Fluid Mechanics (BME403)/Lecture Notes

Module 3: Fluid Dynamics and Loss of head due to friction in pipes

Fluid Dynamics:
Fluid dynamics is the study of fluid motion by considering the forces causing flow. This
behaviour of fluid motion is analysed by the Newton’s second law of motion, which relates the
acceleration with the forces,F = ma,where F= Force acting on fluid element,m = mass of the fluid
and a = accerleration.The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
Equations of Motion:
Fluid dynamics is the study of fluid motion by considering the forces causing flow. This
behaviour of fluid motion is analysed by the Neton’s second law of motion, which relates the
acceleration with the forces = ma, where F= Force acting on fluid element = mass of the fluid
and a = accerleration.The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
Mathematically, Net force Fx = m.ax ----------------- (1)
Types of forces acting on fluid in motion:
i) Pressure force,Fp
ii) Gravity force,Fg
iii) Viscous force,Fv
iv) Turbulence force ,Ft
v) Compressibility force,Fc

In equation (1), the net force Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

i) If, compressibility force is negligible for a flow, the equation of motion is called Reynolds’s
equation of motion. Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x
ii) If, turbulence force is negligible for a flow, the equation of motion is called Navier-Stokes
equation of motion. Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Fv)x + (Fc)x
iii) If, viscous force is negligible for a flow, the equation of motion is called Euler’s equation of
motion. Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

Euler’s equation:
(dp/ρ) + V.dv +g.dz =0 -----------, this known as Euler’s equation of motion along a stream line.
Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation:
Assumptions made in derivation of Bernoulli’s equation
i) Flow is steady
ii) Flow is irrotational
iii) Flow is incompressible
iv) Fluid is an ideal, i.e., viscosity is zero
We have Euler’s equation of motion, (dp/ρ) + V.dv +g.dz =0
By Integrating Euler’s equation of motion, we get Bernoulli’s equation,

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 dp
∫ + ∫ V. dV + ∫ g. dz = Constant
ρ
For incompressible flow,ρ is constant,
p V2
+ + g. z = Constant
ρ 2
p V2
+ + z = Constant, Divide throughout by g, this is known as Bernoulli′ s equation.
ρg 2g
p
Where = Pressure head or pressure energy per unit weight of fluid
ρg
V2
= Kinectic head or kinectic energy per unit weight of fluid
2g
z = Potential head or potential energy per unit weight of fluid

Statement of Bernoulli’s equation: In an ideal, steady and incompressible fluid flow, the sum
of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy (or datum) energy is constant along a
stream line.
p V2
+ + z = Constant
ρg 2g
Limitations of Bernoulli’s equation:
i) This is applicable only for an ideal fluid, as real fluid is viscous (viscosity) and it offers
resistance to flow.
ii) Addition or subtraction of energy takes place, when the fluid passes from one section to other.
Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid:
The real fluids are viscous (viscosity) and offers resistance to flow. Hence there are always some
losses in fluid flows, these losses are to be considered. Thus the Bernoulli’s equation for real
fluids between points 1 and 2 is given as
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2.
Navier-Stokes equation:
The net force from newtons 2nd law is Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
If, turbulence force is negligible for a flow, the equation of motion is called Navier-Stokes
equation of motion.
Net force Fx = (Fp)x + (Fg)x + (Fv)x + (Fc)x is known as Navier-Stokes equation of motion.
Where Fp = Pressure force
Fg = Gravity force
Fv = Viscous force
Ft = Turbulence force
Fc = Compressibility force

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Application of Bernoulli’s equation:
Bernoulli’s equation is applied for all kind of incompressible fluid flow problems where various
energies are involved. The following are the some of the fluid flow measuring devices.
i) Venturimeter ii) Orifice meter iii) Pitot-tube

Venturimeter:

Venturimeter is a device for measuring the flow rate of a fluid flowing via a pipe. The parts of
venturimeter are i) A short converging part (inlet,d1) ii) Throat(d2) iii) Diverging part
(outlet,d2). It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.

Expression for the discharge through a venturimeter:

a1 √2gh a1 a2 √2gh
Qtheo = a2 = − − − −(4)
√a21 − a22 √a21 − a22

The equation (4) is known as theoretical discharge (Qtheo), but actual discharge (Qact) will be less
than theoretical discharge.

a1 a2 √2gh
Qact = Cd X − − − −(5)
√a21 − a22
Where Cd =Co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Different values of h:
Case i) If differential manometer contains liquid heavier than the liquid flowing via pipe.
Sh
h = x [ − 1]
So
Where Sh =Specific gravity of the heavier liquid, So =Specific gravity of liquid flowing via
pipe,x =Difference of the heavier liquid columns in U-tube.

