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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW OF MACHINING PROCESSES

Metals are shaped into different usable forms through various

processes in which no chip formation takes place. In these processes, the
metal is shaped under the action of heat, pressure or both. This category
includes operations like forging, drawing, spinning, rolling, extruding etc.
Against these there are other processes in which the components are brought
into the desired shape and size by removing the unwanted material from the
parent metal in the form of chips through machining and these process are
called as cutting processes. A few of the important machining processes
falling in this category are turning, milling, drilling, shaping, planning,
broaching etc. Turning is the most widely used among all the cutting
processes. The increasing demands for turning operations is attaining new
dimensions at present, in which the growing competition needs all the efforts
to be directed towards the economical manufacture of machined parts. This
can be made possible by the use of CNC lathe machines. Surface roughness,
wear, Cutting Forces, Power consumption, Material Removal Rate can be
very helpful to predict the importance of different set-up variables. Hence by
optimizing these desired results are considered to be important in the present
industrial applications.

The increase of consumer needs for quality metal cutting related

products has driven the metal cutting industry to continuously improve quality
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control of metal removing processes. Among these metal removal processes,

the turning process is one of the most fundamental metal cutting operation
used in the manufacturing industry. Surface roughness is used to determine
and evaluate the quality of a product. Surface roughness is one of the major
quality attributes of a turning product. The proper selection of machining
process parameters is crucial before the process takes place in order to get a
better surface finish. It has long been recognized that conditions during
machining, optimized values of cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut,
should be selected to maintain the economics of machining operations. This
can be assessed by the total productivity, total manufacturing cost per
component or some other suitable criterion.

Considerable efforts are still in progress on the use of handbook

based traditional cutting conditions and cutting tool selection at the process
planning level. The necessity of selecting and implementing optimal
machining conditions and the most suitable cutting tool has been felt over the
last few decades. The general trends of developing this process include
reducing the machining cost and time as well as increasing the precision and
accuracy. The process parameters in the turning process have different levels
of effects on different product geometries and thereby increasing the
complexity in parameter setting. If a robust turning technique has the
characteristics of high speed and low cost, is able to produce high quality
products with a wide application base, can be developed within a short time
and the competitiveness of the manufacturing industry will inevitably be
increased. With t of Experiments
(DOE) method, to develop a turning technique with the above mentioned
qualities. The surface quality is one of the most specified customer
requirements and the major indicator of surface quality on machined parts is
surface roughness. The surface roughness is mainly a result of various
controllable or uncontrollable process parameters and it is harder to attain and
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track them. So, there is a need for a tool that should assess the surface
roughness before machining a part and, at the same time, it can be easily used
in the shop floor environment for contributing to the minimization of
machining time and cost for the desired surface quality.

Ductile materials are difficult to machine because they deform

plastically beyond yield point and tends to produce continuous chips which
adheres on the work sample and thereby affecting the cutting ability. But the
brittle materials which are commonly elastic up to ultimate tensile strength
and as a result produces discontinuous chips, which breakaway from the work
sample easily and improves the cutting ability. In general, machinability of
ductile materials is poorer than the brittle materials. Plastic flow during
machining may cause difficulty in ductile materials. Built up edge formation
in the chips is an important issue. Further the hardness (or specifically scratch
hardness) also contributes the machinability of a material.

1.1.1 Mechanism of Orthogonal Cutting in Turning Process

During machining, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the

work piece material, followed by one or two finishing cuts. The roughing cut
generally removes large amounts of material from the starting work part. It
creates a shape closer to desired geometry of the work part, but leaving some
material for further finish cutting operation. In roughing cut, high feed rates
and depth of cuts, low cutting speeds are preferably adopted. Whereas the
finishing cut completes part geometry and achieves final dimensions,
tolerances, and the surface finish. For finish turning operation, lower feed
rates and depths, high cutting speeds are preferably employed. A typical
turning operation with a single point cutting tool is shown in the Figure 1.1
and the mechanism of orthogonal cutting process is shown in Figure 1.2.
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Figure 1.1 Orthogonal turning process

Figure 1.2 Mechanism of orthogonal cutting process

In turning operation the resultant force is divided into three force

components, main cutting force, feed force and radial force. All three force
components are of interest because apart from the main component that gives
the cutting power and its determination is apparently necessary, the radial and
feed components control dimensional and form errors in case of work piece
and tool deflection and tool wear. Usually, in metal cutting operation the main
cutting force is the largest force as compared to feed force and radial force.
When cutting speed increases both the cutting force and feed force tends to
reduce, for majority of the metallic parts turned with carbide tools.
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A proper combination of cutting conditions is extremely important

task because these determines the surface quality, surface roughness, flank
wear, cutting tool temperature and cutting force of parts manufactured. The
expanding demand for product quality, higher productivity and overall cost
reduction by machining and grinding, specifically to meet the challenges
demanded by liberalization and global cost competitiveness, insists high
stability, high material removal rate and long cutting tool life.

The high cutting temperature not only reduces the dimensional

accuracy and tool life but also reduces the surface integrity of the product by
inducing surface and sub surface micro cracks, tensile residual stresses in
addition to rapid oxidation and corrosion. Cutting speed, feed rate, depth of
cut, tool-work piece material, tool geometry and coolants used are the turning
parameters which highly influence the performance measures. In order to
raise machining efficiency, decrease the machining cost and improve the
quality of machined parts, it is necessary to select the most suitable machining
conditions. It is difficult to achieve the highest performance of a machine as
there are too many variable machining parameters. In order to overcome these
machining problems, there is a need to develop scientific methods to select
cutting conditions and tool geometry for free machining of metals.

In this research work, the use of Response Surface Methodology

and Taguchi Technique are used to optimize the metal cutting parameters
with multiple performance characteristics, including surface roughness,
cutting force, average cutting zone temperature and flank wear. Most of the
published works focused on optimization of parameters for machining of
materials. Turning process parameters such as cutting tool geometry and
materials, depth of cut, cutting speed feed rates, usage of cutting fluids shows
impact on the material removal rates and the machining quality such as
surface roughness and chip thickness. Proper selection of the cutting process
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parameters can produce better surface roughness, higher tool life with
minimum chip thickness.

1.2 TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

There are several types of Stainless steels which are discussed in the
coming paragraphs. They are classified broadly under four main categories of
martensitic, ferritic, austenitic and precipitation hardened stainless steel.

1.2.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels

This type of steel was actually the first to be developed

commercially, and in those early stages it was used mainly to make cutlery.
The carbon content for this type of steel is higher than most other stainless
steels at between 0.1 and 1.2%, along with 18% of chromium. Additional
materials found in martensitic stainless steel include molybdenum and nickel.
By applying high temperature to this steel it becomes harder and it also has
some magnetic properties. At the same time, it is able to resist corrosion
brought about by environmental factors. But it is still less durable than
austenitic stainless steel. The applications of martensitic stainless steel include
the manufacture of things such as knife blades, spindles, pins, surgical
instruments and shafts.

1.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels

Ferritic steel and martensitic steels collectively, are termed as the

400 series stainless steels. It features carbon levels of 10.5% and as much as
27% chromium. Amongst the properties which ferritic steel can boast are the
following; it has magnetic properties, less ductile when compared with
martensitic and austenitic steel and becomes less hard after intense heating.
The ferritic steels are highly resistant to corrosion, which means it can be
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safely be used in sea water applications, and this is against the fact that it is
generally less durable than the austenitic type of stainless steel. This corrosion
resistance ability makes it suitable that it is also the material of choice when
manufacturing boilers and washing machines. It is also highly useful when
making things such as car trim and exhaust systems.

1.2.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steel, which is also called the 300 series

stainless steel, is the most commonly used type of steel. Its basic make up is
18% chromium and 8% nickel and this is boosted by the addition of elements
such as manganese and nitrogen. Similar to ferritic stainless steel, it is also
highly resistant to corrosion and is easily drawn into wires or hammered into
thin sheets. The adaptability of this type of steel is demonstrated by the fact
that it accounts for more than 70% of all steel production. Apart from the
properties already mentioned, the austenitic stainless steel exhibits excellent
hygiene properties and is good at working in both high and low temperatures.
Common applications for this type of steel includes making of kitchen sinks,
food processing equipment and chemical equipment plant.

1.2.4 Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels

Initially, this type of stainless steel is austenitic in nature and is then

changed by the addition of other elements. Once transformed, it becomes
extremely durable, tough and hard wearing. The main advantage is the way in
which its shape can be altered once and it can be heated to a sufficiently high
temperature. Although being tougher than austenitic steel, it is uniformly as
resistant to corrosion and this feature makes it especially useful in the
manufacturing of aircraft parts as well as the creation of shafts and pumps.
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Alloying metallic elements added during the making of the steel

increase hardness, corrosion resistance and strength. Chromium, nickel, and
molybdenum are the most commonly used alloying elements in stainless steel.
Stainless steels are available in the form of pipes, plate and strip, sheet, foil,
wire, bar and tubes. Stainless steels are an iron-based alloy containing at
between 10.5% to 30% Cr. Stainless steel achieve its stainless characteristic
through the formation of an invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide
surface film. Other alloying elements added to improve the characteristics of
the stainless steel include nickel, molybdenum, aluminum, copper, silicon,
titanium, niobium, sulphur, nitrogen and selenium. Carbon is normally in
amounts from 0.03% to more than 1.0% in some martensitic grades.

1.2.5 Common US Grades of Stainless Steel

In general, the selection of a stainless steels are based on

Corrosion resistance

Fabrication characteristics

Availability

Mechanical properties over a specific temperature ranges

Product cost

Since stainless steel is corrosion resistant, it maintains its strength at

high temperatures. It is widely used in items such as food processing
products, automotive as well as medical and health equipment. The common
US grades of steels are discussed here.

TYPE 304: The most frequently specified austenitic (chromium-nickel

stainless class) stainless steel, accounting for more than 50 % of the stainless
steel production in the world. This grade overcomes ordinary corrosion in
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architecture, and is highly durable in typical food processing equipments, and

resistant to most of chemicals. Type 304 steel is available in virtually all
product forms and finishes.

TYPE 316: Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel

containing 2 % - 3 % molybdenum (whereas type 304 stainless steel has
none). The inclusion of molybdenum gives type 316 stainless steel, a greater
resistances to various forms of deterioration.

