Professional Documents
Culture Documents
III-EEE-2-mark-NEW-2019
III-EEE-2-mark-NEW-2019
Protection and
2 EE8602 22-53
Switchgear
Design of Electrical
4 EE8002 69-100
Apparatus
Special Electrical
5 EE8005 101–128
Machines
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EE8601 SOLID STATE DRIVES
UNIT – I
TWO MARKS
Systems employed for motion control are called drives and they employ any of the prime movers
such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, hydraulic motors and electric motors for
supplying mathematical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motion are called
electric drives.
a. Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is
imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
b. During transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts
source and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from
source may overload it or may cause a voltage dip.
They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and dynamic characteristics of
electrical drives can be shaped to satisfy load requirements.
4) Control gear required for speed control, starting and braking is usually
simple and easy to operate.
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7. What are the functions performed by electric drives?
d. Running excavators and escalators, electric locomotives, trains, cars, trolley buses,
lifts and drums winders etc.
b. The condition arising under the short circuits, leakage from conductors and
breakdown of overhead conductor may lead to fatal accidents.
c. Failure in supply for a few minutes may paralyses the whole system.
a. Initial cost: Initial cost of group drive is less as compared to that of the individual drive.
b. Sequence of operation: Group drive system is useful because all the operations are stopped
simultaneously.
Although the initial cost of group drive is less but yet this system is not used
extensively because of following disadvantages.
b. Efficiency: Group drive system when used and if all the machines are not working
together the main motor shall work at very much reduced load.
c. Reliability: In group drive if the main motor fails whole industry will come to stand
still.
d. Flexibility: Such arrangement is not possible in group drive i.e., this arrangement is not
suitable for the place where flexibility is the prime factor.
e. Speed: Group drive does not provide constant speed.
f. Types of machines: Group drive is not suitable fro driving heavy machines such as cranes,
lifts and hoists etc.
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11. Write short notes on individual electric drives.
In individual drive, each individual machine is driven by a separate motor. This motor also
imparts motion to various other parts of the machine. Examples of such machines are single
spindle drilling machines (Universal motor is used) and lathes. In a lathe, the motor rotates the
spindle, moves the feed and also with the help of gears, transmits motion to lubricating and
cooling pumps. A three phase squirrel cage induction motor is used as the drive. In many such
applications the electric motor forms an integral part of the machine.
12. Mention the different factors for the selection of electric drives?
• Paper mills
• Electric traction Cement mills
• Steel mills
Regenerative braking occurs when the motor speed exceeds the synchronous speed. In this case
the IM runs as the induction m\c is converting the mechanical power into electrical power which
is delivered back to the electrical system. This method of braking is known as regenerative
braking.
Dynamic braking of electric motors occurs when the energy stored in the rotating mass is
dissipated in an electrical resistance. This requires a motor to operate as a gen. to convert the
stored energy into electrical.
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19. What is meant by plugging?
It is one method of braking of IM. When phase sequence of supply of the motor running at the
speed is reversed by interchanging connections of any two phases of stator with respect to supply
terminals, operation shifts from motoring to plugging region.
It is the speed that separates continuous conduction from discontinuous conduction mode.
The motor selected should have a current rating more than or equal to the current. It is also
necessary to check the overload of the motor. This method of determining the power rating of the
motor is known as equivalent current method.
It is defined as the ratio between C and A. Cooling time constant is denoted as Tau. Tau = C/A
Where C=amount of heat required to raise the temp of the motor body by 1 degree Celsius
A=amount of heat dissipated by the motor per unit time per degree Celsius.
24. What are the methods of operation of electric drives?
Steady state
Acceleration including starting
Deceleration including starting
The motor operates in two mode: motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a generator, converting
mathematical energy into electrical energy and thus opposes the motion. Motor can provide
motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions.
The curve is drawn between speed and torque. This characteristic is called mechanical
characteristics.
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The disadvantage of D.C. drives is the presence of a mechanical commutator which limits the
maximum power rating and the speed.
30. Why the variable speed applications are dominated by D.C. drives?
The variable speed applications are dominated by D.C. drives because of lower cost, reliability
and simple control.
31. List out the examples of active load torque in drive system(Apr/May 2017)
Load torque which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called
active load torques. Ex. Torque due to force of gravity, torque due tension torque, due to
comparession and torsion, Torque due to friction, cutting etc.
32.State the condition of steady state stability of motor load system? (May/Jun 2016)
i) A decrease in speed, the motor torque is greater that the load torque.
ii) An increase in speed, the load torque is greater that the motor torque.
33. What are active and passive load torques? Give examples.(Apr/May 2015)
A passive load is a load consisting of only a resistor, capacitor or inductor, or a combination of
them.Ex. Torque due to friction, cutting An active load is a load which includes something which
is current or voltage controlled, particularly a semiconductor device. Ex.Torque due to force of
gravity, torque due tension torque.
UNIT – II
TWO MARKS
In breaking the motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the
motion. Types are regenerative braking, dynamic or rheostat braking and plugging or reverse
voltage braking.
A D.C. motor is started with full supply voltage across its terminals, a very high current will flow,
which may damage the motor due to heavy sparking at commuter and heating of the winding.
Therefore, it is necessary top limit the current to a safe value during starting.
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5. List the drawbacks of armature resistance control?
In armature resistance control speed is varied by wasting power in external resistors that are
connected in series with the armature. since it is an inefficient method of speed control it was used
in intermittent load applications where the duration of low speed operations forms only a small
proportion of total running time.
Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable d.c. voltage from an a.c. source of fixed voltage
controlled rectifier fed dc drives are also known as static Ward-Leonard drive.
Full converter with firing angle delay greater than 90 deg. is called line commutated inverter. such
an operation is used in regenerative braking mode of a dc motor in which case a back emf is
greater than applied voltage.
8. Mention the methods of armature voltage controlled dc motor? When the supplied
voltage is ac,
Ward-Leonard schemes
Transformer with taps and un controlled rectifier bridge Static Ward-Leonard scheme or
controlled rectifiers when the supply is dc:
Chopper control
9. How is the stator winding changed during constant torque and constant horsepower
operations?
For constant torque operation, the change of stator winding is made form series - star to parallel -
star, while for constant horsepower operation the change is made from series-delta to parallel-star.
Regenerative braking takes place during changeover from higher to lower speeds.
Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or the positive rate of
change of speed in forward direction. Positive load torque is negative if it produces deceleration.
11. Write the expression for average o/p voltage of full converter fed dc drives?
Vm=(2Vm/pi)cospi ........ continuous conduction
Vm=[Vm(cos alpha-cos beta)+(pi+alpha+beta)]/pi] discontinuous conduction
Higher initial cost due to use of two additional m\cs. Heavy weight and size.
Needs more floor space and proper foundation. Required frequent maintenance
15. Why self commutated devices are preferred over thyristors for chopper circuits?
Self commutated devices such as power MOSFETs power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs and IGCTs
are preferred over thyristors for building choppers because they can be commutated by a low
power control signal and don't need commutation circuit.
DC chopper device has the advantages of high efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight, small
size, quick response and regeneration down to very low speed.
Closed loop control system has the adv. of improved accuracy, fast dynamic response and reduced
effects of disturbance and system non-linearities.
19. What are the adv. of using PI controller in closed loop ctrl. of dc drive?
Stabilize the drive
• Adjust the damping ratio at the desired value
• Makes the steady state speed error close to zero by integral action and filters out
noise again due to the integral action.
20. What are the different methods of braking applied to the induction motor?
Regenerative braking Plugging, Dynamic braking.
Stator voltage control, Supply frequency control, Rotor resistance control, Slip power recovery
control.
This method is suitable for applications where torque demand reduced with speed, which points
towards its suitability for fan and pump drives.
AC drives are used in a no. of applications such as fans, blowers, mill run-out tables, cranes,
conveyors, traction etc.
25. What are the three regions in the speed-torque characteristics in the IM?
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Motoring region (0<=s<=1) Generating region(s<0)
Plugging region (1<=s<=2) where s is the slip.
The ac voltage controllers show a step less control of supply voltage from zero to rated voltage
they are used for soft start for motors.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns)and actual speed(N)of the rotor is known as
slip speed. the % of slip is gn by,
UNIT – III
TWO MARKS
The speed of IM can be controlled by changing the supply freq because the speed is directly
proportional to supply frequency. This method of speed ctrl is called freq control.
When the freq is reduced the i/p voltage must be reduced proportionally so as to maintain constant
flux otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron loss and magnetizing current.
This type of IM behavior is similar to the working of dc series motor.
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• Smooth speed ctrl
• Small i/p current and improved power factor at low freq. start
The 3 phase IM speed can be controlled by stator current control. The stator current can be varied
by using current source inverter.
The two modes of operation in the motor are, motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy, which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a
generator converting mechanical energy to electrical energy and thus opposes the motion.
7. How will you select the motor rating for a specific application?
When operating for a specific application motor rating should be carefully chosen that the
insulation temperature never exceed the prescribed limit. Otherwise either it will lead to its
immediate thermal breakdown causing short circuit and damage to winding, or it will lead to
deterioration of its quality resulting into thermal breakdown in near future.
The motor works as a generator developing a negative torque which opposes the motion is called
barking.
It is of three types. They are,
a. Regenerative braking.
b. Dynamic or rheostat braking.
c. Plugging or reverse voltage braking.
11. What are the methods involved in armature voltage control? When the supply in A.C.
a. Ward-Leonard schemes
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b. Transformer with taps and an uncontrolled rectifier bridge.
c. Static ward Leonard scheme or controlled rectifiers when the supply in D.C.
d. Chopper control.
The Ward-Leonard drive is used in rolling mills, mine winders, paper mills, elevators, machine
tools etc.
Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable D.C. Voltage form an A.C. Source of fixed voltage.
The rectifiers provide control of D.C. voltage in either direction and therefore, allow motor
control in quadrants I and IV. They are known as fully-controlled rectifiers.
The rectifiers allow D.C. Voltage control only in one direction and motor control in quadrant I
only. They are known as half-controlled rectifiers.
A D.C. motor is fed from a phase controlled converter the current in the armature may flow in
discrete pulses in called continuous conduction.
A D.C. motor is fed from a phase controlled converter the current in the armature may flow
continuously with an average value superimposed on by a ripple is called discontinuous
conduction.
17. What are the three intervals present in discontinuous conduction mode of single phase
half and fully controlled rectifier?
The three intervals present in half controlled rectifier are,
a. Duty interval
Rectifier takes power from D.C. terminals and transfers it to A.C. mains is called inversion.
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19. What are the limitations of series motor? Why series motor is not used in
traction applications now a days?
20. What are the advantages of induction motors over D.C. motors?
The main drawback of D.C. motors is the presence of commutate and brushes, which require
frequent maintenance and make them unsuitable for explosive and dirty environments. On the
other hand, induction motors, particularly squirrel-cage are rugged, cheaper, lighter, smaller, more
efficient, require lower maintenance and can operate in dirty and explosive environments.
Although variable speed induction motor drives are generally expensive than D.C. drives, they are
used in a number of applications such as fans, blowers, mill run-out tables, cranes, conveyors,
traction etc., because of the advantages of induction motors. Other applications involved are
underground and underwater installations, and explosive and dirty environments.
The induction motor speed can be controlled by supplying the stator a variable voltage, variable
frequency supply using static frequency converters. Speed control is also possible by feeding the
slip power to the supply system using converters in the rotor circuit, basically one distinguishes
two different methods of speed control.
a. Speed control by varying the slip frequency when the stator is fed from a
constant voltage, constant frequency mains.
24. Mention the effects of variable voltage supply in a cage induction motor.
When a cage induction motor is fed from a variable voltage for speed control the following
observations may be made.
a. The torque curve beyond the maximum torque point has a negative shape. A stable operating
point in this region is not possible for constant torque load.
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b. The voltage controlled must be capable of withstanding high starting currents. The range of
speed control is rather limited.
c. The motor power factor is poor.
The type of load driven by the motor influences the current drawn and losses of the motor as the
slip various. The normally occurring loads are
2. Constant torque loads.
3. Torque varying proportional to speed.
4. Torque varying preoperational to the square of the speed.
The constant torque loads are not favored due to increase in the losses linearly with slip and
becoming maximum at s= 1.0. This is obvious form the variation of flux as the voltage is varied
for speed control. To maintain constant torque the motor draws heavy current resulting in poor
torque/ampere, poor efficiency ad poor power factor at low speeds.
The speed of a squirrel cage induction motor can be controlled very effectively by varying the
stator frequency. Further the operation of the motor is economical and efficient, if it operates at
very small slips. The speed of the motor is therefore, varied by varying the supply frequency and
maintaining the rotor frequency at the rated value or a value corresponding to the required torque
on the linear portion of the torque-speed curve.
29. Why the control of a three-phase indication motor is more difficult than D.C. motors.
The control of a three-phase induction motor, particularly when the dynamic performance
involved is more difficult than D.C. motors. This is due to a. Relatively large internal resistance of
the converter causes voltage fluctuations following load fluctuations because the capacitor cannot
be ideally large.
The V/f control would be sufficient in some applications requiring variable torque, such as
centrifugal pumps, compressors and fans. In these, the torque varies as the square of the speed.
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Therefore at small speeds the required torque is also small and V/f control would be sufficient to
drive these leads with no compensation required for resistance drop. This is true also for the case
of the liquid being pumped with minimal solids.
UNIT – IV
TWO MARKS
1. What are the components of the applied voltage to the induction motor?
The applied voltage to the induction motor has two components at low frequencies. They
are
a. Proportional to stator frequency.
b.To compensate for the resistance drop in the stator.
