IAS BABA Post Independence 2022

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Integrated Learning
Programmme (ILP) - 2022
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IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION
Contents
POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION ......................................................................... 1
Process of Unification ............................................................................................................ 2
Language Issue....................................................................................................................... 6
Indian Tribal Issues ................................................................................................................ 8
Article 15(4): Promotion of Social, Economic and Educational interests ........................... 14
Refugee Crisis after Partition ............................................................................................... 16
Wars After Independence .................................................................................................... 21
Post 1947 Communalism ..................................................................................................... 32

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POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Unifying India was perhaps the most challenging and most important task faced by the
contemporary leadership.
During British rule, Princely states were scattered all over the Indian Subcontinent, numbering
over 550 and enjoying a certain level of political autonomy. However, they were heavily
dependent on British India for food, manufactured items, transportation and communication
and other essential services.
All the major industries, most fertile lands mineral belt and coast land were under the control
of British India which later proved to be a blessing in disguise for Indian government.
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Three Views about Princely States

• The British had established paramountcy over princely states and till February 1947
they maintained that “His majesty’s government does not intend to hand over their
powers and obligations under paramountcy to any British India.”
• The congress had always encouraged democratic and political rights both in British
India and Princely States (PS). The people of PS had organized some local political
organizations like Praja Mandals etc. In 1937 they came together under the banner of
AISPC (All India States Peoples Conference). Nehru was an active participant in such
movement.
• Muslim league maintained that states would be independent and sovereign and were
free to remain independent if they so desired.
After the arrival of Mountbatten in early 1947, things started changing. Atlee declared, “It is
the hope of his Majesty’s government, that all the states in due course find their appropriate
place within the British Commonwealth.
PROCESS OF UNIFICATION
Initially congress wanted that the PS first join the constituent assembly and surrender their
foreign relations, defence and communication. In June 1947, a new “Department of States”
was formed with Sardar Patel as Minister in charge and V P Menon as Secretary.
Most PS showed wisdom and joined the constituent assembly by August 1947But a large
number had also stayed away. Many of them declared their independence like Travancore
and Bhopal. In the first round, V P Menon met the Diwans who were generally more patriotic
and understood the situation better than the kings. Then Patel would meet the princes and
finally the prince would come to Delhi to sign the “Instrument of Accession” and give an
audience to Mountbatten.
Problem States:
• Before 15th August- Jodhpur, Bhopal and Travancore
• After 15th August- Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir
Jodhpur: Maharaja of Jodhpur decided to remain independent. Patel and Menon took help
of K.M Panniker (a historian, patriot and diwan of Bikaner) to persuade him. The maharaja
was told/ reminded of medieval period during which the Muslim rulers had destroyed Rajput
Kingdoms. So, a new Muslim state i.e. Pakistan could be a threat to existence of Jodhpur. The
Maharaja ultimately agreed to sign the instrument of Accession.
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Bhopal: The Nawab of Bhopal was a personal friend of Lord Mountbatten and hoped that
Governor General would rescue him. But Mountbatten told categorically that independence
for him would be like a mirage.
Nawab played religious card and tried to mobilize Muslims on the name of Islam and asked
for support from Muslim league.
Mountbatten personally engaged him in dialogue who he asked through a confidential letter
to sign the Instrument of Accession making Bhopal part of India, which Mountbatten would
keep it locked up in his safe. It would be handed to the States Department on 15 August only
if the Nawab did not change his mind before then, which he was free to do. The Nawab
agreed, and did not renege over the deal.
Travancore: In present day Kerala, Travancore was situated on the coast of Western Ghats. It
has large deposits of Monazite sand which is a source of Thorium.
The maharaja started negotiations to remain free. Diwan C P Ramaswami Iyer was invited to
Delhi in July. He refused to surrender and returned. He was beaten up by an unidentified
person, hospitalized and from hospital bed wired to Maharaja to sign Instrument of Accession.
Junagarh: Junagarh was ruled by a Muslim prince with majority of Hindu Population. On 15 th
August, it had neither joined India nor Pakistan. But in Sep-Oct, Muslim league succeeded in
persuading Junagarh to accede to Pakistan. The prince signed the instrument of accession
with Pakistan. Earlier Mountbatten had told the PS that they can join either of the two union
based on geographical considerations.
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Patel sent V P Menon who met the Diwan Shahnawaz Bhutto and convinced him to conduct
a plebiscite in Junagarh which was conducted and went in favour of India as expected. The
Nawab out of fear of people’s movement fled to Karachi.
Hyderabad: the richest Princely state of India, Hyderabad was ruled by Nizams with Usman
Ali at the helm of affairs on the eve of India’s independence.
• Like other PS, he too wanted independence and openly declared his desires. But unlike
others he had vast resources and strong army. He also got support from radical
Muslims who organized guerilla warfare. Their cadres were called ‘Razakars’.
• Hyderabad had also witnessed series of political movements. Congress was active in
many districts and had a sizeable support through its satyagrahis and active
congressmen. The communists had started mobilizing the peasantry in Telangana
region and caused famous Telangana uprising in 1946 which was targeted against
‘talukdars’. This was a class struggle. The Hindu right wing was also active in this region
mostly led by Hindu Mahasabha and RSS.
• In 1947, the GoI signed a standstill agreement with Nizam hoping while negotiations
proceeded the Nizam would introduce a representative form of a government in state.
The Nizam on the other hand wanted to delay the proceedings and build up military
strength.
• The Razakars strengthened their ways in certain parts of Hyderabad under the political
organization “Ittehadul Muslemin”.
• Communists continued their struggle in rural telangana. Congress launched a powerful
Satyagraha to free Hyderabad from Nizam.
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• Finally, on 13th September 1948 the Indian Army moved to the city Hyderabad. Nizam
surrendered immediately. The GoI did not want to humiliate him. He was made Raj
Pramukh and he smartly distanced himself from Razakars.
Kashmir: on 15th August 1947, Kashmir was not a part of Union of India or Pakistan.
• In the third week of October a group of tribal Pathans invaded the valley of Kashmir
but who backed them is uncertain. The Indian claim is that it was backed by Pakistani
Army. Pakistan denies and there are no independent neutral records available on this
issue.
• By October 22 large number of raiders of Pathans entered Baramula and up to
Srinagar. They raided and plundered both Hindus and Muslims.
• The maharaja of Kashmir Hari Singh fled to Jammu and wired the Indian Government
for Help.
• V P Menon the secretary was rushed to Jammu and got instrument of accession signed
from maharaja. The Indian Union sent the troops airlifted from Delhi and Ambala and
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clash started between the army and the intruders. While the battle continued, on the
advice of Mountbatten, GoI decided to bring the matter to UN in Jan 1948 and asked
Security Council to tell Pakistan to vacate Kashmir.
• The Security Council which was under the influence of Britain and US, replaced the ‘J
and K question’ into ‘India-Pakistan’ question which gives a chance to defend both the
sides.
• Both India and Pakistan accepted a ceasefire on Dec 1948 which still prevails and state
was effectively divided along the ceasefire line.
• In 1951 UN passed a resolution providing for a referendum under UN supervision after
Pakistan’s withdrawal of its troops from the part of Kashmir under its control.
• Since then both the countries are adamant on their respective stand. India’s claim that
the king had acceded to Indian union which is fine whereas Pakistan claims that the
people’s opinion would decide the fate of Kashmir.
Pondicherry and Goa:

French authorities were reasonable and after negotiations handed over Pondicherry and
other possessions to India completely in 1948. With India and French agreeing to protect the
people who had acquired French citizenship.
The Portuguese however were not ready to vacate Goa. She was ally of NATO and had full
support of US and UK. The GoI avoided any military intervention to avoid bloodshed. Some
congress activists however started Satyagraha at Panaji and Vasco to put pressure on
Portuguese.
On 17th Dec 1961, the Indian troops marched to Goa and Governor General of Goa
immediately surrendered without any resistance.
LANGUAGE ISSUE
One very basic thing which differentiates India from other nations is its non-homogenous
linguistic nature. Many prophets of doom predicted that India will be broken into many
smaller states in a time span of 5-10 years after independence. These prophets of doom must
be surprised in their graves to know that India is not only intact and united but progressing at
an unprecedented pace. One major reason was the steps taken by the then government to
accommodate India’s linguistic diversity.
• Language is important in economic, social, cultural, religious and political life of an
individual and society. It is linked with their faiths and customs, Dreams and
imaginations.
• During the course of freedom struggle, Congress, especially Mahatma Gandhi had
strongly advocated in favour of Hindustani in Persian or in Devnagari script as national
language of post independent India. Even Tilak, Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and C.
Rajagopalachari battled for Hindustani.
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• In 1925, congress amended its constitution and declared that the proceedings of the
congress shall be conducted as far as possible in Hindustani. Even Nehru Committee
(1928) report echoed the same sentiment.
• But a dramatic turn came after independence, when Urdu became national language
of Pakistan and it was branded as a symbol of secession.
• The group of supporters of Hindi now pitched for the sanskritised version of Hindi
language in devanagri script. This made the non- Hindi speakers’ rebel and they
rejected. They feared that Hindi would be a threat to their mother tongues. Many
experts believe that their real fear was of losing government jobs.
• The non-Hindi speakers also argued that Hindi is relatively new and their language like
Tamil, Kannada, Bangla etc. are much older and richer in literature than Hindi.
• The constituent assembly decided a deadline of 15 years from the inception of Indian
constitution to make Hindi a national language. It was believed that during this period
the government would promote Hindi and people would slowly accept Hindi as a
National language.
• The government miserably failed to promote Hindi and not only this, the over
enthusiastic supporter of Hindi, irritated others with their arrogance and superiority
complex. Jan sangh and socialists joined their hands together in favour of Hindi and
launched a militant movement despite the fact that ideologically they were poles
apart.
• On the basis of a special joint parliamentary committee, the president issued an order
that after 1965 Hindi would be the principle official language and English would
continue as associate official language.
• As 1965 was near, the fear of non-Hindi speakers grew and it became worst when the
PM Lal Bahadur Shastri declared that Hindi would be an alternative medium in UPSC
exam.
• January 26th 1965, was mourned in Tamil Nadu as a black day and DMK organized
Madras State anti-Hindi conference. They gave slogans like “Hindi never, English
ever”. Huge violence erupted. Two Union cabinet ministers resigned and Indira
Gandhi, the then communication minister was sent to pacify the angry Tamilians.
• In 1967, Indian Parliament passed an act and provided that the use of English as an
associate language in addition to Hindi for official work. The non-Hindi state could
communicate with Union either in Hindi or in English which would continue as long as
the non-Hindi states wanted it. In UPSC one can write in Hindi or other regional
languages.
Contemporary Issue
• Debate of Hindi as National Language
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INDIAN TRIBAL ISSUES
The preservation of the tribal people’s rich social and cultural heritage lay at the heart of the
Government’s policy of tribal integration. As Jawaharlal Nehru, the main influence in shaping
the government’s attitude towards the tribals, put it:
“The first problem we have to face there [in the tribal areas] is to inspire them [the tribal
people] with confidence and to make them feel at one with India, and to realize that they
are part of India and have an honoured place in it.” – Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
At the same time, ‘India to them should signify not only a protecting force but a liberating
one’. Indian nationalism, Nehru thought, was capable of accommodating the uniqueness of
the tribal people.
Condition of Tribals before the arrival of British:

