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[Document title]- BEC402

Noise
 Noise is an electronic signal that is a mixture of many random frequencies at many amplitudes that
gets added to a radio or information signal as it is transmitted from one place to another or as it is
processed.
 Noise that occurs in transmitting digital data causes bit errors and can result in information being
garbled or lost.
 The noise level in a system is proportional to temperature and bandwidth, and to the amount of
current flowing in a component, the gain of the circuit, and the resistance of the circuit. Increasing
any of these factors increases noise.
 Noise is a problem in communication systems whenever the received signals are very low in
amplitude. When the transmission is over short distances or high-power transmitters are being used,
noise is not usually a problem.
 Noise can be external to the receiver or originate within the receiver itself. Both types are found in
all receivers, and both affect the SNR.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio:
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, also designated SNR, indicates the relative strengths of the signal and the
noise in a communication system. The stronger the signal and the weaker the noise, the higher the S/N
ratio. If the signal is weak and the noise is strong, the S/N ratio will be low and reception will be
unreliable.
Signals can be expressed in terms of voltage or power. The S/N ratio is computed by using either voltage
or power values:

Where Vs = Signal voltage

Vn =Noise voltage

Ps = Signal power

Pn = Noise power

External Noise: External noise comes from sources over which we have little or no control—
industrial, atmospheric, or space. The amplitude varies over a wide range, as does the frequency This
is generally known as white noise.

a) Industrial Noise: Industrial noise is produced by manufactured equipment, such as

automotive ignition systems, electric motors, and generators. Any electrical equipment that
causes high voltages or currents to be switched produces transients that create noise. Noise
pulses of large amplitude occur whenever a motor or other inductive device is turned on or
off. The resulting transients are extremely large in amplitude and rich in random harmonics.
Fluorescent and other forms of gas-filled lights are another common source of industrial noise.

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b) Atmospheric Noise: The electrical disturbances that occur naturally in the earth’s
atmosphere are another source of noise. Atmospheric noise is often referred to as static. Static
usually comes from lightning, the electric discharges that occur between clouds or between
the earth and clouds. Huge static charges build up on the clouds, and when the potential
difference is great enough, an arc is created and electricity literally flows through the air.
Lightning is very much like the static charges that we experience during a dry spell in the
winter. The voltages involved are, however, enormous, and these transient electric signals of
megawatt power generate harmonic energy that can travel over extremely long distances. Like
industrial noise, atmospheric noise shows up primarily as amplitude variations that add to a
signal and interfere with it. Atmospheric noise has its greatest impact on signals at frequencies
below 30 MHz.
c) Extra-terrestrial Noise: Extra-terrestrial noise, solar and cosmic, comes from sources in
space. One of the primary sources of extra-terrestrial noise is the sun, which radiates a wide
range of signals in a broad noise spectrum. The noise intensity produced by the sun varies with
time. In fact, the sun has a repeatable 11-year noise cycle. During the peak of the cycle, the
sun produces an awesome amount of noise that causes tremendous radio signal interference
and makes many frequencies unusable for communication. During other years, the noise is at
a lower level. Noise generated by stars outside our solar system is generally known as cosmic
noise. Although its level is not as great as that of noise produced by the sun, because of the
great distances between those stars and earth, it is nevertheless an important source of noise
that must be considered. It shows up primarily in the 10-MHz to 1.5-GHz range, but causes the
greatest disruptions in the 15- to 150-MHz range.

Internal Noise: Electronic components in a receiver such as resistors, diodes, and transistors
are major sources of internal noise. Internal noise, although it is low level, is often great enough to
interfere with weak signals. The main sources of internal noise in a receiver are thermal noise,
semiconductor noise, and intermodulation distortion. Since the sources of internal noise are well
known, there is some design control over this type of noise.

Thermal Noise: Most internal noise is caused by a phenomenon known as thermal agitation,
the random motion of free electrons in a conductor caused by heat. Increasing the temperature causes
this atomic motion to increase. Since the components are conductors, the movement of electrons
constitutes a current flow that causes a small voltage to be produced across that component. Electrons
traversing a conductor as current flows experience fleeting impediments in their path as they
encounter the thermally agitated atoms. The apparent resistance of the conductor thus fluctuates,
causing the thermally produced random voltage we call noise. Thermal agitation is often referred to
as white noise or Johnson noise, after J. B. Johnson, who discovered it in 1928. A white noise signal
therefore occupies, theoretically at least, infinite bandwidth. Filtered or band-limited noise is referred
to as pink noise.

The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across a resistor or the input impedance to a
receiver can be calculated according to Johnson’s formula

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The resistor is acting as a voltage generator with an internal resistance equal to the resistor value.
See Fig. 9-22. Naturally, if a load is connected across the resistor generator, the voltage will decrease
as a result of voltage divider action.

Thermal noise can also be computed as a power level. Johnson’s formula is then

Pn = kTB where Pn is the average noise power in watts.