TYPE 409: Ferritic (plain chromium stainless steel category) stainless steel
suitable for high temperature. This grade has the lowest chromium content of
all stainless steels and thus is the least expensive.

TYPE 410: The most widely used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class
with exceptional strength) stainless steel, enabling a high level of strength
advised by the martensitic stainless steel. It is a heat treatable grade of low
cost which is suitable for non-severe corrosion applications.

TYPE 430: The most widely used ferritic (plain chromium stainless category)
stainless steel, offering general-purpose corrosion resistance, often in
decorative applications.

1.3 SUPER DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL

Alloy 2507 is a super duplex stainless steel with 25% chromium,

4% molybdenum, and 7% nickel designed for demanding applications which
require exceptional strength and corrosion resistance, such as petrochemical,
seawater equipment and chemical processes. The steel has high thermal
conductivity, excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking, and a
low coefficient of thermal expansion. The high chromium, molybdenum, and
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nitrogen levels provide excellent resistance to crevice, pitting and general

corrosion.

The impact strength is also comparatively high. Super duplex

stainless steel is not recommended for applications which require long
exposures to temperatures above 570°F because of the risk of a reduction in
toughness. The applications of super duplex stainless steel includes heat
exchangers, offshore platforms, process and service water systems, injection
and ballast water systems, fire-fighting systems, chemical process industries,
vessels, desalination plants, high pressure RO-plant and seawater piping. The
applications also include mechanical and structural components, high
strength, corrosion-resistant parts, Power industry flue gas desulfurization
systems, utility and industrial scrubber systems, absorber towers, ducting, and
piping.

The high chromium and molybdenum content of super duplex

stainless steel makes it extremely resistant to uniform corrosion by organic
acids like formic and acetic acid. The low carbon content of super duplex
stainless steel greatly lowers the risk of carbide precipitation at the grain
boundaries during heat treatment. Therefore, this alloy is also highly resistant
to carbide related inter granular corrosion.

The duplex structure of super duplex stainless steel provides

excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Because of
its higher alloy content, the 2507 type steel is superior to type 2205 steel in
corrosion resistance and high strength. Super duplex stainless steel 2507 is
particularly useful in offshore gas and oil applications and in wells with either
naturally high brine levels or where brine has been injected to enhance
recovery. The presence of crevices, almost unavoidable in practical
constructions and operations, makes stainless steels more affected to chloride
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environments corrosions. 2507 is highly resistant to crevice corrosion.

Figure.1.3 represents a typical microstructure of Super Duplex Stainless steel.

Figure 1.3 Microstructure of super duplex stainless steel

1.3.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties

Super duplex stainless steel combines high tensile and impact

strength with a low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal
conductivity which makes it suitable for many structural and mechanical
components. Super duplex stainless steel is not recommended for applications
which require long exposures to temperatures in excess of 570°F because of
the increased risk of a reduction in toughness. The commonly available steel
are typical wrought products and should not be regarded as a maximum or
minimum value unless specifically stated. A Large variety of stainless steel
materials are needed in Industry.

Process and quality control of stainless steels to achieve the desired

properties become important since competition in industry demands improved
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performance and longer satisfactory service life. In many engineering

applications, duplex stainless steels (DSS) are preferred because of their
improved corrosion resistance and mechanical properties. Duplex Stainless
Steel is characterized by its chemical composition comprising chromium
(~22%), molybdenum (~3%) and nitrogen (~0.18%). Due to their increased
chromium and molybdenum content, DSSs offer excellent corrosion
resistance in many medium. DSSs have two-phase microstructure of ferrite

a ferrite phase matrix. Simultaneous presence of ferrite and austenite phases

provides a combination of the best properties of these two phases and better
corrosion resistance than austenitic stainless steel and better mechanical
properties than ferritic stainless steel.

Duplex stainless steel consists of approximately 50 percentage

of ferrite structure and 50 percentage of austenite structure allowing a
combination of excellent mechanical properties and high corrosion resistance.
These alloys have a corrosion resistance similar to the ferritic stainless steels,
even though its toughness is lesser to that of austenitic steels but superior to
ferritic stainless steels and their mechanical strength is greater than that of
austenitic stainless steels. Based on these properties duplex stainless steels are
considered as excellent materials for industrial applications and their use has
increased in the chemical, oil, electric power and petroleum industries. As an
example, these alloys find its application in the pumps for fuel gas and
desulfurization plants, which have high corrosion and corrosion-erosion
resistance requirements.

The high mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of duplex

stainless steel depends on addition of Cr, Mo, Ni and N. However, this alloy
elements addition also develops the precipitation of secondary phases in
duplex stainless steels such as sigma phase, chi phase, chromium nitrides or
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secondary austenite phase. Since secondary phases are dependent on

temperature and time, the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of
duplex stainless steel decrease significantly in the temperature range of 600-
900 oC where sigma phase and other secondary phases precipitates. The sigma
phase is most detrimental for corrosion resistance and therefore mechanical
properties. Several researchers have studied secondary phase precipitation in
duplex stainless steel and its effect on corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties. It is observed that the degradation of pitting and stress corrosion
resistance in ageing of 25% Cr duplex stainless steel at 850°C. Even though
the existence of studies about secondary phases, the main focus is only to
explain the influence on corrosion resistance and mechanical properties,
especially on SAF 2205 duplex stainless steel.

Stainless steels are resistant to concentrated acids, do not rust in sea

water and do not scale upto a temperature of 1100°C. These properties makes
it to use universally, in combination with good manufacturing characteristics
and mechanical properties, which makes the stainless steels as an
indispensable tool for the designer. When comparing with the usage of carbon
steels, the usage of stainless steel is small but exhibits a steady growth, in
contrast to the production steels. Stainless steels as a group is perhaps more
contrary than the production steels, and their properties are in many cases
relatively unknown to the designer.

The most widely used stainless grades are the austenitic 18/9 type
stainless steels, i.e. AISI 304 and 304L, which accounts for more than 50% of
the global production of stainless steel. After this type, most widely used
grades are the ferritic steels such as AISI 410, followed by the molybdenum-
alloyed austenitic steels AISI 316 and 316L. Together these grades (austenitic
and ferritic) account over 80% of the total tonnage of stainless steels. To
identify the grades, American standard (AISI) designations are normally used.
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If a certain grade of stainless steel does not have a standard designation, then
From the development of stainless steels
the number of grades has increased rapidly. There are a large number of
stainless steels with widely varying compositions.

Super Duplex stainless steel 2507 is highly resistant to uniform

corrosion by organic acids such as formic and acetic acid. It is also highly
resistant to inorganic acids, especially if they contain chlorides. Alloy 2507 is
highly resistant to carbide-related inter granular corrosion. Due to the ferritic
portion of the duplex structure of the alloy it is very resistant to stress
corrosion cracking in warm chloride containing environments. Through
additions of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen localized corrosion such as
pitting and crevice gets improved. Alloy 2507 has excellent localized pitting
resistance.

1.3.2 Machinability Characteristics

Most of the common stainless steel forming methods can be used

for cold working Super Duplex Stainless Steel. The alloy has a higher yield
strength and lower ductility than the austenitic steels. why fabricators
may find that higher forming forces, increased radius of bending, and
increased allowance for spring back are necessary. Deep drawing, stretch
forming, and similar processes are more difficult to perform on super duplex
stainless steel than on an austenitic stainless steel.

When forming requires more than 10% cold deformation, solutions

annealing and quenching are recommended. Super duplex stainless steel
should be hot worked between 1875°F and 2250°F. This should be followed
by a solution annealing at 1925°F minimum and a rapid air or water
quenching. Super duplex stainless steel should be solution annealed and
quenched after either hot or cold forming. Solution annealing should be done
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at a minimum of 1925°F. To obtain maximum corrosion resistance, heat

treated products should be pickled and rinsed.

Super duplex stainless steel possesses good weldability and can be

joined to itself or other materials by shielded metal arc welding, gas tungsten
arc welding, plasma arc welding, flux cored wire, or submerged arc welding.
2507/P100 type filler metal is suggested when welding super duplex stainless
steel because it will produce the appropriate duplex weld structure. Preheating
of super duplex stainless steel is not necessary except to prevent condensation
on cold metal. The inter pass weld temperature should not exceed 300°F or
the weld integrity can be adversely affected. The root should be shielded with
argon or 90% N2 / 10% H2 purging gas for maximum corrosion resistance.
The latter provides better corrosion resistance.

1.3.3 Advantages and Special Application

Duplex stainless steel is made, to put it simply, by mixing together

the basic components of austenitic and ferritic steel. The two types of steel are
combined in equal measure and the resulting steel contains a higher level of
chromium and an amount of nickel which is lower. The fact that it is a mix of
two different steels means that it brings the best of both types to bear, being
more resistant than any other type of steel to corrosion as well as being able to
deal with stress and, on occasion, displaying some magnetic properties.

As well as this it is easy to work with, being simple to weld and to

form into specific shapes. The very best quality stainless steel is actually

mean that it is highly suited to use in tools or machinery that are to be

employed in marine conditions.
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The advantages of Super Duplex Stainless steel includes

High resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking

High Strength

Superior resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion

Good general corrosion resistance

Suggested for applications up to 600° F

Low rate of thermal expansion

Combination of properties given by austenitic and ferritic

structure

Good weld ability and workability.

Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low

maintenance make it an ideal material for many applications. There are over
150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most commonly used. The
alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in
cookware, cutlery, household hardware, surgical instruments, major
appliances, industrial equipment and as an automotive and aerospace
structural alloy and construction material in large buildings.

Stainless steel is used for jewellery and watches with 316L being
the type commonly used for such applications. It can be re-finished by any
jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black. Some firearms incorporate
stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some
handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911
pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish
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similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject
to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from
a holster), or rust when scratched.

Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative

highlights in their vehicles. Stainless steel is used for buildings for both
practical and aesthetic reasons. The most famous example of this is the upper
portion of the Chrysler Building. Some diners and fast-food restaurants use
large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture. Because of the
durability of the material, many of these buildings retain their original
appearance. Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas
Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building, two of the world's tallest skyscrapers.
The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole
weighing over 220 tonnes (240 short tons).

The aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility, the size

of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building in North America.
Cala Galdana Bridge in Minorca (Spain) is the first stainless steel road bridge.
The Unisphere constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964-65 World's Fair
in New York city, is constructed of type 304L stainless steel as a sphere with
a diameter of 120 feet, or 36.57 meters. The Gateway Arch is clad entirely in
stainless steel of dimension 886 tons of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, finished, type
304 stainless steel. The United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic
stainless steel structural skin. The Atomium in Brussels, Belgium was
renovated with stainless steel cladding in a renovation completed in 2006,
previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium. The
Cloud Gate sculpture by Anish Kapoor, in Chicago US. The Sibelius
monument in Helsinki, Finland, is made entirely of stainless steel tubes.
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1.4 TAGUCHI TECHNIQUE

The Taguchi method is a quality tool that helps improve the work
efficiently. It is possible to select suitable factors and their levels in the
cutting experiment. In this research work the parameters selected are cutting
speed with two levels, feed with three levels and depth of cut with three
levels. The experimental results are designed as given by orthogonal array of
the Taguchi Technique.

Taguchi method is used for tuning the turning process by

optimizing the process parameters for best tool life. In general, the parameter
optimization process of the Taguchi method is based on 8-steps of planning,
conducting and evaluating results of matrix experiments to determine the best
levels of control parameters, Lin (2002). Those eight steps are given as
follows;

i) Identify the performance characteristics (responses) to optimize

and process parameters to control (test).

ii) Determine the number of levels for each of the tested

parameters.

iii) Select an appropriate orthogonal array, and assign each tested

parameters into the array.

iv) Conduct an experiment randomly based on the arrangement of

the orthogonal array.

v) Calculate the S/N ratio for each combination of the tested

parameters.

vi) Analysis the experimental result using the S/N ratio and
ANOVA test.
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vii) Find the optimal level for each of the process parameters.

viii) Conduct the confirmation experiment to verify the optimal

process parameters.

As the reason of decreasing the numbers of testing suit to the

condition by the consideration of the ratio of impact (S/N ratios). In this
research work, the analysis of impact between the factors for the parameters
cutting tool temperature, cutting force, surface roughness, lower the signal to
noise value is preferred. Hence Smaller is Better type problem is given by

S/N (1.1)

The flow chart for Taguchi Technique is presented in Figure 1.4. In

Taguchi method, the term signal represents the desirable value, and noise
represents the undesirable value. Process parameters with the highest S/N
ratio always give the best quality with minimum variance.

The S/N ratio for each parameter level is calculated by finding the
average of S/N ratios at the corresponding level. The analysis of S/N ratio of
tool life found that the first factor that causes tool life to be great is cutting
speed, having feed rate and depth of cut as secondary factors, respectively.
From ANOVA analysis the significant parameter on response parameter can
be found.
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Figure 1.4 Flow chart for Taguchi technique

1.5 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

In turning operation, it is an important task to select cutting

parameters for achieving high cutting performance. Usually, the desired
cutting parameters are determined based on experience or by use of hand
book. But the ranges given to these sources are actually starting values and
are not the optimal values. However, this does not ensure that the selected
cutting parameters have optimal or near optimal cutting performance for a
particular machine and environment.
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The traditional methods used for solving this kind of optimization

problems include calculus based searches, dynamic programming, random
searches and gradient methods whereas modern heuristic methods include
artificial neural networks, Lagrangian relaxation approaches and simulated
annealing. Some of these methods are successful in locating the optimal
solution, but they are usually slow in convergence and require much
computing time. Other methods may risk being trapped at a local optimum
which fails to give best solution.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a statistical and

mathematical method that is suitable for development and improving the
process, and finding the best value for the process. In the meantime, test
design such as Fractional Factorial Design, Central Composite Design (CCD),
Box-Behnken Design (BBD), and orthogonal arrays are designed to use few
tests to find relationship of each factor. While Taguchi method is a method
that cannot be used to analyze interaction effect for every case without any
consideration to confounding of the factor, it does not use sampling principle
of test design due to economical test cost requirement. Efficiency of this
method depends on the selection of suitable orthogonal array.

Response surface methodology is usually considered in the context

of experimental design as a statistical method for modelling and analyzing of
problems in which different variables affect a response of interest. The first
step in RSM is to determine a suitable approximation for the actual functional
relationship between the response variable y and a set of independent
variables as follows;

= + + X² + +€ (1.2)
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is the coefficient that can be calculated using the least

square method. When resulted estimated surface is an adequate approximation
of the true response function, the results will be approximately equivalent to
analysis of the actual system. The model parameters can be approximated
whenever proper experimental designs are used to collect the data. The
flowchart for Response Surface Methodology is shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Flow chart for response surface methodology

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1.6 NON-DOMINATED SORTING GENETIC ALGORITHM

The non-dominated sorting algorithm (NSGA-II) is applied to multi

objective problems, which is a generic non-explicit based on multi objective
evolutionary algorithm. The advantages of NSGA-II are;

i) They are a population based search techniques, so global

optimal solution is possible,

ii) They do not need any auxiliary information like gradients,

derivatives, etc,

iii) They are easier to program and implement.

This algorithm uses the elite-preserving operator, which favors the

elites of a population by giving them an opportunity to be directly carried
over to the next
crossover and mutation operators, they are compared with both of their
parents to select the two best solutions among the four parent offspring
solutions. Multi objective optimization problems give rise to a set of Pareto
optimal solutions, none of which can be said to be better than any other in all
objectives.

In any interesting multi objective optimization problem, there exist a

number of such solutions, which are of interest to designers and practitioners.
Since no one solution is better than any other solution in the Pareto optimal
set, it is also a goal in a multi objective optimization to find as many such
Pareto optimal solutions as possible. Unlike most classical search and
optimization problems, GAs work with a population of solutions and
thus are likely candidates for finding multiple Pareto optimal solutions
simultaneously. The flow chart for NSGA is given in figure 1.6.
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Figure 1.6 Flow chart for non dominated sorting genetic algorithm

1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.7.1 Turning of Super Duplex Stainless Steel

During 1930's Sweden was the only country to produce duplex

stainless steels. A Finnish foundry has been reported as having produced
duplex castings around 1930's. The J. Holtzer steel works in France were
granted a patent in 1936 of ferritic austenitic alloys containing 16 to 23%
chromium, 1.5 to 6.5% nickel, maximum up to 3% of molybdenum and
tungsten and up to 2.5% copper. From this patent, Uranus 50, one pioneer
duplex alloy, was developed. Many duplex grades have been developed since
the 1930's to cope up with the service conditions (Jan Olsson & Mats Liljas
1996).

Nickel and chromium are added in high percentage in order to

stabilize the austenite phase. No nickel is present in ferritic grades and the
percentage of chromium content can be kept as low as 12 per cent. When
considering the corrosion resistance properties, the level of chromium
addition is an important constraint. Duplex stainless steel grades are designed
to have a 50% Their chemistry is characterised by
 25

having significant content of chromium and molybdenum percentage, while

the nickel content remains at about 50 per cent of the austenitic grades with
similar corrosion resistance properties (Charles & Chemelle 2010).

Metallurgical studies related to stainless steel acts as a boundary to

various corrosive conditions. Various types of stainless steel were classified
according to their crystalline structure with the addition of nickel. Super
duplex stainless steel is one of the categorized metals with a resistance to
pitting corrosion. This steel is attained with a lower alloy content forming a
excellent metal to corrosion resistance. This material is formed by the
equivalent proportional ratio of the ferrite and austenite that confers exquisite
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. (Eleonora Bettini et al 2014)

Anees Malik et al (1999) founded that, in seawater applications,

traditional and high alloyed stainless steel can be used without risk of
localized corrosion in crevice and deposit free systems. However, for a
crevice forming environment, only the high alloyed stainless steel was found
to be satisfactory materials for seawater applications including desalination
plants. The machining attribute defined by the machining parameters like feed
rate, cutting speed and depth of cut using the carbide inserts as the cutting tool
were used to determine the performance of surface roughness and tool life.
(Yang & Tarng 1998)

Papantoniou Vassilis (2010) explained that the wide variety of

stainless steel makes it a perfect alloy to be used in variety of applications
requiring inimical properties. The austenite structure is stabilized by adding
nickel. For improving the hardness and strength, carbon should be added.
Manganese in large quantities are also used in some compositions of stainless
steel, since it preserves an austenite structure in the steel, just like nickel, but
comparatively at low cost. Stainless steel are classified into four types based
on crystalline structure as austenite, ferritic, martensitic and duplex steels .
 26

Jukko Paro (2006) discussed the machinability studies of high

strength stainless steels with modern machine tools using variant cutting tools
which were investigated over a wide range of machining parameters in
various operations like grinding, turning and drilling operations. He found
that the formation of built up edges gets increased when machining stainless
steel in dry conditions.

Kwok et al (1998) stated that due to their exquisite corrosion

resistance, stainless steels are widely used in the chemical, marine, urban
water and food industries. Apart from corrosive environment, high speed of
fluid flow is always experienced for components used in these industries.
Pump impellers, valves, ultrasonic mixer and stirrers, etc are the examples of
these components. High fluid speed could induce cavitation erosion on the
surface of the metal due to the collapsing of cavities which are caused due to
sudden change of the local pressure within the liquid.

Ki Woo Nam et al (2001) in their work found that the concurrent

presence of ferrite and austenite phases provides a combination of enriched
properties of these two phases. It exhibits the better corrosion resistance than
austenitic stainless steel and better mechanical properties than ferritic
stainless steel. Because of their superior characters, duplex steels are
profitably used in many fields of engineering applications.

Villalobos et al (2009) studied the microstructure changes in SAF

2507 super duplex stainless steel after thermal cycle in the range from 200 to
9000C for 20minutes. The results showed there were no micro structural
changes in the temperature range of 200-700°C. Anyway, above 800°C the
sigma phase gets precipitated. The experimental results showed the
precipitation of small particles of sigma phase at 900°C all over the
microstructure showing the initial stages of formation.
 27

Vannevik et al (1996) proposed that the corrosion property of

duplex stainless steel depends upon the chemical composition as well as the
degree of homogeneity of alloying elements. In an austenitic stainless steel,
the dissemination of elements is very alike. Anyway, a complexity arises in
duplex stainless steel, in which chromium and molybdenum are partitioned to
the ferrite and nitrogen is partitioned to the austenite. As the result, the pitting
resistance equivalent number (PREN) value and the associated resistance to
pitting may become notably different in the two phases.

