chinese name, and it may
be a transliteration of the ancient Khmer word bnam (mountain). What the Funanese called
themselves, however, is not known. Although very little is known about Funan, much has been
made of its importance as an early Southeast Asian centre of power.

Even the Chinese, who considered most everyone around them to be Barbarians, marveled
over Funan's treasures of gems and gold. Funan was a convenient stopover point for Hindu
traders on their way to China. The Funanese were in power when Hinduism and Buddhism
were introduced to Southeast Asia.

India-Cambodia cultural and historical relations are more than a millennium old when Indian
culture, religion and trade emanated out of India and spread rapidly in various parts of South-
East Asia. However, Cambodia witnessed Indian influence centuries before that whose living
example is the temples of Sambor Prei Kuk built by Ishanvarmana I and other kings of Chenla
empire during 6th and 7th Century AD in Ishanapura, the then capital of the Kingdom, which is
so far the oldest known example of existence of Indian culture and religion in Cambodia.
However, some scholars are of the opinion that the cultural and religious connect between India
and Cambodia date back to 1st century. According to Cambodian belief, Khmer people’s
founding legend centers around an Indian prince Kaundinya called Preah Thaong in Cambodian
folklore. Cambodian society which is now predominantly Buddhist retains a strong influence of
Indian Hindu and Buddhist rituals, idolatry and mythology which can be seen in many of its
rituals having resemblance with Indian culture and traditions. Khmer language too is a live
example of Indian culture which has approximately more than 3000 words originated from

1
 JOURNAL of the
ancient Indian Sanskrit language. Later the pervading influence of Hinduism,

Buddhism, and Indian architecture are borne out by the magnificent structures at Angkor Wat,
Angkor Thom, Bayon, Ta Prohm, Bantey Srei, Preah Vihear and other religious and historical
sites in Cambodia.

Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of the Kingdom of Funan.
Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. ... Vishnu and Shiva were the most
revered deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples.
Behrendt, Kurt. In “Pre-Angkor Traditions: The Mekong Delta and Peninsular Thailand.”

International trade brought South Asian Hindu and Buddhist traditions to mainland Southeast
Asia. Under that influence, the pre-Angkor kings claimed to be incarnations of Shiva or Vishnu,
and their names reflect this affiliation. Their authority is also based on South
Asian chakravartin (universal king) concepts of rulership that came to Southeast Asia in the
form of Sanskrit texts. This maritime trade system provided an alternative to the overland trade
network that connected India and China via the Central Asian Silk Road.
During the first century A.D., when Rome ruled the Mediterranean, the Funanese traded
widely, established a wonderful tradition of Hindu-influenced art and architecture, and became
skilled goldsmiths and jewelers. They also built an irrigation system, impressive even by
today's standards, and used an extensive network of canals for both transportation and
agriculture.

Funan was essentially an Indian civilization set in Southeast Asia. Ruled by Hindu rulers and
influenced by the culture of the Indian Pallava kingdom, it absorbed of Indian concepts of
jurisprudence, astronomy, literature and universal kingship. The Sanskrit language was used in
Funan courts. It gave birth to the first writing system and inscriptions used in Southeast Asia.

Most of what historians know about Funan has been gleaned from Chinese sources.
According to Lonely Planet: These report that Funan-period Cambodia (1st to 6th centuries
AD) embraced the worship of the Hindu deities Shiva and Vishnu and, at the same time,
Buddhism. The linga (phallic totem) appears to have been the focus of ritual and an emblem of
kingly might, a feature that was to evolve further in the Angkorian cult of the god-king. The
people practised primitive irrigation, which enabled successful cultivation of rice, and traded
raw commodities such as spices with China and India. [Source: Lonely Planet]

Indianization was fostered by increasing contact with the subcontinent through the travels of
merchants, diplomats, and learned Brahmans (Hindus of the highest caste traditionally
assigned to the priesthood). Indian immigrants, believed to have arrived in the fourth and the
fifth centuries, accelerated the process. By the fifth century, the elite culture was thoroughly
Indianized. Court ceremony and the structure of political institutions were based on Indian
models. The Sanskrit language was widely used; the laws of Manu, the Indian legal code, were
adopted; and an alphabet based on Indian writing systems was introduced.

Our most complete accounts of the pre-Angkorian kingdoms come from Chinese records; the
earliest of these kingdoms was Funan in the Mekong Delta area. By the early sixth century,