• Before the British arrived in India, all the kingdoms, the Mughals, Marathas, regional
nobilities and South Indian Kingdoms, treated Tribals a separate entity and they were
never a part of mainstream public.
• The tribals were isolated economically as well as socially. They followed their local
rituals and religion and no one interfered in their affairs. They had a closed economy
and solely dependent on nature for their needs. There was a tribal leader who,
generally, was elected. The resources were distributed amongst the community
according to the needs and work was taken according to the ability of each individual.
They generally used local self-made tools and trade was minimal with the outside
word. This way they were able to conserve their culture.
• As such there was no concept of poverty in the tribes as they used to dwell in the
forests and followed slash and burn agriculture. Without causing any harm to nature.
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Condition of Tribals after arrival of British:
Arrival of British changed almost everything in the Tribal society and had a far reaching impact
on it.
Social Impact:
• British penetrated the tribal society through missionaries. According to them tribals
were wild and uncivilized. They got the masses which they could convert to
Christianity doing the ‘God’s’ work. Apart from preaching, missionaries started
providing medical aid and basic elementary education. On one hand it did attract
many but on the other hand it also created a feeling of insecurity.
• For British East India Company, it paved a way to breach their isolation and reach them
for business purposes.
Economic Impact:
• The closed economy of tribals was broken and British introduced the concept of
money and private property. This changed everything. Through business the
exploitation was started. Since tribals did not have any previous experience of
business, they did not even understand that they were exploited.
• British introduced modern Zamindars and money lenders, locally known as ‘Dikus’ in
the tribal area and started charging taxes on forest produce and agriculture.
• In 1865, a draconian Forest Act was passed, in which British declared all the forest land
as the property of the British crown and any economic activity was made illegal. The
tribals were alienated from their own land and were restricted in small pockets. There
was no other way but to be dependent on British for their day to day needs. Poverty
creeped in the society.
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The Indian Forests Act of 1865 extended the British Colonial claims over forests in India. The 1865
act was a precursor to the Forest Act of 1878, which truncated the centuries-old traditional use
by communities of their forests and secured the colonial governments control over the forestry.
The act of 1865 empowered the British government to declare any land covered with trees as a
government forest and make rules to manage it.
Tribals were simple people. They did not understand that they were being exploited by the
British, but they thought that their imminent threat is from the ‘Dikus’. They started violent
rebellions and their main target was Indian outsider zamindars.
As they fought with primitive weapons and tools, tribal rebellions were the bloodiest and the
most violent. They did not stand a chance in front of modern Foreign fire arms and thousands
lost their life. The most important of these rebellions were the Munda Rebellion and Santhal
rebellion of Chota Nagpur plateau.
Image Showing Santhal Rebellion
Tribals in the North East: Tribals in the North Eastern part were themselves divided into
hundreds of different groups speaking more number of languages. There shared the similar
features and problems with the mainland tribals but their situation was slightly different as
well.
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The tribal areas occupied by the British then formed part of the Assam province but were
given a separate administrative status. Their socio-political structure was not disturbed and a
deliberate policy of excluding the outsiders from the plains was followed.
At the same time, the British government permitted and even encouraged the Christian
missionaries to move in and establish schools, hospitals and churches and to proselytize, thus
introducing change and modern ideas among some of the tribal youth. The missionaries, in
turn, collaborated with the colonial authorities and helped keep the nationalist influence out
of the tribal areas, besides encouraging their isolation from the rest of the population of
Assam and India.
They never experienced a sensation of being in a country called India and they were hardly
influenced by the struggle for freedom or other movements in India. Their chief experience
of outsiders was that of British officers and Christian missionaries who generally tried to make
them anti-Indian.
Post Independent Debate
A very important debate started in the Constituent Assembly on how to integrate the Tribals
in the Independent India. There were two major approaches regarding the place to be
accorded to tribals in Indian society.
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1. One approach was to leave the tribal people alone, uncontaminated by modern
influences operating outside their world and to let them stay more or less as they
were.
2. The second approach was that of assimilating them completely and as quickly as
possible into the Indian society all around them. The disappearance of the tribal way
of life was not to be regretted; it was to be welcomed for that would represent their
‘upliftment’.
Both the approaches were rejected by Jawaharlal Nehru

The problem with first approach was, the isolation of tribals was already broken and they
were aware of the modern society and to isolate them once again was a herculean task. Also,
according to Nehru, this would made tribal people as Museum specimens to be observed and
written about. Their fate would become similar to the Red Indians of USA.
The second approach of complete assimilation on the other hand would destroy the unique
culture and society of the tribals which had been very dear to them all this long. The thought
of complete assimilation would also undermine their culture. This cannot be assumed that
the modern way of living is superior to their traditions.
According to Nehru, a middle path had to be found. Nehru favoured the policy of integrating
the tribal people in Indian society, of making them an integral part of the Indian nation, even
while maintaining their distinct identity and culture. There were two basic parameters of the
Nehruvian approach: ‘the tribal areas have to progress’ and ‘they have to progress in their
own way’. Progress did not mean ‘an attempt merely to duplicate what we have got in other
parts of India’. Whatever was good in the rest of India would ‘be adopted by them gradually’.
Moreover, whatever changes were needed would be ‘worked out by the tribals themselves’.
The problem was how to combine these two seemingly contradictory approaches. Nehru
stood for economic and social development of the tribal people in multifarious ways,
especially in the fields of communication, modern medical facilities, agriculture and
education. In this regard, he laid down certain broad guidelines for government policy.
Nehru’s approach was in turn based on the nationalist policy towards tribals since the 1920s
when Gandhiji set up ashrams in the tribal areas and promoted constructive work. After
independence this policy was supported by Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, and
other major political leaders. This government Policy of Nehru was known as the Tribal
Panchsheel.
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The Tribal Panchsheel:
1. The tribals should develop along the lines of their own genius; there should be no
imposition or compulsion from outside. The non-tribals should not approach them
with a superiority complex. Rather, the understanding should be that they had an
equal contribution to make to the evolution of the common culture and social and
political life of the country.
2. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected and no outsider should be able
to take possession of tribal lands. The incursion of the market economy into tribal
areas had to be strictly controlled and regulated.
3. It was necessary to encourage the tribal languages which ‘must be given all possible
support and the conditions in which they can flourish must be safeguarded’.
4. Reliance should be placed on the tribal people themselves for administration, and
administrators should be recruited from amongst them and trained. As few as possible
outsiders should be introduced as administrators in tribal areas and they should be
carefully chosen. They should have a sympathetic and understanding approach, and
should not consider themselves superior to or apart from the tribal people. They
should be prepared to share their life with the tribal people among whom they work.
5. There should be no over-administration of tribal areas. The effort should be to
administer and develop the tribals’ through them own social and cultural institutions.
Various Constitutional Provisions
Keeping the Panchsheel in mind, several provisions were provided in the constitution to
protect as well as develop the tribals in India.
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Article 15(4): Promotion of Social, Economic and Educational interests
• This article empowers “the state to make any special provision for the advancement
of socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes”.
• This clause has been especially incorporated to prevent any special provision made by
a state for the advancement of socially or educationally backward classes of citizens
from being challenged in the law courts on the ground of discrimination.
Article 19(5): Safeguard of Tribal Interests

• While the rights of free movement and residence throughout the territory of India and
of acquisition and disposition of property are guaranteed to every citizen, special
restrictions may be imposed by “the state for the protection of the interests of any
Scheduled Tribe”. For example, non – tribals cannot buy land in tribal areas.
Article 23: Human Trafficking