The second component deepens on the load on the motor and hence on rotor frequency.
2. What is indirect flux control?
The method of maintaining the flux constant by providing a voltage boost proportional to slip
frequency is a kind of indirect flux control. This method of flux control is not desirable if very
good dynamic behaviour is required.
Voltage source inverter is a kind of D.C. link converter, which is a two stage conversion device.
4. What is the purpose of inductance and capacitance in the D.C. link circuit?
The inductance in the D.C. link circuit provides smoothing whereas the capacitance maintains the
constancy of link voltage. The link voltage is a controlled quality.
5. What are the disadvantages of square wave inverter in induction motor drive?
Square wave inverters have commutation problems at very low frequencies, as the D.C. link
voltage available at these frequencies cannot charge the commutating capacitors sufficiently
enough to commutate the thrusters. Those puts a limit on the lower frequency of operation. To
extend the frequency towards zero, special charging circuits must be used.
When the slip is used as a controlled quantity to maintain the flux constant in the motor the drive
is called slip enrolled drive. By making the slip negative (i.e., decreasing the output frequency of
the inverter) The machine may be made to operate as a generator and the energy of the rotating
parts fed back to the mains by an additional line side converter or dissipated in a resistance for
dynamic barking. By keeping the slip frequency constant, braking at constant torque and current
can be achieved. Thus braking is also fast.
7. What are the effects of harmonics in VSI fed induction motor drive?
The motor receives square wave voltages. These voltage has harmonic components. The
harmonics of the stator current cause additional losses and heating. These harmonics are also
responsible for torque pulsations. The reaction of the fifth and seventh harmonics with the
fundamental gives rise to the seventh harmonic pulsations in the torque developed. For a given
induction motor fed from a square wave inverter the harmonic content in the current tends to
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remain constant independent of input frequency, with the rang of operating frequencies of the
inverter.
In a D.C. link converter, if the D.C. link current is controlled, the inverter is called a current
source inverter, The current in the D.C. link is kept constant by a high inductance and he
capacitance of the filter is dispensed with . A current source inverter is suitable for loads which
present a low impedance to harmonic currents and have unity p.f.
The commutation of the inverter is load dependent. The load parameters form a part of the
commutation circuit. A matching is therefore required between the inverter and the motor.
Multimotor operation is not possible. The inverter must necessarily be a force commutated one as
the induction motor cannot provide the reactive power for the inverter. The motor voltage is
almost sinusoidal with superimposed spikes.
10. Give the features from which a slip controlled drive is developed.
The stator current of an induction motor operating on a variable frequency, variable voltage
supply is independent of stator frequency if the air gap flux is maintained constant. However, it is
a function of the rotor frequency. The torque developed is also a function of rotor frequency. The
torque developed is also a function of rotor frequency only. Using these features a slip controlled
drive can be developed employing a current source inverter to feed an induction motor.
In plugging, the barking torque is produced by interchange any two supply terminals, so that the
direction of rotation of the rotating magnetic field is reversed with respect to the rotation of the
motor. The electromagnetic torque developed provides the braking action and brings the rotor to a
quick stop.
Where the motors drive loads with intermittent type duty, such as cranes, ore or coal unloaders,
skip hoists, mine hoists, lifts, etc. slip-ring induction motors with speed control by variation of
resistance in the rotor circuit are frequently used. This method of speed control is employed for a
motor generator set with a flywheel (Ilgner set) used as an automatic slip regulator under shock
loading conditions.
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of rotor resistance control?
Advantage of rotor resistance control is that motor torque capability remains unaltered even at low
speeds. Only other method which has this advantage is variable frequency control. However, cost
of rotor resistance control is very low compared to variable frequency control.
Major disadvantage is low efficiency due to additional losses in resistors connected in the rotor
circuit.
15
Where the motors drive loads with intermittent type duty, such as cranes, ore or coal unloaders,
skip hoists, mine hoists, lifts, etc. slip-ring induction motors with speed control by variation of
resistance in the rotor circuit are frequently used. This method of speed
control is employed for a motor generator set with a flywheel (Ilgner set) used as an automatic
slip regulator under shock loading conditions.
15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of rotor resistance control?
Advantage of rotor resistance control is that motor torque capability remains unaltered even at low
speeds. Only other method which has this advantage is variable frequency control. However, cost
of rotor resistance control is very low compared to variable frequency control.
Major disadvantage is low efficiency due to additional losses in resistors connected in the rotor
circuit.
The resistance connected across the output terminals of a chopper can be varied form O to R by
varying the time ratio of the chopper. When the chopper is always OFF, the supply is always
connected to the resistance R. The time ratio in this case is zero and the effective resistance
connected in R. Similarly when the chopper is always ON, the resistance is short circuited. The
time ratio in the case is unity and the effective resistance connected is 0. Hence by varying the
time ratio from 0 to 1, the value of resistance can be varied from R to O.
17. What is the function of inductance L and resistance R in the chopper resistance circuit?
A smoothing inductance L is used in the circuit to maintain the current at a constant value. Any
short circuit in the chopper does not become effective due to L.
The value of R connected across the chopper is effective for all phases and its value can be related
to the resistance to be connected in each phase if the conventional method has been used. The
speed control range is limited by the resistance.
18. What are the disadvantages and advantages of chopper controlled resistance
in the rotor circuit method?
The method is very inefficient because of losses in the resistance. It is suitable for intermittent
loads such as elevators. At low speeds, in particular the motor has very poor efficiency. The rotor
current is non-sinusoidal. They harmonics of the rotor current produce torque pulsations. These
have a frequency which is six times the slip frequency.
Because of the increased rotor resistance, the power factor is better.
The range of speed control can be increased if a combination of stator voltage control and rotor
resistance control is employed. Instead of using a high resistance rotor, a slip ring rotor with
external rotor resistance can be used when stator voltage control is used for controlling the speed.
20. Why the static scherbius drive has a poor power factor?
Drive input power is difference between motor input power and the power fed back. Reactive
input power is the sum of motor and inverter reactive power. Therefore, drive has a poor power
factor throughout the range of its options.
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21. How is super synchronous speed achieved?
Super synchronous speed can be achieved if the power is fed to the rotor from A.C. mains. This
can be made possible by replacing the converter cascade by a cycloconverter. A
cycloconverter allows power flow in either direction making the static sherbets drive operate at
both sub and supper synchronous speeds.
The torque pulsations and other reactions are minimal. The performance of the drive improves
with respect to additional losses and torque pulsations. A smooth transition is possible from sub to
super synchronous speeds without any commutation problems. Speed reversal is not possible. A
step up transformer may be interposed between the lines and the converter, to reduce the voltage
rating of the converter.
Some continuous rolling mills, large air blowers, mine ventilators, centrifugal pumps and any
other mechanisms including pumps drives of hydraulic dredgers require speed adjustment in the
range from 15 to 30% below or above normal. If the induction motor is of comparatively big size
(100 to 200 KW) it becomes uneconomical to adjust speed by mean's pf external resistances due
to copper losses as slip power is wasted as heat in the retort circuit resistance. In these case , the
Kramer electrical drive system is used , where slip power recovery takes places.
Sub synchronous converter cascades have been used, till now, in applications requiring one
quadrant operation. These can be employed for drives where at least one electrical barking
is required. A four quadrant operation can also be made possible in these cascades, using suitable
switching.
For speed control below synchronous speed, the slip power is pumped back to the supply, where
as for the case of speed above synchronous speed, additional slip power is injected into the rotor
circuit.
Instead of wasting the slip power in the rotor circuit resistance, it can be converted to 60 Hz A.C.
and pumped back to the line. The slip power controlled drive that permits only a sub synchronous
range of speed control through a converter cascade is know as static Kramer drive.
27. What is the use and functions of step down transformer is static Kramer drive?
For a restricted speed range closer to synchronous speed, the system power factor can be further
improved by using a step -down transformer.
The step-down transformer has essentially two functions: besides improving the line power factor,
it also helps to reduce the converter power ratings.
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28. What are the advantages of static Kramer drive?
The static Kramer drive has been very popular in large power pump and fan-type drives, where
the range of speed control is limited near, but below the synchronous speed. The drive system is
very efficient and the converted power rating is low because t has to handle only the slip power,
In fact, the power rating becomes lower with a more restricted range of speed control. The
additional advantages are that the drive system has D.C. machine like characteristics and the
control is very simple.
29. What are the causes of harmonic currents in static Kramer drive?
The rectification of slip power causes harmonic currents in the rotor, and these harmonics are
reflected to the stator by the transformer action of the machine. The harmonic currents are also
injected into the A.C. line by the inverter. As a result, the machine losses are increased and some
amount of harmonic torque is produced. Each harmonic current in the rotor will create a reading
magnetic filed and its direction of rotation will depend on the order pf the harmonic.
UNIT – V
TWO MARKS
5. List out the commonly used synchronous motors. Commonly used synchronous
motors are,
a. Wound field synchronous motors.
b. Permanent magnet synchronous motors
c. Synchronous reluctance synchronous motors.
d. Hysterias motors.
6. Mention the main difference between the wound field and permanent magnet
motors.
When a wound filed motor is started as an induction motor, D.C. field is kept off. In case
of a permanent magnet motor, the field cannot be 'turned off’.
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7. Give the advantages and applications of PMSM.
a. High efficiency b. High power factor c. Low sensitivity to supply voltage variations.
The application of PMSM is that it is preferred of industrial applications with large duty cycle
such as pumps, fans and compressors.
Small hysteresis motors are extensively used in tape recorders, office equipment and fans.
Because of the low starting current, it finds application in high inertia application such as
gyrocompasses and small centrifuges.
Variable frequency control may employ and of the two modes. a. True synchronous mode b. Self-
controlled mode
11. List out the advantages of load commutation over forced commutation.
Load commutation has a number of advantages over forced commutation It does not require
commutation circuits
Frequency of operation can be higher
It can operate at power levels beyond the capability of forced commutation.
12. Give some application of load commutated inverter fed synchronous motor drive.
Some prominent applications of load commutated inverter fed synchronous motor drive are high
speed and high power drives for compressors, blowers, conveyers, steel rolling mills, main-line
traction and aircraft test facilities.
For machine operation in the self-controlled mode, rotating filed speed should be the same as
rotor speed. This condition is relaised by making frequency of voltage induced in the armature.
Firning pulses are therefore generated either by comparison of motor terminal voltages or by rotor
position sensors.
The difference between the lead angle of firing and the overlap angle is called the margin angle of
commutation. If this angle of the thyristor, commutation failure occurs. Safe commutation is
assured if this angle has a minimum value equal to the turn off angle f the thyristor.
15. What are the disadvantages of VSI fed synchronous motor drive?
VSI synchronous motor drives might impose fewer problems both on machine as well as on the
system design. A normal VSI with 180° conduction of thyristors required forced commutation and
load commutation is not possible.
D.C. link converter is a two stage conversion device which provides a variable voltage, variable
frequency supply.
Cycloconverter is a single stage conversion device which provides a Variable voltage, variable
frequency supply.
A cycloconverter drive is attractive for law speed operation and is frequently employed in large,
low speed reversing mils requiring rapid acceleration and deceleration. Typical applications are
large gearless drives, e.g. drives for reversing mills, mine heists, etc.
Application of this type of drive is in gas turbine starting pumped hydroturbine starting, pump and
blower drives, etc.
Sometimes when the power is small an auxiliary motor can be used to run up the synchronous
motor to the desired speed.
The brushless D.C. motor is in fact an inverter-fed self controlled permanent synchronous motor
drive. The advantages of brushless D.C. motor are low cost, simplicity reliability and good
performance.
When the synchronous motor operates at a leading power factor thyristors of load side converter
can be commutated by the motor induced voltages same way as the thyristors of a line
commutated converter are commutated by line voltages.
25. What are the characteristics of self controlled mode operated synchronous
motor?
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a) It operates at like dc motor also commutator less motor.
b) These machines have better stability behavior.
c) Do not have oscillatory behavior.
26. What are the characteristics of true synchronus mode operated synchronous
motor?
The motor behaves like conventional synchronous motor i.e) hunting oscillations exists.
The change in frequency is slow enough for rotor to truck the changes.
Multi motor operation is possible here.
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EE8602 - PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR
Series Fault: a) One open conductor fault b) Two open conductor fault
Shunt Fault: (a) Symmetrical or balanced fault (i) Three phase Fault (LLLG)
(b) Unsymmetrical or unbalanced fault ( i) Line to line fault(LL)(ii) Line to ground
fault (LG)(iii) Double line to ground fault.(LLG).
18. How are arcing grounds avoided? (May/June 2012)
The presence of inductive and capacitive currents in the isolated neutral system leads
to formation of arcs called as arcing grounds. The surge voltage due to arcing ground
can be removed by using the arc suppression coil or Peterson coil. The arc suppression
coil has an iron cored tapped reactor connected in neutral to ground connection. The
reactor of the arc suppression coil extinguishes the arcing ground by neutralising the
capacitive current.
19. What are the effects of power system faults? (Nov/Dec 2012)
Increase in current above rated value, Insulation failure, Equipment damage.
20. What is back up protection? (Nov/Dec 2012)
Back up protection is the second line of defence, which operates if the primary
protection fails to activate within a definite time delay.
21. What is meant by pick-up current? (May/June 2013)(Nov/Dec 2014)
The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to close the trip circuit
is called pick-up current. In most of the relays, the pick up current is also indicated
with the relay.
22. Write the sources of fault power. (Nov/Dec 2013)
24
The fault power can be originated from the generation (faults in alternator) or
transmission (short circuit) or from the distribution side(loads). Also the fault power
can be from external sources like lightning.