2
 JOURNAL of the
Chinese sources tell of multi-armed (Hindu) deities being venerated, and mention missions to
China from named kings.
In the seventh century, Funan was in decline and the state of Zhenla emerged in the northern
Mekong Delta. The establishment of Hindu temple complexes was widespread in this early
period, an important center being the site of Prasat Andet. In the seventh and eighth centuries, a
cult surrounding the veneration of a composite of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) was popular
in the Mekong Delta area. Most popular of all were images of Shiva and his nonanthropomorphic
representation as a linga). Shiva was also depicted as half male and half female to indicate the
relationship of the unified whole; the conceptual male half is given a manifest existence through
the active female presence (prakrti).
Also important was Ganesha, who is the Hindu elephant-headed son of Shiva and Parvati. He
was venerated before turning to other gods, thus removing potential obstacles between the
worshipper and the divine. In Southeast Asia, Ganesha had a more independent status than in
India; his images were often housed in separate temples as primary icons of worship.
( See my paper on Ganesh in Cambodia ob academia.edu and researchgate.net)
The early artistic heritage of peninsular Thailand is also related to the pre-Angkorian tradition.
Lingas attest to the popularity of the Hindu god Shiva, though many Buddhist images have also
been found, such as a standing Avalokiteshvara. A number of small kingdoms likely flourished
on the peninsula. The later artistic heritage in this area shows close affinities to the enigmatic
kingdom of Shrivijaya, which was probably centered in Sumatra.
South Indian Pallava, Andhran, and Gupta production : It is remarkable that the body of pre-
Angkorian sculpture known from numerous sites in southern Cambodia and Vietnam as well as
peninsular Thailand shows an overall stylistic coherence. Although this extraordinarily brilliant
material has clear affinities with South Indian Pallava, Andhran, and Gupta production, in many
ways it reflects an artistic vocabulary that has been transformed into a purely Southeast Asian
idiom. The ovoid facial features of Gupta sculpture have been replaced with a different
physiognomy; the figures are more austere in expression and more naturalistic.
Today these regions are mostly Buddhist, but in the seventh and eighth centuries both Hinduism
and Buddhism, as well as concepts of asceticism, engaged these new Southeast Asian patrons.
Although the links to Indian artistic traditions are clear, even the earliest Pre-Angkorian
sculpture is distinctly Southeast Asian in style. Remarkably, some wood images have been
found, raising the possibility that works in more perishable materials preceded stone icons.
Narayana is hailed in certain parts of Vedas like, Narayana Suktam and Vishnu Suktam. Lord
Narayana is also hailed in selective Vaishnava Upanishads like, Narayana Upanishad, Maha
Narayana Upanishad and Narasimha Tapani Upanishad

3
 JOURNAL of the

Khmer lintel depicting Narayana sleeping upon the Sheshanaga in the middle of Milky
Ocean, Bangkok National Museum

King Mahendravarman reigned form 607 to 616 over Chenla. He was a son of a king. The
century following the death of Jayavarman I, the last known king of the kingdom, in the
second half of the 7th century, was a dark period in the history of Chenla. According to a
Chinese accounts, in the 8th century, the country of Chenla was divided into land and water
Chenlas. The obscurity prevails and this monument might be neglected thereafter. The history.
However, is traced again with the accession of Jayavarman II, who founded a new polity that
is now referred as Angkor in the beginning of 9th century.

Impact of the Chenla

The people of Chenla also were Khmer. Once they established control over Funan, they
embarked on a course of conquest that continued for three centuries. They subjugated central
and upper Laos, annexed portions of the Mekong Delta, and brought what are now western
Cambodia and southern Thailand under their direct control. [Library of Congress]

The royal families of Chenla intermarried with their Funanese counterparts and generally
preserved the earlier political, social, and religious institutions of Funan. In the eighth century
A.D., however, factional disputes at the Chenla court resulted in the splitting of the kingdom

4
 JOURNAL of the
into rival northern and southern halves. According to Chinese chronicles, the two parts were
known as Land (or Upper) Chenla and Water (or Lower) Chenla. Land Chenla maintained a
relatively stable existence, but Water Chenla underwent a period of constant turbulence.
[Library of Congress]

Funan and Chenla gave way to the Angkor Empire with the rise to power of King Jayavarman
II in 802. Late in the eighth century A.D., Water Chenla was subjected to attacks by pirates
from Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. By the beginning of the ninth century, it had
apparently become a vassal of the Sailendra dynasty of Java. The last of the Water Chenla
kings allegedly was killed around A.D. 790 by a Javanese monarch whom he had offended.
The ultimate victor in the strife that followed was the ruler of a small Khmer state located
north of the Mekong Delta. His assumption of the throne as Jayavarman II (ca. A.D. 802-50)
marked the liberation of the Khmer people from Javanese suzerainty and the beginning of a
unified Khmer nation. [Library of Congress]

Apart from the fact that it constituted the largest kingdom in South-East Asia, it also witnessed
the remarkable evolution and growth of art and architecture producing some of the most notable
monuments e.g. Angkor Vat which still excites the wonder and admiration of the world…In
respect of architecture, however, Kambuja surpasses even the motherland.” Besides art, the
Indian sculptures also influenced the sculptural form of Cambodia. R.R. Das3 5 remarks, “The
Hindu colonists had however brought with them not only traditions and techniques of developed
Indian art, but also probably actual specimens of Indian sculpture. Some of the earlier sculptures
in Cambodia and other countries such as Siam and Malaya Peninsula bear so striking
resemblance to Indian prototypes that many scholars have held that they were either brought
from India or made by such craftsmen who were fresh arrivals from India. For not only the
motifs and the general details but even the very technique was purely Indian, and there was
hardly anything to distinguish those from Indian products”. The famous Angkor-Wat of
Cambodia has some affinities with the sikhara of the temples of Orissa and gopuras of the Tamil
temples.36 In the Banteay Srei and Prah Khan temples of Cambodia, the mullioned openings are
very splendid and in their ‘pattern and intention’are akin to the contemporary temples of
Bhubaneswar in Orissa37 . In Angokorean sculptures, the round eyebrows and deep plump lips
are of Orissan variety38. In the open part of terrace on each side of entrance of Angkor Wat,
small shrines were there, which were similar to pancharatha (division of shrine tower into five
vertical segments) pattern of Orissan temples39 . From the above analysis it is evident that there
was close cultural affinity between THE 2 COUNTRIES.1

Religious Background: Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman
II wanted to ensure that, however one saw the work, he would be part of it. Suryavarman II is
depicted in statuary as Vishnu, consorting with the god, and performing his responsibilities as
ruler such as reviewing his troops and holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in
so many different scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary
temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other temples in the area -
which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs
which adorn the temple are clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services,
one conducts traditional religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of

5
 JOURNAL of the
Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for it as a funerary
temple; but there is no evidence of this.