Atxaga & Irisarri (2009) founded the reason for the failure of a
group of duplex stainless steel valves after a service of 15 years. Chemical
analysis did not agreed with the required quality. Metallographic analysis
affirmed some small crater with corrosive products inside which were
accursed to be the origin of long cracks and which consequently leads to
failure. Cracks and pitting continued along the interface of ferrite and
austenite, where carbides and brittle phases are precipitated. They
recommended the usage of steels with higher pitting resistance and to avoid
working in the temperature range where both carbides and brittle phases are
formed.

Iris Alvarez Armas (2008) described the history and some recent
developments of duplex stainless steel grades. He also discussed the
enhancement made on the standard S32205 duplex stainless steel by lowering
the Ni and Mo additions. This was done to produce an cost effective substitute
of the regular grade or in the case of the super duplex S32750 grade by
expanding the additions of Cr, Mo and N or elevating the content of
chromium, nickel, copper and tungsten in consolidation with nearly lower
contents of Ni and Mo to improve the toughness, strength and corrosion
resistance properties which are well suitable for the oil industry.
 28

Rajesekaran et al (2013) analyzed the turning parameters

influencing the surface roughness and their contribution towards the surface
roughness. The machining parameters considered are cutting speed, feed rate
and the depth of cut. The results revealed that the feed rate plays a primary
role in producing the surface roughness followed by the cutting speed. The
depth of cut does not make any significant effect on surface roughness.

Ezugwu et al (2003) stated that super duplex stainless steel is

considered to be a difficult to machine material due to rapid tool wear and
high cutting temperatures. Machining of super duplex stainless steel is
difficult due to its inherent material properties such as low thermal
conductivity which increases the tool temperature at tool-work piece interface
and thereby affecting the tool life, high dynamic shear strength during cutting
results in localization of shear stress, the formation of abrasive saw tooth
edges and chemical reactivity with most tool materials at high temperatures
which results in predominant tool wear.

Smuk et al (1999) studied the abnormalities of ferrite decomposition

in SAF 2507 duplex stainless steel and the redistribution of nitrogen between
austenite and ferrite phases in a wide range of temperature by means of
internal friction. Unlike the local available methods of electron microscopy,
the internal friction technique allows to study the state of solid solution and
kinetics of changes in the relative amounts of austenite and ferrite phases
during thermal treatment.

Renton et al (2006) examined the failure mode of ductile fracture

from a pre existing crack and discussed the application of probabilistic

elastic-plastic fracture behavior in two orientations using standard test

specimens with varying crack depths. The results showed that super duplex
stainless steel has a higher crack resistance for radial flaws. The experimental
 29

results were analyzed to quantify the crack resistance term. The obtained
results can be used for assessment of the probability of tubular failure caused
by ductile fracture.

Perren et al (2001) proposed that inappropriate heat treatment of

super duplex stainless steels results in the precipitation of excluded phases,
which intensely reduces the corrosion resistance properties and decreases the
toughness. They adopted a new micro electro chemical investigation method
to define the influence of small precipitates on the corrosion resistance. The
results were compared with the macro electro chemical measurements, critical
crevice corrosion investigations and the element distribution. The depletion of
chromium and molybdenum due to the formation of precipitates results in
decrease of corrosion resistance.

Elhoud et al (2010) studied the hydrogen embrittlement of pre-

strained super duplex stainless steel specimens which was investigated after
48 hours cathodic charging in 0.1 M H2SO4. The metallurgical changes
resulted from four levels of cold work (4,8,12 and16% plastic strain) were
considered and their effect on the embrittlement of the SDSS was observed.
After hydrogen charging, the specimens were pulled immediately to failure
and the mechanical properties were evaluated. The obtaining fracture
morphology was analyzed using low and high magnification microscopes.
The obtained experimental results indicated that charging the SDSS with
hydrogen causes a varying degrees of embrittlement.

Kuroda & Nakade (2008) compared the hydrogen behavior in SAF

2507 super duplex stainless steel and SAF 2205 conventional duplex stainless
steel by means of internal friction measurement. It was conducted over a
range of temperature from 77K to 373K by using an inverted torsion
pendulum of frequency 1.5 Hz. After hydrogen charging of the super duplex
stainless steel and conventional duplex stainless steel, a cogent peak appears
 30

at 245K. The peak height increased along with increasing hydrogen

concentration. The peak associated with hydrogen in austenite phase. As the
specimens were heated at 1223K for various times, sigma phase containing of
Fe-Cr compound precipitated in the ferrite at the interface of ferrite/austenite.

Otarola et al (2005) underwent heat treatments on a super duplex

stainless steel in the range of 550 to 7000C, with different cooling rates and
exposure times. The mechanical properties was observed by means of impact
and fracture toughness tests, hardness measurements, whereas micro
structural changes had been identified by analysis of optical and transmission
electron microscopy. A correlation between the degree of embrittlement and
the different types of precipitates has been identified in the study.

Gang et al (2008) investigated the hot plasticity of a nitrogen

alloyed duplex stainless steel 25Cr-7Ni-4Mo. The results indicated that the
main factors affecting the hot plasticity of duplex steel were the
microstructure, coalescent force of phase interface, the phase ratio and
difference between the mechanical properties of austenite and ferrite. The
sulphur content and heat treatment had a notable effect on the hot plasticity.
The obtained results indicated that the reasonable heat treatments will
effectively enhance the hot plasticity of duplex stainless steel.

Mahmoud & Abdelkarim (2006) discussed the turning operation

using high speed steel as cutting tool with 450 approach angle. The tool
showed that it could perform cutting operation at higher cutting speed and
longer tool life than traditional tool with 900 approach angle. The study finally
determined optimal cutting speed for operation costs, minimum cost, high
production rate, production time and tool life.

Knut Larsen et al (2006) compared the welding fatigue performance

between SAF 2507 and carbon steel and also discussed the importance of
 31

various parameters that significantly influences the fatigue behavior. The

objective of their work is to find out the reasons for supremacy of the fatigue
performance of welds in SAF 2507 over conventional carbon steel. The
results provided the useful documentation that welds in SAF 2507 offered
enhanced fatigue properties.

1.7.2 Chip Morphology

Colwell (1954) entrenched one of the earliest chip flow models.

Chip flow is considerably upright to the side cutting edge for a sharp nosed
tools but the direction swivel deliberately toward the tool axis as the nose
radius increases. The chip flow over the cutting face of the tool was
perpendicular to the major axis of the proposed area of cut. The patterns of
cutting was classified in terms of depth of cut and tool nose radius and
thereby developing the equations of chip flow prediction based on the
condition that the cutting was almost orthogonal, i.e., both inclination angles
and the rake angle were zero degrees (00).

Okushima & Minato (1959) developed the chip flow model for nose
radius tools mathematically. They experimentally proved that the cutting
speed does not affect the angle of the chip flow. The cutting edge was divided
into small segments, and it was pretended that chip flow angles were upright
to the cutting edge in each segment. Then, the primitive chip flow angles were
added along the cutting edge to find the overall chip flow angle. Based on this
hypothesis, they developed six variant mathematical expressions by allocating
the cutting patterns.

Young et al (1987) considered the chips as a series of separate

elements of negligible width. They simulated that the orientation and
thickness of the undeformed chip section interrelated to each chip element
gets varied, and thus, the frictional force for each element gets changed in
 32

magnitude as well as in direction. Then, these frictional force were added

together to find their resultant force and it was pretended that the direction of
the resultant force accompany with the direction of the chip flow

Arsecularatne et al (1995) proposed a new chip flow direction

model with rake and inclination angles. The model considered the influence
of nose radius and inclination angle individually, and forecasted the chip flow
angle by superposition of these effects. The main drawback of the proposed
model was the deliberation of work piece material properties through
irical material constant. Changes in the effective inclination and
rake angles along the rounded cutting edge were not considered in the
analysis. Chip forming mechanism and chip morphology characteristics
provides key information on the machined surface quality and machining
process. Mechanism and type of chip segmentation exert primary influence on
tool life and machined surface quality (Morehead et al 2007).

Dhar et al (2007) machined medium carbon steel rod at different

cutting velocities and feed rates by two types of carbide inserts (SNMM and
SNMG) of different geometry. The role of high pressure coolant jet on chip
formation like chip colour, shape and chip reduction coefficient was
experimentally investigated. They used chip morphology to differentiate,
compare and choose the best among the three environments: dry, wet and
high pressure coolant systems. Compared with the other machining types,
high pressure coolant machining performed much superior and enables
favorable chip formation and chip tool interaction.

Baldoukas et al (2008) discussed the influence of depth of cut, work

piece material type and tool rake angle on chip morphology and main cutting
force when turning AISI 1020, Aluminium 2014 and UNS C23000 specimens
as work piece materials. The removed chips were collected during the
experiments and were evaluated together with the main cutting forces, to
 33

determine the optimal rake angle for each material. The experimental results
showed that the main cutting force had an increasing trend with the increasing
depth of cut and not interrelated with the work piece material. But the
influence of the tool rake angle on the main cutting force mainly depends
upon the work piece material type.

Aco Antic et al (2012) measured the vibrations on tool carrier in the

proximity of cutting zone during machining process. The generated chips and
vibration signals during machining were analyzed which confirms hypothesis
that changes the tool wear directly influences the chip formation and type of
segmentation. To determine a correlation between tool wear degree and
morphology of chip cross section the direct microscopic analysis of chip was
used. Their findings contributes a better knowledge of chip forming
mechanism and segmentation types.

Mustafa et al (2004) investigated the chip morphology, chip light

emission, cutting forces, tool wear and surface roughness when turning
Zirconium based bulk metallic glass material. Under the same cutting
conditions, the machining results were compared with those of aluminium
6061-T6 and AISI 304 stainless steel. It was concluded that the high cutting
speed, tools with low thermal conductivity and rake angle activate the light
emission and chip oxidation in BMG machining. In case of those chips
without light emission, serrated chip formation with void formation and
adiabatic shear band was observed.

