STA 114 - GENERAL STATISTICS

DR A. A. OGUNDE AND VICTORIA E. LAOYE

Department of Statistics, University of Ibadan

20th March, 2024

 INTRODUCTION

• In this lecture, we shall discuss the nature and scope of statistics and relate the course to
our day-to-day activities.

• Essentially, what we study in statistics are data. So, in this course we shall understand
the distinct types of data available and their sources. The issue of data quality is a major
concern not only to data producers but also to users as well.

• The course will also itemize the basic measures of data quality. In concluding this
course, we shall discuss measurement scales. This is because, as you will discover later
in the course that it helps you to know the appropriate method to use to analyze your
data.
 DATA

• Data is a collection of discrete or continuous values that convey information, describing

the quantity, quality, fact, statistics, other basic units of meaning, or simply sequences of
symbols that may be further interpreted formally.

• A datum is an individual value in a collection of data.

• Data is usually organized into structures such as tables that provide additional context
and meaning, and which may themselves be used as data in larger structures. Data may be
used as variables in a computational process.

• Data may represent abstract ideas or concrete measurements.

Data is commonly used in scientific research, economics, and in virtually every other form
of human organizational activity. Examples of data sets include price indices (such as
consumer price index),unemployment rates, literacy rates, and census data. In this context,
data represents the raw facts and figures from which useful information can be extracted.
 DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and collecting information from various sources
to analyze and make informed decisions based on the data collected. This can involve
various methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and observation.

In order for data collection to be effective, it is important to have a clear understanding of

what data is needed and what the purpose of the data collection is. This can involve
identifying the population or sample being studied, determining the variables to be
measured, and selecting appropriate methods for collecting and recording data.
 Types of Data Collection

Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection is the process of gathering original and firsthand information
directly from the source or target population. This type of data collection involves
collecting data that has not been previously gathered, recorded, or published. Primary data
can be collected through various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations,
experiments, and focus groups. The data collected is usually specific to the research
question or objective and can provide valuable insights that cannot be obtained from
secondary data sources. Primary data collection is often used in market research, social
 Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data collection is the process of gathering information from existing sources
that have already been collected and analyzed by someone else, rather than conducting
new research to collect primary data. Secondary data can be collected from various
sources, such as published reports, books, journals, newspapers, websites, government
publications, and other documents.
Qualitative Data Collection

Qualitative data collection is used to gather non-numerical data such as opinions,

experiences, perceptions, and feelings, through techniques such as interviews, focus
groups, observations, and document analysis. It seeks to understand the deeper meaning
and context of a phenomenon or situation and is often used in social sciences, psychology,
and humanities. Qualitative data collection methods allow for a more in-depth and holistic
 Quantitative Data Collection

Quantitative data collection is a used to gather numerical data that can be analyzed using
statistical methods. This data is typically collected through surveys, experiments, and
other structured data collection methods. Quantitative data collection seeks to quantify and
measure variables, such as behaviors, attitudes, and opinions, in a systematic and objective
way. This data is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and establish correlations
between variables. Quantitative data collection methods allow for precise measurement
and generalization of findings to a larger population. It is commonly used in fields such as
economics, psychology, and natural sciences.
 Data Collection Methods

Surveys
Surveys involve asking questions to a sample of individuals or organizations to collect
data. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online.

Interviews
Interviews involve a one-on-one conversation between the interviewer and the respondent.
Interviews can be structured or unstructured and can be conducted in person or over the
phone.
Focus Groups
Focus groups are group discussions that are moderated by a facilitator. Focus groups are
 Observation

Observation involves watching and recording the behavior of people, objects, or events in
their natural setting. Observation can be done overtly or covertly, depending on the
research question.
Experiments

Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing the effect on
another variable. Experiments are commonly used in scientific research.
Case Studies

Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, organization, or event. Case
studies are used to gain detailed information about a specific phenomenon.
 Secondary Data Analysis

Secondary data collection is the process of gathering information from existing sources
that have already been collected and analyzed by someone else, rather than conducting
new research to collect primary data. Secondary data can be collected from various
sources, such as published reports, books, journals, newspapers, websites, government
publications, and other documents.
 Qualitative Data Collection

ü Qualitative data collection is used to gather non-numerical data such as opinions,

experiences, perceptions, and feelings, through techniques such as interviews, focus
groups, observations, and document analysis.