It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished at Suryavarman
II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that
Suryavarman II had it purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight
when one considers the king's religious beliefs.

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to the

god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a
polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god
with many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too
immense to be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of
which focus on a single different aspect of human life.

DIETIES GALORE
In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu
he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death,
which then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat
reflects the course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the
supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Suryavarman II
Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the
popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this
comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and
how one is to best live one's life.

The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the
Khmers and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the

6
 JOURNAL of the
frontiers of his realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the
Champa. The Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite)
which was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.

By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained more
adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by
decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the divine who had
also proven himself a benevolent guardian.

One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple of
worship rather than a funerary site.

Khmer brought Hindu Gods to Thailand- Historically, numerous theories have been
offered to account for the spread of Hinduism in Thailand, but it is generally agreed that the
religion infiltrated the region in a series of waves affecting different places at different times.
Between the 1st and 5th centuries the northeast was strongly influenced by the Hinduised
kingdom of Funan or Nokor Phnom as it was known to the Chinese).
From 802–1431 CE, Hinduism was further absorbed through the expansion of the hybrid
Hindu-Buddhist Khmer Empire. Meanwhile the northern and central regions were heavily
influenced by Hinduism during the Dvarvati period between the 6th and 11th centuries. While
Buddhism was the major religion at the time, the presence of Hinduism shows prominently in
the presence of statues of Hindu deities that scattered across the region during the time.
In the central plains of Thailand, it is thought that Hinduism may have arrived even earlier,
directly from Amravati in India or through the Mon people based in Burma. The Mon
people were responsible for exporting their influence in terms of language and culture to
much of Southeast Asia.

Narrative in Stone : Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and
physical nexus in Hinduism which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are
represented by the five spires of the temple. Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to
live on Mount Meru and it is famously referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and
his brothers travel to the gates of heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira
and his faithful dog are left. When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells
Yudhishthira that he may enter for the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not allowed in
heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but the
gatekeeper stops him and reveals himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time
before allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works of

7
 JOURNAL of the
Hindu religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of
Kurukshetra from the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As
most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book on
which the important religious and cultural tales could be related visually.

The
Hindu deity Vishnu-Vasudeva-Narayana Place of Origin: Cambodia, former kingdom of Angkor Date: 1175-
1225 Materials: Bronze with traces of gilding and gemstones Style or Ware: Bayon//
Churning of the Ocean of Milk

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries - giving
ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of the
people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these
reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to represent the world with the four corners of the
outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding
oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal
processions all wind themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present day
to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for prayers
answered. The central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and
the Vishnu statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all
earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were used for
astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose so that astronomers could
clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to
astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco, the
dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.

8
 JOURNAL of the

Narayana - Vishnu, Angkor Wat, Siem Reap, Cambodia, March 2014

MAIN HINDU DEITIES

As the Khmer Empire was a Hindu kingdom for most of its history, the temples are
abound with depictions of major Hindu deities. In Hindu mythology, the major male
deities have female consorts as well as a vahana, or animal vehicle. Therefore, there
have always been number of different ways to symbolize each deity.

While not a complete list, let’s go over some of the most common gods and goddesses
of Angkor.

Shiva

9
 JOURNAL of the

A.bearded Shiva with many arms RIGHT A SJiva lings from Ohnom Bakheng

Shiva is the most prominent god worshipped during Angkor’s Hindu era. He is known
as the “destroyer,” but this could also be interpreted as the destruction of ignorance.
He is symbolized in some shape or form at nearly all Angkor temples – even at the
later Buddhist ones.In Angkor art, Shiva is often depicted as a bearded old man, or
sometimes as a multi-armed being. More often, however, he was represented by other,
more abstract symbols.Shiva was typically worshiped in the form of a shiva linga,
which is typically placed on a yoni. The linga is a phallic symbol representing
masculine energy, while the yoni symbolizes the feminine. Shiva’s consort is Parvati.
His vahana, or animal vehicle, is the bull Nandi. Especially at the early Angkorian
temples, bull statues were a common sight, often sat facing the prasat that had a
shiva linga inside.

A
multi-armed, more youthful looking Shiva
Nandi the bull

10
 JOURNAL of the

Shiva and Parvati on top of Nandi… 18 th Century. Now he has a moustache

The famous eight-armed Vishnu statue at Angkor Wat's Western Gate

Vishnu is nicknamed the “preserver.” However, he often carries out acts of both
creation and destruction to maintain proper balance and harmony in the world. He
usually does so by coming down to earth in human form. As will be detailed below,
these are called his avatars and they’re the protagonists of many of the famous Hindu
legends.

At Angkor, Vishnu is depicted as a four-armed being, though sometimes he has eight

arms. His consort is Lakshmi and his vahana is Garuda, who’s half man, half eagle.
And Vishnu is also the star of many lintel carvings in the form of Krishna.