23. List out the duties of fault limiting reactors. (Nov/Dec 2013)
The duties of fault limiting reactors are to limit the fault current and to eliminate the
arcing ground.
24. What are the functions of protective relays? (May/June 2013) (Apr/May 2015)
To detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker and to isolate the
defective element from the rest of the system, thereby protecting the system from
damages occurring due to fault.
25. What is the necessity for earthing? (Nov/Dec 2014) (May/June 2014 )
(Nov/Dec 2015)
When earthing is provided it ensures the safety of personnel against electrical shocks
and avoids accidents. The potential of earthed body does not reach to dangerously
high value above earth since it is connected to earth. Also the earth fault current flows
through the earthing and may cause operation of fuse or an earth relay.
26. What is the difference between short circuit and an
overload?(Nov/Dec2015)(May/June2016)
On the occurrence of short circuit, the voltage at the point of fault falls to zero and the
current in the network increases abnormally to a higher value. But in the case of
overload reduction in the terminal voltage of the equipment occurs but the voltage will
never fall to zero. Similarly the current also increases to a higher value but not as high
as in the case of short circuit.
28. What is the difference between primary and back up protection? (May/June
2016)
Primary protection is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be
cleared by its own relay and circuit breaker. It serves as the first line of defense.
Instantaneous relays are used.
Back up protection is the second line of defense, which operates if the primary
protection fails to activate within a definite time delay. Relays with definite time lag is
used.
29. Why earth wire is provided in overhead transmission lines? (May/June 2016)
25
Earthing wire usually consists of a Low Resistance wire connected to earth or buried
into Earth. It's nothing but a Low Resistance path. Whenever there is a fault or
abnormal operation or any external activities, the current flows through the earth wire
and charges are discharged into the ground. If a fault occurs, current follows through
earth wire first and the electrical equipment is protected.
30. What do you mean by dead spot in zones of protection?
In practice, various protective zones are overlapped. The overlapping of protective
zones is done to ensure complete safety of each and every element of the system. The
zone which is unprotected is called dead spot. The zones are overlapped and hence
there is no chance of existence of a dead spot in a system. If there are no overlaps,
then dead spot may exist which means the circuit breakers lying within the zone may
not trip even though the fault occurs. This may cause damage to the healthy system.
30. State the difference between circuit breaker and switch. (May/June 2017)
Circuit breaker Switch
A mechanical switching device capable of A mechanical switching device capable of
making , carrying and breaking currents making , carrying and breaking currents
under normal conditions and abnormal under normal conditions but not breaking
conditions like short circuit. under abnormal conditions such as short
It is an automatic device. circuit.
A switch is operated manually.
31. Why protection scheme is required for power system? (April/May 2018)
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission lines
and distribution stations etc., Short circuits and other abnormalities often occur in
power systems which cause heavy short circuit currents. The heavy current associated
with short circuits will cause damage to the equipment if suitable protective relays and
circuit breakers are not provided.
32. Write down the importance of symmetrical components for fault current
calculation. (April/May 2018)
The method of symmetrical components is used to simplify fault analysis by
converting a three-phase unbalanced system into two sets of balanced phasors and a
set of single-phase phasors, or symmetrical components. These sets of phasors are
called the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence components. These components
allow for the simple analysis of power systems under faulted or other unbalanced
26
conditions. Once the system is solved in the symmetrical component domain, the
results can be transformed back to the phase domain.
33. How protective relays are classified based on functions? (Nov/Dec 2018)
The protective relays are classified in the following few categories.
• Directional Over current Relay
• Distance Relay
• Over voltage Relay
• Differential Relay
• Reverse Power Relay
UNIT II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
Part A
1. Name the different kinds of over current relays.
Induction type non-directional over current relay, Induction type directional over
current relay & current differential relay.
2. Define operating time of a relay.
It is the time which elapses from the instant at which actuating quantity exceeds the
relay pick up value to the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
3. Define resetting time of a relay.
It is the time which elapses from the moment the actuating quantity falls below its
reset value to the instant when the relay comes back to its normal (initial) position.
4. What is ‘Time grading’ of relays. (Nov/Dec 2018)
It is the setting of time of operation of various relays protecting the different sections
of a line. It is set so that the relay which is nearest to the fault location alone will
operate first and clear the fault.
5. What are Over and Under current relays?
Over current relays are those that operate when the current in a line exceeds a
predetermined value. (e.g.: Induction type non-directional/directional over current
relay, differential over current relay) whereas Undercurrent relays are those which
operate whenever the current in a circuit/line drops below a predetermined
value.(e.g.: differential over-voltage relay)
6. What is biased differential beam relay?
The biased beam relay is designed to respond to the differential current in terms of its
fractional relation to the current flowing through the protected zone. It is essentially
an over-current balanced beam relay type with an additional restraining coil. The
restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating force.
7. Give the limitations of Merz Price protection.
Since neutral earthing resistances are often used to protect circuit from earth-fault
currents, it becomes impossible to protect the whole of a star-connected alternator. If
an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point, the voltage may be insufficient to operate
the relay. Also it is extremely difficult to find two identical CT’s. In addition to this,
there always an inherent phase difference between the primary and the secondary
quantities and a possibility of current through the relay even when there is no fault.
8. Why is an under frequency relay required in a power system?(May/June
2012) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec2014)
An under frequency relay is one which operates when the frequency of the system
(usually an alternator or transformer) falls below a certain value. Under frequency
relays are used to shed automatically certain portion of load whenever the system
frequency falls to such a low level which threatens the stability of the power system.
9. What are the features of directional relay?
High speed operation; high sensitivity; ability to operate at low voltages; adequate
short-time thermal ratio; burden must not be excessive.
10. What is static relay?
It is a relay in which measurement or comparison of electrical quantities is made in a
static network which is designed to give an output signal when a threshold condition
is passed which operates a tripping device.
11. What is a programmable relay?
A static relay which has one or more programmable units such as microprocessors or
microcomputers embedded in its circuit is called a programmable relay.
12. What are the advantages of static relay over electromagnetic relay?
(Nov/Dec 2011) (May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014)
i) Low power consumption as low as 1mW ii) No moving contacts; hence associated
problems of arcing, contact bounce, erosion, replacement of contacts iii) No gravity
effect on operation of static relays. Hence can be used in vessels ie, ships, aircrafts
etc.
iv) A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under voltage,
single phasing protection by incorporating respective functional blocks. This is not
possible in electromagnetic relays v) Static relay is compact
13.What are the different types of over current relays
i) Definite time ii)Inverse definite minimum time(IDMT) iii)Very Inverse
iv)Extremely Inverse.
14. What is earth fault protection?
A ground fault (earth fault) is any failure that allows unintended connection of power
circuit conductors with the earth. Such faults can cause objectionable circulating
currents, or may energize the housings of equipment at a dangerous voltage. Under
such condition residual current flowing to the ground is calculated. Such a protective
scheme used for the protection of an element of a power system against earth faults is
called as earth fault protection
15. List out the applications of static relays. (Nov/Dec 2012) ) (May/June 2016)
i) Protection of generators ii) Protection of transformers iii) Protection of
transmission lines, and iv) Protection of motors.
16. What is meant by directional relay? (May/June 2012)
A directional relay detects the whether the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse
direction with respect to relay location. The relay which is able to sense the direction
of power flow and act for a particular direction of power flow is called directional
relay.
17. What is meant by differential relay? (May/June 2013) (Apr/May 2015)
A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more
similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. It has two coils viz.,
operating coil which produces operating torque and restraining coil which produces
restraining torque.
18. What are the types of fuses? (Nov/Dec 2013)
a) Low voltage fuses i) Semi-enclosed rewireable fuse ii)HRC fuse
b) High voltage fuses i) cartridge type ii)liquid type iii)metal clad type.
19. List out the different types of distance relay.(May/June 2014)
Dependent on the ratio of V and I there are three types of distance relays which are
i) Impedance relay which is based on measurement of impedance Z ii) Reactance
relay which is based on measurement of reactance X iii)Admittance or Mho relay
which is based on measurement of component of admittance Y.
20. In what way distance relay is superior to over current protection? (Nov/Dec
2015)
Distance relays are preferred to overcurrent relays because they are not nearly so
much affected by changes in short-circuit-current magnitude as overcurrent relays
are, and, hence, are much less affected by changes in generating capacity and in
system configuration. This is because distance relays achieve selectivity on the basis
of impedance rather than current.
21. Where are negative sequence relays employed?
Negative sequence relays are employed for negative sequence protection of
generators against the unbalanced load condition. The negative phase sequence filter
along with the over current relay provides the necessary protection against the
unbalanced loads.
22. Write the effects of arc resistance.
The effect of arc resistance is most significant on short lines where the reach of the
relay setting is small. It can be a problem if the fault occurs near the end of the reach.
High fault-arc resistances tend to occur during midspan flashovers to ground on
transmission lines carried on wood poles without earth wires. These problems can
usually be overcome by using relays having different shaped characteristics.
23. What is the significance of PSM and TSM? (Nov/Dec 2016)
Time setting multiplier TSM: TSM determines the operating time of the relay.
Lower the value of TSM, lower will be the operating time.
Plug setting multiplier PSM: The plug position ensures the current setting value of
the relay. Plug setting multiplier (PSM) indicates the severity of the fault.
24. A relay is connected to 400/5 ratio current transformer with current setting
of 150%. Calculate the plug setting multiplier when circuit carries a fault
current of 4000A. (Nov/Dec 2016)
Fault Current = 4000A
C.T. ratio = 400/5
Fault current in the relay coil = 4000 * (5/400) = 50A
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = Fault Current in the relay coil / (Rated secondary
C.T. Current * Current setting)
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = 50 / (5*1.5) = 6.667
25. Why shaded ring is provided in induction disc relay? (May/June 2017)
In the induction disc relay, a metal disc is allowed to rotate between two
electromagnets. The shaded pole structure is generally actuated by current flowing in
a single coil on a magnetic structure containing an air gap.The air gap flux produced
by this current is split into two out-of-phase components by a so called “shading
ring” generally of copper, that encircles part of the pole face of each pole at the air
gap.
26. Give the principle of negative sequence relay. (Nov/Dec 2017)
A relay which protects the electrical system from negative sequence component is
called a negative sequence relay or unbalance phase relay. The actuating quantity is
negative sequence current. When the negative sequence current exceeds a certain
value, the relay operates. This is used to protect electrical machines against
overheating due to unbalanced currents.
27. Write the torque equation of the universal relay. (Nov/Dec 2017)
T=K1I2+K2V2+K3VI Cos (θ - ) + K4
where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of Voltage V and current I. The K4 is
the mechanical restraint due to spring or gravity.
28. Mention the principle of operation of distance relay. (April/may 2018)
There is one voltage element from potential transformer and a current element fed
from current transformer of the system. The deflecting torque is produced by
secondary current of CT and restoring torque is produced by voltage of potential
transformer. In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting
torque. Hence relay will not operate. But in faulty condition, the current becomes
quite large whereas voltage becomes less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes
more than restoring torque and dynamic parts of the relay starts moving which
ultimately close the No contact of relay. Hence clearly operation or working principle
of distance relay depends upon the ratio of system voltage and current.
29. Determine the plug setting multiplier of a 5 ampere, 3 second over current
relay having a current setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0.6
connected to supply circuit through a 400/5 current transformer when the
circuit carries a fault current of 4000A. (April/may 2018)
Plug Setting Multiplier = Fault current in relay coil/(Rated CT secondary current
* Current Setting)
Fault current in relay coil = 4000*(5/400) = 50A.
Therefore, PSM= 50/(5*1.25)=8
30. What are the factors affecting the performance of differential
relays? (Nov/Dec 2018)
• Phasor sum of currents
• CT ratio
• Polarity of transformers
UNIT III APPARATUS
PROTECTION PART
A
1. What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected
from it? (April/may 2018)
Sudden loss of all or major part of the load causes over-speeding in alternators.
Modern alternators are provided with mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on
their driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime mover when a dangerous over-
speed occurs.
2. What are the uses of Buchholz’s relay?
Bucholz relay is used to give an alarm in case of incipient (slow-developing) faults in
the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of
severe internal faults. It is usually used in oil immersion transformers with a rating
over 750KVA.
3. What are the various faults that would affect an alternator? (May/June 2013)
(Apr/May 2015) )(May/June 2016)
(a) Stator faults i) Phase to phase faults ii) Phase to earth faults iii) Stator inter turn
faults (b) Rotor faults i)Rotor earth faults ii)Field over loading iii) Heating of rotor
c)Abnormal Running Conditions i) Over speeding ii) Over loading iii) Unbalanced
Loading iv)Over voltage v)Failure of Prime mover.
3. What are faults associated with a transformer?
a) Overheating b) Winding Faults i)phase to phase fault ii) Earth fault iii)Interturn
faults c)Open circuits d)Through faults e)Over fluxing.
4. What are the main safety devices available with transformer? (May/June
2012)
Oil level gauge, sudden pressure delay, oil temperature indicator, winding
temperature indicator.
5. What are the limitations of Buchholz relay? (May/June 2017)
(a) Only fault below the oil level are detected.(b) Mercury switch setting should be
very accurate, otherwise even for vibration, there can be a false operation.(c) The
relay is of slow operating type, which is unsatisfactory.
6. What are the problems arising in differential protection in power
transformer and how are they overcome? (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2015)
i) Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of the relay. This is overcome
by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires to get equipotential points on the
pilot wires. ii) Difference in CT ratio error difference at high values of short circuit
currents that makes the relay to operate even for external or through faults. This is
overcome by introducing bias coil.iii) Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage and
currents between HV and LV sides and the relay will sense this and act. Bias coil will
solve this. iv) Magnetizing inrush current will be identified as short circuit current. A
harmonic restraining unit is added to the relay which will block it when the
transformer is energized.