ü It seeks to understand the deeper meaning and context of a phenomenon or situation and
is often used in social sciences, psychology, and humanities.

ü Qualitative data collection methods allow for a more in-depth and holistic exploration
of research questions and can provide rich and nuanced insights into human behavior
and experiences.
 Quantitative Data Collection
ü Quantitative data collection is a used to gather numerical data that can be analyzed
using statistical methods.

ü This data is typically collected through surveys, experiments, and other structured data
collection methods. Quantitative data collection seeks to quantify and measure variables,
such as behaviors, attitudes, and opinions, in a systematic and objective way.

ü This data is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and establish correlations
between variables. Quantitative data collection methods allow for precise measurement
and generalization of findings to a larger population. It is commonly used in fields such
as economics, psychology, and natural sciences.
 How to Collect Data
• Define the Objective: Before you start collecting data, you need to define the
objective of the study. This will help you determine what data you need to collect and
how to collect it.

• Identify the Data Sources:Identify the sources of data that will help you achieve your
objective. These sources can be primary sources, such as surveys, interviews, and
observations, or secondary sources, such as books, articles, and databases

• Determine the Data Collection Method: Once you have identified the data sources,
you need to determine the data collection method. This could be through online
surveys, phone interviews, or face-to-face meetings.
• Develop a Data Collection Plan: Develop a plan that outlines the steps you will take to collect
the data. This plan should include the timeline, the tools and equipment needed, and the
personnel involved.

• Test the Data Collection Process: Before you start collecting data, test the data collection
process to ensure that it is effective and efficient.

• Collect the Data: Collect the data according to the plan you developed in step 4. Make sure
you record the data accurately and consistently.

• Analyze the Data: Once you have collected the data, analyze it to draw conclusions and make
recommendations.
• Report the Findings: Report the findings of your data analysis to the relevant stakeholders.
This could be in the form of a report, a presentation, or a publication.

• Monitor and Evaluate the Data Collection Process: After the data collection process is
complete, monitor and evaluate the process to identify areas for improvement in future data
collection efforts.

• Ensure Data Quality: Ensure that the collected data is of high quality and free from errors.
This can be achieved by validating the data for accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
• Maintain Data Security: Ensure that the collected data is secure and protected from
unauthorized access or disclosure. This can be achieved by implementing data security
protocols and using secure storage and transmission methods.

• Follow Ethical Considerations: Follow ethical considerations when collecting data, such as
obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting their privacy and confidentiality, and
ensuring that the research does not cause harm to participants.

• Use Appropriate Data Analysis Methods: Use appropriate data analysis methods based on
the type of data collected and the research objectives. This could include statistical analysis,
qualitative analysis, or a combination of both.
 Record and Store Data Properly

Record and store the collected data properly, in a structured and organized format. This
will make it easier to retrieve and use the data in future research or analysis.

Collaborate with other Stakeholders

Collaborate with other stakeholders, such as colleagues, experts, or community members,

to ensure that the data collected is relevant and useful for the intended purpose.
 Applications of Data Collection

• Social Sciences: Social scientists often use surveys, questionnaires, and interviews to
collect data from individuals or groups. They may also use observation to collect data
on social behaviors and interactions. This data is often used to study topics such as
human behavior, attitudes, and beliefs.

• Healthcare: Data collection methods are used in healthcare to monitor patient health
and track treatment outcomes. Electronic health records and medical charts are
commonly used to collect data on patients’ medical history, diagnoses, and treatments.
Researchers may also use clinical trials and surveys to collect data on the effectiveness
of different treatments.
Business: Businesses use data collection methods to gather information on consumer behavior,
market trends, and competitor activity. They may collect data through customer surveys, sales
reports, and market research studies. This data is used to inform business decisions, develop
marketing strategies, and improve products and services.