While most Angkorian Hindu temples were primarily dedicated to Shiva, a major
exception was Angkor Wat. Its builder, Suryavarman II, was a Vishnu devotee and
therefore Vishnu-related imagery is everywhere.Shiva and Vishnu are the same.
Semantic difference. Depictions of Vishnu and his other incarnations at the 10th-
century Prasat Kravan

11
 JOURNAL of the

Four-armed Vishnu on top of Garuda//Lakshmi in between two elephants and above

Garuda

A carving of Vishnu's heavenly court at Angkor Wat// INDRA

Brahma

A carving
of Brahma at Kbal Spean

12
 JOURNAL of the
Depictions of Brahma are quite rare, as few Hindus worship him directly. Brahma is
the four-faced “creator god.” However, as will be detailed below, he himself was
actually created by Vishnu. This origin story is depicted numerous times at the
mysterious river carvings of Kbal Spean.There were a number of sculptures made of
him, but you’ll no longer find these at the temples. The face towers of the Bayon were
originally assumed to represent Brahma, but they likely depict a divinity from
Mahayana Buddhism instead (more below).

Indra
Indra is “king of the gods” and is one of the most prominently featured deities in many
myths and legends. Accordingly, he is also one of the most widely represented gods at
Angkor. Indra is most easily recognized by his vahana, the three-headed elephant
named Airavata.Indra riding Airavata was especially popular in lintel carvings at pretty
much all Angkorian Hindu temples. Arguably the best depictions of him can be seen at
Banteay Srei.

Indra, while a benevolent god at heart, is also known for his jealousy and hubris.
Therefore, in many Hindu myths, he actually takes on the role of the antagonist.
However, he usually gets humbled by the more powerful Vishnu, after which he learns
to change his ways.

13
 JOURNAL of the

Yama

Yama at Angkor Wat

Yama is the god of the underworld. Depictions of him at Angkor are not all that
common, but he’s almost always seen riding a buffalo.

One of the most vivid depictions of him, in his multi-armed form, is at the bas-relief
carvings of Angkor Wat. This section of the reliefs shows the 32 levels of hell and the
37 levels of heaven. Yama is the judge, deciding where the deceased souls will end up.

14
 JOURNAL of the

Varuna RIGHT
Varuna is the god of the oceans, and can sometimes be seen sitting on his vahana, the
goose Hamsa. Overall, depictions of him at Angkor are quite rare.

BERA
Agni
Agni is the god of fire and his vahana is a rhino. Depictions of him are not very
common overall, though he was probably the center of many ancient rituals, taking on
the form of fire itself.
Kubera
Kubera, the god of wealth, is a common character in many famous myths, but he
doesn’t appear too often at Angkor. However, the famous ‘leper king’ statue at Angkor
Thom may actually be of Kubera and not of a former king, as was once widely
believed.
OTHER BEINGS

15
 JOURNAL of the

Nagas
Nagas are mythical serpents which represent water and the underworld. Appearing in
many myths and legends, they’re highly significant in both Hinduism and Buddhism.
The Khmer, in particular, revered them, as they believed themselves to be descendants
of a distant naga ancestor.

Asuras
Asuras are celestial demons and the counterpart to the devas, or gods. The devas and
asuras are often at war with one another. Not all asuras are bad, however, and
sometimes they aid the heroes of popular myths and legends.

Rishis
Rishis are vedic sages. In mythological stories, they are typically wise old men who can
sometimes travel through different realms and even see into the future. Carvings of
rishis are common at Angkor, though Shiva himself is often depicted as one. It’s not
always easy to tell which is which.

Kalas
Kala is a representation of time itself. Without time, there’s no decay or death, which
is probably why kalas are portrayed as such ferocious creatures. One of the most
common sights at Angkor, you’ll find them all over door lintels and elsewhere, often
with a god riding on top.

16
 JOURNAL of the

Apsaras
In Hindu mythology, apsaras are celestial dancers who occupy the higher realms
of devaloka. They are also among the most common sights at Angkor. There are
thousands of them at Angkor Wat, and the Hall of Dancers structures at later temples
are entirely dedicated to apsara carvings.

Dvarapalas(RIGHT PIC)
Dvarapalas are male guardians, and are typically seen in pairs on either side of a
temple sanctuary. They’re staples of the earliest Angkor temples all the way to the
13th-century temples of Jayavarman VII.

Some examples of Hindu Gods and Doeties as reresentged as Art in

some museums around the world.
In Harihara imagery, Shiva is represented
as the right half of the deity, his vertical
third eye, lightly incised into the
forehead, truncated at the Vishnu divide.
The facial features are undifferentiated,
unlike in their Indian counterparts, where
a masculine and feminine cast is given to
each half. This Harihara makes clear the
extent to which the Khmer conception
differentiated the two deities only in the
partition of the headdress into a
combined jatamukuta-miter and in the
provision of half of a third eye on Shiva’s
side. The popularity of this hybrid deity
was largely confined to the seventh
century in Cambodia.

Harihara
Date:late 7th–early 8th century
Medium:Sandstone

17
JOURNAL of the

Standing Stone Ganesha

Date:second half of the 7th century

In Southeast Asia, Ganesha has a more

independent status than in India; his
images were often housed in separate
temples as primary icons of worship.
Here, Ganesha is shown wearing a short
wraparound skirt (sampot), the front end
of which falls down the center in a series
of flaring folds characteristic of the
Prasat Andet style.