• “Traffic in human beings, begar and other similar forms of forced labour are
prohibited”. This is a very significant provision so far as Scheduled Tribes are
concerned.
Article 29: Cultural and Educational Rights

• A cultural or linguistic minority has right to conserve its language or culture. ‘The state
shall not impose upon it any culture other than the community’s own culture.’
Article 164
• It provides for a Minister-in-charge of tribal welfare in the states of MP,
Chattisgarh,Orissa and Jharkhand.
Articles 330, 332 and 334
• According to these articles’ seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes in legislative bodies. There are provisions for reservations of seats in
the parliament as well as legislative Assembly of every state (Article 330,332).
• Such reservations were cease to be effective after a period of 10 years from the
commencement of the constitution (Article 334) but after every ten years its being
extended through constitutional amendments.
Article 335
• The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall be
taken into consideration in making the appointments to services and posts in
connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State.
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Article 338 A
• It says that there shall be a special officer for Scheduled Tribes to be appointed by the
President.
• National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, has been established under 338A.
Article 339(1)
• The President may at any time and shall at the expiration of 10 years from the
commencement of the constitution by order appoint a Commission to report on the
administration of Scheduled areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the
states.
Article 371(A, B, C)
• Provides for the special measures and provisions with respect to the states of
Maharashtra and Gujarat (371), Nagaland (371 A), Assam (371 B), and Manipur (371
C).
Apart from these provisions are also made in the fifth and the sixth Schedule of the
constitution regarding the administration of the tribal areas.
Note: Despite putting the right foot forward, the implementation of the policy was not good.
Because of this many tribal communities started violent movements against the Government
like Naga movement, Mizo movement, Naxalism etc. This will be covered in detail in the Value
Add of Internal Security.
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REFUGEE CRISIS AFTER PARTITION

“Never before the history of mankind has witnessed such a surge of humanity with more
than 14.5 million people displaced in a short span of time. And more than two million
engulfed by communal riots.”
The imminent problem faced by the contemporary government was how and where to
accommodate them. The main centers of their settlement were- Kurukshetra, Delhi, Mumbai
and Kolkata.
Kurukshetra: Many of the Hindus and Sikhs fleeing west Punjab were directed by the
government of India to a refugee camp in Kurukshetra. The camp was initially planned to
accommodate 1 lakh refugees but ended up with three times that number. The Indian army
miraculously worked to keep the tents rising with every new wave of refugees. The refugees
consumed 100 tons of floor with large quantities of rice, oil, salt etc. which was provided free
of cost by the government. Helping the government was network of Indian and foreign social
workers called the United Council for Relief and Welfare (UCRW).
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Refugee camp in Kurukshetra: Apart from housing and food, with winter approaching them,
they also had to be clothed. As a permanent settlement the land vacated by the Muslims in
the eastern part of Punjab was distributed amongst them. The problem was, against 2.7
million hectares abandoned by Hindus and Sikhs in west Punjab, there was only 1.9 million
hectares left behind by the Muslims. Also, the soil in west Punjab was more fertile and well
irrigated than the one in East Punjab.
The biggest land resettlement operation in the world started. Each family was asked to submit
their claims of how much land it had left behind. These claims were then verified in open
assemblies consisting of other migrants from the same village. The assembly approved,
amended or rejected the claim accordingly. False claims were punished sometimes by
reduction in land allotment and in extreme cases by short imprisonment.
Two innovations that proved critical in successful settlement of land were the ideas of
‘Standard acre’ and the ‘graded cut’.
Standard Acre: amount of land which would yield ten to eleven maunds of rice (1 maund=
40kg)
Graded Acre: it helped overcoming the massive discrepancy between the land left behind by
the refugees and the land left to them now. The higher the claim, the higher the percentage
cut, i.e. for claim up to 10 acre, the person would lose 25% that is he would get only 7.5 acre.
A person with more than that claim would lose 30% and so on.
By the end of the process, the refugees were equitably distributed along all the districts of
east Punjab.
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Delhi:
After Partition thousands took shelter in Delhi’s Purana Qila

About half a million people came to settle in Delhi. They squatted on every conceivable place.
In time they build houses on the land allotted to them to the west and south New Delhi. These
people quickly gained commanding influence in Delhi dominating its trade and commerce.
Before this settlement could happen, there was lack of resources. People blamed government
for negligence. At this time, these people full of communal hatred fell prey to right wing
organizations. RSS played a very important role in rehabilitation of refugees and providing
them food and warm clothes in winters. But with this they also preached their ideology to the
gullible minds which long run could be very harmful for the country.
Bombay:
Like Delhi, Bombay’s culture and social geography also transformed after partition. By July
half a million refugees arrived in the city from Sind, Punjab and the frontiers. They intensified
the already existing house shortage problem. Slums were growing very fast. In crowded
tenements 15-20 people lived in a room.
Condition of Sindhis was very different from the Punjabis who settled in eastern Punjab. They
got their lands but Sindhis had nothing similar on which to build. So they took the matter into
their hands and started doing what they were good at. They had got salesmanship in their
blood and they invaded the markets. The Gujratis and Maharashtrians did not take this kindly.
The refugees from Sind spread themselves across the towns and cities of western India. Apart
from Bombay they had substantial population in Pune and Ahmadabad.
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Calcutta:
The landscape of the third great metropolis of India was also going to change. After partition
the immigration was chiefly of the working class and the farming community. But there were
two basic differences between Punjabi migration and Bengali migration. In Punjab the
migration was from both the sides so refugees already had vacated land to take over. But in
Bengal immigration was much higher than emigration.
Also in Punjab the migration was sudden while in Bengal it was spread out. In winter of 1949-
50 there was a wave of communal violence in East Pakistan which forced many more Hindus
to cross the border. Some had their relatives. But most of them made city’s railway stations
their home. The conditions in the makeshift camps were sub human. Many complained that
Punjabi migrants got a preferential treatment and their camps have much more facilities than
Bengali camps.
Claiming of not getting proper state support many refugee colonies took administrative
matters into their hands and formed committees to make roads, dig tube wells, started
schools at their own expense.
Like the communal right-wing forces worked in Delhi, in Calcutta, the same work was done by
communists, who worked for the rehabilitation of refugees and got many of them in their
cadre.
Condition of women:
“Hindu, Muslim or Sikh, if there was one victim of this partition, that was women.”
Saadat Hasan Manto has described the plight of such a victim in his short story “Thandi lash”.
A respected Sindhi congress politician C. Gidwani put it, ’in no war have the women suffered
so much’.
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Women were killed, maimed, violated and abandoned. The brothels of Delhi and Mumbai
filled with women who were thrown out of their families after what someone else had done
to them-against their will.
The governments of India and Pakistan agreed that captured women must be returned to
their respective families.
The abducted women were tracked down and rescued. Ironically and tragically, many women
did not want to be rescued at all. They were unsure how their original families would take
them and they had made peace with their new surroundings.
Many of them got pregnant and they knew that even if they are accepted, their children
would never be.
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WARS AFTER INDEPENDENCE

When soldiers bled to save our honor!
Indo-China War
Time - "the Indian army was short of everything but courage".
Sino-India relations before war:

• One of the most basic policies for the new Indian government was that of maintaining
cordial relations with China, reviving its ancient friendly ties. India was among the first
nations to grant diplomatic recognition to the newly created PRC.
• According to Nehru this neighbour was also coming out of the western shadow and it
was “exceedingly unlikely” unlikely that India will face an attack from China.
• With Chinese premiere, Nehru signed Panchsheel-the five principles of peaceful
coexistence.
• Leaders of both the countries visited each other and greeted with large friendly
crowds. Especially when Nehru visited china, the famous “Hindi Cheeni Bhai Bhai”
slogan came up.
• For a very long time the Chinese border was guarded by the para-military forces and
not the army.
Bone of Contention:
These friendly relations were disrupted by two major events:
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1. The border disputes

2. Tibetan occupation of China
Border Dispute: there was conflict over two border areas- Aksai chin of Ladakh and North-
East frontier Province (Arunachal Pradesh)
According to India, the border was marked by the Mc Mohan line during Colonial period while
according to china, colonial decisions did not apply. British India gained a common border
with china after first Anglo Burmese was and After Shimla accord in 1914, the Mc -Mohan line
was drawn. Despite very long correspondence, the border issue could not be resolved, and
meanwhile during 1957-59, China builds a strategic road through Aksai Chin area. As a
consequence of their non-recognition of the McMahon Line, China's maps showed both the
North East Frontier Area (NEFA) and Aksai Chin to be Chinese territory.
Tibet occupation: in the year 1950, China took over Tibet. Since one of the clauses of
Panchsheel was to respect one’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, India conceded Chinese
claim over Tibet.
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Dalai Lama in India