7. What is REF relay?
It is Restricted Earth Fault relay. When the fault occurs very near to the neutral point
of the transformer, the voltage available to drive the earth circuit is very small, which
may not be sufficient to activate the relay, unless the relay is set for a very low
current. Hence the zone of protection in the winding of the transformer is restricted to
cover only around 85%. Hence the relay is called REF relay.
8. What is over fluxing protection in transformer? (Nov/Dec 2016)
If the turn’s ratio of the transformer is more than 1:1, there will be higher core loss
and the capability of the transformer to withstand this is limited to a few minutes
only. This phenomenon is called over fluxing.
9. Why bus-bar protection is needed? (May/June 2013)
(i) Fault level at bus-bar is high (ii) The stability of the system is affected by the
faults in the bus zone.(iii) A fault in the bus bar causes interruption of supply to a
large portion of the system network.
10. What are the causes of bus zone faults?
i)Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault ii) Flashover across support
insulator during over voltage iii )Heavily polluted insulator causing flashover iv)
Earthquake, mechanical damage etc.
11. What are the problems in bus zone differential protection?
i)Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits for external
faults ii) Saturation of CT cores due to dc component and ac component in short
circuit currents. The saturation introduces ratio error.iii) Sectionalizing of the bus
makes circuit complicated. iv) Setting of relays need a change with large load
changes.
12. What are the disadvantages of time graded protection?
i) Time lag is not desirable on short circuits ii) Not suitable for ring main distribution
iii) Difficult to coordinate & needs changes with new connection iv) Not suitable for
long distance relaying.
13. How does the over voltage surge affect the power system?
The over voltage of the power system leads to insulation breakdown of the
equipments. It causes the line insulation to flash over and may also damage the
nearby transformer, generators and the other equipment connected to the line.
14. What is the general connection rule for Current transformers in differential
protection?
If the windings of the power transformer are delta connected then the current
transformers are star connected and if the windings of the power transformer are star
connected then the current transformers are delta connected.
15. Write the coordination equation for inverse over-current relay?
TA=TB+CBB+OA+F
Where TA operating time of relay at station A,TB operating time of relay at station
B,CBB operating time of circuit breaker at station B,OA over travel time of relay at
station A,F factor of safety
16. Explain why secondary of current transformer should not be open. (Nov/Dec
2011)(Dec 2014) (Apr/May 2015) (May/June 2016)
Current transformers generally work at a low flux density. Core is then made of very
good metal to give small magnetizing current. On open-circuit, secondary impedance
now becomes infinite and the core saturates. This induces a very high voltage in the
primary upto approximately system volts and the corresponding volts in the
secondary will depend on the number of turns. Since secondary of CT has more turns
compared to the primary, the voltage generated on the open-circuited CT will be
high, leading to flashovers. Hence as a safety precaution, CT secondary should not be
open-circuited.
17. What is meant by time graded system protection? (Nov/Dec 2018)
In a time graded system, the operating time of the relay is increased from the far end
of protected circuit towards the generating source. Definite time overcurrent relays
are used which after a preset time will trip the circuit. The difference in time setting
of the two adjacent relays are kept at 0.5s. This difference is to cover the operating
time of CB and errors in CT and relay.
18. Write the function of earth fault relay. (Nov/Dec 2012)
Earth fault relay is used for the protection of an element of a power system against
earth faults. Earth relay calculates the residual current. If the residual current is zero
the relay will not operate. Restricted earth fault relay is used in differential protection
which will not operate for external faults.
19. What is meant by relay operating time? (Nov/Dec 2012)
It is the time which elapses from the instant at which actuating quantity exceeds the
relay pick up value to the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
20. What are the different types of zones of protection? (Nov/Dec 2013)
i) Primary protection and ii) backup protection and Unit and Non-Unit protection.
21. State the methods of protection of busbars. (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov/Dec 2016)
i)Frame leakage protection of busbar ii) Circulating current protection of busbar
iii) High impedance differential protection of busbar
22. List the applications of current transformer. (May/June 2014)
i) To the supply the stepped down current to the relay coil in the event of any
overloading or short-circuiting of the equipment lines. ii) To measure power of a load
in conjunction with a wattmeter. The secondary of the CT is connected to the current
coil of the wattmeter.iii)To measure large currents in conjunction with medium/Small
range meters.
23. Give examples of Unit and Non – Unit Protection Schemes (Nov/Dec 2015)
The concept of 'Unit Protection', whereby sections of the power system are protected
individually as a complete unit without reference to other sections.
eg. Differential Protection, Overcurrent
Protection. eg. of Non – Unit Protection: Distance
Protection.
24.What are the difficulties encountered through differential
protection? (May/June 2017)
Though the saturation in Current transformer is avoided, there exist difference in the
C.T. characteristics due to ratio error at high values of short circuit currents. This
causes an appreciable difference in the secondary currents which can operate the
relay. So the relay operates for external faults. Due to the difference in lengths of the
pilot wires on both sides, the unbalance condition may result. Due to the magnetizing
current inrush current in transformers which may be as great as 10 times the full load
current of the transformer, the differential relay may operate falsely.
25. What is the need of instrumentation transformer? (May/June 2017)
Instrument transformers are high accuracy electrical devices used to isolate or
transform voltage or current levels. The most common usage of instrument
transformers is to measure high voltage or high current (with common meters) by
safely isolating secondary control circuitry from the high voltages or currents.
26. Why secondary of a transformer should not be opened? (Nov/Dec 2017)
The secondary side of a current transformer should never be kept in open condition
because, when kept open, there is a very high voltage found across the secondary
side. This high voltage causes a high magnetizing current to build up on the
secondary side which in turn causes high flux and makes the core to saturate.
27. List the types of bus bar protection. (Nov/Dec 2017)
Frame-Earth Protection
Differential Protection for Sectionalized Bus
bars High-Impedance Differential Protection
Low-Impedance Differential
Protection Digital Bus bar Protection
28. What are the protection methods used for transmission lines?(April/may
2018)
Over current protection; Simple Impedance Relay; Mho relay; Reactance relay
29.In the event of fault in generator windings, the field excitation should be
suppressed as early as possible. Why? (Nov/Dec 2018)
Failure of excitation that is failure of field system in the generator makes the
generator run at a speed above the synchronous speed. In that situation the generator
or alternator becomes an induction generator which draws magnetizing current from
the system. Although this situation does not create any problem in the system
immediately but over loading of the stator and overheating of the rotor due to
continuous operation of the machine in this mode may create problems in the system
in long-run. Therefore special care should be taken for rectifying the field or
excitation system of the generator immediately after failure of that system. The
generator should be isolated from rest of the system till the field system is properly
restored.
30.Which type of protection is used for EHV and UHV lines? (Nov/Dec 2018)
Carrier current protective
scheme Pilot wire protective
scheme
UNIT IV STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION
23. What are the building blocks of static relay? or What are the basic circuits
in static relay? (April/may 2018) (Nov/Dec 2018)
Rectifier, Comparator, Amplifier, Transducer are some of the building blocks of
static relay.
24. What is least error squared technique? (May/June 2015)
The least error squared technique is directly related to the Fourier technique. If a
given function were to be synthesized by using a dc component, a sine wave of
fundamental frequency and harmonics of this fundamental, then the amplitudes of
various components given by the Fourier analysis are the ones which give the least
squared error. We can directly find out the amplitudes of the components by using
the LES technique.
25. List out the applications of static relays. (Nov/Dec 2016) (May/June 2016)
• Ultra high speed protection of EHV AC transmission lines utilizing
distance protection.
• In over current and earth fault protection schemes
• As main element in differential relay
26. State Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem (May/June 2017)
If a function x(t) contains no frequencies higher than B hertz, it is completely
determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced 1/(2B) seconds apart.
A band limited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate atleast
twice the maximum frequency component in it. fs≥2fm where fs = sampling
frequency; fm
= frequency of the signal which is reconstructed.
27.Write about numerical transformer differential protection. (May/June 2017)
It provides fast and selective tripping for two winding transformer. It quickly
discriminates between faults that occur in the protected zone and those occurring
outside this zone and thus provides selective and fast tripping. The faults within
protected zone are short circuit between turns, windings and cables and earth faults
inside transformer housing and protected zone. It discriminates between above
internal faults and the operational conditions like inrush, over-fluxing and faults
external to protected zone using numerical algorithms.
28.What is phase comparator? (Nov/Dec 2017)
A phase detector or phase comparator is a frequency mixer, analog multiplier or logic
circuit that generates a voltage signal which represents the difference in phase
between two signal inputs. It is an essential element of the phase-locked loop (PLL).
29. List out the general characteristics of numerical protection. (April/may 2018)
• The numerical relay relies on one system for all approach and use indication
on LCD for relay activation, ensuring less space.
• Since the numerical relay system relies on software, customized modifications
can be made for getting the desired protection features. This saves the cost of
replacing hardware. Fewer interconnections ensure reliability.
• The range of operation of traditional models is narrow while numerical relays
are diverse and evolution adaptable.
• It also has the feature of auto resetting and self-diagnosis.
• The benefit of using microprocessor based relays in the numerical system is
that it gives minimum burden on the instrument transformers. The sensitivity
of the system is pretty nifty and boasts a high pickup ratio.
UNIT V CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
Part A
i) Air break circuit breaker, ii)Oil circuit breaker, iii)Air blast circuit
breaker iv)SF6 circuit breaker, and v)Vacuum circuit breaker
44. What is meant by auto reclosing? (Nov/Dec 2013) (May/June 2016)
In electric power distribution, an auto recloser is a circuit breaker equipped with a
mechanism that can automatically close the breaker after it has been opened due to a
fault.
45. Write the function of isolating switch. (Nov/Dec 2013) (May/June 2016)
A disconnector, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure that an
electrical circuit is completely de-energised for service or maintenance. The
disconnector is usually not intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for
safety isolation. Disconnector can be operated either manually or automatically
(motorized disconnector).
46. Mention any two advantages of vacuum circuit breakers.(Nov/Dec 2014)
i) They are compact in size and have longer life. ii) There are no fire hazards.iii) No
generation of gas during and after operation. iv)They require less maintenance and
quiet in operation. v) They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
47. Why current chopping is not required in MOCB?
MOCB has superior arc quenching properties when compared to air blast circuit
breakers due to the cooling oil and hence there is no special mechanism required for
current chopping.
48. How does a circuit breaker differ from a switch? (Nov/Dec 2015) (May/June
2016)
Switches are not automatic as they need to be manually turned on or off while circuit
breakers just trips off on certain conditions. Switches allow users to cut off power
supply to a certain area or equipment while circuit breakers are more preventive in
nature. Circuit breakers are essentially automatic off switches designed for a very
specific purpose, which is to prevent unnecessary electrical circuit damage.
49. Name the materials used for contacts of vacuum circuit breakers. (Nov/Dec
2015)
Compounds of copper and Chromium are used most widely for making the contacts
of circuit breakers.
50. What is the difference between re-striking voltage and recovery voltage?
(Nov/Dec 2016)
Re-striking voltage: It is the transient voltage appearing across the breaker contacts at
the instant of arc being extinguished. Recovery voltage: The power frequency RMS
voltage appearing across the breaker contacts after the arc is extinguished and
transient oscillations die out is called recovery voltage.
51. State the difference between D.C. and A.C. circuit breaking. (Nov/Dec 2016)
DC circuit breaker, like their name suggests, is used for the protection of electrical
devices that operate with direct current. The main difference between direct current
and alternating current is that in DC the voltage output is constant, while in AC it
cycles several times per second.
52. What is rupturing Capacity? (May/June 2017)
Rupturing capacity is the current that a fuse, circuit breaker, or other electrical
apparatus is able to interrupt without being destroyed or causing an electric arc with
unacceptable duration. The prospective short-circuit current which can occur
under short circuit conditions should not exceed the rated breaking capacity of the
apparatus. This theory states that the rate at which positive ions and electrons
recombine to form neutral molecules is compared with rate of rise of restriking
voltage and if the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength,
gap space breaks down and arc strikes again persists.
53. What are the factors responsible for increase in arc resistance? (April/may
2018)
The arc resistance increases
• When ionized particle between contact decreases.
• As the separation between contact increases and length of the arc also increases
• With decrease in cross section area of the arc
54. A circuit breaker is rated as 1500A, 1000MVA, 3second, 3 phase oil circuit
breaker . Find the rated making current. (April/may 2018)
Given:
Breaking capacity= 1000MVA; Breaking current =
1500A; Soln:
Making current = 2.55*breaking current=2.55*1500=3825A.
55. Why rate of rise of restriking voltage plays an important role in circuit
breaker operation? (Nov/Dec 2018)
The rate of rise of restriking voltage denotes the rate at which transient voltage
increases or decreases. This factor plays an important role in circuit breaker
operation since it decides the interruption of current by the circuit breaker. Transient
recovery voltage depends upon natural frequency and power factor.
56. Why oil circuit breakers are not suitable for heavy current interruption at
low voltages? (Nov/Dec 2018)
Oil circuit breakers cannot be used for heavy current interruption because high
current causes arc which produces flammability of oil. Thus it requires high
maintenance.
EE8691 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
18. Why embedded systems are suitable for real time systems? (MAY 2015)
Real-time systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an external
environment. This environment is connected to the computer system through sensors,
actuators, and other input-output interfaces. It may consist of physical or biological objects of
any form and structure
19. List the major embedded computer applications. (MAY 2015)
Space research, Defence, satellite communication, mobile, Automotive, Smart card
system.