Education: In education, data collection methods are used to assess student performance and
measure the effectiveness of teaching methods. Standardized tests, quizzes, and exams are
commonly used to collect data on student learning outcomes. Teachers may also use classroom
observation and student feedback to gather data on teaching effectiveness.

Agriculture: Farmers use data collection methods to monitor crop growth and health. Sensors and
remote sensing technology can be used to collect data on soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient
levels. This data is used to optimize crop yields and minimize waste.
• Environmental Sciences: Environmental scientists use data collection methods to
monitor air and water quality, track climate patterns, and measure the impact of human
activity on the environment. They may use sensors, satellite imagery, and laboratory
analysis to collect data on environmental factors.

• Transportation: Transportation companies use data collection methods to track vehicle

performance, optimize routes, and improve safety. GPS systems, on-board sensors, and
other tracking technologies are used to collect data on vehicle speed, fuel consumption,
and driver behavior.
 Examples of Data Collection

Traffic Monitoring: Cities collect real-time data on traffic patterns and congestion
through sensors on roads and cameras at intersections. This information can be used to
optimize traffic flow and improve safety.

Social Media Monitoring: Companies can collect real-time data on social media
platforms such as Twitter and Facebook to monitor their brand reputation, track customer
sentiment, and respond to customer inquiries and complaints in real-time.

Weather Monitoring: Weather agencies collect real-time data on temperature, humidity,

air pressure, and precipitation through weather stations and satellites. This information is
used to provide accurate weather forecasts and warnings.
Stock Market Monitoring: Financial institutions collect real-time data on stock prices,
trading volumes, and other market indicators to make informed investment decisions and
respond to market fluctuations in real-time.

Health Monitoring: Medical devices such as wearable fitness trackers and smartwatches
can collect real-time data on a person’s heart rate, blood pressure, and other vital signs.
This information can be used to monitor health conditions and detect early warning signs
of health issues.
 Purpose of Data Collection

Provide information: Data collection provides information about a particular phenomenon or

behavior that can be used to better understand it.

Measure progress: Data collection can be used to measure the effectiveness of interventions or
programs designed to address a particular issue or problem.

Support decision-making: Data collection provides decision-makers with evidence-based

information that can be used to inform policies, strategies, and actions.

Identify trends: Data collection can help identify trends and patterns over time that may indicate
changes in behaviors or outcomes.

Monitor and evaluate: Data collection can be used to monitor and evaluate the implementation
and impact of policies, programs, and initiatives.
 When to use Data Collection
Research: When conducting research, data collection is used to gather information on variables
of interest to answer research questions and test hypotheses.

Evaluation: Data collection is used in program evaluation to assess the effectiveness of programs
or interventions, and to identify areas for improvement.

Monitoring: Data collection is used in monitoring to track progress towards achieving goals or
targets, and to identify any areas that require attention.

Decision-making: Data collection is used to provide decision-makers with information that can
be used to inform policies, strategies, and actions.

Quality improvement: Data collection is used in quality improvement efforts to identify areas
where improvements can be made and to measure progress towards achieving goals.
Measurement Scale
 Assignment

• Distinguish clearly between the following pairs:

1. Descriptive statistics and Inferential statistics
2. Quantitative data and Qualitative data
3. Discrete data and Continuous Data
4. Population census and Sample survey
5. Systematic error and Random Error
 Assignment
• Determine the appropriate level of measurement for each of the following:
i. The class of degree of a set of graduating students.
ii. The brand of mobile phone of 40 professors.
iii. Number of bed spaces in randomly selected private hospitals in a city.
iv. The rating of 60 contestants as poor, fair, average, good, or superior.
v. Daily temperature for Ibadan
vi. Intelligent quotient of physically challenged students in U.I.
vii. Educational status of heads of households in Ajibode Community.
viii. Number of cars entering a U.I. campus daily.
ix. Political party of each of 36 state executive governors
x. Duration of calls received daily.
Q&A

Q&A