Miroslav et al (2012) analysed the chip formation and the related

aspects when turning hardened steel 100Cr6. A comparison of some aspects
of the chip formation between turning annealed and hardened roll bearing
steel was made. The analysis results showed the formation of a segmented
chip in the case of hard turning and the frequency of segmentation is very
high. Dynamic character of cutting process when hard turning was reported
 34

and correlation among the calculated segmentation frequencies and the

experimental analysis was made.

Hakif Zeqiri et al (2010) stated that the chip morphology and chip
formation were surely affected by tool geometry and turning parameters such
as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. An experiment investigation was
presented to understand the influence of tool geometry on chip deformation
and chip morphology in orthogonal cutting. The obtained results showed that
tool geometry affect the chip morphology significantly and among the turning
parameters, the cutting speed was the most predominant factor that influence
the chip morphology.

Daymi et al (2009) discussed the effect of cutting speed and cutting

forces on chip morphology during the orthogonal turning process of titanium
alloys Ti-6Al-4V. Three main types of chips was formed at varying cutting
speed namely (i) continuous chip at 50 m/min, (ii) flow chip for speeds
ranging around 100 m/min and (iii) Shear localized chip starting from the
cutting speed of 125 m/min and above. The modification of the chip forming
mechanism is associated with the appearance of shearing fluctuation. The
chip segmentation caused by shear localization was an important process
which was observed within a certain values of the cutting speeds.

Ben Salem et al (2012) investigated the chip formation to obtain the

optimal values of cutting conditions. Analysis of machining hardened alloy,
X160CrMoV12-1 showed that there were relationships among the chip
geometry, cutting conditions and different micrographs under different
metallurgical conditions. The saw-tooth type chips geometry had been
examined and a specific attention was given. The chip samples were
metallographically processed and observed under scanning electronic
microscope to investigate the microstructure of the chip samples.
 35

1.7.3 Dry, Wet and Gas Cooled Machining

Shaw (1986) stated that the machinability of the material is mainly

affected by the heat generated during machining. Cutting fluids have been
used during machining operations for many years in order to improve the
machinability through lubricating effect on flank face and machined surface,
the contact areas between rake face and chips, by reducing the frictional
induced heat and removing the heat generated as a result of severe plastic
deformation from the cutting zone The cutting fluids serves the function of
cooling as well as lubricating effect.

According to Makarow's first law of metal cutting, the highest

machinability is attainable at a critical cutting temperature known as optimal

tool hardness over work piece hardness can be achieved. Optimal cutting
temperature is independent of the cutting process parameters and machining
condition and is only based on the material properties of the cutting tool and
work piece materials.

Astakhov (2006) stated that by increasing the cutting temperature

closer to the optimal cutting temperature, machinability of the work material
gets increased. When the cutting temperature is increased beyond the optimal
hining. Using
cutting fluids during machining is one of the most widely followed techniques
in order to maintain the cutting temperature below the optimal cutting
temperature

Tom morris (2011) compared the minimum quantity lubrication and

minimum quantity solid lubrication for abrasive machining. He examined the
utility of an optical method for estimating surface grinding temperature.
Minimum quantity solid lubricants, like Molybdenum Disulphide, Calcium
 36

Fluoride and hexagonal Boron Nitride were compared with a semi-synthetic

water soluble minimum quantity lubricant machining fluid. A thermo optical
sensor, comprising a charged coupled device, was used to measure the
emitted light and hence detecting surface temperatures during the MQL and
MQSL grinding processes.

Oberg et al (2004) stated that the correct selection of cutting fluids

is particularly important as it could affect the power consumption, tool life,
cutting forces, surface integrity, machining accuracy, etc. For instance cutting
fluids with a greater lubrication effect are generally used in severe or harsh
machining operations such as low speed machining and machining difficult to
machine materials. However, coolants are more suitable in high speed
machining with low cutting forces and high cutting temperatures.

Substances used in machining for lubrication and/or cooling can be

classified as cutting fluids, gas based coolants/lubricants and solid lubricants.
In order to classify the cutting fluids, different approaches had been used due
to their wide wavering attributes. One of the widely recognized attribute of
the cutting fluids is their miscibility in water. Thus, it has been used widely in
order to classify the cutting fluids into water soluble cutting fluids and non
water soluble, which is also known as oil based cutting fluids. Along with
this, gas based cutting fluids can also be defined as the liquefied gases and gas
form cutting fluids. (Trent et al 2000).

Generally gas based cutting fluids refers to the substances that at

room temperature are in gas form, but during machining applications they are
used in the form of gas or cooled pressured fluids. Main gas based cutting
fluids are air, compressed air, nitrogen, argon, helium and carbon dioxide.
Gases in normal state are poor thermal conductors and have low cooling
capability. Different approaches have been used in order to increase the
cooling capabilities of gas based cutting fluids like compressing, cooling and
 37

liquefying. Compressed gas based cutting fluids are especially attractive

compared with traditional cooling techniques as they fail to penetrate the chip
tool interface. (Baradie 1996)

Brandao et al (2008) compared the effects of three different gas

based cooling techniques namely dry, compressed air and chilled air on the
heat flow through the workpiece during end milling of die steels. It was found
that the heat energy transported to the workpiece gets considerably reduced
by using compressed air and chilled air as compared with the condition of dry
cutting. Along with this, the lowest thermally induced changes in the
dimension of workpiece was achieved when using compressed air for cooling.

Aznijar Ahmad et al (2010) proposed that the tool life gets severely
affected by the heat generated during metal cutting process. Researchers all
over the world undergone various attempts to understand the mechanism
behind the generated heat during machining, thereby to achieve a optimized
machining procedure. The latest attempt was through the use of chilled air,
i.e. cryogenic cooling. A Ranque Hilsch vortex tube, a device with no moving
parts, was used for this low cost refrigeration. Various studies conducted on
its background, its application and performance were discussed for the high
speed metal cutting cooling application for die and mould steels.

Sun et al (2010) machined nickel alloys, and found that due to its
high strength, a very high temperatures and cutting forces were produced
during cutting process. As the thermal conductivity of nickel is very low, the
heat generated cannot be efficiently discharged through the work piece and
through chip removal. Traditionally used cutting fluids cannot penetrate the
chip tool interface and it reaches the highest temperature at the cutting zone
especially at high cutting speeds. They tends to vaporize at high temperatures
and form a high temperature covering over the cutting zone which results in
further increase of the temperature
 38

Hong et al (2001) machined Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy and

investigated the effects of different methods of using liquid nitrogen as a
cutting fluid on tool life. It was founded that by applying liquid nitrogen on
the rake and flank face of the uncoated carbide tool, the tool life gets
improved up to 3.3 times by decreasing the thermally induced tool wear and
decreasing the chemical reactivity of the work piece material.

Hong (2001) stated that the gaseous cutting fluids are relatively
cleaner and more environment friendly to use during machining. However
they are more costly alternatives than cutting fluids which require extra
equipment which are not provided with the machine tools. Also, gas based
cutting liquids cannot be circulated in the machine tool as they vaporize after
application. But, it eliminates the disposal costs, disposal time and cost
associated with cleaning the parts, machining chips and machine tools. As
nitrogen is lighter than air, it can be easily evaporated into the atmosphere.
The CO2 is heavier than air and accumulates at the shop floor increasing the
risk of oxygen reduction (Dogra et al 2010)

When comparing the three gases for cooling, CO2 gas had more
lubricating effect than oxygen and oxygen had more lubricating effect than
nitrogen. Hollis (1961) carried out a turning experiment using CO 2 along with
argon gas and CO2 alone as coolant. Argon, an inert gas creates an inert
atmosphere and provides less hardening at the machined surface which results
in enhanced tool life. Podgorkov (1998) introduced a new pollution free
machining technique which uses water vapor of temperature less than 1000C
as a coolant when turning stainless steel with cemented carbide tools. It had
been observed that water vapor lubrication increases the tool life of cemented
carbide tools by about 1.5 times and causes more uniform cooling during the
turning process.
 39

Williams & Tabor (1977) proposed a model for the lubricating

action of vapor or gas during orthogonal turning based on the empirical study.
According to the proposed model, a number of capillaries get assembled at
the chip and tool rake face interface. The lubricant or coolant which was in
gas or liquid form was drawn through the capillaries and thereby creating a
boundary lubrication layer. It was necessary that the cutting fluid gets
penetrated absolutely into the capillary and the penetration time must be
lesser than the capillary lifetime for efficient lubricating action of the cutting
fluid.

Yasa et al (2012) stated that the metal cutting process is a form of

subtractive manufacturing in which a sharp cutting tool is used to remove the
materials to obtain a desired geometry. Heat generated when machining,
limits the cutting tool life and influences the part quality and cutting forces.
Many researchers have undergone research on the mechanism behind the
generated heat during metal cutting so as to optimize the machining process
with a good part quality and a extended tool life. An overview of cryogenic
cooling as an alternative to conventional cutting fluids for machining titanium
alloy Ti-6Al-4V in TUSAS Engine Industries, Inc was discussed by them.

1.7.4 Taguchi Technique

standard orthogonal arrays. By analyzing the experimental results using

than by any other approaches. Even when the number of parameters being
investigated is quite large, a fewer number of tests are needed. (Kang &
Hadfield 2001). Ashish yadav et al (2012) stated that the Taguchi method is a
powerful tool for the design of high quality systems. It provides a simple,
systematic and efficient approach to optimize design for performance, quality
and cost. to design of experiments is easy to adopt and
 40

can be easily applied by any users with limited knowledge of statistics, and
thereby gained wide popularity in the engineering and scientific community.

Taguchi parameter design is an efficient and powerful method for

optimizing the quality, process and performance output of production
processes. To improve the product quality at a relatively low cost the off-line
quality control is considered to be an effective approach. The Taguchi method
is one of the traditional approaches used for this purpose and analysis of
variance is used to study the effect of process parameters during machining.
The signal-to-noise ratio and the analysis of variance are employed to study
the performance (output response) characteristics. (Shyam kumar karna et al
2012)

Products have attributed to satisfy the expectations of the consumer

or customer requirement. The objective of experimentation is to find out ways
to decrease and limit up the variation of a product or process. There involved
certain decisions to be made regarding which parameters affect the
performance of a product or process. The loss function determines which
design factors influence the average and variation of a performance
characteristic of a product or process. The product or process losses can be
minimized by properly adjusting the average and reducing the variation.
(Ross 2005)

parameter design to obtain optimum condition because it leads to minimum

number by experimental and lower cost. Yigit kazancoglu et al (2011) used a
combination of Taguchi method and a grey relational analysis to investigate
the multi objective optimization of the turning process to yield the minimum
cutting forces and surface roughness with the maximum material removal
rate. The Taguchi method was followed by the grey relational analysis to
solve the multi objective optimization problem. Using analysis of variance the
 41

significance of the factors on the overall quality characteristics of the cutting

process was also evaluated. It was concluded that a proper selection of the
turning parameters produced a high material removal rate with reduced
surface roughness and lower cutting force.