20.What is the need of Watchdog timer?(MAY 2016) (DEC 2017)
A watchdog timer resets the microprocessor and starts the software over from the beginning
if the software does not restart it periodically. It is used to rescue the system if a fault
develops and the program gets stuck.
21. List out the challenges in building an embedded system.(MAY 2016) (DEC 2016)
We have a great deal of control over the amount of computing power we apply to our
problem. We cannot only select the type of microprocessor used, but also select the amount
of memory, the peripheral devices, and more. Since we often must meet both performance
deadlines and manufacturing cost constraints ,the choice of hardware is important—too little
hardware and the system fails to meet its deadlines, too much hardware and it becomes too
expensive to meet deadlines,minimize power consumption, design for upgradability,
Complex testing,Limitedobservability and controllability, Restricted development
environments.
22. Write the function of One time device programmer?
A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or field programmable read-only
memory (FPROM) or one-time programmable non-volatile memory (OTP NVM) is a form
of digital memory where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse. They are a
type of ROM (read-only memory) meaning the data in them is permanent and cannot be
changed. PROMs are used in digital electronic devices to store permanent data, usually low
level programs such as firmware (microcode). The key difference from a standard ROM is
that the data is written into a ROM during manufacture, while with a PROM the data is
programmed into them after manufacture. So ROMs are used only for large production runs,
while PROMs are used for smaller production where the program may have to be changed.
23. How embedded systems are different from conventional PC? (Dec 2014)
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function within a larger
mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time computing constraints. It
is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts.
Embedded systems control many devices in commonly used today.
24. What is the need of a watch dog timer? (Dec 2017)
A watchdog timer (WDT) is a hardware timer that automatically generates asystem reset
if themain program neglects to periodically service it. It is often used to automatically
reset an embedded device that hangs because of a software or hardware fault.
25.Define Cyclic & Acyclic mode of operation in counter.
Cyclic Mode: Once the counter reaches the done state, it is automatically reloaded and
counting process continues.
Acyclic Mode: The counter/Timer waits for an explicit signal from the microprocessor to
resume counting.
26.What are the functional requirements of embedded systems? (MAY2018)
Functional requirements are those which are related to the technical functionalityof the
system.
27.What are the parameters to be considered for selecting memory devices for
embedded systems? (MAY 2015)
Program information are the instructions i.e. Opcodes that are to be executed by the
processor. Generally they are stored in a non-volatile memory that is mapped directly to the
address space of the processor. Or they might be stored in external memories (say as files in a
partition) and loaded on to a volatile memory just prior to execution of the program.
Data memory can be used to store primarily two kind of information. One is relating to the
intermediate data being processed- for e.g. a variable storing a value during course of
execution of an algorithm or a Process Control Block in an OS etc. The other is the Stack
which is used by the processor to store its return functions and local variables. In either case
the memory type is volatile.
28. List the characteristics of an embedded system? (MAY2017), (MAY2018)
1. Real time and multi rate operations
2. Complex Algorithms
3. Complex graphic user interface (GUIs) and other user interfaces
4. Dedicated fuctions.
29. What are the steps involved in build process?(DEC 2016) (MAY2017)
Building embedded system can be focused into two technical perspective such as (i)
Software Perspective (ii) Hardware Perspective
(i) Software Perpective
a. Processor begins executing at the reset vector. The initial program loader (IPL)
locates the OS image and transfers control to the startup program in the image.
b. Startup program configures the system and transfer control to the microkernel and
process manager.
c. The procnto module loads additional drivers and application Programs.
(ii) Hardwar Perpective
a. Processor
b. Source of initialization and configuration info
c. Strage media
d. Input devices.
6. What is CSMA/AMP?
• CSMA/AMP: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Arbitration on Message Priority
• A node stops transmitting on sensing a dominant bit (0), which indicates that another node is
transmitting.
7. Differentiate hardware and software interrupt.
When a device port is ready, a device or port generates an interrupt or when it completes the
assigned action it generates an interrupt. These interrupts are called hardware interrupts.
When software runtime exception condition is detected, either processor hardware or a
software instruction SWI generates an interrupt for exception. An SWI instruction INT n in
80X86.
8. Explain the sequence of steps to be followed when an interrupt event occurred.
CPU on interrupt event may initiate a further action by vectoring to a vector address and
calling an ISR or else it continues with current process if the interrupt is masked or disabled.
9. Give the limitations of Polling Technique. (MAY2018)
When using polling there is a greater chance of missing the events , and also the chances of
two or more events may be triggered at the same time for execution and there is a possibility
of the same event being executed again and again.
10. Define a device decoder.
A circuit to take the system address bus signals as the as the input and generate a device
select signals, CS for the port address selection during the device read or write instruction of
the system processor.
11. Name the device drivers classification.
1.Block device drivers 2. Character device drivers 3. Network device drivers.
12. What is a Block device driver?
This is a driver that is well suited for block device, which.transfer data in blocks, like for
example, disk drivers. Such I//O device have block sized buffers as part of the buffer cache
in memory.
13. What are some real world applications of CAN?
Controller Area Networks are used in many different fields, the bulk of which are
• Auto-motive industry
• Factory Automation
• Machine Control
• Medical Equipment and devices,etc
14. List out the different standard versions for CAN.
• Low speed CAN – 125 Kbps -11 bit identifier
• Standard CAN 2.0A – 1Mbps -11 bit identifier
• External CAN 2.0B – 1Mbps – 29 bit identifier
15. Define PISO and SIPO.
PISO: A shift register for a parallel input and serial output. It is used for serial bit reception
in synchronous mode.
SIPO: A shift registers for serial input and parallel output. It is used for serial bit
transmission in synchronous mode.
16. Justify why embedded system design is so complex.
Design Requirements:Embedded computers typically have tight constraints on both
functionality and implementation. In particular, they must guarantee real time operation
reactive to external events, conform to size and weight limits, budget power and cooling
consumption, satisfy safety and reliability requirements, and meet tight cost targets.Real
time/reactive operation, Small size, low weight, Safe and reliable, Harsh environment, Cost
sensitivity, System-level requirements, Controlling physical systems, Power management.
17. What is I2C?
The I2C module provides an interface between the TCI648x/C6472 device and other devices
compliant with the I2C-bus specification and connected by way of an I2C-bus. External
components attached to this 2-wire serial bus can transmit and receive up to 8-bit wide data
to and from the device through the I2C module.
I²C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) is a multi-master, multi-slave, single-ended, serial computer
bus invented by Philips Semiconductor, known today as NXP Semiconductors, used for
attaching low-speed peripherals to computermotherboards and embedded systems.
18. What is USB? Where it is used?( MAY 2015) (DEC 2014)
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines
the cables, connectors and communications protocols used in a bus for connection,
communication, and power supply between computers and electronic devices. Short
for Universal Serial Bus, USB is a standard that was introduced
in 1995 by Intel, Compaq,Microsoft and other computer companies.USB 1.x is an
external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps and is capable of
supporting up to 127 peripheral devices.
19. Why device drivers are necessary for interfacing a device with processor? (DEC
2014)
In computing, a device driver (commonly referred to as a driver) is a computer program that
operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver
provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other
computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details of
the hardware being used. A driver typically communicates with the device through
the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a
calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device.
Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original
calling program. Drivers are hardware-dependent and operating-system-specific.
20. How SPI is differed from other serial interfaces?(MAY 2016)
SPI(Synchronous Peripheral Interface) is a serial bus for interconnecting ICS.
• It has a full duplex communication and addressing for each slave device is not needed.
• It allows 8 bit to transmit and receive and it supports full master mode and slave mode.
21.What is the need for Device Driver.(MAY 2016) (DEC 2016)
A device driver is software for controlling, receiving and sending byte or a stream of bytes
from or to a device.Eg.USB device driver program to communicate with PC.
22. What are the two actions take place in an SPI clock cycle?
• The master sends a bit on the MOSI line which the slave reads from the same line.
• The slave sends a bit on the MISO line and the master reads it from that same line.
23. How do we classify I/O devices? (Dec 2017)
I/O devices are of three types namely sensory input, control output and data transfer devices
24. Draw the framework of I2C Bus? (Dec 2017).
22. Draw the system components in the smart card. (May 2017)
23. What are the basic requirement while designing an embedded system ? (Dec 2017)
The basic requirements while designing the embedded system are hardware architecture,
suitable software and proper signal processing.
EE8002- DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
UNIT-I DESIGN OF FIELD SYSTEM AND ARMATURE
PART-A
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design
1. What is design? What are the conditions for an optimum design?
Design may be defined as the creative physical realization of theoretical concepts.
Engineering design is the application of science, technology and invention to produce
machines to perform the specified task with optimum economy and efficiency.
A design is said to be optimum when the following conditions are satisfied:
• Minimum loss (or) Maximum efficiency
• Minimum cost
• Minimum volume
• Minimum weight
2. Mention the different circuits available in a machine.
• Magnetic circuit
• Electric circuit
• Dielectric circuit
• Thermal circuit
• Mechanical parts
3. What are the major design considerations? (M’13, Dec 2015 & May 2018)
The major considerations to evolve a good design are:
• Cost: Low initial cost and reasonable operating cost.
• Durability: Quality of lasting for a long time
• Compliance:Suffering with performance criteria as laid down in the specifications.
• Weight: Lower
4. What are the limitations in design?
• Saturation
• Temperature rise
• Stress on insulation
• Efficiency
• Mechanical precision of air gap
• Commutation
• Power factor
• Specifications
• Stress & strain on rotating parts and bearings.
5. What are the major design factors?
The major design factors of electrical machines are as follows
Magnetic circuit or the flux path:
Should establish required amount of flux using minimum MMF. The core losses
should be less.
Electric circuit or windings:
Should ensure required EMF is induced with no complexity in winding arrangement.
The copper losses should be less.
Insulation:
Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts operating at different
potential and confine the current in the prescribed paths.
Cooling system or ventilation:
Should ensure that machine operates at the specified temperature.
Machine parts: Should be robust.
Materials for Electrical apparatus
6. What are the different conducting materials used in rotating machines?
(D’18)
The most common conducting materials used in rotating machines are
Copper – usually used in windings of electric machines
Aluminum – substitute for copper due to low cost - Armature and field winding
Iron and Steel- Pole core and Armature core
Alloys of copper – Bronze – brush holders, commutator segment, cage windings
Copper silver alloy - bearings.
7. Mention the requirements of highly conducting materials.
• Highest possible conductivity (least resistivity)
• Least possible temperature coefficient of resistance
• Adequate mechanical strength, in particular, high tensile strength and degree of
flexibility (absence of brittleness)
• Rollability and drawability
• Good weldability and solderability
• Adequate resistance to corrosion
8. What is a soft magnetic material?
Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. These materials are
used for making temporary magnets. Soft magnetic materials with narrow hysteresis
loop are called soft magnetic material.
9. What are the causes of failure of insulation?
a. Weak points in the insulator b. Effect of aging and mechanical fatigue
c. Mica migration d. Tracking.
10. List out the classification of the resistivity materials.
Resistivity materials are classified as Nickel, Sliver, and Iron.
• The first group consists of materials used in precision measuring instruments and in
making standard resistances boxes.
• The second group consists of materials from which resistance elements are made for
all kinds of rheostats and similar control devices.
• The third group consists of materials suitable for making high temperature elements
for electric furnaces, heating devices and loading rheostats.
11. What are the different types of magnetic materials according to their degree
of magnetism? (May 2011, Dec 2011 & May 2014)
Magnetic materials are classified in to three groups as:
Ferromagnetic materials
Relative permeability (µr) >1
Values depend upon the magnetizing force
Paramagnetic materials
Relative permeability (µr) is only slightly greater than unity.
The value of susceptibility is positive for these materials
Diamagnetic materials
Relative permeability (µr) is only slightly less than unity.
• In paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, the values of permeability is independent
of the magnetizing forces
12. What are the electrical properties of insulating materials? (M’17,’19)
• High dielectric strength, sustained at elevated temperature.
• High resistivity or specific resistance.
• Low dielectric hysteresis.
• Good thermal conductivity.
• High degree of thermal stability i.e., it should not deteriorate at high temperature.
• Ability to withstand moisture, chemical attack, heat and other conditions of proposed
service.
Design of Magnetic circuits – Magnetising current – Flux leakage – Leakage in
Armature.
13. What is a magnetic circuit? How is the mmf of a magnetic circuit
determined?
The magnetic circuit is the path of magnetic flux. The mmf of the circuit creates flux
in the path against the reluctance of the path. The equation which relates flux, mmf
and reluctance is given by,
mmf
Flux =
Re luc tan ce
The mmf of a magnetic circuit determined is determined as follows:
• The magnetic circuit is split into convenient parts (section) which may be
connected in series or parallel. Then the reluctance, flux density and mmf for every
section of the magnetic circuit is estimated.
• The summation of mmf for all section in series gives the total mmf for the magnetic
circuit.
14. What are the constituents of magnetic circuits of DC Machine? (D’18)
• The various elements in the flux path of salient pole machine are poles, pole shoes,
air gap, armature teeth, armature core and yoke.
• The various elements in the flux path of non- salient pole machines are: Stator core,
Stator teeth, Air gap, Rotor teeth and Rotor core.
15. Write any two similarities & difference between magnetic and electric
circuits.
Similarities:
• In an electric circuit, the emf circulates current in a closed path, similarity in a
magnetic circuit, the mmf creates flux in a closed path.
• In electric circuit the flow of current is opposed by resistance of the circuit.
Similarity in a magnetic circuit the creation of flux is opposed by reluctance of the
circuit.