This representation of Brahma is from

the first quarter of the 10th century
the Brahmanical god of creation and
ancestor of all universes, is understood
to be omnipresent. Hence he is depicted
with four faces and four arms, evoking
his universality. Brahma’s skirt-cloth
(sampot) is in the Bakheng style, widely
favored in the early tenth century and
named after sculptures associated with
the Bakheng temple. It is knee length, is
drawn up between the legs and secured
at the back, and has distinctive pleated
“double-anchor,” or “fishtail,” pendants in
front. The piled-up dreadlock hair
(jatamukuta) is multifaceted to reflect
the four faces it serves, and is secured
with a string of pearls; each face of
Brahma wears a large diadem, and a
speckled treatment of the lower face
indicates that he is bearded. This
sculpture would have occupied a
subsidiary shrine at a temple complex
dedicated in all likelihood to Shiva.

18
 JOURNAL of the
(sandstone)

Date:ca. 921–45
Medium:Stone
Ardhanareeshvara is a combination of three
words “Ardha,” “Nari,” and “Ishwara” means
“half,” “woman,” and “lord,” respectively,
which when combined means the lord whose
half is a woman. It is believed that the God is
Lord Shiva and the woman part is his consort
Goddess Parvati or Shakti.

Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of

masculine and feminine energies of the
universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates
how Shakti, the female principle of God, is
inseparable from (or the same as, according to
some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle
of God, and vice versa. The union of these
principles is exalted as the root and womb of all
creation. Another view is that Ardhanarishvara
is a symbol of Shiva's all-pervasive nature.

The Half-Male, Half-Female Form of Shiva

(Shiva Ardhanarishvara)

19
 JOURNAL of the
Stone Bust of 5 Headed Shiva-. mid-10th century
In Hindu
iconography, Mukhalinga or Mukhalingam (literally
"linga with a face", mukhaliṅga) is a linga with one
or more human faces. The linga is an aniconic
representation of the Hindu god Shiva. Mukhalingas
may be of stone or can be made of a metal sheath,
which covers the normal linga.
The mukhalinga generally has one, four or five faces.
Mukhalingas having four faces are also regarded to
have an invisible fifth face at the top of the linga. The
four- and five-faced mukhalingas represent the five
aspects of Shiva, which also relate to the classical
elements and the cardinal directions.
The five faces (from left to right) are Ishana,
Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva and Sadyojata.
They radiate, in order, revealment of grace,
sublimation of the five senses, omnipresence,
omnipotence and omniscience. This sequence is the
creative cycle, when reversed the cycle of dissolution
is depicted

Vishnu Resting on the Serpent Shesha

(Vishnu Anantashayin)- STONE

Date:ca. 921–45

Vishnu is often depicted as resting on Shesha.

Shesha is considered a devotee or bhakt of
Vishnu. He is said to have descended to Earth
in the human forms or
incarnations: Lakshman, brother of Vishnu's
incarnation Ram during Treta Yuga, and
as Balaram, brother of Vishnu's
incarnation Krishna during Dvapara Yuga.
According to the Mahabharat (Adi Parva), his
Father was Kashyapa and his Mother Kadru.
"Shesha" in Sanskrit texts, especially those
relating to mathematical calculation, implies
the "Remainder"—that which remains when all
else ceases to exist.

k
20
 JOURNAL of the
Ardhanarishvara, (Sanskrit: “Lord Who Is
Half Woman”) composite male-female
figure of the Hindu god Shiva together with
his consort Parvati. As seen in many Indian
and Southeast Asian sculptures, the right
(male) half of the figure is adorned with the
traditional ornaments of Shiva. Half of the
hair is piled in a hairdress of matted locks,
half of a third eye is visible on the forehead,
a tiger skin covers the loins, and serpents
are used as ornaments. The left (female)
half shows hair well combed and knotted,
half of a tilak (a round dot) on the forehead,
the eye outlined in black, a well-developed
breast, a silk garment caught with girdles,
an anklet, and the foot tinted red
with henna.

Ardhanarishvara (Composite of Shiva and Parvati)

Date:7th–8th century-Medium:Bronze

In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pang/hd_pang.htm (August 2007)

Gods of Angkor: Bronzes from the National Museum of Cambodia-February 22–August 14,

2011 at the Getty Center

21
 JOURNAL of the

Vishnu-Vasudeva-Nārāyaṇa,
Cambodian, Angkor period,
late 1000s–1150s, bronze.
National Museum of Cambodia,
Phnom Penh

The ancient capital of the Khmer people at Angkor, in northwest Cambodia, was
once the heart of a large sphere of influence that extended over much of mainland
Southeast Asia. The bronzes in this exhibition—masterworks from the collection of
the National Museum of Cambodia—represent the achievements of Khmer artists
during the Angkor period (the ninth through the 15th centuries).

Bronze, a mixture of metals consisting primarily of copper and tin, was a preferred
medium for giving form to the Hindu and Buddhist divinities worshipped in Angkor
and throughout the Khmer empire. The Khmer have always viewed bronze as a noble
material, connoting prosperity and success, and it has played a deeply meaningful
role in their culture over many centuries.