Situation changed when Tibet’s spiritual leader asked for a political asylum and it was granted
by India. The Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong, was enraged and asked
the Xinhua News Agency to produce reports on Indian expansionists operating in Tibet. China
accused India of allowing anti-Chinese activities in the Indian Territory.
The War that should never have happened:
Sensing the emergency, at the beginning of 1961, Nehru appointed General B. M. Kaul as
army Chief of General Staff, but he refused to increase military spending and prepare for a
possible war. India started sending Indian troops and border patrols into disputed areas. The
aim of this policy was to create outposts behind advancing Chinese troops to interdict their
supplies, forcing them north of the disputed line. Kaul was confident, through contact with
Indian Intelligence and CIA information that China would not react with force.
At first the PLA simply withdrew, but eventually Chinese forces began to counter-encircle the
Indian positions which clearly encroached into the north of McMahon Line. This led to a tit-
for-tat Indian reaction, with each force attempting to out manoeuver the other. However,
despite the escalating nature of the dispute, the two forces withheld from engaging each
other directly.
Chinese policy toward India, therefore, operated on two contradictory assumptions in the
first half of 1961. On the one hand, the Chinese leaders continued to entertain a hope,
although a shrinking one, that some opening for talks would appear.
On the other hand, they read Indian statements and actions as clear signs that Nehru wanted
to talk only about a Chinese withdrawal. Regarding the hope, they were willing to negotiate
and tried to prod Nehru into a similar attitude. Regarding Indian intentions, they began to act
politically and to build a rationale based on the assumption that Nehru already had become
a lackey of imperialism; for this reason, he opposed border talks.
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China launched a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed regions.
The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in Arunachal
Pradesh. The second wave of attack came next month. While the Indian forces could block
the Chinese advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east the Chinese managed to
advance nearly to the entry point of Assam plains. Finally, China declared a unilateral
ceasefire and its troops withdrew to where they were before the invasion began.
The tragic crashing defeat dented Governments credibility and image in the country as well
as abroad.
After effects of war:
Political:
• United States viewed Chinese military action as an aggressive policy of PRC to solve
border disputes and to distract world from its internal issues.
• Western nations at the time viewed China as an aggressor during the China–India
border war, and the war was part of a monolithic communist objective for a world
dictatorship of the proletariat.
• The non-aligned nations remained mostly uninvolved, and only the United Arab
Republic openly supported India. The failure of these six nations to unequivocally
condemn China deeply disappointed India.
• Prime Minister Nehru faced harsh criticism from government officials, for having
promoted pacifist relations with China. The public saw the war as political and military
debacle.
• The unpreparedness of the army was blamed on Defence Minister Menon, who
resigned his government post to allow for someone who might modernize India's
military further.
• The war also put an end to Nehru's earlier hopes that India and China would form a
strong Asian Axis to counteract the increasing influence of the Cold War bloc
superpowers.
• The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the
Northeast region. Apart from being isolated and extremely underdeveloped, this
region also presented India with the challenge of national integration and political
unity. The process of its reorganisation began soon after the China war. Nagaland was
granted statehood; Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the
right to elect their own legislative assemblies.
Military:
• Some of the top army commanders either resigned or were retired.
• The war was an eye opener about the unpreparedness of the Indian army. India's
performance in high-altitude combat in 1962 led to an overhaul of the Indian Army in
terms of doctrine, training, organisation and equipment.
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• The military became more alert and prepared to for future. This preparation helped
India to successfully counter Pakistan’s attack in 1965 and again in 1971.
Indo-Pak war 1965

“If Pakistan has any ideas of annexing any part of our territories by force, she should think
afresh. I want to state categorically that force will be met with force and aggression against
us will never be allowed to succeed.” — Lal Bahadur Shastri
The Indo-Pakistan War, 1965, the second war between India and Pakistan since August 1947,
began as a localised conflict between India and Pakistan. Recovering from the ignominy of the
1962 Chinese attack, India was in the midst of giving its Army a face-lift. Pakistan, already
better equipped and prepared for war, and still simmering from what it could not achieve in
1947-48, considered this an apt moment to attack India while it was still unprepared.
The second Indo- Pak war in 1965 was started by the Pakistani Army. The war took place after
Pakistan launched a covert operation across the ceasefire line in Kashmir. Pakistan attacked
first by occupying the Kanjarkot area in Kutch. It subsequently opened new areas of war in
Jammu and Kashmir. The war ended with UN intervention with both sides moving back to
pre-war positions.
It all started in the month of January 1965 when Pakistani Army started 'Operation Desert
Hawk' in the Rann of Kutch. The main motive of the Pakistan army establishment was to keep
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the Indian forces engaged in Kutch so that the Pakistani Army could launch an attack in
Kashmir.
On 5 August 1965 between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control
dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir (Operation Gibralter).
Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, crossed the cease fire line on 15 August.
Though ruled to be militarily inconclusive, both India and Pakistan claimed victory. Most
neutral assessments, however, agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the
ceasefire was declared. As Pakistan lost more territory than it gained during the war and failed
to achieve its goal of capturing Kashmir, many impartial observers have viewed the result as
a defeat for Pakistan and an Indian strategic victory.
Ceasefire:
• The United States and the Soviet Union used significant diplomatic tools to prevent
any further escalation in the conflict between India and Pakistan.
• The Soviet Union hosted ceasefire negotiations in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan),
where Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan
signed the Tashkent Agreement, agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later
than 25 February 1966.
• With declining stockpiles of ammunition, Pakistani leaders feared the war tilting in
India's favor. Therefore, they quickly accepted the ceasefire in Tashkent. Despite
strong opposition from Indian military leaders, India bowed to growing international
diplomatic pressure and accepted the ceasefire. On 22 September, the United Nations
Security Council unanimously passed a resolution that called for an unconditional
ceasefire from both nations. The war ended the following day.
• India's Prime Minister, Shastri, suffered a fatal heart attack soon after the declaration
of the ceasefire.
• During the short Tenure of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, India faced two major
challenges, the Indo-Pak war which has been discussed above and failed monsoon
and drought.
• The Prime Minister gave a logan, “Jai Jawaan, Jai Kisan” to show India’s resolve to
fight both of these challenges.
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Indo – Pakistan war 1971: the liberation of Bangladesh
“May God have mercy on our enemies, because we won’t”- Indian Army
Before 1971, Bangladesh used to be a part of Pakistan as East Pakistan. According to Najam
Sethi, a well-respected and honoured journalist from Pakistan, East Pakistan always
complained that they received less development funds and less attention from the West
Pakistan (Punjabi) dominating government. Bengalis in East Pakistan also resisted the
adoption of Urdu as the state language.
The revenue from export, whether it was from the Cotton of West Pakistan or Jute of East
Pakistan, was handled mainly by West Pakistan. Lastly, in an election conducted just some
months before the war, the victory was gained by the East Pakistani leader and still he was
not given the power, thus fueling the movement in East Pakistan.
Pakistani army started its operation in East Pakistan to contain the movement and anger
among the Bengalis. It is reported that the army was involved in mass killing of public and
mass rape of women. India was aware of this and was only waiting for a trigger to start the
war. India started receiving huge number of refugees which became unmanageable, pushing
it to intervene in the situation.
In May, Indira Gandhi wrote to Nixon about the ‘carnage in East Bengal’ and the flood of
refugees, burdening India. After L K Jha (then the Indian ambassador to US) had warned
Kissinger that India might have to send back some of the refugees as guerrillas, Nixon
commented, ‘By God, we will cut off economic aid [to India].’
Indian, Bangladeshi and international sources consider the beginning of the war to have been
Operation Chengiz Khan, when Pakistan launched pre-emptive air strikes on 11 Indian
airbases on 3 December 1971, leading to India's entry into the war of independence in East
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Pakistan on the side of Bangladeshi nationalist forces, and the commencement of hostilities
with West Pakistan. Lasting just 13 days, it is considered to be one of the shortest wars in
history.
Pakistan’s Lt.General A.A.K. Niazi signing instrument of surrender in presence of India’s Lt.
General Arora.
The war effectively came to an end after the Eastern Command of the Pakistani Armed Forces
signed the Instrument of Surrender, on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the liberation
of the new nation of Bangladesh.
Foreign involvement:
• The Soviet Union sympathized with the Bangladeshis, and supported the Indian Army
and Mukti Bahini during the war, recognizing that the independence of Bangladesh
would weaken the position of its rivals—the United States and China. The USSR gave
assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed,
it would take counter-measures. This assurance was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet
Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in August 1971.
• The United States supported Pakistan both politically and materially. They needed
Pakistan to help stop Soviet expansion into South Asia in informal alliance with India.
Pakistan was a close formal ally of the United States and was also on good terms with
People's Republic of China. US sympathized with Pakistan, because of various reasons.
Among them two reasons were that: firstly, Pakistan belonged to American led
military Pact, CENTO and SEATO; secondly, US believed any victory of India will be
considered as the expansion of Soviet influence in the parts gained by India with the
victory, as it was believed to be a pro Soviet nation, even though they were
nonaligned.
• Srilanka: Pakistani Aircraft destined to East Pakistan flew taking a round of India via
Sri Lanka, since they could not fly over Indian sky. This forced Pakistan to get its
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aircrafts refueled on the way. Sri Lanka eager to help Pakistan, allowed Pakistani
aircrafts for refueling at the Bandaranaike airport.
• China: As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with
alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West
Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack
was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border
with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this
encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War when India was caught
entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight
mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.
Consequences:
• The war stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population and with nearly one-
third of its army in captivity, clearly established India's military dominance of the
subcontinent.
• The cost of the war for Pakistan in monetary and human resources was very high.
General Yahya Khan surrendered power to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who was sworn-in on
20 December 1971 as President and as the (first civilian) Chief Martial Law
Administrator.
• Bangladesh became an independent nation, the world's fourth most populous Muslim
state. Mujibur Rahman was released from a West Pakistani prison, returning to Dhaka
on 10 January 1972 and becoming the first President of Bangladesh and later it’s Prime
Minister.
• These events added to the popularity of Indira Gandhi. Even the opposition leaders
admired her statesmanship. Her party swept through all the State Assembly elections
held in 1972.
JALTA PUNJAB
‘Englishman has gone [sic], but our liberty has not come. For us the so-called liberty is simply
change of masters, black for white. Under the garb of democracy and secularism our Panth,
our liberty and our religion are being crushed.’ – Master Tara Singh (Akali Dal)
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During the 1980s, Punjab was engulfed by a separatist movement which was transformed into
a campaign of terror and which has been aptly described by some as a low-intensity war and
a dangerous crisis for the Indian nation.
The Khalistan movement is a Sikh nationalist movement that wants to create an independent
state for Sikh people, via armed struggle or political, inside the current North-Western
Republic of India Such a state existed in Punjab from 1709 to 1849. This Sikh Empire had its
capital in Lahore, Pakistan. Most of historical Sikh empire is now part of Pakistan. Lahore,
Multan, Peshawar and Pakistan adminstrated Kashmir were part of the Sikh empire. Pakistani
Punjab, FATA and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa were major part of the Sikh empire. The new state
created would be called Khalistan (Derived from Guru Gobind Singh’s Khalsa, which was
derived from a Persian word ‘Khalis’ meaning ‘Pure’) in the modern territories of Eastern
Pakistan and Western India. Its capital would be Lahore or possibly Amritsar.
Separatist Khalistan Flag