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Case ii) If differential manometer contains liquid lighter than the liquid flowing via pipe.
Sl
h = x [1 − ]
So
Where Sl =Specific gravity of the lighter liquid, So =Specific gravity of liquid flowing via pipe,x
=Difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
Case iii) For inclined venture meter, If differential manometer contains liquid heavier than the
liquid flowing via pipe.
p1 p2 Sh
h = ( + z1 ) − ( + z2 ) = x [ − 1]
ρg ρg So
Where Sh =Specific gravity of the heavier liquid, So =Specific gravity of liquid flowing via
pipe,x =Difference of the heavier liquid columns in U-tube.
Case iv) For inclined venture meter, If differential manometer contains liquid lighter than the
liquid flowing via pipe.
p1 p2 Sl
h = ( + z1 ) − ( + z2 ) = x [1 − ]
ρg ρg So
Where Sl =Specific gravity of the lighter liquid, So =Specific gravity of liquid flowing via pipe,x
=Difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
Orifice meter:

Orifice meter is a device for measuring the flow rate of a fluid flowing via a pipe. It is a cheaper
device than venturimeter. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. It consists of a flat
circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole called orifice, which is concentric with the
pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary
from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe dia.
Expression for the discharge through an orifice meter:

Cd a0 √2gh Cd a0 𝑎1 √2gh
Q = = − − − −(5)
a0 2 2 2
√1 − ( ) √𝑎 1 − 𝑎 0
a1
Where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.
The equation (5) is known as discharge (Q) of orifice meter.

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Difference between Venturimeter and Orifice meter:
# Venturimeter Orifice meter

1. The value of Cd is high. The value of Cd is low.

2. It requires more space for installation. It requires less space for installation.

3. It is costly for installation & replacement. It is less costly for installation & replacement.

4. It is used for measurement of high flow rates. It is used for measurement of moderate or low flow
rates.

Pitot tube:

The Pitot tube is a small glass tube bent at right angles and is placed in flow such that lower end,
which is bent through 90ois directed in the upstream direction as shown in figure. The liquid rises
in the tube due to conversion of kinetic energy into potential energy. The velocity is determined
by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.

v1 = √2gh , this is theoretical velocity

But actual velocity is,
(v1 )act = Cv √2gh
Where Cv = Co-efficient of pitot-tube.

∴ Velocity at any point , v = Cv √2gh

Notches:
A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a small channel or a
tank. The notch is defined as an opening in the side of the tank or a small channel in such a way
that the liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

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Expression for the discharge over a triangular (or V-notch) notch:

8 θ
Q= Cd tan √2g H 5/2 − − − −(1)
15 2
The equation (1) is known as discharge (Q) of triangular notch.
Expression for the discharge over a rectangular notch:

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Q= C L√2g [H]3/2 − − − −(2)
3 d
The equation (2) is known as discharge (Q) of rectangular notch.

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Loss of head due to friction in pipes:
Loss of energy (or head) in pipe: When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences
some resistance to its motion due to which its velocity and the head of water available are
reduced.
The loss of energy or head is classified as follows
Major energy loss:
This is due to friction and it is calculated by the following formula
• Darcy-weisbach equation
Minor energy loss:
This is due to:
• Sudden enlargement of pipe
• Sudden contraction of pipe
• Bend in pipe
• Pipe fittings
Derivation of Darcy-Weisbach equation for loss of head due to friction (Major loss):

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe having stead flow as shown above figure between section1-1
and section 2-2.
Let A=Cross-section area of pipe
L=Length of pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2
d=diameter of pipe
fI=frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity
hf=Loss of head due to friction
p1 and p2=Intensity of pressure at sections 1-1 and 2-2
V1 and V2=Velocity of flow at sections 1-1 and 2-2
Applying Bernoullis equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2,
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hf
ρg 2g ρg 2g
But Z1 = Z2 as pipe is horizontal, V1 = V2 as diameter of pipe is same
p1 p2 p1 p2
= + hf or hf = −
ρg ρg ρg ρg
∴ p1 − p2 = ρghf − − − (1)
But hf is head lost due to friction,so pressure will reduce in flow by frictional resistance.