Early Cambodian Bronzes: The Pre-Angkor Period

Khmer sculptors produced figural images of divinities in response to the international
religions—Hinduism and Buddhism—that had arrived in mainland Southeast Asia by
the fifth century. Indian traders and traveling priests brought knowledge of Shiva,
Vishnu, and other Hindu gods. Buddhist texts and images carried by Chinese
pilgrims who passed through the region on their way to and from holy sites in India
also had an influence on the Khmer.

22
 JOURNAL of the
In the pre-Angkor period (500–800), as Khmer metalworkers developed the skills to
cast sculptural figures, they experimented with transforming older, established
representations into new versions befitting local religious and aesthetic traditions.
This process eventually led to the distinctive sculptural styles associated with the
Angkor period (ninth to 15th centuries).

This Buddha was found together with six other figures in 2006 in Kampong Cham
province, about 50 miles northeast of Phnom Penh. The find was accidental, and the
sculptures did not appear to be connected to an ancient temple or other
archaeological structure. Nothing is known about why the figures were buried
together, but they suggest the international range of influences that varied styles of
Buddhist images had on Khmer artists and patrons as Buddhist religious practices
reached Cambodia and became established.

Ganesha, Cambodian, Angkor

period, 1200s, bronze. National
Museum of Cambodia, Phnom
Penh

The Angkor Period

The Angkor period began in the year 802. Khmer rulers established a sequence of
capitals in the Angkor region, culminating in the walled complex of Angkor Thom
built by Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181–about 1218). Successive monarchs built
temples and monasteries to honor their ancestors and their own reigns—the
monuments that visitors to Angkor see today.

The bronze images and ritual objects commissioned for the temples, royal palace, and
private chapels of the nobility convey a relatively consistent treatment of facial
features, dress, and adornment that is recognizably "Khmer." These objects were
rendered through a mastery of lost-wax casting. The process generally involves
making a model out of wax, often over a core made of clay or plaster, and encasing it

23
 JOURNAL of the
in a fireproof mold. When baked, the wax runs out, and molten bronze is poured into
the space left by the melted wax.

A son of Shiva, Ganesha, with an elephant head on the body of a boy, is one of the
most popular Hindu gods, serving as an icon of protection and a remover of
obstacles. In this representation, the snakes forming his armbands and cord over his
chest symbolize water and fertility, while a hoe and a broken tusk (serving as a plow)
in his hands symbolize agriculture. Ganesha was absorbed into the larger Buddhist
pantheon, a role he retains today in Cambodia and Thailand.

Nāga-Protected Buddha with

Avalokiteshvara and
Prajñāpāramitā, Cambodian,
Angkor period, late 1100s–
early 1200s, bronze with
mercury gilding. National
Museum of Cambodia,
Phnom Penh

Bronzes in the Reign of Jayavarman VII

Jayavarman VII (ruled 1181–about 1218) decisively shifted the prevailing religious
balance in which the Buddha was worshipped alongside Hindu gods. He positioned
the Buddha at the apex of a system that included Hindu gods in subsidiary roles, and
the bronze images cast during his reign reflect this transformation.

At the center of Jayavarman VII's walled capital, Angkor Thom, he built the Bayon
as his state temple; its central feature was a towering stone sculpture of the Buddha
protected by a nāga (multiheaded serpent). The other principal monuments he built
were the monastic complexes of Ta Prohm—dedicated to his mother as the
bodhisattva of wisdom, Prajñāpāramitā—and Preah Khan—dedicated to his father as
the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara.

24
 JOURNAL of the

The king's personal icon, frequently replicated in bronze, was the triad of the nāga-
protected Buddha flanked by Avalokiteshvara and Prajñāpāramitā, as seen in the
sculpture illustrated here. The king's appearance is known from temple reliefs and
portrait sculptures, and his features are reflected in the figures of the Buddha and the
Avalokiteshvara in this sculpture.

Thailand: Just to give an example of the Khmer influence in Thailand, in an article, Why
Thailand Has Hindu Statues at Buddhist Temples,Kyle Hulme says that Thailand’s Hindu statues
can be seen all over the country, but there are a few notable statues that are popular attractions.
Suvarnabhumi Airport and Bangkok’s Grand Palace have striking statues of the Hindu giants,
also known as yak, whilst the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok is home to a small, golden statue of
Brahma that was the subject of a terror attack. Outside of Bangkok, Chachoensao Province is
home to several huge statues of Ganesh, whilst other temples around the country feature
somewhat less grand but equally beautiful statues of Hindu gods. As the Khmer Empire ruled
over modern-day Thailand, its Hindu ways and practices began to shape the land and the culture.
Hinduism’s roots in the foundation of Thailand are evident all over the country. For example,
Thailand’s former capital of Ayutthaya was named after Ayodhya, the birthplace of the Hindu
god Rama, whilst the Phanom Rung temple in Isaan, built in the Khmer style, was dedicated to
the Hindu god Shiva and made to represent the sacred site of Mount Kailash. Even Thailand’s
national epic, Ramakien, was derived from the Hindu epic Ramayana.

Erawan Shrine
1. statues of the Hindu god Ganesh, refered to in Thailand as Phra Pikanet. . Along with
Ganesh, it’s common to see statues of ..
2. Shiva (Phra Isuan),
3. Brahma (Phra Phrom),
4. Indra (Phra In)and
5. Vishnu (Phra Narai). Whilst they might not have the same reputation or level of worship as
the Buddha, they’re still important facets of Thai culture even hundreds of years after the
Khmer Empire left.

