GENCHEM – Quarterly Assessment Reviewer

n d
4th Quarter (2 Semester)

TOPIC: THERMODYNAMICS WHAT IS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND

ITS SIGNIFICANCE?
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS o expresses the relationship between spontaneity of
a process.
o states that the natural processes proceed in the
direction that maintains or increases the total
SPOTANEOUS (continuous, inevitable): occurs under the
entropy of the universe and in any spontaneous
given set of conditions
change.
o Example: A waterfall runs downhill
o It is important to note that spontaneity is also
affected by changes in temperature and
NONSPONTANEOUS: does not occur under the given set of
concentrations.
conditions
o Example: Heat flows from colder object to hotter
FREE ENERGY
one
o is a portion of energy change in spontaneous
reactions that is available to do useful work
ENTROPY
o free energy is a measure of the minimum amount
o can be viewed as a measure of randomness or
of work that must be done on the system in order
disorder
to drive the reaction
o ∆S = Sfinal-Sinitial
Formula: G=H−TS
Positive value of ∆S (∆S>0): indicates that the final state is
Where:
more random or disordered than the initial state.
o H is enthalpy
o T is temperature in Kelvin
Negative ∆S value (∆S<0): indicates that the final state is
o S is entropy
more ordered than the initial state.
GIBBS FREE ENERGY is represented using the symbol G
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE AMOUNT OF
and typically has a unit of KJ/mol reaction.
ENTROPY
1. Change in Phase (particle arrangement)
2. Change in Temperature (vibrations)
3. Number of Particles (the more the merrier)

HOW WILL YOU PREDICT WHEN ENTROPY IS POSITIVE

OR NEGATIVE?
o Entropy is positive when it underwent melting,
evaporation, and sublimation.
CALCULATION SAMPLE:
o Entropy may be negative when the chemical
substances underwent deposition, solidification,
and condensation.

Examples:
1. A solid melts – Positive
2. A liquid freezes – Negative
3. A vapor is converted to a solid –
Negative
4. A vapor condenses to a liquid –
Negative
5. A solid sublimes – Positive

CALCULATION SAMPLE:

--
GENCHEM – Quarterly Assessment Reviewer
n d
4th Quarter (2 Semester)

o Base: produces a hydroxide ion when

dissolve in water

3. Bronsted-Lowry
o Acid: proton donor
o Base: proton acceptor

In 1923, chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas

Martin Lowry
TOPIC: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
AMPHOTERIC: A compound that acts as both a Brønsted
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Lowry acid and base together.

EQUILIBRIUM
o As a system approaches equilibrium, both the
forward and reverse reactions are occurring.
o At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions
are proceeding at the same rate.
o At equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants
and products are constant.
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS
o Unchanging concentrations of the reactants and
the products in a chemical reaction at equilibrium.
For the general reaction:
EXAMPLE:
Explanation:
HCl is a Brønsted-Lowry acid (donates a proton)
while the ammonia (NH3) is a Brønsted-Lowry base
(accepts a proton). Also, Cl- is called the conjugate base
of the acid HCl and NH4+ is called the conjugate acid of
the base NH3.
ACID-BASE PROPERTY OF WATER
o In some circumstances, a water
molecule will accept a proton and thus
act as a Brønsted-Lowry base.

REMEMBER
At a given temperature: o Water is not the only substance that can
react as an acid in some cases or a
base in others, but it is certainly the
most common example—and the most
important one.

o Amphiprotic compound: A substance

HOMOGENOUS EQUILIBRIUM: are in the same phase. that can either donate or accept a
proton, depending on the
HETEROGENOUS EQUILIBRIUM: are in different phases. circumstances.
Note: The concentration of solids and pure liquids are not
included in the expression for the equilibrium constant. o ―All amphiprotic substances are also
amphoteric, but not all amphoteric
substances are amphiprotic‖

TOPIC: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS TOPIC: PH AND POH
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
ACIDS AND BASES

1. Lewis pH:
o Acid: accept a pair of electrons
o Base: donates a pair of electrons

o Strong acid
2. Arrhenius
o Acid: donates hydrogen ion (proton)
when dissolved in water
GENCHEM – Quarterly Assessment Reviewer
n d
4th Quarter (2 Semester)

EXAMPLE: TOPIC: PH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

BUFFERED SOLUTIONS
o ―buffers‖
o solutions that resist a change in pH
upon addition of small amounts of acid
BUFFERS
o a solution composed of a weak acid and its
conjugate base that can be used to stabilize the
pH of a solution.

pKa
o a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in
solution
o a weak acid has a pKa value in the approximate
range -2 to 12 in water and a strong acid has a
pKa value of less than about -2
pOH: o one method used to indicate the strength of an
acid.

FORMULA

REMEMBER:

Where:
pH = -log₁ ₀ (H);
Ka - acid dissociation constant;
[HA] - concentration of the acid; proton donor
[A⁻ ] - concentration of conjugate base; proton acceptor
pKa = -log₁ ₀ (Ka)

SAMPLE CALCULATION:
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

TOPIC: REDOX REACTIONS

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
GENCHEM – Quarterly Assessment Reviewer
n d
4th Quarter (2 Semester)

o Oxidation and reduction always occur c. Elements under group IA is +1, IIA is +2, and
simultaneously IIIA is +3.

OXIDATION PROCESS - Combination between any 3. In a compound, the algebraic sum of the total
substance and oxygen positive and negative oxidation number is always
equal to zero.
REDUCTION – the accompanying process which involves 4. The algebraic sum of the positive and negative
gaining of electrons oxidation states of all atoms in ion is equal to the
charge of the ion.

BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS

 Balancing by oxidation number method

Step 1: Assign the oxidation numbers of the

elements in the chemical equation

Step 2: Determine which elements undergo

changes in oxidation state

Step 3: Determine the total increase and decrease

REDOX
in oxidation number or total number of electrons
o Is viewed as a reaction involving the transfer of
lost and gained
electrons from the atom that is oxidized to the
atom that is reduced.
Step 4: Equalize the increase and decrease in
o If one species gains electrons, another species (or
oxidation number or total electrons lost and gained
more than one species) must lose electrons
by figuring out the proper multiplier which will
become the new coefficients in the chemical
Oxidizing agent – substance reduced; undergoes a
equation.
decrease in oxidation number.

Step 5: Finish balancing by counting the number

Reducing agent – substance oxidized; undergoes an
of atoms of each element then adjusting the
increase in oxidation number.
coefficients until the same number of atoms are
found on both sides of the equation.
DON’T INTERCHANGE!!!
o The substance that is reduced in a reaction is the
oxidizing agent because it gains electrons. The
substance that is oxidized in a reaction is the kaya mu yn lods,,, ‗kaw p b?
reducing agent because it lost electrons. At kng d mu n tlga kaya edi don‘t

OXIDATION NUMBER gudlack pu hehehe

o a concept that helps in determining quickly
whether the substance is undergoing oxidation or
reduction.
o Other terms used to refer to oxidation number is
valence or oxidation state.
o Oxidation states is the electrical charge assigned
to an atom according to a prescribed set of rules.

It can be computed directly from the formula itself based on

the following guidelines:

1. The oxidation state of a free and uncombined

element is zero.
2. The usual oxidation state of:
a. Hydrogen is +1, except in metallic hydrides
b. Oxygen is -2, except in peroxides where it is -1