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Semiconductor Noise: Electronic components such as diodes and transistors are major
contributors of noise. In addition to thermal noise, semiconductors produce shot noise, transit-time
noise, and flicker noise.

a) Shot noise: The most common type of semiconductor noise is shot noise. Current flow in any
device is not direct and linear. The current carriers, electrons or holes, sometimes take random
paths from source to destination, whether the destination is an output element, tube plate,
or collector or drain in a transistor. It is this random movement that produces the shot effect.
Shot noise is also produced by the random movement of electrons or holes across a PN
junction. Shot noise is also white noise in that it contains all frequencies and amplitudes over
a very wide range. The amplitude of the noise voltage is unpredictable, but it does follow a
Gaussian distribution curve that is a plot of the probability that specific amplitudes will occur.
The amount of shot noise is directly proportional to the amount of dc bias flowing in a device.
The bandwidth of the device or circuit is also important. The rms noise current in a device I n is
calculated with the formula,

b) Transit-Time Noise: The term transit time refers to how long it takes for a current carrier
such as a hole or electron to move from the input to the output. The devices themselves are
very tiny, so the distances involved are minimal, yet the time it takes for the current carriers
to move even a short distance is finite. At low frequencies, this time is negligible; but when
the frequency of operation is high and the period of the signal being processed is the same

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[Document title]- BEC402
order of magnitude as the transit time, problems can occur. Transit-time noise is directly
proportional to the frequency of operation.

c) Flicker noise or Excess noise(1/f noise or Pink noise): This disturbance is the result of
minute random variations of resistance in the semiconductor material. It is directly
proportional to current and temperature. However, it is inversely proportional to frequency,
and for this reason it is sometimes referred to as 1/f noise. Flicker noise is highest at the lower
frequencies and thus is not pure white noise. Because of the dearth of high-frequency
components, 1/f noise is also called pink noise. s. Carbon and metal fi lm resistors are much
better, but metal fi lm resistors may be more expensive. Wire-wound resistors have the least
flicker noise, but are rarely used because they contribute a large inductance to the circuit,
which is unacceptable in RF circuits.

Fig. 9-24 shows the total noise voltage variation in a transistor, which is a composite of the
various noise sources. At low frequencies, noise voltage is high, because of 1/f noise. At very
high frequencies, the rise in noise is due to transit-time effects near the upper cutoff frequency
of the device. Noise is lowest in the midrange, where most devices operate. The noise in this
range is due to thermal and shot effects, with shot noise sometimes contributing more than
thermal noise.

Expressing Noise Levels: The noise quality of a receiver can be expressed as in terms of
noise figure, noise factor, noise temperature, and SINAD.

Noise Factor and Noise Figure: The noise factor is the ratio of the S/N power at the input to the S/N
power at the output. The device under consideration can be the entire receiver or a single amplifier
stage. The noise factor or noise ratio (NR) is computed with the expression

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[Document title]- BEC402

When the noise factor is expressed in decibels, it is called the noise figure (NF):

Amplifiers and receivers always have more noise at the output than at the input because of the internal
noise, which is added to the signal. And even as the signal is being amplified along the way, the noise
generated in the process is amplified along with it. The S/N ratio at the output will be less than the S/N
ratio of the input, and so the noise figure will always be greater than 1. A receiver that contributed no
noise to the signal would have a noise figure of 1, or 0 dB, which is not attainable in practice. The lower
the noise figure, the better the amplifier or receiver. Noise figures of less than about 2 dB are excellent.

Noise Temperature: Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal noise, which is directly
proportional to temperature. Therefore, another way to express the noise in an amplifier or receiver
is in terms of noise temperature TN. Noise temperature is expressed in kelvins. Remember that the
Kelvin temperature scale is related to the Celsius scale by the relationship T K = TC + 273. The
relationship between noise temperature and NR is given by

TN = 290(NR - 1)

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[Document title]- BEC402

If the noise ratio is greater than 1, an equivalent noise temperature will be produced. The equivalent
noise temperature is the temperature to which a resistor equal in value to Z o of the device would have
to be raised to generate the same Vn as the device generates.

Noise temperature is used only in circuits or equipment that operates at VHF, UHF, or microwave
frequencies. The noise factor or noise figure is used at lower frequencies.

SINAD: Another way of expressing the quality and sensitivity of communication receivers is SINAD—
the composite signal plus the noise and distortion divided by noise and distortion contributed by the
receiver. In symbolic form

Distortion refers to the harmonics present in a signal caused by nonlinearities. The SINAD ratio is also
used to express the sensitivity of a receiver. Note that the SINAD ratio makes no attempt to
discriminate between or to separate noise and distortion signals.

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[Document title]- BEC402
The SINAD is a power ratio, and it is almost always expressed in decibels:

SINAD is the most often used measure of sensitivity for FM receivers used in two-way radios. It can
also be used for AM and SSB radios. Sensitivity is quoted as a microvolt level that will deliver a 12-dB
SINAD. It has been determined that voice can be adequately recovered intelligently with a 12-dB SINAD
value. A typical sensitivity rating may be 0.35 microvolt for a 12-dB SINAD.

Noise in Cascaded Stages:

Noise has its greatest effect at the input to a receiver simply because that is the point at which the
signal level is lowest. The noise performance of a receiver is invariably determined in the very first
stage of the receiver, usually an RF amplifier or mixer. Design of these circuits must ensure the use of
very low-noise components, taking into consideration current, resistance, bandwidth, and gain figures
in the circuit. Beyond the first and second stages, noise is basically no longer a problem.

The formula used to calculate the overall noise performance of a receiver or of multiple stages of RF
amplification, called Friis’ formula, is

Note that the noise ratio is used, rather than the noise fi gure, and so the gains are given in power
ratios rather than in decibels.
As an example, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 9-26. The overall noise ratio for the combination is
calculated as follows:

What this calculation means is that the first stage controls the noise performance for the whole
amplifier chain. This is true even though stage 1 has the lowest NR, because after the first stage, the

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[Document title]- BEC402
signal is large enough to overpower the noise. This result is true for almost all receivers and other
equipment incorporating multistage amplifiers.

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[Document title]- BEC402

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