Theories of Technological Change: Understanding the Engine of Progress

Technological change is the driving force behind human progress. It shapes our
societies, economies, and even our values. But what factors influence this change?
How do we explain the relentless march of new inventions and innovations? Here,
we'll explore some key theories that attempt to answer these questions.

I. Classic Theories:
• Linear Model: This traditional view sees technological advancement as a
one-way street: from basic research to applied science to technological
innovation. However, it is criticized for being too simplistic and neglecting the
social and economic factors involved.
• Technological Determinism: This theory argues that technology itself is the
primary driver of social change. New inventions are seen as inevitable forces
that reshape societies. However, critics argue that social needs and human
choices also play a significant role.
II. Modern Perspectives:
• Demand-Pull vs. Technology-Push: This distinction highlights the two main
drivers of innovation. Demand-pull emphasizes unmet needs and market forces
that create a "pull" for new technologies. Conversely, technology-push focuses
on scientific breakthroughs and advancements that "push" for new applications.
• Social Shaping of Technology: This approach emphasizes the social
context surrounding technological development. Technologies are not just
invented, they are shaped by social values, political agendas, and existing
infrastructure.
III. Beyond the Dichotomies:

Many contemporary theories move beyond these single-factor explanations. They

acknowledge the complex interplay between:

• Economic Forces: Investment, resources, and market competition can all

influence the direction and pace of technological change.
• Scientific Advancements: New scientific discoveries often pave the way for
technological breakthroughs.
 • Social and Political Context: Cultural values, government policies, and
public support all shape the development and adoption of new technologies.
• Networks and Collaboration: Innovation often thrives in collaborative
environments where researchers, engineers, and entrepreneurs work together.
Conclusion:

Theories of technological change offer valuable insights into the forces that drive
innovation. By understanding these factors, we can better anticipate the future
trajectory of technology and make informed decisions about its development and use.

Linear Model Theory of Technological Change

The linear model theory of technological change proposes a simple, sequential

pathway for technological advancement. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

Core Idea:
• Scientific research is the driving force behind innovation. Basic scientific
discoveries lead to applied research and development, ultimately resulting in
new technologies and economic growth.
Stages of the Model:
1. Basic Research: Acquisition of fundamental scientific knowledge without a
specific practical application in mind.
2. Applied Research: Utilizing existing scientific knowledge to develop new
technologies or solve practical problems.
3. Development: Transforming technological ideas into prototypes and then
commercially viable products.
4. Commercialization: Launching the new technology into the market.
Criticisms:
• Overly simplistic: Real-world innovation is messy and iterative. It often
involves feedback loops between stages and doesn't always follow a linear
path.
• Underestimates market forces: The model overlooks how market needs
and consumer demands can influence the direction of technological
development.
 • Ignores social factors: The social and cultural context can significantly
impact the adoption and impact of new technologies.
Relevance:

Despite its limitations, the linear model remains a helpful starting point for
understanding technological change. It highlights the importance of basic research
and development in fostering innovation. Additionally, the model can be a useful
framework for policymakers to prioritize investments in scientific research.

Further Exploration:

The linear model has been challenged by alternative models that emphasize the role
of market forces, social factors, and user needs in technological change. Exploring
these alternative models can provide a more nuanced understanding of how
technologies evolve.

Technological Determinism Theory

This theory suggests that technological advancements are the primary driving force
behind social change. In other words, technology dictates how societies develop,
function, and even think.

Key Points:

• Technology as the Causal Agent: Technological determinism flips the cause-

and-effect relationship. It views technology as the cause, shaping social
structures, cultural values, and even our way of thinking.
• Autonomous Technological Progress: This theory often assumes
technology progresses independently, following its own internal logic of
efficiency, rather than being influenced by societal needs or desires.
• Examples: Proponents of this theory might point to the printing press
revolutionizing communication and education, or the internet fundamentally
changing social interaction and access to information.