The genesis of the problem lay in the growth of communalism in Punjab in the course of the
twentieth century and, in particular, since 1947, and which erupted into extremism,
separatism and terrorism after 1980.
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Akalis were that of opinion that Sikhs were being continuously subjected to discrimination,
oppression, persecution, humiliation and victimization, and that there were all sorts of
conspiracies against them. There was also constant anti-Hindu rhetoric. Hindus were accused
of designs to dominate Sikhs, of imposing Brahminical tyranny over them, and of threatening
their ‘Sikh identity’.
Denying the ideal of a secular polity, the Akalis asserted that religion and politics could not be
separated as the two were essentially combined in Sikhism. They also claimed that the Akali
Dal was the sole representative of the Sikh Panth which was defined as a combination of the
Sikh religion and the political and other secular interests of all Sikhs.
Interestingly, no evidence other than that of the denial of the Punjabi Suba was offered for
this long list of grievances. The only concrete allegation regarding discrimination against Sikhs
in government service was found to be baseless by a commission appointed by Nehru in 1961.
The political scientist Baldev Raj Nayar was to point out in 1966 that though Sikhs ‘are less
than 2 percent of the Indian population, they constitute about 20 per cent of the Indian army,
have double their proportionate share in the Indian administrative services, and that in the
Punjab their share in the services, as also in the legislature, the cabinet, and the Congress
Party organisation, is higher than their proportion in the population (of the state)’.
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POST 1947 COMMUNALISM

There were two major points of contentions, which in themselves were secular in nature, but
were communalized by Sikhs and Hindus.
The State Language issue: The Hindu communalists wanted this status for Hindi and the Sikh
communalists for Punjabi in the Gurmukhi script.
The government tried to resolve the problem by dividing Punjab into two— Punjabi and
Hindi—linguistic zones. But the Hindu communalists opposed the decisions to make the study
of Punjabi, along with Hindi, compulsory in all schools and Punjabi being made the only official
language for district administration in the Punjabi linguistic zone.
The issue of Punjabi Suba:

This issue became more divisive. After it was decided that states will be divided on linguistic
lines, many intellectuals were of opinion to have a Punjabi speaking Punjab and Hindi
speaking Haryana. SRC rejected the demand saying that the two languages are very similar
and separate states are not required.
However, the Akali Dal under the leadership of Master Tara Singh soon organized a powerful
agitation around the demand for the formation of a Punjabi Suba. Giving the demand a
blatantly communal character, the Akali Dal alleged that the non-acceptance of the demand
was an act of discrimination against Sikhs
Approach of Nehru towards Initial Sikh Communalism:

Nehru adopted three basic rules for dealing with militant agitations and their demands: no
negotiations or political transactions with the leaders of a movement or acceptance of their
demands if they had secessionist tendencies, if they took recourse to violence, or based their
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movement or demands on religion or communalism. Nehru was more than aware of the
fascist character of extreme communalism, including its Akali variety under Master Tara
Singh’s leadership. At the same time, Nehru, being very sensitive to the feelings of the
minorities, tried to conciliate the Akalis by accommodating, as far as possible, their secular
demands.
Nehru refused to concede the demand for a Punjabi Suba mainly because of its communal
underpinnings. He felt that the acceptance of a communal demand would threaten the
secular fabric of the state and society. Nor was there a broad consensus in the state on the
demand. Apart from a large section of Hindus, two stalwart Sikh leaders of the Congress,
Pratap Singh Kairon and Darbara Singh, were bitterly opposed to the demand, as it was
communal.
However, the way for the creation of a Punjabi Suba in consonance with Nehru’s criteria was
cleared by two later developments. First, Sant Fateh Singh, who ousted Master Tara Singh
from the leadership of the SGPC and the Akali Dal, declared that the demand for a Punjabi
Suba was entirely language based. Second, major political and social organizations in Haryana
demanded a separate Hindi-speaking state and those in Kangra asked for its merger with
Himachal Pradesh. Consequently, in March 1966, Indira Gandhi, the prime minister,
announced that Punjab would be split into two states: Punjabi-speaking Punjab and Hindi-
speaking Haryana, with Kangra being merged with Himachal Pradesh.
Militancy in Punjab
After the demand of Punjab Suba was met along with majority of Akali demands, Akali Dal
was left with no political agenda. It was left with two options:
• To remain a purely religious organisation. This would have meant a political suicide.
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• To remain active in politics by digging in new agenda. This was only possible by stirring
communal feelings.
According to Akali Dal, despite the formation of a Punjab, the Sikh community felt alienated
with in India. They put forward a resolution to address all grievances they had with the Indian
state. In 1973, the Sikhs put forward the Anandpur Sahib Resolution.
Within this resolution were issues including both religious and political concerns. From easy
issues of recognising Sikhism as a religion to allowing all states within India to set local state
level policies and not be forced to get permission from the central government. The Anandpur
Resolution was rejected by the government but the religious leader Jarnail Singh
Bhindranwale joined the Akali Dal to launch the Dharam Yudh Morcha in 1982, a peaceful
march, in order to implement Anandpur Sahib resolution. Thousands of people joined the
movement, feeling that it represented a real solution to demands such as a larger share of
water for irrigation and the return of Chandigarh to Punjab.
The Congress government decided to repress the mass agitation with a heavy hand; over a
hundred people were killed in the police firings. The security forces arrested over 30,000 Sikhs
in two-and-a-half months. After this, Bhindranwale suggested it was time for a militant
approach with the help of arms and weapons to solve the problems of majority Punjab
population leading to the beginning of the insurgency.
Since then, more than 11,500 people have lost their life to Terrorism in Punjab.
Indira Gandhi and Terrorism