Agapiou (1992) focused on a combination of the minimum

production time and production cost requirements as the desired function to
determine the optimal values of machining conditions. The two criteria of
production time and production cost were used through their weighted factors
while a constant multiplier was used to neutralize the desired function. The
surface roughness limitations, the power limitation, temperature constraint
and limitation of the maximum cutting force applied during turning operation
were considered as constraints by expressing them as power functions of the
machining parameters.

Zhou et al (1995) investigated on tool life condition in rough

turning. A new tool-life criterion based on a pattern recognition technique was
formulated and to realize the new criterion, the neural network and wavelet
techniques were utilized. The obtained experimental results showed that the
new criterion was applicable for tool condition monitoring in a wide range of
cutting conditions.

Lin et al (2001) adopted an indicative network to construct a

prediction model for cutting force and surface roughness. Once the machining
parameters like cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate were given, the
values of the cutting force and surface roughness could be predicted by using
this network. Regression analysis method was also adopted as the second
prediction model for cutting force and surface roughness. From the results,
comparison was made on the both models indicating that indicative network
was found more accurate than the regression analysis method.
 42

Senthilkumaar et al (2010) conducted cutting experiments on

Inconel 718 as per the full factorial design under dry conditions. Inconel 718
is widely used in aerospace industries because of their ability to withstand
enormous loads even at elevated temperature. Machining this material is
difficult as it produces poor surface quality and high tool wear. The effects of
the machining parameters on the output responses like surface roughness and
flank wear were investigated and a relationship among them was established
using non-linear regression analysis.

Flank wear and surface roughness are mainly depends on the

manufacturing conditions employed, such as cutting speed, feed rate, depth of
cut, cutting tool geometry and the rigidity. Taguchi designed the signal to
noise ratio representing quality characteristics (Ghani et al 2004). The
machining operation was adjusted to obtain the lower values of flank wear
rate and surface roughness. Three available S/N ratios were selected based on
the response function and its corresponding characteristics. For an optimized
turning process, the minimum values of the tool flank wear and surface
roughness are desirable. (Samir Kharis et al 2011)

Bordinassi et al (2006) discussed the main effects of turning duplex

stainless steel (ASTM A890-Gr6A) in the superficial integrity. The obtained
results does not implied any micro structural changes of the work material,
even when any of the highest values of cutting parameters were used. The
desired combination of turning parameters for the best superficial integrity
was found that the smaller feed rate (0.1 mm/v), smaller cutting speed (110
m/min) and the greater cutting depth (0.5 mm) provided the smaller values for
the smaller surface roughness, the tensile residual stress and the greater
micro-hardness.

Feng & Wang (2002) proposed a method for prediction of surface

roughness in finish turning operation by developing an empirical model by
 43

considering the following machining parameters: work piece hardness, feed

rate, spindle speed, the depth of cut, cutting time and the point angle of the
cutting tool. The nonlinear regression analysis using logarithmic data
transformation and some other data mining techniques were employed for
developing the empirical model to predict the surface roughness during
machining.

Kirby et al (2004) in turning operation developed a prediction model

for surface roughness. The regression model was developed using a single
cutting parameter, and the vibrations along three axes were chosen for in-
process surface roughness prediction system. By using analysis of variance
and multiple regressions an active linear relationship among the parameters
(the feed rate and vibration measured along three axes) and the surface
roughness (response) was found out. The authors proposed that fixing the
spindle speed and depth of cut is not necessary for an effective surface
roughness prediction model.

Ozel & Karpat (2005) studied the prediction of surface roughness

and tool flank wear by utilizing the neural network model which was
compared with the regression model. The data set from measured tool flank
wear and surface roughness were employed for training the neural network
models. Predictive neural network model was found to be capable of better
predictions for surface roughness and tool flank wear within the range than
the regression model.`

Hari singh & Pradeep kumar (2004) machined EN24 steel with
titanium carbide coated carbide inserts as cutting tool and adopted a approach
based on design of experiment to obtain optimal setting of turning parameters
that yield optimal values of tool wear. The effect of the selected turning
process parameters on tool wear and subsequent optimal settings of the
parameters had been polished using Taguchi approach. The forecasted
 44

optimal values of flank wear width and crater wear depth of coated carbide
tool are 0.172mm and 0.244 micron respectively.

Hari singh & Pradeep kumar (2006) obtained an optimal set of

turning parameters using Taguchi's parameter design approach when
machining EN24 steel with TiC coated tungsten carbide inserts as cutting
tool. The effects of the selected turning parameters on feed force and the
subsequent optimal settings of the parameters had been accomplished. The
obtained results indicated that the selected turning process parameters
significantly affect the selected machining characteristics.

The interactions between cutting tool and the work piece form the
cutting temperature and contact stress, which subsequently leads to flank
wear. When the cutting speed and feed rate were increased, the rubbing action
would be more faster and enormous heat will be generated even though there
was less contact time between tool and work piece. The generation of heat at
flank side rubs the edge and more wear occurred. Increase in cutting speed
causes the faster tool wear and leads to reduction in the tool life. (Yisik 2007)

Chetan darshan et al (2012) assessed the performance of ceramic

inserts during hard turning of EN 31 steel. The analysis of variance was
applied to study the effect of turning parameters on the output responses and
to analyze the input turning parameters and their interactions during
machining. It was found that feed rate and depth of cut are the factors
influencing flank wear and feed rate is the most dominating factor for surface
roughness. The developed model predicted response factor at 95% confidence
level.

Fnides et al (2008) studied machining of X38CrMoV5-1 steel by a

mixed ceramic cutting tool (insert CC650) to reveal the influences of cutting
parameters like feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut on flank wear,
 45

cutting forces and surface roughness. The authors found that the applied
tangential cutting force was very sensitive to the variation of depth of cut. It
was also observed that surface roughness was very sensitive to the variation
of feed rate and the flank wear had a great predominance on the evolution of
cutting force and on the criteria of surface roughness.

Ishan shah & Kishore (2012) optimized tool life by using design of
experiment to develop model for end milling process that used solid carbide
flat end mill as the cutting tool and stainless steels SS304 as work material.
For conducting the experiments, CNC milling machine was used. The inputs
of the model are feed rate, cutting speed and depth of cut while the output
odel
was validated by the experimental values compared with their predicted
counterparts.

Dos santos et al (1999) proposed an optimum design of experiments

turning. This procedure develops the best set of turning conditions to be used
in tool life tests which results in a rapid confluence of the coefficients and
their corresponding confidence intervals. This technique was compared with
the conventional fractional factorial design during face milling operation of
AISI 1045 steel with cemented carbide cutting tools. The results revealed a
considerable reduction in the number of tests when the optimum experimental
procedure was used when compared to the fractional factorial design.

Sasimurugan & Palanikumar (2011) carried out machining on

aluminium metal matrix composites and studied the surface roughness
characteristics. The machining parameters that influence the surface
roughness such cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were studied. From
the analysis, it was concluded that the surface roughness increases with the
 46

increase of feed rate and it reduces the surface roughness with the increase of
cutting speed.

Lee & Tarng (2000) proposed the optimal cutting parameters for
maximizing production rate or minimizing production cost in multistage
turning operations. A machining model was constructed based on a
polynomial network. It can learn the relationships between turning parameters
and output responses by means of a self-organizing adaptive modeling
technique. The optimal cutting parameters were subjected to an objective
function of maximum production rate or minimum production cost with the
constraints of a permissible limit of surface roughness and cutting force and a
feasible range of cutting parameters.

Nalbant et al (2007) used Taguchi method for optimizing the turning

parameters when machining AISI 1030 steel with TiN coated cutting tools.
The turning parameters like cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut and insert
radius were considered while optimization. Choudhury & Bartarya (2003)
focussed on design of experiments and the neural network for tool wear
prediction. Cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut were the input process
parameters and the output measured responses were the flank wear, surface
finish and cutting zone temperature. Empirical relation was derived between
the different output responses and the three input parameters. They also used
neural network program for predictions of all the three output response
variables and found out the best method for the prediction of tool wear.

Sing & Kumar (2006) used Taguchi's parameter design approach for
optimizing the feed force when turning EN24 steel using TiC coated tungsten
carbide inserts as cutting tool. They determined the optimal values of turning
process parameters. The authors concluded that the depth of cut and feed rate
have more significant effect on feed force when comparing with the cutting
speed. Thamizhmanii et al (2007) utilized Taguchi method for finding out the
 47

optimal value of surface roughness when turning SCM 440 alloy steel. Using
Taguchi method they designed the experiments and the obtained results
thereof were analyzed with the help of analysis of variance. The causes for
poor surface finish were detected as tool chattering and machine tool
vibrations. It was found that depth of cut was the only predominant factor
which affects the surface roughness.

Wang & Lan (2008) utilized orthogonal array of Taguchi method

along with grey relational analysis by taking into consideration of four
machining parameters namely, the cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate and
tool nose run off for optimizing the three output responses namely, surface
roughness, tool wear and material removal rate in precision turning. Their
study contributed a satisfactory technique for improving the multiple
machining performances in precision CNC turning with profound insight
along with the optimization approaches using orthogonal array and grey
relational analysis.

Krishankant et al (2012) made used of Taguchi method for

optimizing the metal removal rate when machining EN24 steel. The turning
parameters considered are the spindle speed, feed rate and the depth of cut.
Taguchi method defines the importance of studying the response variation
using the signal to noise ratio, resulting in reduction of quality characteristic
variation due to violent parameter. The quality characteristic considered is the
metal removal rate with the concept of the larger the better. It was also
predicted that Taguchi method is a good method for optimization of various
machining parameters as it reduces the number of experiments.