25
 JOURNAL of the

Ganesh in Chachoengsao Province | © Paul Trafford / Flickr

RAMAYANA-REAMKER
The original Ramayana arrived to Southeast Asia from South India along with Hinduism, but its
retelling there suggests Buddhist influence.
The exact time when was Ramayana introduced to Cambodia is unknown, however, the earliest
mentioning of the epic dated to 7th century according to a stone inscription at Veal
Kantel, Stueng Treng. Based on the same inscription, the manuscript of this epic already existed
in Cambodia as the inscription mentioned the offering of the epic's manuscript to a temple which
expressed its importance in Khmer belief.On the other hand, the surviving text of Reamker dated
in 16th century. Intricate carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat depict a scene from
the Ramayana dating back nearly a millennium. Statues of the poem's heroes were worshiped in
temple sanctuaries, akin to the wall paintings at Cambodia's Royal Palace and Wat Bo.
The Ramayana has been an important epic in India for at least two thousand years, and Reamker
is its Khmer adaptation. The Cambodian version includes incidents and details not found in
the Sanskrit original written by the poet Valmiki. An example of a story that does not appear in
Indian texts and performance is that of the encounter between Hanuman, the monkey general,
and Sovanna Maccha, the mermaid, a favorite of Cambodian audiences. This epic poem, based
on the Sanskrit's Ramayana epic is named to mean "Glory of Rama". It is the national epic of
Cambodia. The earliest mention of this epic's manuscript in Cambodia dated back in 7th century
based on Veal Kantel inscription (K.359). While, the surviving text of Reamker dates from 16th
century.
Reamker adapts the Hindu ideas to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of good and evil in
the world. More than just a reordering of the epic tale, the Reamker is a mainstay of the royal
ballet's repertoire. Like the Ramayana, it is a philosophical allegory, exploring the ideals of

26
 JOURNAL of the
justice and fidelity as embodied by the protagonists, King Rama and Queen Sita. The epic is well
known among the Khmer people for its portrayal in Khmer dance theatre, called the L'khaon, in
various festivals across Cambodia. Scenes from the Reamker are painted on the walls of the
Royal Palace in Khmer style, and its predecessor is carved into the walls of the Angkor
Wat and Banteay Srei temples. It is considered an integral part of Cambodian culture.
The Reamker differs from the original Ramayana in some ways, featuring additional scenes and
emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha.
In the Reamker, issues of trust, loyalty, love, and revenge play out in dramatic encounters among
princes and giants, monkeys and mermaids, and a forlorn princess. Though it is understood that
Preah Ream is an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, his characteristics and those of the others
in the story are interpreted in Cambodia as those of mere mortals, not of the gods as is the case
in India. The complex interplay of strengths and weaknesses, though couched in episodes lined
with magic, nonetheless represents a decidedly human social behavior.
As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Rama story in Cambodia is not confined to the realm
of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, from sculpture to dance drama, painting and
art. Another epic, The Story of Angkor Wat which dates from the beginning of the 17th century,
celebrates the magnificent temple complex at Angkor and describes the bas-reliefs in the temple
galleries that portray the Rama story.
CHARACTERS
Humans

 Preah Ream [preəh riːəm], is the main protagonist of the epic. He is believed to be the
reincarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu and the husband of Neang Seda and the father of
two boys.
 Neang Seda [niːəɳ seːda], the female protagonist of the epic and wife of Preah Ream. She
gives birth to his two children, but fails to meet happiness at the end of the story. In the epic,
she endured the trial of fire.
 Preah Leak [preəh leək], is the brother of Preah Ream and his aid to fight Krong Reap and
rescue Neang Seda.
Mythical beings

 Krong Reap [kroɳ riːəp] or simply Reap [riːəp], is the main antagonist of the story. He is the
brother of Sopphanakha and captured the beautiful Neang Seda to his island of Langka.
 Hanuman, pronounced as [haʔnomaːn], is the Monkey Warrior who helps rescues Neang
Seda. While building the bridge connecting the island of Langka to the mainland, he fell
madly in love with the mermaid Princess Sovanna Maccha.
 Neang Maccha, is a mermaid princess who tried to spoil Hanuman's plans to build a bridge
to Langka but fell in love with him instead and bears his son Mudchanu
 Sugriva is the Monkey King who sent Hanuman to assist Preah Ream.
 Surpanakhar is the sister of Krong Reap. She failed to seduce Preah Leak and loses her ear
and nose as a consequence.
 Mahachompoo is the king of the kingdom of Chompoo and helps Preah Ream fight Krong
Reap to reclaim Neang Seda with his 18 monkey army

27
 JOURNAL of the
 Angkhut is the cousin of Hanuman and son of Vali. He helps Preah Ream fight Krong Reap.

Ayodhya in Thailand?: 3,500 km away from the city of Ayodhya in India, Ayutthaya
which inspires its name from Ayodhya and some hundred kilometres away from the
pulsating capital city of Bangkok, and accessible by a quaint maroon passenger train,
Ayutthaya has but of late come into the radar of the Ram Janmabhumi Nirman Nyas
which has announced its plan for the construction of a Ram temple near here. It is no
wonder that Thailand attracts the attention of many Indians, be it the name ‘Rama’
that all of the Thai kings of the Chakri dynasty to the present day are referred by, or
the centrality of the ‘Ramakien’, the Thai Ramayana, in the society here. Waves of
invasions, and especially the Khmer rule, left the residue of Hinduism in the Thai
culture. And as is often the case with external influences, the elements have been
absorbed and overlaid with Buddhist rituals seamlessly, giving them Thai
characteristics.