Differences:
• When the current flows in a circuit the energy is spent continuously, whereas in
magnetic circuit the energy is needed only to create the flux but not to maintain it.
• Current actually flows in a magnetic circuit, whereas the flux does not flow in a
magnetic circuit but it is only assumed to flow.
16. What is meant by magnetic circuit calculation?
Magnetic circuit calculation involves two types of problems as follows:
• It is required to determine the mmf needed to establish a desired flux at a given
point in a magnetic circuit.
• The flux or flux density is unknown and is required to be determined for a given
geometry of the magnetic circuit and specified mmf.
The magnetic circuit is split up into convenient parts which may be connected
in series or parallel. The flux density is calculated in every part and mmf per unit
length, ‘at’ is found by consulting B-at curves. The calculations of mmf in the
magnetic parts are simple whereas in case of air gap and tapered teeth, the
calculations are complex.
17. Write ohm’s law for magnetic circuit.
The equation relating mmf, flux and reluctance of a magnetic circuit can be called
ohm’s law of magnetic circuit. The ohm’s law of magnetic circuit can be stated as
follows:
The mmf of a magnetic circuit is directly proportional to flux established in it
provided no part of the magnetic circuit is saturated. The constant of
proportionality is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.,i.e., mmf α flux, mmf=flux
x reluctance
18. What is importance of magnetizing current?
The total mmf required for an electric machine for excitation of winding is
decided by the magnetizing current. The value of exciting or magnetizing current
depends upon the total mmf required, the no. of turns in the exciting current and
upon the way in which the winding is distributed.
19. How is the magnetic curve made use of in the design of electrical
machines? (or) For magnetic circuit calculations, B-at curves are generally
used. Why?
The magnetization curve is a graph showing the relation between the magnetic
field intensity (H) and the flux density (B) of magnetic material. It is used to
estimate the mmf required for flux path in the magnetic material and it is supplied
by the manufactures of stampings or laminations.
In electrical machine design the magnetization curve is used to determine the mmf
per metre of magnetic path in any part of the machine. First the flux density in any
part of the machine is calculated and then for this value of flux density (B) the
value of mmf per metre (at) is determined from magnetism curve (B-at curve).
20. List the various steps involved in the estimation of mmf for a section of
magnetic circuit.
The various steps in the estimation of mmf for a section of magnetic circuit are:
• Determine the flux in the concerned section.
• Calculate the area of cross section of the section.
• Calculate the flux density in the section.
• From B-at curve of the magnetic material, determine the mmf per metre (at) for
the calculate flux density.
• The mmf of the section is given by the product of length of the section and mmf
per metre
21. Define gap contraction factor for slots & ducts.
The gap contraction factor for slots (Kgs) is defined as the ratio of reluctance of air-
gap in machines with slotted armature to the reluctance of air-gap in machines with
smooth armature.
Reluctance of air gap in machines with slotted armature
K gs =
Reluctance of air gap in machines with smooth armature
The gap contraction factor for ducts (Kgd) is defined as the ratio of reluctance of
air-gap in machines with ducts to the reluctance of air-gap in machines without
ducts.
Reluctance of air gap in machines with ducts
K gd =
Reluctance of air gap in machines without ducts
22. Define total gap contraction factor.
The total gap contraction factor (Kg) is defined as the ratio of reluctance of air-gap
in machines with slotted armature & ducts to the reluctance of air-gap in machines
with smooth armature & without ducts.
Reluctance of air gap in machines with slotted armature & ducts
Kg =
Reluctance of air gap in machines with smooth armature & ducts
The total gap contraction factor is equal to the product of gap contraction factor for
slots and ducts.
23. What is carter’s coefficient? Write down the carter’s coefficient of d.c.
machine. (N/D’15, M’19)
• The carter’s coefficient is a parameter that can be used to estimate the contracted or
effective slot pitch in case of armatures with open or semi enclosed slots. It is a
function of the ratio of w0 / lg where w0 is slot opening and lg is air-gap length. The
carter’s coefficient is also used to estimate the effective length of armature when
ducts are employed. In this case it will be a function of wd / lg .-where wd is width
of the ducts and lg is air-gap length.
• In electrical machine design the carter’s coefficient is used to estimate the air-gap
expansion (or contraction) factor for slots and ducts
24. Write down the importance of gap contraction factor for slots and ducts in
the design of magnetic circuits.
• The slots and ducts in the armature (or stator & rotor) of electrical machine
increases the reluctance of air gap, which in turn increases the mmf required for
air-gap. The gap contraction factor represents the increase in air-gap length.
• Hence with the knowledge of gap contraction factor the mmf required for air-gap
can be estimated without calculating the increase in reluctance due to slots & ducts.
25. Write the expression for gap contraction factor for slots and ducts.
ys
Gap contractio n factor for slots, K gs =
y s − K csWs
ys
Gap contractio n factor for ducts, K gd =
L − K cd nd Wd
Where,
ys =Slot pitch, Ws = Width of slots ,Kcs =Carter's coefficient for slots
L - Length of armature, Kcd =Carter's coefficient for ducts, nd =Number of ducts,
Wd =Width of each duct
26. Write the expression for reluctance of air gap in machines with smooth
armature and slotted armature.
Reluctance of air gap in machines with smooth armature is given by,
lg
Rg =
0 Ly s
Reluctance of air gap in machines with slotted armature is given by,
lg
Rg =
0 L ( y s − Ws )
Where,
ys =Slot pitch, L - Length of armature, Ws = Width of slots
lg= length of the air gap.
27. Define copper space factor of a coil. (M/J’15, A/M’19).
Copper space factor (Sf) of coil is defined as the ratio of conductor area and the
area of cross section of the coil.
Copper Sf = Conductor area/ Area of cross section of the coil
Where, conductor area= Number of turns X Area of cross section of the coil
28. Define field form factor. (M/J’12) (N/D’16)
Field form factor is defined as the ratio of average gap density over the pole pitch
to maximum flux density in the air-gap.
Bav
Field form factor , K f =
Bg
Choice of specific loadings – Design of squirrel cage rotor and slip ring rotor
9. List the factors to be considered for the choice of specific magnetic loading.
The choice of specific magnetic loading depends on:
• Power factor – With large values of Bav results in magnetizing current will be high,
which results in poor power factor
• Iron loss - With large values of Bav increased iron loss and decreased efficiency
• Over load capacity
• With large values of Bav provides, large values of flux per pole, the turns per phase
will be less and so the leakage reactance will be less. Lower value of leakage
reactance results in higher overload capacity
10. What are the factors to be considered for the choice of specific electric loading?
The choice of specific electric loading depends on:
• Copper loss
• Temperature rise- Large values of ac results in higher copper losses and higher
temperature rise
• Voltage rating –Machine with high voltage rating smaller values of ac should be
preferred. Since for high voltage machines the space required for insulation is large.
• Over load capacity- For high overload capacity lower values of ac should be
selected
11. Comment on the selection of values of overload capacity of induction motor. What
is its impact if the “ac” value is higher?
A large value of ampere conductors would result in large number of turns per phase.
This would mean that, the leakage reactance of the machine becomes high and the
diameter of the circle diagram is reduced resulting in reduced value of overload
capacity. Therefore higher the values of a.c, lower would be the overload capacity.
Hence the value of ampere conductors per metre depends upon the size of the motor,
voltage of stator winding, type of ventilation and the overload capacity desired. It
varies between 5000 to 45000 ampere conductors per meter
12. Mention the factors to be considered for the choice of number of slots of an
induction machine. (May 2015)
The factors to be considered for choice of number of slots of an induction machine
are
• Slot loading- slot loading should not exceed 750 amp. conductor
• Slot pitch - The slot pitch should lie between 15mm and 25mm
• Type of winding
➢ For integral slot winding the stator slots should be a multiple number of
slots per pole per phase.
➢ For double layer winding, the conductors per slot should be even.
Harmonic torque- Certain combinations of stator and rotor slots give rise to
harmonic torques which results in crawling and cogging. To avoid these
undesirable effects the difference between stator and rotor slots should not be
equal
13. List the factors to be considered for estimating the length of air gap in induction
motor.
The following factors are to be considered for estimating the length of air-gap:
• Power factor
• Overload capacity
• Pulsation loss
• Unbalanced magnetic pull
• Cooling
14. What happens when the air-gap of an induction motor is doubled?(D’16)
(i)If the air gap of an induction motor is doubled then the mmf and magnetizing
current approximately doubles. Because in induction motor the air gap requires large
mmf when compared to rest of the magnetic circuit.
(ii)Also the increase in air gap length increases the overload capacity, offers better
cooling, reduces noise and reduces unbalanced magnetic pull.
15. Give the different formulas for calculating the length of air gap in induction
motors.
• For small induction motor,
lg = 0.2 + 2 DLmm
• Alternate formula for small induction motor
lg = 0.125 + 0.35D + L + 0.015Va mm
• Alternate formula to use
lg = 0.2 + Dmm
• For machines with journal bearings
lg = 1.6 D − 0.25mm
Where, D, L – main dimensions expressed in metre
Va= peripheral speed in metre per second.
16. Give the reasons for the rise of imbalanced magnetic pull in induction motors.
The design of frames has special significance in the case of induction motor of large
dimensions on account of the relatively small air gaps used in these machines. For
induction motors, the frame should be strong and rigid both during the construction
and after assembly of the machine. This is because the length of air gap is very small
and if the frame is not rigid, the rotor will not remain concentric with stator giving
rise to imbalanced magnetic pull
17. Write down the rules for selecting rotor slots of an squirrel cage IM.
(May/June16) (Nov/Dec15)
The following general rules should be concerning the choice of rotor slots for
squirrel cage machines
• The number of rotor slots should never be equal to the stator slots, but it must be
either smaller or larger.
• The difference between stator and rotor slots should not be equal to 3p to avoid
synchronous cusps.
• The difference between the number of stator and rotor slots should not be equal to
3p for 3 phase machines in order to avoid magnetic locking.
• The difference between number of stator slots and rotor slots should not be equal to
1.2, (p+1) or (p+2) to avoid noise and vibrations
18.Where is mush winding used? (or) Where is basket winding used in Induction
motors? (May15)
The mush windings are used in small induction motors of ratings less than 5 HP
having circular conductors. This is a single layer winding where all the coils have the
same coil span (unlike concentric winding where the coils have different span). For
small induction motors of the slip ring type, it is normal practice to use mush
windings for rotor housed in semi closed slots. The coils are roughly formed outside
the machine and dropped one by one, into the previously insulated slots.
For large motors, a double layer bar type wave winding is used. This winding
has generally two bars per slot. The bars are pushed through partially closed slots and
are bent to shape at the other end.
19. Show a relation between D and L for best power factor. (May 2016)
Foir best power fator the relation between D and L is as follows:
τ = 0.18 L
where τ- pole pitch, L=Length of stator core.
20. What are the factors to be considered for selecting the number of slots in
induction machine stator? (May 2012)(Dec 2017)
The factors to be considered for selecting the number of slots is tooth pulsation loss,
leakage reactance, magnetizing current, iron loss and cost. Also, the number of slots
should be multiple of slots per pole per phase for integral slot winding.
21.Why rotor slots are skewed?
i.) To reduce noise and vibrations, ii.) To avoid tendency of cogging, iii.) To reduce
torque defects
22. What are the effects of increased air gap?
i.) Increased magnetizing comment,
ii.) Reduced PF,
iii.) Improved cooling,
iv.) Reduced noise.
23.How can crawling be prevented by design in an induction motor? (M’14)
Crawling is a phenomenon in which the induction motor cannot accelerate
upon its full speed but continues to run at a speed lesser than sub synchronous speed.
This action is due to the fact that, flux wave produced by a stator winding is not
purely sinusoidal. Instead, it is a complex wave consisting of a fundamental wave
and odd harmonics like 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Slotting produces harmonics of the order
6Aq± 1 in a three-phase machine, where A is any integer. Therefore, to prevent
crawling, it is necessary to avoid the values of rotor slots exceeding stator slots by
about 15-30%.
24. What is meant by cogging? (or) Why in an induction motor, the number of stator
slots should never be equal to the number of rotor slots? (Dec 2018)
When the number of rotor slots is equal to the number of stator slots, the speeds of all
the harmonics produced by the stator slotting, coincides with the speed of
corresponding rotor harmonics. Thus, the harmonics of every order would try to exert
synchronous torques at their corresponding synchronous speeds and the machine
would refuse to start. This is known as cogging. Therefore, the number of stator slots
should never be equal to the number of rotor slots in an induction motor.
25. What happen if the airgap length of Induction Motor is doubled? (M’18)
• The permeability of the magnetic circuit rotor-to-stator will decrease.
• The magnetizing inductance of the motor thus decreases.
• The magnetizing current will increase. This will cause a poorer power factor at all
loads.
• The magnetic flux in the air gap will decrease and leakage fluxes will increase. This
will cause a reduction in the maximum available torque.
26. What is unbalanced magnetic pull in Induction Motor? (Dec 2017)
A net radial force created due to change in position of the rotor at this unstable point
pulls the rotor further out of alignment; this force is known as unbalanced magnetic
pull (UMP).
27. Write down the rules for selecting rotor slots of squirrel cage induction motor.
(Dec 2015 & May 2017)
➢ S1 S2 to avoid cogging
➢ S1-S2 +p, +2p,+5p to avoid crawling
➢ S1-S2 +1,+2 or +(p+1), +(p+2) to avoid noise and vibration
➢ S1-S2 +3p to avoid magnetic locking 1 2
➢ Generally, rotor slots are selected by q1 − q 2 = 1, ,
3 3
➢ Number of rotor slots, S2=3q2p.