Lazarevic et al (2012) used Taguchi method for minimizing the

surface roughness in turning polyethylene. The influence of four machining
parameters, tool nose radius, depth of cut, feed rate and the cutting speed on
the average surface roughness were analyzed on the basis of the standard L27
 48

Taguchi orthogonal array. Based on the analysis of variance and analysis of

means, the optimal cutting parameter settings were determined.

Kaladhar et al (2012) investigated the effects of turning parameters

on material removal rate and surface finish to obtain the optimal setting of
process parameters when turning AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel with
physical vapour deposition coated cermet inserts of 0.4 and 0.8 mm nose
radii. Analysis of variance was used to analyze the influence of turning
parameters while machining. The results revealed that the feed rate and the
nose radius were the most predominant parameters on surface roughness.
While in case of material removal rate, feed rate and depth of cut were the
most significant factors.

Upinder kumar et al (2012) discussed the effects and optimization of

machining process parameters on surface roughness when machining medium
carbon steel AISI 1045. An L27 orthogonal array, analysis of variance and the
signal to noise ratio were used. From the obtained results, it was concluded
that feed rate is the most significant factor that affects surface roughness
followed by the depth of cut. Cutting speed has the least dominant effect in
influencing the surface roughness when machining medium carbon steel.

Kamal Hassan et al (2012) in their work investigated the effects of

machining parameters on material removal rate when turning medium brass
alloy C34000. Machining medium Brass alloy is very difficult. The Taguchi
method was used for optimization of material removal rate by considering the
turning process parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut) during
machining. The optimization of material removal rate was done using twenty
seven experimental runs based on L27 orthogonal array of the Taguchi method
and the optimum values of machining parameters were identified.
 49

Durai matin et al (2012) utilized Taguchi method for selecting

appropriate turning parameters which ensure less power consumption in high

on an projected aluminium shaft on a CNC lathe with cutting speed, depth of

cut and feed rate as turning parameters. Using the data acquisition system,
power consumed was measured. The obtained results were analyzed and
proper turning parameters were selected for minimum energy consumption.

Rahul davis et al (2012) used Taguchi method to optimize the

turning parameters like depth of cut, feed rate and spindle speed when turning
EN24 steel with carbide P-30 cutting tool in dry condition. The best
combination of the optimal levels of the process parameters was obtained. For
analysing the performance characteristics, the signal to noise ratio and
analysis of variance were employed. It was observed that feed rate followed
by spindle speed and depth of cut was the optimal levels of factors while
turning EN24 steel.

Marinkovic & Madic (2011) used Taguchi robust parameter design

for modelling and optimization of surface roughness in dry turning of cold
rolled alloy steel 42CrMo4/AISI 4140 using TiN coated tungsten carbide
inserts as cutting tool. Three turning parameters cutting speed, feed rate and
depth of cut at three levels were used in the experiment. The data set from the
experiment was engaged for conducting the procedure for optimization, based
on the principles of the Taguchi method. The obtained results confirmed the
effec

Somashekara & Lakshmana samy (2012) used Taguchi method for

obtaining optimal set of turning parameters (cutting speed, feed and depth of
cut) and thereby obtaining optimal value of surface roughness when
machining Al 6351-T6 alloy with uncoated carbide inserts. Modelling
techniques like response surface methodology and genetic algorithm was used
 50

to generate models and another model was generated using regression

technique to predict surface roughness. S/N ratios and analysis of variance
were also performed to find out the significant factors influencing the surface
roughness.

Hinduja et al (1985) calculated the optimum cutting conditions for

turning operations with maximum production rate or minimum production
cost as the objective function. For a given combination of tool and work
piece, the search for the optimal values was restricted to a feed rate versus
depth of cut plane defined by the chip breaking constraint. Some other
constraints considered include surface finish, power available, work holding
and dimensional accuracy.

Paulo davim (2003) discussed the influence of cutting conditions

(cutting velocity and feed rate) and cutting time when turning metal matrix
composites. A plan of experiments, based on the Taguchi technique, was
performed. An orthogonal array and the analysis of variance were employed
to investigate the cutting characteristics of the work material using
polycrystalline diamond cutting tool. The objective was to establish a
correlation between cutting velocity, feed rate and cutting time with the tool
wear, the power required to perform the machining operation using multiple
linear regression.

Nian et al (1999) proposed optimization of turning operations based

on the Taguchi method with multiple performance characteristics. The
orthogonal array, multi response signal to noise ratio and analysis of variance
were employed to analyze the performance characteristics in turning
operations. Three cutting parameters cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut
were optimized with considerations of multiple performance characteristics
including cutting force, tool life and surface finish. Experimental results
proved the effectiveness of this approach.
 51

1.7.5 Response Surface Methodology

Suresh et al (2002) developed a surface roughness prediction model

by using response surface methodology when machining mild steel by TiN-
coated tungsten carbide cutting tools. Genetic algorithms were also used to
optimize the objective function and the obtained results were compared with
response surface methodology results. It was observed that genetic algorithm
provided the minimum and maximum values of surface roughness and their
respective optimal turning conditions.

Kamble et al (2011) reviewed the literatures on optimizing the

turning parameters in machining processes. Various conventional techniques
employed for machining optimization like geometric programming,
geometric plus linear programming, goal programming, non-Linear
Programming, dynamic programming and sequential unconstrained
minimization technique and etc were discussed by them. The latest
optimization techniques like fuzzy logic, scatter search technique, ant colony
optimization, genetic algorithm etc were also discussed by them.

Doniavi et al (2007) used response surface methodology to develop

empirical model for the prediction of surface roughness by deciding the
optimum turning condition. The results obtained indicated that the feed rate
influence surface roughness exceptionally. The surface roughness increased
with the increasing feed rate and decreasing cutting speed. According to
analysis of variance, the influence of feed rate and cutting speed were more in
surface roughness than the depth of cut.

Shetty et al (2008) used Taguchi technique and response surface

methodology for reducing the surface roughness when turning
discontinuously reinforced aluminium composites having aluminium alloy
6061 as the matrix and containing 15 vol. % of silicon carbide particles of
 52

experimental design technique and the effect of turning parameters on surface

roughness was investigated to determine the optimum cutting conditions. A
second order model was established between the turning parameters and
surface roughness using RSM. The experimental results revealed that the
most influencing machining parameter for surface roughness was steam
pressure followed by feed rate.

Lakshmi & Venkata subbaiah (2012) used response surface

methodology for finding the average surface roughness when milling EN24
steel using solid coated carbide tools. The input variables are the feed rate,
cutting speed and depth of cut and the output responses are the surface
roughness and material removal rate. Using RSM, a second order quadratic
model in terms of cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate was generated. The
analysis of variance was used to verify the adequacy of the model at 95%
confidence interval. It was concluded that feed rate and cutting speed had the
most dominating role on surface finish.

Kulkarni & Mariappan (2003) observed that work hardening of the

machined surface leads to distortion of thin sections of the component. The
work material used was CuZn40Al2, also the material of the actual
component. A multiple response optimization methodology had been used to
identify sturdy cutting tool parameter settings to minimize the amount of
variation and average value of the surface hardness and to minimize the depth
of work hardening of the surface machined.

Abhang & Hameedullah (2012) determined the effect of the tool

geometry (tool nose radius) and metal cutting conditions on surface finish
when turning EN 31 steel. Using response surface methodology the first and
second order mathematical models were developed in terms of turning
parameters. Using LINGO solver programs, the surface roughness prediction
 53

model was optimized to obtain the optimal values. LINGO is a mathematical

modelling language used in linear and nonlinear optimization to formulate
large problems. The LINGO solver program gives minimum values of surface
roughness and their corresponding optimal conditions.

Aruna & Dhanalakshmi (2012) discussed the optimization of the

surface roughness when turning Inconel 718 with cermet inserts as cutting
tool using response surface methodology. Optimization of turning operation is
necessary as it reduces the production cost and time. Using central composite
design, a second order quadratic model was developed for surface roughness,
by considering the cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut as the turning
parameters. The developed model was used to determine the optimum
machining parameters. By conducting experiments, the optimized turning
parameters was validated.

Suleiman et al (2011) investigated the influence of spindle speed,

depth of cut and feed rate on surface roughness when turning mild steel. Box
Behnken experimental design method used in response surface methodology
and analysis of variance were used to analyze the significance of turning
parameters on surface roughness. The effect of the individual parameter as
well as the interaction effects between the turning parameters on the surface
roughness was analyzed using various graphical representations.
Mathematical models correlating the influence of turning parameters on the
surface roughness during the machining process were developed using
multiple linear regressions.

Sanjay kumar et al (2013) determined the optimal machining

parameters which maximize the material removal rate and minimize surface
roughness and tool wear using response surface methodology. The influence
of the input parameters of electrical discharge machining like pulse current,
pulse off time and pulse duration was optimized by multi response analysis.
 54

The obtained experimental results were used in the gray relational analysis
and the weight of the output quality characteristics were determined by the
entropy measurement method. Based on the optimization results, pulse
pulse
optimal combination of the analysis.

Daniel lepadatu et al (2009) proposed to broaden the existing

tolerancing practices and presented a new optimization method of tolerancing
mechanical systems using interval computation for the prediction of system
output responses. The proposed methodology was based on the development
and integration of three concepts in process optimization namely mechanical
tolerance, response surface methodology and interval computation method.

Brahim Fnides et al (2012) modelled the output responses like

surface roughness and cutting forces in hard turning of X38CrMoV5-1 tool
steel using whisker ceramic tool without any cutting fluids. Experiments were
carried out and the mathematical models were developed by means of
analysis of variance. By using factors interaction graph in response surface
methodology, the influence percentage of each turning element on surface
roughness and cutting force criteria was expressed. The obtained results
indicated that the depth of cut was the most dominant factor affecting cutting
force and the feed rate was the most dominant factor affecting surface
roughness, followed by the cutting speed.

Dayananda Pai et al (2010) investigated the effects and optimization

of machining parameters on surface roughness when grinding 6061Al-SiC25P

(MMCs) specimen. During the grinding process, the machining parameters

like hardness of the specimen, depth of cut when machining and flow rate of
the coolant were evaluated by the response surface methodology. By RSM, a
complete cognizance of the grinding process parameters and their effects were
 55

achieved. Using response surface methodology, the variation of surface

roughness with machining parameters was mathematically modelled.