________________________________________________________________________

.1.Kalinga and Funan : A Study in Ancient Relations Dr. Benudhar

Patrahttp://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2011/Nov/engpdf/32-38.pdf

Royal Brahmins performing a ceremony, mural painting from Temple of Emerald Buddha

28
 JOURNAL of the
Khmer terminology
Structures & characters in ancient Khmer temples

Apsara
An apsara is a celestial nymph from Buddhist and Hindu mythology, usually depicted dancing and
smiling. They can be found in great numbers in bas reliefs of several Angkor temples, such as Angkor
Wat and the Bayon. The apsaras emerged during “the churning of the ocean of milk”, a famous storey
from the Hindu epic Mahabharata.

Baray

Devata
A devata or thewada is a female celestial being, usually depicted standing. Devata stems from the
Sanskrit word “deva”, which translates to divine. As apsaras, they are often found depicted in bas reliefs
of Angkor temples.

Baray
A baray is a giant, man made water reservoir. It is not known with certainty what the purpose of the
barays was. Archaeologists believe that they were part of the irrigation system or served a religious

29
 JOURNAL of the
purpose. At the center of the barays the Khmer constructed a temple on an artificial island. The largest
baray in Angkor is the West baray, which was more than 7 kilometers long and 1.7 kilometers wide.

Linga
Below

Gopura
An entrance gate or entrance pavilion in the wall that surrounds a temple. Gopuras are often impressive
structures with carvings on lintels and pediments. Many of the large temples have a gopura in the center
of each side of its surrounding walls.

Linga
The linga or lingam is a symbolic representation of the Hindu God Shiva, a stone representation in a
cylindric shape. The linga was placed in the central sanctuary of a Khmer temple to be worshipped.

Kala

Naga
A snake from Buddhist and Hindu mythology often depicted with multiple heads. In many Angkor
temples they are found on Naga bridges or carved on balustrades and lintels. The King of the Nagas is

30
 JOURNAL of the
Mucalinda, who protected the meditating Buddha from torrential rains with its hoods.

Kala
A fierce monster with large teeth. Only the head with an upper jaw is depicted, no lower jaw. In Angkor
Kalas are often found carved on lintels and walls of temples.

Nandi (LEFT)
Dwarpal

Nandi
The sacred bull, the mount of the Hindu God Shiva. Three statues of Nandi are found in front of the
towers of the Preah Ko (“the sacred bull”) temple.

Dvarapala
Armed guardians. They are usually found in pairs, one on either side of the gate protecting the entrance to
the temple.

Bridge

31
 JOURNAL of the
Garuda
A creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology, half bird, half man. In Hindu mythology Garuda is the
mount of Vishnu. In Angkor they are often found in carvings on walls and lintels.

Naga bridge
A bridge with balustrades carrying Naga snakes. Naga bridges served as the symbolic representation of
the crossing from the world of man into the world of the Gods.

Dharmasala
A Dharmasala or “House of Fire” is a rest house with fire where travelers could shelter. It is known from
the Ta Prohm stele there were 121 rest houses with fire on the main roads from Angkor to several
important towns in the empire.

Stele
A stone table inscribed with information about the temple, such as its founding date, the King who
founded the temple and the Gods to who the temple was dedicated.

Banteay
Citadel, e.g. Banteay Srei, Banteay Kdei.

Phnom
Mountain, e.g. Phnom Bakheng (mountain temple).

Prasat
Tower or temple, e.g. Prasat Kravan, Prasat Suor Prat.

Preah
Sacred, e.g. Preah Khan, “the Sacred Sword”.

Thom
Big, large, e.g. Angkor Thom, “large city”.

Angkor
City, e.g. Angkor Thom, “large city”.

32
 JOURNAL of the
Srei
Woman, e.g. Banteay Srei, “the citadel of women”.

Prei
Forest, e.g. Banteay Prei, “Forest citadel”.

Mount Meru
The center of the universe in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. The Angkor “mountain temples” like the
Bakong and Phnom Bakheng were build to be a representation of Mount Meru.

Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP) between India and Kingdom of Cambodia

was signed in 2000

The Mekong Ganga Cooperation initiative -In order to strengthen our old age close cultural
links, Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP) between India and Kingdom of Cambodia was
signed in 2000 which has been renewed from time to time. During the State Visit of Prime
Minister Hun Sen to India in January 2018, the CEP has been renewed for a further period of
four years till 2022. During recent visit of Hon’ble EAM, a Memorandum of The Mekong
Ganga Cooperation initiative, announced and setup MGC Asian Traditional Textiles Museum at
Siem Reap which is a unique repository of traditional textiles of India and Southeast Asian
countries including Cambodia. It also has a training centre and workshop in textiles; a fashion
design and development centre using traditional ethnic designs; and various children activities in
the centre. It also helps preserve the age-old tradition of textiles in this region. The Museum is
another attraction for tourists coming to Siem Reap

33