Instead of boldly confronting the communal and separatist challenge to the Indian polity,
Indira Gandhi gave way to indecisiveness; her response, uncharacteristic of her political style,
was to dither and vacillate between a policy of appeasement and tactical manoeuvring and
firmness.
She refused to take strong action against terrorist killings for three long y ears, from 1981 to
1984, or to fight extreme communalism, ideologically and politically, and to counter
communal propaganda effectively. She also did not realize that there was a basic difference
between paying heed to minority feelings and appeasing minority communalism.
The result of the weak-kneed policy followed by Indira Gandhi was to send wrong signals to
secessionists and the terrorists as well as to the people of Punjab. As K.P.S. Gill, former
Director General of police in Punjab who directed the successful phase of the antiterrorist
campaign there has pointed out:
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‘Nothing encourages the terrorists to greater audacity than the spectacle of weakness in
the political leadership, and of confusion in the security forces.’
Pakistan’s Involvement:
An increasingly dangerous feature of the situation was Pakistan’s growing involvement in
Punjab affairs. As a part of its strategy of waging low-intensity warfare against India, Pakistan
had started providing training, weapons, ideological indoctrination, safe areas for hiding, and
military guidance to terrorist organizations. Certain extremist Sikh groups abroad were also
giving increasing encouragement to the secessionists and helping them with money and
weapons.
By June 1984, the situation had reached an explosive point as terrorist activity escalated.
There was in Punjab and in the country as a whole an intense feeling of danger to the peace
and unity of the country. Fear and panic were spreading among Hindus in Punjab with an
increasing number leaving the state. More and more Gurudwaras were being fortified and
turned into arsenals. Clearly, a situation of insurgency was building up in Punjab. At the same
time, the government was losing its prestige and getting discredited.
Operation Blue Star
It was common for Militants to make Gurudwaras as their operation center.
Operation Bluestar which occurred between 3–8 June 1984 was an Indian military operation,
ordered by Indira Gandhi, then Prime Minister of India, to eliminate Jarnail Singh
Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale was accused
of amassing weapons in the Sikh temple and starting a major armed uprising.
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The government seemed unable to stop the violence in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi. Indira
Gandhi ordered the army to storm the temple complex in Punjab. Operation Blue Star was a
mixed success. A variety of army units along with paramilitary forces surrounded the temple
complex on 3 June 1984. The army kept asking the militants to surrender, using the public
address system. The militants were asked to send the pilgrims out of the temple premises to
safety, before they start fighting the army. However, nothing happened till 7 PM.
Reports of Indian Army Soldiers tying up civilians with their turbans and shooting them in their
backs were not uncommon. The attack also took place on a Sikh Holy Day, when there were
an extra 150,000 -200,000 civilians. The army had grossly underestimated the firepower
possessed by the militants. Thus, tanks and heavy artillery were used to forcefully suppress
the anti-tank and machine-gun fire. After a 24-hour firefight, the army finally wrested control
of the temple complex. According to the Indian Army, 136 army personnel were killed and
249 injured. While insurgent casualties were 493 killed and 86 injured. Unofficial figures go
well into the thousands. Along with insurgents, many innocent worshipers were caught in the
crossfire. The estimates of innocent people killed in the operation range from a few hundreds
of people.
Operation Blue Star produced a deep sense of anger and outrage among Sikhs all over the
country. It was seen by most of them as a sacrilege and an affront to the community rather
than as a necessary though unpleasant effort to deal with Bhindranwale and the terrorists.
While much of the hostile reaction to the operation represented an emotional outburst, there
was a great deal to be said for its critics who held that some other way than the military
storming of the temple should have been found. Later, critics were to point to the success of
the skillfully planned and executed Operation Black Thunder in 1988 which forced the
terrorists, once again occupying the temple in a manner similar to that of 1984, to surrender
to the police in a relatively bloodless fashion.
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However, despite its many negative repercussions, Operation Blue Star had certain positive
features. It established that the Indian state was strong enough to deal with secession and
terrorism; it put an end to the charismatic Bhindranwale and his gang; and it created that
minimum of law and order which enabled secular parties such as the Congress, CPI and CPM
to move among the angry people and counter communal politics by explaining to them that
the real responsibility for the Punjab situation lay with Bhindranwale, the terrorists, and the
Akali communalists.
Anti – Sikh Riots
Following Operation Blue Star, the terrorists vowed vengeance against Indira Gandhi and her
family for having desecrated the Golden Temple. On the morning of 31 October 1984, Indira
Gandhi was assassinated by two Sikh members of her security guard. Earlier she had rejected
her security chief’s suggestion that all Sikhs be removed from her security staff
‘Aren’t we all secular?’
The assassination of the popular Prime Minister, in an atmosphere of heightened

communalization in North India during 1981–84, led to a wave of horror, fear, anger and
communal outrage among people all over the country, especially among the poor.
This anger took an ugly and communal form in Delhi and some other parts of North India,
where anti-Sikh riots broke out as soon as the news of the assassination was announced and
the highly exaggerated rumour spread that many Sikhs were celebrating the event. In
particular, for three-day s from the evening of 31 October itself mobs took over the streets of
Delhi and made Sikhs targets of their loot and violence. There was complete failure of the law
and order machinery in giving protection to Sikhs and their property.
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The three-day violence in Delhi resulted in the death of over 2,500 people, mostly Sikhs, with
the slums and resettlement colonies of Delhi being the main scenes of carnage. The
November riots further alienated a large number of Sikhs from the government.
Rajiv Gandhi succeeded Indira Gandhi as prime minister on 1 November 1984. He moved
quickly after the general elections in December 1984 to tackle the Punjab problem. In January
1985, the major jailed leaders, including the Akali Dal president, H.S. Longowal, were
released.
A month later Rajiv Gandhi ordered an independent judicial enquiry into the November riots.
The political tide in Punjab was also turning in a positive direction despite Operation Blue Star
and the November riots. The terrorists were down and out and the Akalis had lost a great deal
of their credibility.
Moreover, though the Akalis were not willing to fight the terrorists, they were no longer
helping them. Rajiv Gandhi soon initiated negotiations with the Akali leaders in the belief that
a settlement with them would provide a lasting solution to the Punjab problem. The result of
this policy, however, was that the advantage accruing from Operation Blue Star was lost, the
fight against terrorism and communalism virtually abandoned, and the latter given a new
lease of life.
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Indo –Pak Kargil War 1999
After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, there had been a long period with relatively few direct
armed conflicts involving the military forces of the two neighbors – notwithstanding the
efforts of both nations to control the Siachen Glacier by establishing military outposts on the
surrounding mountains ridges and the resulting military skirmishes in the 1980s.
During the 1990s, however, escalating tensions and conflict due to separatist activities in
Kashmir, some of which were supported by Pakistan, as well as the conducting of nuclear
tests by both countries in 1998, led to an increasingly belligerent atmosphere. In an attempt
to defuse the situation, both countries signed the Lahore Declaration in February 1999,
promising to provide a peaceful and bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict.
Three major phases to the Kargil War:
• First, Pakistan infiltrated forces into the Indian-controlled section of Kashmir and
occupied strategic locations enabling it to bring NH1 within range of its artillery fire.
• The next stage consisted of India discovering the infiltration and mobilizing forces to
respond to it.
• The final stage involved major battles by Indian and Pakistani forces resulting in India
recapturing most of the territories held by Pakistani forces and the subsequent
withdrawal of Pakistani forces back across the Line of Control after international
pressure.
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Role of Media:
Media played a very crucial role in making public opinion across the world and also boosting
the moral of the soldiers. It became the first live war of South Asia.
The conflict soon turned into a news propaganda war, in which press briefings given by
government officials of each nation produced conflicting claims and counterclaims. The Indian
government placed a temporary news embargo on information from Pakistan, banning the
telecast of the state-run Pakistani channel PTV and blocking access to online editions of the
Dawn newspaper.
As the war progressed, media coverage of the conflict was more intense in India than in
Pakistan. Reasons for India's increased coverage included the greater number of privately-
owned electronic media in India compared to Pakistan and relatively greater transparency in
the Indian media. At a seminar in Karachi, Pakistani journalists agreed that while the Indian
government had taken the press and the people into its confidence, Pakistan had not.
The international media was also largely sympathetic to Indian cause and blamed Pakistan for
the conflict.
Consequences:
• From the end of the war until February 2000, the Indian stock market rose by more
than 30%.
• The next Indian national budget included major increases in military spending. India
increased its defence budget as it sought to acquire more state-of-the-art equipment.
• All ties with Pakistan were severed. India also decided to complete the project of
fencing the LOC initially stalled by Pakistan.
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• Atal Bihari Vajpayee government set up an inquiry into its causes and to analyze
perceived Indian intelligence failures. The committee's final report (also referred to as
the "Subrahmanyam Report") led to a large-scale restructuring of Indian Intelligence.
• Indo-U.S. relations improved, as the United States appreciated Indian attempts to
restrict the conflict to a limited geographic area.
• Relations with Israel—which had discreetly aided India with ordnance supply and
materiel such as unmanned aerial vehicles, laser-guided bombs, and satellite
imagery—also were bolstered.
Kargil war memorial or the Drass memorial:

The Kargil War memorial, built by the Indian Army, is located in Dras, in the foothills of the
Tololing Hill. The memorial, located about 5 km from the city centre across the Tiger Hill,
commemorates the martyrs of the Kargil War. The poem, “Pushp ki Abhilasha” is inscribed
on the gateway of the memorial.
A museum has also been established to commemorate “Operation Vijay”. Many war pictures,
documents, emblems, gears of Pakistani army etc. are displayed for general public.
Note- Land Reforms and related issues will be separately covered in GS Paper-3 VAN.
Follow the Mains Practice Questions sincerely to know how UPSC frames questions on the
expected dimensions.
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MAINS QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Q.) Many feared that India would balkanise after independence. Why didn’t it happen?
Examine the factors that kept India together.
India is land of diversity in terms of language, religions, ethnic groups, culture, and
physiography. Despite this, there was always an underlying unity amidst diversity. After
independence, it was commented that India would balkanize because of its rich diversity as
• Before India, most nations were constructed on the basis of a shared language, a single
religion and a common enemy - or all of the above. This nation, however, had large
populations of all the major faiths, while its citizens spoke many languages, written in
different scripts.
• Also, before India, democracy had never been attempted in a poor and largely
illiterate country. Universal adult franchise with 85% of voters being illiterate.
Presence of multiple religions, multiple caste system, and ethnic groups would break
down social unity in a democratic system where groups compete with each other for
access to resources, power.
• Presence of princely states (around 560) will hinder integration.
Hence, India was seen as ‘unlikely nation’ meant to disintegrate. However, division did not
happen due to
• Strong leadership at the centre. Ex: Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhai Patel.
• Feeling of nationalism which was strengthened during freedom struggle.
• Fear of consequences of partition.
Our national leaders were aware of difficulties that would arise in the future and hence
carefully used various means to protect unity of India which have so far held India together.
• Strong center in terms of finance, legislative and administrative powers.
Ex: suppression of Khalistan movement in 1980’s.
• Enough autonomy being given to states and presence of institutional mechanisms to
safeguard their interests. Ex: state list, independent judiciary.
• Accommodating regional aspirations. Ex: flexible constitution with provisions like
371j, 35A; Reorganisation of states on linguistic lines, Non-imposition of Hindi.
• Focus on development of nation as a whole by taking care of backward states and
regions. Ex: Finance commission, special category status that was accorded, regional
planning approaches.
• Being multi-religious country, equidistance of state from all religions prevented
division of society on religious lines. Ex: Article 25-28.
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Today, factors such as economic forces, sports, movies have further strengthened national
feeling. Though examples of divisive tendencies exist, there has always been relative harmony
and unity in the country if not absolute.
Q.) Do you think the Kashmir issue could have been dealt differently and more effectively
after independence? What went wrong in deciding the Kashmir question? Critically
examine.
Kashmir an erstwhile princely state opted to remain independent post-partition. It was only
after Pakistan’s infiltrators entering J&K that the King decided to sign Instrument of accession
with India.
Dimensions of the Kashmir issue:

• Dispute between India and Pakistan- Infiltration, insurgency and terrorism being
promoted by Pakistan.
• ‘Kashmiriyat’- People of J&K demanding political autonomy leading to separatists
demands.
How was Kashmir issue dealt with after independence?
• As per the British policy of allowing states to decide on its own about its status post-
independence- join India or join Pakistan or remaining independent, princely ruler of
J&K decided to stay autonomous.
• After infiltration by Pakistanis, the Instrument of Accession was signed between ruler
of princely state J&K and Indian government.
• India going by the principle of democracy (not ruling against people’s wishes) decided
to frame a separate constitution for J&K state. Article 370 under Indian constitution
guaranteed special status for the state. Restrictions were imposed on outsiders
entering the state.
How could the situation be dealt differently and more effectively?