Fnides et al (2011) statistically modelled the cutting forces when

hard turning AISI H11 tool steel by mixed ceramic tool inserts under dry
conditions. Experiments were conducted and the mathematical models were
generated to explicit the influence percentage of the main turning parameters
like cutting speed, depth of cut and feed rate on cutting force. The obtained
results indicated that the depth of cut was the most influencing factor that
affects the cutting force. Also it was observed that, the feed rate influences the
tangential cutting force more than radial and axial forces and the cutting speed
affects radial force more than tangential and axial forces.

Noordin et al (2004) analyzed the performance of a multilayer

tungsten carbide tool when turning AISI 1045 steel. Cutting speed, feed rate
and the side cutting edge angle were the input factors and the main cutting
force, i.e. the surface roughness and tangential force are the output response
variables considered. The experimental plan was based on the face centred,
central composite design of response surface methodology. The experimental
results indicated that the proposed mathematical models adequately describe
the performance indicators within the limits of the factors. It was concluded
that the feed rate was the most significant factor that influences the surface
roughness and the tangential force.

Sidda reddy et al (2011) integrated the design of experiments,

response surface methodology and genetic algorithm to minimize the surface
roughness when machining Pre hardened steel. The experiments were
conducted by considering the turning parameters like cutting speed, nose
radius, feed rate, radial depth of cut and axial depth of cut. Optimal conditions
were determined to achieve the minimum surface roughness. A predictive
response surface model for surface roughness was developed and was
 56

interfaced with the genetic algorithm to find the optimal turning parameter
values.

Kompan & Somkiat (2012) compared the turning parameters of

medium carbon steel (AISI 1045) by finding the longest tool life using
Taguchi method and response surface methodology. The input or the turning
parameters considered were the depth of cut, cutting speed and feed rate. It
was found that the longest tool life of 670.170 minutes was achieved when
machined at the values of turning parameters of: feed rate at 0.10 mm/rev,
cutting speed at 150 m/min, and depth of cut at 0.5 mm.

Basim & Bashir (2009) machined nickel based HastelloyC276 using

ceramic inserts as cutting tool under dry conditions. It is a difficult to machine
material because of its low thermal diffusive property and high strength at
high temperature. For selecting the cutting speed and feed rate from the charts
depending on cutting force model, response surface methodology was used.
Based on the analysis of variance, the model was found to be accurate and the
predicted values and experimental results were closer to each other.

1.7.6 Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA II)

Kalyanmoy Deb et al (2002) suggested a non-dominated sorting

based multi objective evolutionary algorithm, called non dominated sorting
genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II). Also, a selection operator was presented that
creates a mating pool by combination of the parent and offspring populations
and thereby selecting the optimal solutions. NSGA-II, in most problems, was
able to find the best solutions and better convergence near the true Pareto
optimal front compared to Pareto archived evolution strategy and strength
Pareto evolutionary algorithm.
 57

Yusliza Yusoff et al (2011) presented an overview on NSGA-II

optimization techniques of machining process parameters. NSGA-II is a well
known, fast sorting and elite multi objective genetic algorithm. There are
many multi objective optimization techniques involved in machining
parameters optimization like multi objective genetic algorithm, micro genetic
algorithm, strength pareto evolutionary algorithm, pareto archived evolution
strategy etc. The application of NSGA-II, classified as one of multi objective
optimization techniques, for optimizing process parameters in various
machining operations was reviewed.

Nidhish & Saravanan (2014) considered a flexible manufacturing

system having 16 computer numerical control machine tools for processing 80
varieties of products. Since minimizing total penalty cost and minimizing
machine idle time are contradictory objectives, the problem has a multi
objective nature. They developed a multi objective optimization procedure
based on Non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA II) by modifying
the existing one. The obtained results were compared with the existing
NSGA-II and it is found that the proposed modified approach was superior
than the existing one.

Bharti et al (2012) used the controlled elitist non dominated sorting

genetic algorithm for parametric optimization of electric discharge machining
process. It is impossible for the single combination of process parameters to
provide the best cutting speed and surface finish concurrently. Using Inconel
718 as work material and copper as tool electrode, experiments were carried
out on die-sinking EDM. Artificial neural network with back propagation
algorithm was used to model the process. The experimental data set was
trained with ANN. Controlled elitist NSGA was employed in the trained
network and a set of pareto optimal solutions was obtained.
 58

Golshan et al (2011) investigated the turning parameters like cutting

speed, feed rate, depth of cut and tool geometry for optimizing the two
conflicting objectives simultaneously namely the surface finish and tool life
criteria. For optimization of turning parameters, micro genetic algorithm
(MGA) and Non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) were used
and were compared with each other proving the superiority of Non dominated
sorting genetic algorithm over micro genetic algorithm. The Non dominated
sorting genetic algorithm results were more reliable than micro genetic
algorithm in terms of optimizing turning parameters.

Chaitanya et al (2010) used elitist multi objective genetic algorithm,

known as Non dominated sorting genetic algorithm - II (NSGA-II) for
optimizing two objectives namely the efficiency and the stage weight which
were the two important issues when designing aero space compressors. The
results showing optimal front for the two objectives (efficiency and stage
weight) problem was presented and the sensitivity analysis results of
influencing design variables were shown.

Sneha Desai et al (2012) proposed a innovative approach to solve

multi objective optimization problems of complex mechanical system based
on evolutionary algorithm. Multi objective optimization technique like non
dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II) finds global optimal
solution without giving any initial guess for multiple conflicting objectives.
The method was adorned numerically by optimizing an under actuated
mechanical system called 2D Spider crane system. Minimizing the operation
time requires greater amount of force which may lead to unacceptable
payload sway, while decreasing forces increases the operation time. This
conflicting multi-objective was optimized using non dominated sorting
genetic algorithm and discrete mechanics.
 59

Abolfazl et al (2010) founded that the net energy stored and the
discharge time of phase change material in a solar system, were the important
conflicting objectives to be optimized simultaneously. Multi objective genetic
algorithms were used for pareto approach optimization of a solar system using
modified NSGA-II algorithms. The competing objectives like net energy
stored, discharge time and design variables are some geometrical parameters
of solar system. It was shown that some interesting and important
relationships as useful optimal design principles involved in the performance
of solar system can be discovered.

From the above literatures, it is clear that most of the researchers studied
the micro structure analysis, surface integrity, welding fatigue performance,
corrosion properties and applications of super duplex stainless steel. However,
further machinabilty studies on super duplex stainless steel are required to improve
the machining performances. Considering these requirements, the experiment was
carried out to study the effects of machining parameters on the output responses
like surface roughness, flank wear, cutting zone temperature and cutting force
under different machining conditions namely dry, wet and gas cooled operations.

The work material is machined without using any coolant or cutting oil
in dry machining. The water soluble cutting oil, which gets mixed with water is
used as coolant in wet machining. The liquid CO2 is used as coolant in case of gas
cooled machining. The importance and advantages of using liquid CO2 as coolant
instead of cutting oils when machining super duplex stainless steel are discussed in
the coming chapters. At present, the water soluble cutting oils are generally used
during machining in shop floor. Based on the obtained experimental results, the
gas cooled machining is found to be superior than the dry and wet machining.

The obtained optimal values of machining parameters can be used when

machining super duplex stainless steel in Industries to avail the maximum benefits
on the output responses like surface roughness, flank wear, average cutting zone
 60

temperature and cutting force. The benefits of gas cooled machining over dry and
wet machining in terms of output responses are discussed in results and discussion
chapter elaborately. Thus the outcomes of this research work can be effectively
used in Industrial applications for machining of super duplex stainless steel.

1.8 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

The objective of this research work approaches to optimization of

turning process parameters like cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut for
machining super duplex stainless steel at different cutting environments like
dry, wet, and gas cooled conditions.

machining parameters. Also this work is verified using ANOVA (analysis of

variance) and the turning process parameters are optimized using RSM
(Response Surface Methodology).

The optimal values of machining process parameters and their

corresponding values of predicted output response generated by response
surface methodology are verified using NSGA-II (Non Dominated Sorting
Genetic Algorithm).

A detailed investigation on chip morphology is carried out for all

the three conditions of machining. Gas cooled machining gives the better
machining performance while compared with dry and wet conditions.
Different machining surface microstructure is identified with the aid of
scanning electron microscope.

The objective of this research work focuses on

1. Minimization of Surface Roughness

 61

2. Minimization of tool flank wear

3. Minimization of average cutting zone Temperature

4. Minimization of Cutting Force

This study also obtains a mathematical model that relates the surface
roughness, Flank wear, Cutting zone Temperature and Cutting force. The
cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are considered as the process
parameters in this research work. Turning operations are widely used in
workshop practice for applications carried out in conventional machine tools,
as well as in NC and CNC machine tools, machining centers and related
manufacturing system.

Turning machining involves the use of a lathe and is used primarily

to produce conical cylindrical parts. With common attachments, flat faces,
curved surfaces, grinding and boring can be done with a lathe. Therefore, it is
valuable to increase tool life, to improve surface accuracy, to reduce main
cutting force, feed force, chip thickness and to reduce machining zone
temperatures (chip-tool interface temperature) in turning operations through
an optimization study.

1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

Chapter 1 discusses the basic introduction about basic fundamentals,

work material, cutting tool and a detailed literature survey.

and methodology
the details of the work material, cutting tool, experimental set up carried out
in this research. The experimental conditions and results for machining
characteristics of Super duplex stainless steel with different conditions of
machining such as, dry, wet and gas cooled machining are discussed.
 62

among dry, wet

and gas cooled machining investigates the chip morphology for various
condition of machining and concludes that gas cooled machining is suitable
for machining at higher production rate.

A detailed comparison between dry, wet and gas-cooled turning has

been presented based on experimental study in machining of super duplex
stainless steel is considered.

obtained through various optimization techniques such as Taguchi technique,

Response Surface Methodology, Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm
(NSGA-II). In this work, Taguchi technique and Response surface
methodology is used for machinability evaluation of surface roughness, flank
wear, average cutting zone temperature and cutting force while turning super
duplex stainless steel.

A detailed comparison of results obtained among dry, wet and gas-

cooled turning has been presented based on experimental study in machining
of super duplex stainless steel. The microscopic analysis of the tool wear
along with SEM images are explained in detail.

and Recommendations
contribution, limitations and future scope of this research work. The content
of the entire thesis is summarized in this chapter.