Criticisms:

• Underestimates Human Agency: Technological determinism downplays

human control over technological development and its applications. Humans
make choices about what technologies to create and how to use them.
• Ignores Social Context: The theory neglects how social, economic, and
political factors influence the development, adoption, and impact of
technologies.
 • Overly Deterministic: Technological advancements don't always have a
singular, predictable outcome on society. Different societies may adapt and use
the same technology in vastly different ways.

Overall:

Technological determinism offers a simplified explanation for social change. While

technology undoubtedly plays a major role, it's a complex interplay with human
choices, social structures, and cultural values.

Demand-Pull and Technology-Push are two leading theories that explain how
technological change happens. They essentially focus on what initiates the innovation
process.

Demand-Pull Theory

The demand-pull theory argues that technological change is driven by market

demand. Consumers' needs and wants create a pull for new technologies that can
better serve those needs. Companies are incentivized to invest in research and
development (R&D) to create new products or improve existing ones to meet this
demand.

Here's a breakdown of the Demand-Pull Theory:

• Focuses on the Market: New technologies are created in response to a need

in the marketplace.
• Customer Needs Drive Innovation: Companies innovate to address unmet
needs or offer a better solution to existing problems.
• Examples: The development of the smartphone can be seen as a response to
consumer demand for a more versatile mobile device that could combine phone
functionality with features like email, web browsing, and music player.

Technology-Push Theory

On the other hand, the technology-push theory argues that technological change is
driven by scientific advancements and technological breakthroughs. These
advancements push the boundaries of what's possible and create new opportunities
for innovation. Research and development in one area can lead to the development
of entirely new technologies or improvements to existing ones.

Here's a breakdown of the Technology-Push Theory:

• Focuses on Technological Capabilities: New technological discoveries

create possibilities for new applications and products.
• Scientific Advancements Lead the Way: Innovation is driven by scientific
research and technological breakthroughs.
• Examples: The invention of the transistor, a major breakthrough in solid-state
physics, paved the way for the development of smaller, more powerful
electronic devices.
The Reality: A Combination of Both

In the real world, technological change is often driven by a combination of both

demand-pull and technology-push factors. New technologies may create new markets
and new market demands can pull for the development of new technologies.

For instance, the invention of the internet (technology-push) created a massive

demand for new products and services that could leverage this technology (demand-
pull). This led to the development of e-commerce, social media, and a whole range of
new online applications.

Social shaping of technology (SST) is a theory that examines how social, political, and
economic forces influence the development and use of technology. It challenges the
idea that technology is a neutral force that simply progresses on its own. Instead, SST
argues that technology is shaped by the values and needs of the society that creates
it.

For example, the development of the automobile was influenced by the social and
economic factors of the early 20th century. The rise of suburbs, the development of a
national highway system, and the increasing demand for individual transportation all
played a role in shaping the design and use of cars.

Social shaping of technology can also be seen in the way that technologies are used.
For example, social media platforms are designed to be addictive and keep users
engaged. However, the way that people use social media is also shaped by social
norms and expectations.

SST is an important concept to consider because it helps us to understand how

technology is not just a product of scientific progress, but also a reflection of the society
that created it. By understanding the social shaping of technology, we can better
understand the potential benefits and risks of new technologies, and make more
informed decisions about how to develop and use them.

Here are some of the key concepts of social shaping of technology:

• Social forces: Social forces, such as political ideologies, economic systems,

and cultural values, all play a role in shaping the development and use of
technology.
 • Technological artifacts: Technologies are not just physical objects, but also
social artifacts that embody the values and norms of the societies that create
them.
• Social shaping: The social shaping of technology is a two-way process.
Social forces shape technology, and technology, in turn, shapes society.
• Unintended consequences: The development and use of technology can
often have unintended consequences. For example, the development of the
automobile led to increased air pollution and traffic congestion.

By understanding the social shaping of technology, we can better develop and use
technologies that meet the needs of society in a responsible way.