Where, q1- stator slots per pole per phase
q2- rotor slots per pole per phase
28. List the advantages of using open slots. (Dec 2014 & Dec2016)
• When open slots are used, winding coils can be formed and insulated completely
before they are inserted into the slots. Also the windings are reasonably accessible,
when individual coils must be replaced or serviced in the field.
• On the other hand the coil must be taped and insulated after they are placed in the
slots for machines with semi enclosed slots.
• Open slots are used where it is desired to complete the coils outside the armature and
drop them into the slots.
The use of open slots avoids excessive slot leakage, thereby reducing the leakage
reactance.
29. How are slip rings made in an induction motor?
• The slip rings are made of either brass or phosphor bronze. They may be pressed
together on a body of reinforced thermo-setting resin carried on a mild steel hub. The
slip rings are located either between the core and the bearing or on the shaft
extension.
• In the latter case the shaft is made hollow to allow the three connections from rotor to
slip rings to pass through bearings.
Magnetic leakage calculations – Operating characteristics : Magnetizing current -
Short circuit current
30. Define dispersion coefficient of an induction motor.
The dispersion coefficient is defined as the ratio of magnetizing current to
ideal short circuit current.
Dispersion coefficient, σ =Im/Isci
Where,
Im -Magnetizing current
Isci -Ideal short circuit current, Isci= Es/Xs
Es= stator phase voltage
Xs= total leakage reactance of the motor referred to stator
31. List the factors that are affected by change in the value of dispersion coefficient in
induction motors.
The dispersion coefficient has its effect on the following factors in an induction
motor.
• Maximum Power factor
• Overload capacity
• Air gap length
• Number of poles and Frequency
32. List the components of no load current.
The no load current I0 of an induction motor is made up of two components. They
are:
• Magnetizing current( Im ) and
• Loss component of current (Il)
The magnetizing current is 900 out of phase with voltage while the loss component is
in phase with the voltage.
33. How is the loss component calculated in an induction machine?
The calculation of loss component of no load current involves the determination of
no load loss.
Iron loss consists of
• hysteresis and eddy current loss in teeth and cores,
• surface loss in teeth due to variation of air gap density,
• tooth pulsation loss due to variation of teeth density
• Friction and windage loss
34. What is meant by Ideal short circuit current? (May 2015)
The two major factors which influence the power factor of an induction motor are:
• Magnetizing current and
• Ideal short circuit current
Ideal short circuit current is defined as the current drawn by the motor at standstill if
its resistance is neglected. If the ideal short circuit current of a machine is large it
indicates that its leakage reactance is small. A small value of leakage reactance
means that the power factor of the machine is good. Thus a large value of short
circuit current (a small value of leakage reactance) indicates a good power factor
35. Where do the additional copper losses occur in induction motors? How can you
reduce it?
With a sinusoidal voltage impressed across the terminals of the motor, the additional
copper losses are due to, higher order harmonics and due to skin effect. These
additional losses owing to, higher order harmonics, occur mainly in the windings of
squirrel cage rotor.
Additional copper losses may be reduced by
✓ Chording the stator winding
✓ Skewing the rotor
✓ Having a proper slot combination
Advantages: A large gap length results in higher overload capacity better cooling,
reduction in noise and reduction in unbalanced magnetic pull.
Disadvantage: High valve of magnetizing current.
36. What are the factors to be considered for selecting the number of slots in
induction machine stator? (May 2012)(Dec 2017)
The factors to be considered for selecting the number of slots is tooth pulsation loss,
leakage reactance, magnetizing current, iron loss and cost. Also the number of
slots should be multiple of slots per pole per phase for integral slot winding.
37. Why fractional slot winding is not used for induction motor? (Dec 2014)
Fractional slot winding creates non uniform flux density distribution in air gap and it
leads to torque ripples.
38. What are ranges of efficiency and power factor in induction motor? (May 2017)
Squirrel cage motors
Efficiency=0.72 to 0.91
Power factor= 0.66 to 0.9
Slip ring motors
Efficiency=0.84 to 0.91
Power factor= 0.7 to 0.92
39. Name the losses that occur in 3phase Induction Motor? (May 2018)
• Core loss in the stator and the rotor.
• Stator and rotor chopper losses.
• Friction and windage loss.
UNIT – V DESIGN OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
PART A
Output equations – choice of specific loadings – Design of salient pole machines
1. Give the output equation.
Q = (11 Bav ac Kw x 10-3) D2 ns
Where, Bav = Specific Magnetic loading;
ac= Specific electric loading
Kw= Winding factor;
D= Diameter of stator L= length
2. Name the two types of synchronous machines.
Based on the construction the synchronous machines are classified as,
• Salient pole machines
• Cylindrical rotor machines
3. What is run away speed of Synchronous Machine?(M’11, ‘12, D’13’17’18)
Speed at which the prime mover would have if suddenly unloaded when working at
its rated load is known as runaway speed.
4. List the disadvantages of high Bav.
i. Higher losses and temperature rise
ii. Reduced efficiency
iii. increased transient short circuit.
5. What is critical speed of alternator?
When the rotor of the alternator has an eccentricity, it may have a deflection while
rotating. This deflection will be maximum at a speed called critical speed.
When a rotor with eccentricity pass through critical speed, severe vibrations are
developed
6. Why alternators are rated in kVA? (May-2015)
The kVA rating of ac machine depends on power factor of load. The power
factor in turn depends on the operating conditions. The operating conditions differ
from place to place. Therefore the kVA rating is specified for all machines
7. How is cylindrical pole different from salient pole in a synchronous machine?
(May 2015, Dec 2018)
i.) Cylindrical pole are non-projecting pole whereas the salient pole machines are
projecting pole.
ii.) Cylindrical rotor construction is used for turbo alternators which are driven by
high speed steam or gas turbines whereas the salient pole construction is used for
generators driven by hydraulic turbine since these turbines operate at relatively low
speeds.
8.What are the factors to be considered for the choice of specific
magnetic loading in synchronous machines?(M’16, Dec-2015,May 2019)
• Iron loss
• Stability
• Voltage rating
• Parallel operation
• Transient short circuit current
9. What are the factors to be considered for the choice of specific electric loading
in synchronous machines?
• Copper loss
• Synchronous reactance
• Temperature rise
• Stray load losses
• Voltage rating
10. State the factors for separation of D and L for cylindrical rotor machine. (D’16)
The separation of D and L in cylindrical rotor machine depends on the following
factors.
• Peripheral speed
• Number of poles.
• Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)
Short circuit ratio – Estimation of air gap length –Design of damper winding
11. Define SCR of a Synchronous machine. (May 2013, May 2014, May 2016 &
Dec 2015, May 2019)
The SCR is defined as the ratio of field current required to produce rated voltage on
open circuit to field current required to calculate rated current at short circuit.
12.What are the effects of SCR on machine performance? (May 2017)
For high stability and low regulation, the value of SCR should be high, which
requires large airgap. When the length of airgap is large, the mmf requirement will
be high and so the field system will be large. Hence the machine will be costlier.
13. What are the advantages of large airgap in synchronous machines?
• Reduction in armature reaction
• Better cooling
• Small value of regulation
• Lower tooth pulsation loss
• Higher value of stability
• Less noise
• Smaller unbalanced magnetic pull
14. List the influence of airgap on the performance of the synchronous machine.
(Dec-2013)
The synchronous machines usually have large airgap. With increase in airgap
length the following factors decreases.
• Armature reaction
• Regulation
• Noise
• Tooth pulsation loss
• Unbalanced magnetic pull
• Sensitivity to load variation
15. What are advantages of low values of SCR?
i. Cost of control equipments is reduced
ii. Reduction in size of machines
iii. Reduction in overall cost of machines
16. What are the disadvantages of low value of SCR?
i.Poor stability limit
ii.Poor voltage regulation
iii.Unsatisfactory parallel operation
17. Give expression for armature ampere turns/ pole.
ATa =1.35 Tph . Iph. Kw / P
Tph = turns/phase; Iph = current/Phase : Kw = winding factor, P= Pair of poles.
18. How the value of SCR affects the design of alternator? (May 2012)
For high stability and low regulation the value of SCR should be high, which
requires larger airgap. When the length of airgap is large, the mmf requirement will
be high and so the field system will be large. Hence the machine will be costlier.
19. What is the limiting factor for the diameter of synchronous machines? (Dec
2013)
The limiting value of peripheral speed is 175 m / sec for cylindrical rotor machines
and 80 m/sec for salient pole machines.
20. Write the expression for air gap length in cylindrical rotor machine?
For smooth cylindrical rotor the air gap length,
lg = 0.5 (SCR) ac τ Kf x 10 -6 / Kg Bavg
where, SCR-short circuit ratio, ac- specific electric loading, τ- pole pitch,
Kf – form factor, Kg- gap contraction factor, Bavg- average flux density
21. What is the effect of high value of dispersion coefficient?
The effect of having high value of dispersion coefficient are as follows:
Poor power factor, Reduced over – load capacity, reduced output power.
22. Give the need for damper winding in synchronous machine? (M’11,18)
The primary function of damper winding in a synchronous machine is to prevent the
phenomenon called hunting. If load on a synchronous machine is changed suddenly,
its power angle has to change accordingly. However, change in power angle doesn't
occur smoothly. The rotor starts swinging around the new power angle
23. How the dimensions of induction generator differ from that of an induction
motor? (May 2015)
Dimensions of induction generator and induction motor are same. Energy conversion
process is reversible. Therefore, induction motor can operate as induction generator.
Design of rotor- Design of field winding – Armature design- Design of turbo
alternators
24. Mention the factors that govern the design of field in an alternator. (M’16)
i) No of poles and voltage across each field winding, ii) Ampere- turn per pole, iii)
Copper loss in the field winding, iv) Dissipating surface of field coil, v) Specific loss
dissipation and allowable temperature rise.
25. Mention the factors to be considered for the selection of number of armature
slots. (Dec 2014)
i. Balanced windings ii. Cost iii. Hot spot temperatures iv. Leakage reactance
v. Torque ripples vi. Flux density in iron.
26. Determine the total number of slots in the stator of alternator having 4poles,
3phase, 6 slots per pole for each phase? (Dec 2016)
Ss=3pqs, where p=4 poles, qs=6 ;Ss=3*4*6=72
27. State three important features of turbo alternator rotors. (M’17, D’17)
• The rotor of turbo alternators has large axial length and small diameters.
• Damping torque is provided by rotor itself and so there is no necessity for additional
damper winding.
• They are suitable for high speed operations and so number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
EE8005 - SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES
UNIT – I STEPPER MOTORS
PART - A
1. Define: Stepper motor?
Stepper motor is a motor which rotates step by step and not by continuous
rotation. When the stator is excited using a DC supply the rotor poles
align with the stator poles in opposition such that the reluctance is
minimum.
2. What are the advantages of Stepper motor?
No feedback is normally required for either position control or speed
control. Positional control is non – cumulative. Stepping motor is
compatible with modern digital equipment.
3. Mention the different types of stepper motor. (Dec 2018)
Variable Reluctance stepper motor (Single stack, Multi stack), Permanent
magnet stepper motor, Hybrid stepper motor, Outer rotor stepper motor.
4. Define: Step Angle of stepper motor.( June 2016)
A stepping motor rotates through a fixed angle for every pulse. The rated
value of this angle is called the step angle and expressed in degrees.
5. Define: Holding torque and Detent torque of stepper motor.(Dec 2018)
Holding torque is defined as the maximum static torque that can be
applied to the shaft of an excited motor without causing continuous
rotation.
It is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft
of an unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation.
22. Distinguish the half step and full step operation of a stepper motor.
(Nov 17)
HALF STEP
SL.NO FULL STEP OPERATION
OPERATION
1 It is defined as the It is the one phase on mode
alternate one phase on operation .It means at that time
and two phases on mode only one winding is energized.
operation.
2 Rotor rotates on each By energizing one stator
step angle is half of the winding the rotor rotates at
full step angle. some angle.it s full step
operating.
23. Define the micro stepping mode of stepper motor.
Micro stepping means, the step angle of the VR stepper motor is very
small. It is also called mini stepping. It can be achieved by two phases
simultaneously as in 2 phases on mode but with two currents deliberately
made unequal.
24. Name the various driver circuits used in stepper motor. (June 2016)
Driver circuits for stepper motor are broadly classified into Unipolar and
Bipolar driver
circuits. Based on the supply voltage given to stator windings they are
classified as L/R driver circuit, Chopper drive circuit, H bridge drive
circuit.
25. Define: Maxwell’s stress.
The Maxwell stress tensor (named after James Clerk Maxwell) is a
symmetric second-order tensor used in classical electromagnetism to
represent the interaction between electromagnetic forces and mechanical
momentum. It is defined as curving of magnetic lines of force at the end of
the poles of the stator when rotor rotates.
26. Define Lead angle. (Dec 2016)
The angle difference between the phase to be de-energized to bring the
stepper motor to the position of equilibrium (stopping the motor) and
energization of next phase winding to start the motor during closed loop
operation is known as lead angle. The relation between the rotor’s present
position and the phase to be excited specified in terms of lead angle.
27. What is the need for suppressor circuits in stepper motor? (Dec 2016)
The suppressor circuits are needed to ensure the fast decay of current
through the winding when it is turned off. When the transistor is turned
off a high voltage builds up to Ldi/dt and this voltage may damage the
transistor. There are several methods of suppressing this spike voltage and
protecting the transistor like diode suppressor, diode-resistor suppressor,
zener diode suppressor, etc.