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Frictional resistance=frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity x wetted area x
velocity2
F1 = f ′ X πdL X V 2 [as wetted area = πd X L, velocity = V = V1 = V2 ]
= f ′ X P X L X V 2 − − − (2)[as πd = perimeter = P]
Forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 and resloving them in horizontal
direction,
p1A - p2A - F1=0 (as pressure, P=F/A,force,F=PA)
(p1 − p2 )A = F1 = f ′ X P X L X V 2 (From eqn. (2)F1 = f ′ X P X L X V 2 )
f ′ X P X L X V2
∴ p1 − p2 = − − − (3)
A
Equating eqns.(1) and (3)
f ′X P X L X V2
ρghf =
A

f′ P
hf = X X L X V 2 − − − (4)
ρg A
P wetted perimeter πd 4
In eqn. (4), = =π =
A Area 2 d
4d
f′ 4 f′ 4L V 2
∴ hf = X X L X V2 = X − − − (5)
ρg d ρg d

f′ f
Puttting = , where f is co − efficient of friction
ρ 2
4. f L V 2 4fL V 2
∴ Eqn. (5) is hf = . = − − − (6), this is Darcy − Weisbach equation.
2g d 2gd
f L V2
Sometimes eqn. (6) is written as hf = where f is friction factor
2gd
Derivation of Chezys formula for loss of head due to friction:
f′ P
We have hf = X X L X V 2 − − − (1)
ρg A
Where hf = loss of head due to friction,P = wetted perimeter of pipe,A = area of cross-section of
pipe,V = mean velocity of flow,L = length of pipe
A Area of flow
The ratio , = = m , is called hydraulic mean depth or radius
P Perimeter(wetted)
π 4
A 4d d
∴ Hydraulic mean depth, m = = =
P πd 4
A P 1
Substituting = m or = Substituing this value in eqn. (1)
P A m
f′ 1 ρg 1 ρg hf
hf = X X L X V 2 or V 2 = hf X ′ X X m = ′ X m X
ρg m f L f L
ρg hf ρg hf
V=√ ′ XmX = √ ′ √m − − − (2)
f L f L

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V = C√mi − − − (3), this is known as Chezy ′ s Formula.
ρg
Where√ ′ = C, C is known as Chezys constant
f
hf
And = i, i known as loss of head per unit length of pipe.
L
Minor losses:
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:

(V1 − V2 )2
Mathematically , he =
2g
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction:
V22
Mathematically , hC = 0.5
2g

3. Loss of head at entrance of pipe:

V2
Mathematically , hi = 0.5
2g
4. Loss of head at exit of pipe:
V2
Mathematically , ho =
2g
5. Loss of head due to bend in pipe:
kV 2
Mathematically , hb = where k is co − efficient of bend
2g
The value of k depends on i)Angle of bend ii)Radius of curvature of bend iii)Diameter of pipe

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6. Loss of head in various pipe fittings:
kV 2
Mathematically, h = where k is co − efficient of pipe fitting
2g
Flow through pipes in series or Flow through compound pipes:

The pipes connected end to end (in series) to form a pipe line. The pipes are of different lengths
and different diameters.
 In pipes in series the discharge will be same in all pipes,Q=Q1=Q2=Q3
 The head loss H= (hf1+Minor losses) + (hf2+Minor losses) +…
 The effective length(Le) to effective diameter (de) is
Le L1 L2
= + +⋯
d5e d15 d52

The total loss of head is given by,

0.5V12 4f1 L1 V12 0.5V22 4f2 L2 V22 0.5V32 4f3 L3 V32
H= + + + + +
2g 2gd1 2g 2gd2 2g 2gd3
Flow through pipes in parallel:

When a main pipeline divides in to two or more parallel pipes, which may again join together
downstream and continue as main line, the pipes are said to be in parallel.
 In pipes in parallel the discharge will be same in all pipes Q=Q1+Q2+…
 The head loss hf1=hf2 =…
 The effective diameter (de) to effective length(Le) is,

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 1/2 1/2 1/2
d5e d15 d52
( ) =( ) +( ) +⋯
fe Le f1 L1 f2 L2

Loss of head hf1=hf2,

4f1 L1 V12 4f2 L2 V22
=
2gd1 2gd2
Equivalent pipe:
It is single uniform pipe formed from a set of pipes connected in parallel.
 In equivalent pipe the discharge will be Q=Q1+Q2+…
 The head loss hf = hf1= hf2 =…

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Solved Numericals:

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