General Chemistry 2
area, therefore increasing the rate
FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE
Temperature
➔ higher temperature and kinetic
energy means faster rate of
reaction (due to increase in
collisions)
Concentration
➔ the higher the concentration of
the reactants, the faster the rate
of reaction
For gases, increasing the pressure in a
given volume of gas, means an increase
in the frequency of collisions among
particles, thus increasing the rate of
reaction.
Surface Area
➔ the smaller the size of a solid
particles, the greater its surface
VILLAMOR
of reaction
Nature of Reactants
➔ rate of reaction of substances
differ from each other due to
different activity rates
Presence of Catalysts
➔ catalyst (positive catalyst) is a
substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being
chemically changed itself
➔ negative catalysts (inhibitors):
catalysts that inhibit the rate of
reaction
➔ A catalyst increases the rate of
reaction by lowering the
activation energy
◆ activation energy: energy
required to start a reaction
ORDER OF REACTIONS
Rate law is an expression relating the rate
of a reaction to the rate constant and
the concentrations of the reactants.
aA + bB → cC + dD
The rate law takes the form:
𝑥 𝑦
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝐴] [𝐵]
overall reaction order: sum of the
powers (x+y) to which all reactant
concentrations appearing in the rate law
are raised
General Chemistry 2 VILLAMOR

REACTIONS AND MOLECULAR

COLLISIONS
Activation energy is the minimum energy
required to make a reaction occur. It
converts the reactants into activated
complex, also known as the transition
state.

REMEMBER: The activated complex is a chemical

first order: if the rate doubles when the
concentration of the reactant doubles
second order: if the rate quadruples when the
concentration doubles
example:
species with partially broken and partially
formed bonds which possess high
energy.
Energy profile is a diagram representing
the energy changes that take place during
a chemical reaction.

Only those collisions with energies equal

to or greater than the activation energy
result in a reaction

Once molecules collide they may react

together or they may not, depending on
two factors:
● collision must involve enough
energy to produce the reaction
(collision energy must equal or
exceed the activation energy)
● reacting molecules collide in the
proper orientation for new bonds to
form
x=2

Effective C Ineffective C

collide with sufficient molecules collide,

energy and proper but no chemical
orientation; a chemical reaction occurs
reaction occurs
y=1
overall order: 2+ 1 = 3 (third-order reaction)
General Chemistry 2 VILLAMOR

THERMODYNAMICS
Activation Energy and How Catalyst A process that does not need the
Affects Rate of Reaction application of energy to take place is said
to be a spontaneous process.
Catalysts work by providing a new
pathway for the reaction with a lower A nonspontaneous process cannot
activation energy. proceed unless there is a driving force or
outside help that acts on the system.
Reactions with lower activation energy, due
to the presence of a catalyst will speed up Entropy, S, can be viewed as a measure
the rate of reaction. Increase in the reaction of randomness, or disorder.
rate for this matter is due to the fact that
more particles had enough energy to ∆S = 𝑆𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙- 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
overcome the energy barrier, thus they were
able to have an effective collision. (∆S>0): the final state is more random or
disordered than the initial state.
TYPES OF CATALYST
positive decreases the activation (∆S<0): the final state is more ordered
catalyst energy; increases rate of than the initial state
reaction
Factors affecting Change in Entropy
negative decreases or slows down
catalyst the rate of reaction in 1. Change in phase
rusting, decomposition of 2. Change in temperature
certain substances and 3. Number of particles
aging
Standard Molar Entropy
auto-catalyst the products formed in
the reaction act as a
catalyst for the reaction
to proceed
Second Law of Thermodynamics
induced a substance that ● the natural processes proceed in
catalyst influences the speed of the direction that maintains or
reaction which is not increases the total entropy of the
possible under ordinary universe, and in any spontaneous
condition
change, there is a net increase in
entropy
General Chemistry 2
Gibbs Free Energy
➔ is represented using the symbol G
and typically has a unit of KJ/mol
➔ a portion of energy change in
spontaneous reactions that is
available to do useful work
● H is enthalpy
● T is temperature in Kelvin
● S is entropy
AG < 0: spontaneous; forward direction
AG > 0: nonspontaneous; forward direction
AG = 0: reaction is at equilibrium
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
The relationship between the concentrations
of the reactants and products may be
expressed using the law of mass action
expression/equilibrium constant expression.
For the general equilibrium reaction:
law of mass action expression is written as:
(‘yung nasa taas dapat is C and D, mali
nakalagay sa module, thanks :D ! )
VILLAMOR
The equilibrium constant, K, is the
numerical value that is obtained when
equilibrium concentrations are substituted
to the equilibrium constant expression
REMEMBER:
If the concentrations given are not
equilibrium concentrations, we can
calculate for the reaction quotient.
Q = K, then the system is already at
equilibrium
Q < K, the reactants dominate
Q > K, the products dominate
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
if a stress (changes in reaction conditions)
is applied to a system in equilibrium, then
the systems adjust in order to reduce
the effect of the stress applied
General Chemistry 2 VILLAMOR

BRONSTED ACIDS AND BASES pH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS

● acids: proton donors
● bases: proton acceptors
amphoteric: compound that acts as both an
BrønstedLowry acid and base together
amphiprotic: can either donate or accept a
proton, depending on the circumstances
Buffer: a solution composed of a weak
acid and its conjugate base that can
be used to stabilize the pH of a
solution.
pKa is a quantitative measure of the
strength of an acid in solution
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton

(hydrogen ion) donor.

A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton

(hydrogen ion) acceptor.

CALCULATING pH
Danish scientist Soren Sorenson
(1868-1939) proposed in 1909 the pH scale,
a system used for expressing the
hydrogen-ion concentration (H+) of any henlo ! you may just refer to the modules
substance. provided by sir margallo to study some
sample problems, thank you & good luck

REMEMBER:
● pH= -log [H+]
● pOH = -log [OH- ]
● pH + pOH = 14