28. Draw the equivalent circuit of winding in stepper motor. (April 17)
29. What are the applications of stepper motor? (April 17, May 2019)
*Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and
machine tooling automated production equipment.
*Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
*Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers,
and also found inside digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators
and blood analysis machinery.
*Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital
camera focus and zoom functions. And also have business machines
applications, computer peripherals applications.
30. Draw the block diagram of the drive system of a stepping motor. (May
2019)
12. Give the emf and torque equations of the square wave BLDC
motor.(April 17,Nov 17)
The emf equation is given by E = kφω and the torque equation is given by
T = kφIwhere k is the armature constant depending on the number of
turns in series per phase in the armature winding, ω is rotor speed in rad
/ sec and φ is the flux ( mainly contributed by the Permanent Magnet on
the rotor). I is the load current.
13. What is meant by demagnetization in PM-BLDC motor?
In the absence of externally applies ampere turn, the magnets operating
point is at the intersection of demagnetization curve and the load line.
Demagnetization curve
14. Write the principle of operation of PM-BLDC motor. (Nov 17)
When a D.C supply is switched on to the motor the armature winding
draws a current. The current distributes with the stator armature winding
depends upon rotor position and the devices turned on. As per faradays
law of electromagnetic induction a emf is dynamically induced in the
armature conductors. This back emf as per lenz law opposes the cause. As
a result developed torque reduces. Finally the rotor attain the steady
speed.
15. Compare 120 degree and 180 degree operation of BLDC motor.
The 180 degree magnetic arc motor uses 120 degree mode of inverter
operation. The motor with 120 degree magnetic arc uses 180 degree mode
of inverter operation.
In 180 degree mode of inverter has 1.5 times copper losses but produce
same torque with only 2/3 of magnetic material. Motor operation is less
efficient.
16. Give the expression for self and mutual inductances of a BLDC motor.
Self inductance is given by Lg=(ψ/i)=(πμ0 N2lr1)/(2g”)where g”=
g’+lm/μrec,g’= Kcg,N=Number of conductors in the slot, I = current, lm =
magnet length in radial direction , g’ = air gap, g” = air gap including
radial thickness of the magnet, μrec = relative recoil permeability, Mutual
inductance is given by Mg=-(1/3)Lg.
17. What are the types of sensors used with PMBLDC motors?
Hall Effect sensors are most commonly used for speed, position sensing
with PMBLDC motors. Optical Disc based sensors are also used.
Presently rotor position sensors are avoided by using alternative methods
called as Sensorless control methods, which uses terminal emf
measurement, third harmonic voltage measurement, flux estimation and
neuro – fuzzy techniques etc.
18. Write the dynamic equations of the PMBLDC motor.
The dynamic model equations of PMBLDC motor is given by
dia/dt=(van–Ria –ea(θ))/L
dib/dt=(vbn –Rib –eb(θ))/L
dic/dt=(vcn–Ric –ec(θ))/L
dω/dt=[ Te–Tl –Bω]/J
dθ/dt = Pω/2 where the Torque developed is given by
Te=(e(θ)ia+ea(θ)ib+ea(θ)ic)/ω,TL=Load torque applied is the coefficient of
friction and J is the moment of inertia.
19. What are the relative merits and demerits of brush less DC motor
drives? (Dec 2016)
Merits: Commutator less motor, Specified electrical loading is better, Heat
can be easily dissipated, No sparking takes place due to brush, Source of
EMI is avoided.
Demerits: Above 10 kW, the cost of magnet is increase, Due to centrifugal
force the magnet may come out.
20. What are the difference between conventional DC motor and
PMBLDC motor? (April 17)
DC PMBLDC
Brushes are present. Brushes are not present.
Sparking may occur due to Sparking will not occur as
brush. brush is not present.
Brushes tend to produce RF1 problem does not occur.
RF1.
There is a need for brush No need of brush maintenance.
maintenance.
21. What are the various kinds of permanent magnets?
There are basically three different types of permanent magnets which are
used in small DC motors; Alnico magnets, Ferrite or ceramic magnet, and
Rare - earth magnet (samarium – cobalt magnet).
22. What is meant by multiphase brushless motors?
A multi-phase brushless motor including a stator having a plurality of
drive coils each corresponding to a specific phase and a rotor having a
plurality of field magnet poles of successively alternating polarity. The
stator further has a plurality of Hall generators for detecting the positions
of the rotor and a speed sensor for detecting the rotational speed of the
rotor.
23. Give the uses of sensors in motors.
It is used to identify the position of the rotor and it is also used to excite
the coils in proper manner. For instance, a motor is an electrical machine
used to create motion. The device converts electricity (electrical energy)
into motion (mechanical energy). Typically performed by rotating an
object. Rotational sensor: A sensor that measures the turning movement
of a wheel for purposes of calculating distance traveled.
24. List some applications of PMBLDC motor. (June 2016)
Fans, Pump drive, Traction and Hydraulic power steering, precision high
speed spindle drivers for hard disk drivers etc.,.
25. Why brushless permanent magnet motor is called as electronically
commutated motor? (June 2016, Dec 2018)
The switching instants of the individual transistor switches, Q1 – Q6 with
respect to the trapezoidal emf wave are synchronized with the rotor. So
switching the stator phases synchronously with the emf wave make the
stator and rotor mmfs rotate in synchronism. Thus, the inverter acts like
an electronic commutator that receives switching logical pulses from the
rotor position sensor. This is why a BLDC drive is also commonly known
as an electronically commutated motor (ECM).
26. How the demagnetization occurs in PMBLDC motor?
During the normal operation of motor, when the torque and back emf are
constant, if the field flux level becomes low, then demagnetization occurs.
Demagnetization of the permanent magnets occurs to some extent
whenever a current flows in the motor winding.
27. What are the classifications of BLPM dc motor?
1. BLPM square wave motor.
2. BLPM sine wave motor.
28. What are the two types of BLPM SQW DC motor?
1. 1800 pole arc BLPM square wave motor.
2. 1200 pole arc BLPM square wave motor.
29. What are the ways by which demagnetization can be limited in
permanent magnet?
There are several ways to limit the demagnetization. One way is to keep
the current below the maximum value and another way is y use of pole
shoes to a permanent magnet to collect the flux and then transfer it to the
air gap.
30. Define the energy product and maximum energy product of a
permanent magnet.
The absolute values of the product of the flux density and the field
intensity at each points along the demagnetization curve is called energy
product. The maximum value of the energy product is called maximum
energy product and this quantity is one of the strengths of the permanent
magnet.
31. What is electronic commutator? (April 17)
Brushless motors rely on semiconductor switches to turn stator windings
on and off at the appropriate time. The process is called electronic
commutation, borrowing on terminology used for the mechanism in dc
motors, called a commutator, which switches current from winding to
winding, forcing the rotor to turn.
UNIT – IV PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
(PMSM) )
PART - A
1. Distinguish PM synchronous motor from BLPM DC motors.
PMSM PM Brushless DC motor
Sinusoidal or quasi–sinusoidal Rectangular distribution of
distribution of magnetic flux in magnetic flux in the air gap
the air gap
Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal Rectangular current waveforms
current waveforms
Quasi-sinusoidal distribution of It has concentrated stator
stator conductors. (short windings
pitched and distributed or
concentric stator windings)
2. Explain in detail the vector control of permanent magnet synchronous
motor.
1) BLPM SNW motor is usually employs for variable speed applications.
For this we keep V/f constant and vary V and f to get the desired speed
and torque. From the theory of BLPM SNW motor it is known that as the
speed is varied from a very low value up to the corner frequency, the
desired operating point of current is such that Id =0 and I is along q-axis.
2) When the frequency is more than the corner frequency it is not possible
to make Id=0, due to voltage constraints. In such a case a better operating
point for current is obtained with minimum I value after satisfying the
voltage constraints.
Controlling BLPM SNW motor taking into considerations the above
mentioned aspects is known as vector control of BLPM SNW motor.
3. What are the performances of PMSM when compared with BLDC
motor?
With equal r.m.s. phase currents the torque of the square wave motor
exceeds that of sine wave motor by a factor 1.47. With equal peak currents
the factor is 1.27. For the same flux-density flux per pole of a square wave
motor exceeds that of a sine wave motor by a factor π/2. Square wave
motor has a slightly better utilization of the peak current capability of the
converter switches. In PMSM three devices conduct at a time (180 degree
mode of inverter), where as in BLDC only two devices conduct at a time in
120 degree mode.
4. What is meant by field oriented control of PMSM?
In general for field oriented control the stator currents are transformed
into a frame of reference moving with the rotor flux. In the PMSM the
rotor flux is stationary relative to the rotor. The rotor flux is therefore
defined by the mechanical angle of rotation α,this is obtained from a rotor
position sensor. Thus, the control is much easier to implement than in the
case of induction motor.
5. What is meant by slot less motor?
Slot less brushless DC motors represent a unique and compelling subset of
motors within the larger category of brushless DC motors. They are called
“slot less” because typical slotted brushless DC motors contain a stator
core of laminated steel composed of slots separated by teeth around which
copper wire is wound. In slot less motor, the stator teeth are removed and
resulting space is partially filled with addition of copper.
6. Write the expression for the synchronous reactance of PMSM.
The sum of the magnetizing and leakage reactance define synchronous
reactance.
XS = X M + Xl
, Xs = Synchronous reactance, XM = Magnetizing
reactance, Xl = Leakage reactance.
7. What are the applications of PMBLDC and PMSM motors?
PMBLDC: (Low rating application) turn table drives for record players,
Hard disc drives, Low cost instruments, Small fans for cooling electronic
equipment, (High rating application) Air craft, Satellite system, Traction
system (in future).
PMSM are used in low to medium power (up to several hundred HP)
Applications, Fiber spinning mills, Rolling mills, Cement mills, Ship
propeller, Electric Vehicles, Servo and robotic drives and Starters /
generator for air craft engine.
8. What are the features of permanent magnet synchronous motor? (Dec
2018)
Robust, compact and less weight, No field current or rotor current in
PMSM, unlike in induction motor, Copper loss due to current flow which
is largest loss in motors is about half that of induction motor and High
efficiency.
9. Explain the difference between synchronous motor and PMSM.
Synchronous Motor PMSM
3 phase AC or six step voltage 3 phase sine wave ac or PWM
or current source inverter is ac is used as supply.
used as supply.
This type of motor is used in Here it is used in low integral
very large compressor and fan HP industries drives, fiber
drives. spinning mills.
10. What are disadvantages of PMSM relative to the commutator motor?
The disadvantages of PMSM relative to commutator motor are that it
requires shaft position sensing and increased complexion in the electronic
controller. Also speed dependence on the external load torque and the
reduced dynamic performances are the other disadvantages.
11. What are the assumptions made in derivation of emf equation for
PMSM?
Flux density distribution in the air gap is sinusoidal, Rotor rotates with an
uniform angular velocity of ωm( rad/sec), Armature winding consists of
full pitched, concentrated similarly located coils of equal number of turns.
12. Why PMSM operating in self – controlled mode is known as
commutatorless DC Motor? (May 2019)
Load side controller performs somewhat similar function as commutator
in a DC machine. The load side converter and synchronous motor
combination functions similar to a DC machine. First it is fed from a DC
supply and secondly like a DC machine. The stator and rotor field remain
stationary with respect to each other at all speeds. Consequently, the
drive consisting of load side converter and synchronous motor is known as
commutator less DC motor.
13. Explain the distribution factor for PMSM.
Distribution factor (Kd): Distribution factor is given by the ratio of the
MMF performed in the concentrated windings compared to the
distributed windings. Coils in the stator are displaced from each other by
a certain electrical angle, each coil produce sinusoidal MMF with a shift
angle β.
where ‘m’ is no. of coils/pole/phase, β = angle of displacement
14. Write down the expressions for torque of a PMSM.
T= 3 E I sin β / ωm N-m
where ωmis the angular velocity, T is the torque produced, β is the torque
angle or power angle, I is the current and E is the induced emf .
15. What are the features of closed- loop speed control of load
commutated inverter fed synchronous motor drive?
The features of closed loop speed control of load commutated inverter fed
synchronous motor drive is that it has Higher efficiency, Four quadrant
operation with regeneration braking, Higher power ratings and run at
high speeds ( 6000 rpm).
16. Write down the emf expressions of PMSM.
Eph = 4.44 f Фm KwTph volts.
This is the rms value of induced emf per phase, where f = Frequency in
Hertz, Фm = flux per pole, Kw = Winding factor, Tph = Turns per phase.
17. What is meant by self-control in PMSM drive? (April 17)
• As the rotor speed changes the armature supply frequency is also
changes proportionally so that the armature field always moves
(rotates) at the same speed as the motor.
• The armature and rotor field move in synchronism for all
operating points.
• Here accurate tracking of speed by frequency is realized with the
help of rotor position sensor.
18. What are advantages and disadvantages of PMSM?
Advantages: Runs at constant speed, No field winding, no field copper
loss, better efficiency, High power density, Lower rotor inertia, Robust
construction of rotor, No sliding contact hence requires less maintenance.
Disadvantages: Loss of flexibilities of field flux control, Demagnetization
effect and High cost.
19. Distinguish between self-control and vector control of PMSM?
Flux density
distribution
28. Draw the output phasor diagram of PMSM. (May 2016, Dec 2018)
Pull in torque
25. What are the main differences between the axial and radial air gap
motors?
S.No. Radial airgap motors Axial airgap motors
1. High speed applications Low speed applications
2. Lamination is radial Lamination is axial
3. More mechanical strength Less mechanical strength
4. The radially laminated rotor Axially laminated rotor in
has the best potential for general gives the best
economic production. performance
27.Draw the torque – angle characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor.
(Dec 2018)