• During the accession of state to India, it was decided that except for defence, foreign
affairs, finance and communications, Parliament needs the state government's
concurrence for applying all other laws.
• India could have avoided this. The government could have bargained for more.
The accession could have been framed in a way it was done for other princely states
like Junagadh.
• India took the issue of Pakistan’s infiltration to UN. It is many a times seen as a mistake
on part of Indian government. India could have resolved the matter on its own.
• Further to gain the confidence of the local people, the government should have
focused on empowering them economically and bringing in political stability.
Implementation of AFSP has further crated distress among the people.
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India needs to frame an inclusive policy involving all stakeholders to gain trust and confidence
among people. Recent sworn in of Mr Imran Khan as Pakistan’s Prime Minister, provides
enough scope to start the discussions on resolving the Kashmir issue afresh. Given the
complexity of the issue, involvement of all stakeholders including the local people, should be
sought for. The issue should be resolved without any further delay.
Q.) Was underestimating and understating Chinese adventurism in the late 1950s a strategic
miscalculation? Substantiate your viewpoint.
The Republic of India and the People’s Republic of China both emerged as newly established
nation-states at the end of the 1940s, putting behind them decades of prolonged strife and
struggle.
Endowed with huge, predominantly agrarian populations, burdened with widespread

poverty, and possessing economies with underdeveloped and tiny industrial sectors, they
faced daunting challenges to governance and development. Both countries were also multi-
ethnic, multi-cultural societies that had inherited a variety of border problems and suffered
some degree of territorial dismemberment.
India’s miscalculations and understating towards Chinese adventurism in 1950’s:

• UNSC support: India extended its unequivocal support and was one of the first
countries to recognize communist china. India also lobbied for the UN Security Council
membership for communist china, which the western world has given to the
nationalist china (Taiwan).
• The Tibet Question: Tibet, which was a British protectorate till 1950 and enjoyed de
facto independence, was forcefully occupied by china in October 1950. India did not
press upon its special rights over Tibet and accepted the Chinese position on Tibet, as
the Tibet had been culturally a part of China, apart from the period when Tibet came
under the influence of imperialism.
• In 1959, in the aftermath of a Tibetan uprising against Chinese high handedness, the
14th Dalai Lama fled to India. Since then India has granted asylum to the Dalai Lama
and the Tibetan government in exile.
• India maintains that Dalai Lama is just an honoured guest and India unequivocally
recognizes Tibet as the part of china. For china, the asylum to the Dalai Lama is an
Indian tactic of keeping the issue of Tibetan sovereignty alive.
• Panchsheel agreement: In 1954 the famous panchsheel agreement (five principles of
the peaceful coexistence) was signed between India and China, in which India officially
recognized Chinese sovereignty over Tibet.
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• McMahon line issue: In the east China rejected to accept the McMahon line, which
was accepted as the boundary between the Tibet and India in the Shimla conference
of 1914.
• China contends that in the conference the Chinese representative never signed the
agreement and the Tibet being the part of China did not have any rights to sign treaties
independently.
• In the eastern sector, China started claiming the whole of NEFA, on the pretext that it
was the part of southern Tibet and Tawang town has cultural and Buddhist links with
Tibet and china, & also the area became part of the British India only after the
demarcation of the McMahon line.
• NAM: Nehru was on a mission of uniting the third world countries under the umbrella
of the non-aligned movement. India’s increasing clout, as some strategic thinkers
believe, was causing some heartburn to Chinese leaders.
In 1961, china occupied some Indian administered areas in the eastern sector. In response
India resorted to ‘forward policy’, which was interpreted by china as a manifestation of Indian
expansionist intentions.
Chinese army launched a simultaneous offensive in Ladakh and NEFA in October 1962. The
advancing Chinese acquired several territories in Ladakh and the Tawang in the eastern
sector. On November 20, 1962 china announced unilateral ceasefire and withdrew from all
disputed territories.
Since 1962, India china relations have been overshadowed by scars of the war of 1962. The
sense of hurt national pride in India, that it caused, has made any confidence building exercise
meaningless.
Q.) What role have Cricket and Bollywood played in post-independence consolidation?
Illustrate.
Sports and Cinema have played a huge role in inculcating National feelings, Unity and
Brotherhood among India. They also had a role in Post-independence consolidation. How
Cricket and Bollywood played a role in post-independence consolidation:
Cricket:
• It brought people across various caste and class to play under one team. From
Maharajas to commoners.
• It made people from various regions to come together, watch matches and cheer for
players irrespective of their regional origins.
• With each victory and loss, people rejoiced or felt sad as if it’s their own.
• It broke caste, creed, regional and Gender barriers and made people come together
as part of one country.
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• With movement of players from one state to another, representing states different
from one’s origin, it has played a huge role in Cultural exchanges and bringing people
together.
• From being a mere sport, it has got transformed into a status of Religion among
country men.
Cinema:
• “Cinema is a reflection of the society”. This statement holds true for Indian cinema
which has been showcasing the various events of their times and past also. Be it the
Oscar nominated movie Mother India which presented the hardships of a newly
independent but poor and largely agrarian economy. Movies like Do Bigha Zameen
highlighted the botched-up land reforms that took place after independence.
• From time to time, movies on India’s struggle for her independence such as Gandhi,
Lagaan etc. are made to remind people of India’s past so as to appreciate the present.
Movies like Haqeeqat, Border depict the wars India has had with her neighbors. The
1990s saw the rise of Kashmir militancy and movies like Dil Se, Mission Kashmir tried
to capture the same.
• Cinema on sports personalities like Milkha Singh and Mary Kom inspires many. Chak
De India movie inspired to break free from regional barriers and come together to
represent one India. Plight of rural folks have been well shown in cinema like Peepli
live.
Both Cinema and Sports are part of leisure activities and promoting both will be economical
and emotionally fulfilling. Both reflect the aspirations of society and act as a uniting factor
cutting across geographical, language, and caste barriers.
Q.) The general election of 1967 was a watershed in India's political history? Do you agree?
Substantiate.
The general election of 1967 was held at the backdrop of Indo-China war 1962 and Indo-Pak
war of 1965.It was the first election that took place after the all-important, pioneering and
hegemonic "Nehruvian" era.
The period was an important transition in the history of India's Post Independence history.
India survived the decade of 1960s which Selig Harrison called as a "Dangerous decade"-which
has predicted the disintegration of India.
The election of 1967 was watershed in India's Post Independence history due to the following
factors
• Decline of Congress System

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o After Congress being synonymous with India and India with Congress, the vote
share of Congress came down drastically for the first time after Independence
o Local Parties even formed government in many areas
• Rise of Coalition Politics
o Until now, the Congress was very hegemonic in its approach-gaining complete
majority on most occasions.
o But, almost 20 years later after Independence- various coalition parties came
up against the Congress
o eg- DMK, Communist parties.
• Rise of Middle-Class Peasants
o Due to Green Revolution and importance given to agriculture after the initial
years of Independence, the economic condition of peasants improved.
• Split of Congress
o The Congress, with differences in ideologies split into two groups-the group
which was headed by Indira Gandhi has more support base.
• Politics of defection
o Increase in horse trading, rise of lot of small parties
• First Election after 1965 and 1967 war
o The spirit of nationalism and integration was reinstated due to the two wars.
o The spirit of Nationalism was at its peak
• Anti-Incumbency
o The prolonged Congress rule and the Nehru Era, through had many positives
put India into the mouth of two wars.
o People criticized Nehru for the same and started looking for alternatives.
• Creation of Multi-Party Democracy in India.
o Indian democracy was feared going the China way, but downfall of Congress
and growing of Coalition politics came to India's rescue
o Multiple viewpoints, multiple ideas started getting to be recognized.
o We started to become more tolerant to different world views.
• Religious fanaticism was on rise.
o The Hindu-Muslim divide kept on rising.
o Political instabilities added to Polarization, leading to further fragmentation.
Thus, due to the kind of unique challenges that India faced during the elections of 1967- rising
from the "Nehruvian era", facing many questions which in itself questioned the entire
existence of Indian democracy- 1967 Elections were a "Watershed" in the history of India.
However, India survived this phase due to its resilience and spirit of accommodation. The
phase rather built a strong foundation of India's democracy in times to come.
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Q.) Do you think the rhetoric of ‘gareebi hatao’ has remained nothing more than electoral
sloganeering for the political parties in India? Critically comment.
Garibi Hatao desh bachao ("Abolish poverty, save the nation") was the theme and slogan of
Indira Gandhi's 1971 election bid. It was part of the 5th Five-Year Plan.
The programs created through garibi hatao, though carried out locally, were funded,
developed, supervised, and staffed by Government officials.
It did little and accomplished less: only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic
development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever
reached the 'poorest of the poor'. Since 1971 the ‘gareebi hatao’ rhetoric has been adopted
in each general election since then by the political parties.
Nothing more than a rhetoric:

• Rather than focusing of poverty eradication, the programmes have largely focused on
creating buzz so as to generate huge vote bank. Unrealistic policies were framed.
• The definition of ‘poor’ in India is yet not defined properly. Having anti-poverty
programmes in such a case is bound to be ineffective.
• Poor remains to be most vulnerable.
‘Gareebi hatao’ is not just a rhetoric:

• Several Indians have escaped the clutches of extreme poverty. In fact, about 44
Indians come out of extreme poverty every minute, one of the fastest rates of poverty
reduction.
• Social indicators like Infant Mortality Rate, stunting, undernourishment etc. has
improved over time.
• Programmers like MNREGA has truly empowered rural people.
Way forward:
• Redefining the definition of poverty. Poverty lines have to be recalibrated depending
on changes in income, consumption patterns and prices.
• Bottom up planning.
• The Indian political, policy and administrative systems have to adjust to the new
realities of the transition to a middle- income country, in which poverty does not mean
living at the edge of hunger but, rather, lack of income to take advantage of the
opportunities thrown up by a growing economy.
• Programmers like Skill India mission, Make in India campaign, PMAY and MUDRA
yojana should be implemented effectively.
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Poverty reduction is a gradual process. The governments have been undertaking various anti-
poverty programmes. It is time the definition of poverty is refined and the issue is tackled
holistically.
Q.) Do you think the coalition governments in India’s post-independence history remained
an epitome of a dysfunctional system? Substantiate your viewpoint.
Coalition governments in India emerged after the Nehruvian era in 1967, when Congress
alone was not able to fetch the required majority in Lok Sabha. It started as an exception to
form a government in the absence of majority but has now taken the form of a rule where it
has become a mandatory condition to garner support of regional parties.
These governments faced various challenges like:

• Political Instability: Very short tenure of governments at the Centre from 1995-1999.
• Wastage of resources: To appease coalition partners, extra ministerial posts and
departments are created, which leads to wastage of resources and duplication of
efforts.
• Lack of co-ordination: Regional parties are often concerned with their own interests
rather than the entire nation’s leading to conflict in decision making and policy
paralysis.
Despite several shortcomings, coalitions have central positive aspects like

• Representation of minority voices: Regional parties can voice their concerns and the
respective issues get national attention; e.g. Tamil issue raised by DMK at the Centre.
• Prevention of monopolistic behavior: Various parties in coalition act as checks and
balances for each other thus preventing monopoly of a single party.
• Ensures balanced regional development: Areas from where regional parties belong get
proper attention.
• Democratic decision-making: Views of all partners are considered before taking any
major decision.
Coalitions have become a necessary evil in case of India due to their representation to varied
interests in diverse Indian society. However, certain checks, like introduction of Tenth
schedule, are required to ensure smooth functioning of government machinery.
Q.) Enumerate the major achievements of India during the Vajpayee era.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the first Prime Minister in the non-Congress era to complete his full
term, a visionary, one of India's most celebrated statesman, an outstanding orator and a
staunch Nationalist recently breathed his last.
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The tenure of this three-time Prime Minister of India took India towards the road for multi-
dimensional development. From giving a major boost to the Infrastructure of India, to making
India nuclear capable, improving India's foreign relations, strengthening internal security of
India to a serious attempt to solve the Kashmir problem- India remains indebted to the sincere
efforts of this workaholic Indian Prime Minister.
The major achievements during "Vajpayee era" can be categorized into the following
categories -
• Political Reforms
o His reign lead to advent of Multi-party rule in India.
o A Coalition Government completing the complete tenure was new experiment
in India's democratic history.
o Schedule 10 related to Anti Defection law was strengthened.
• Economic Reforms
o GDP growth remained high of about 6-7%.
o The speed of FDIs took off to great extent.
o The Fiscal Responsibility Act was introduced during his tenure, which aimed to
reduce fiscal deficit.
o The public sector savings were boosted to a great extent.
o The involvement of Governments involvement in starting a private business
was reduced in India.
o Separate entities were established for disinvestment.
• Infrastructural Development
o He initiated Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana.
o Laid the foundation of "The Golden Quadrilateral" project.
o Sanction of "Delhi Metro Rail Corporation".
o Introduced the New Telecom Policy, which later lead to Telecom Revolution in
India.
• Defense
o He effectively lead India through the Kargil War.
o Carried out Nuclear Tests in Pokhran, which lead to India being a responsible
Nuclear power.
o India's deterrence increased to a great extent.
• Kashmir Issue
o He looked positively at the Kashmir issue.
o The Sensitivities with respect to Kashmir were increased.
o He gave the slogan of "Insaniyat, Kashmiriyat and Jamuriyat".
o He was considered to be a Peace Maker, he even started Bus Service to Lahore.
• Foreign Policy
o He was known for his Pragmatism.
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o He took India out from the Hesitations of History.

o He shifted India's focus from Russia to United States of America.
o He strengthened India's relations with Israel, by calling it India's natural ally.
• Cooperative Federalism
o He strengthened good relations with all the states.
o Being a Statesman, he had good relations with all the state governments.
o He taught Indians the way of looking above politics of the day and have a
common Nationalistic agenda.
o He said, that government were just part of the process of evolution
and development of India.
Thus, under Vajpayee era, India announced its arrival at the world stage with nuclear power,
fast growing economy, having a very good relation with most nations throughout the world.
Hence, it can be said that this Poet Prime Minister wrote the saga of New Rising India at the
dawn of 21st Century.
Q.) In post-independent India, Populism has not only harmed India’s Democracy but also
bypassed the measures related to checks and balances. Comment
At its root, populism is a belief in the power of regular people, and in their right to have control
over their government rather than a small group of political insiders or wealthy elite. It is
widely perceived by political parties that providing individual benefits is the surest way to win
over voters, especially the poor.
In Indian scenario:
• This perception is in accordance with our political tradition that is directed more at
the individual voter than interest groups. Indian politics is replete with numerous
examples of political parties competing in promising individual benefits such as social
welfare pensions, loan waivers, housing, Rs2 rice, free power, etc. This list is now
expanding rapidly to include modern consumer durables such as television sets,
cellphones and refrigerators.
Negative effects of populism:

• Such individual-centric promises are a natural progression from the well-documented
practice of purchasing votes by allurements of liquor and cash. Political parties now
see an opportunity to formalize and institutionalize such allurement and regard the
median voter as a commodity to be purchased in the political marketplace. The result
is an increasing trend towards competitive populism, targeted at the individual voter
and pandering to the lowest common denominator, which threatens to engulf our
polity like cancer.
• Political commentators and opinion makers express righteous indignation and anger
at competitive populism, and demand putting an end to it. Economists despair about
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its consequences on the fiscal balance. But it may be facile to assume that populism
can be eliminated.
Growing populism around the globe:

• The populism of far right-right parties, on the rise in Europe, and that of Donald Trump
is not to be confused with this sort of populism. It is something else altogether. The
populism that we see in the West, which brought leaders like Trump to power, is
fiercely anti-government. That is a crucial distinction.
How populism bypasses check and balances:

• Populism is a threat to democracy primarily because it holds the potential of providing
the state with a moral status that it otherwise lacks. Once the state turns into the
embodiment of the virtuous people the defense mechanisms developed against
tyranny, such as freedoms, checks and balances, the rule of law, tolerance,
autonomous social institutions, individual and group rights, or pluralism, are inevitably
under threat. Populism has no programme for self-limitation once the liberation of
the oppressed people is achieved.
• The second, and in advanced democracies more relevant, negative aspect of populism
is that it undermines the civility of the relations among citizens. It erodes the respect
for the dignity of political opponents and of minority groups and weakens the culture
of reasoned debates.
To conclude, the size of the negative impact of populism on democracy varies, but it is always
more than zero.
Q.) Critically examine the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan Jai Vigyan” in the present-day
technological revolution.
Jai Jawan Jai Kisan was a slogan given by the former Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur
Shastri in 1965 at a public gathering in Delhi.
The Indian soldiers were successfully fighting and defending India from Pakistani infiltrators
who penetrated into India in Jammu & Kashmir with valour, patriotism. Slogan was raised to
generate complete support and faith on Indian soldiers.
Evolution of “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”, It was given in the background of Indo-Pak war and food
crisis. But main aim to put the horrors to 1962 and back to back droughts away. In the
background of Pokhran tests Atal Bihari Vajpayee added “Jai Vigyan” so as to highlight the
importance of knowledge in India' progress.
Importance of technology in the present-day scenario:
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In the present scenario, to help farmers from their distress, there is a need to integrate
technology to mitigate the climate change as well to develop sustainable agricultural
activities, there is a need to use all the technological initiatives, in the same line the recent
initiatives by the government and also the recent leaf forging of technological innovations can
help them to resolve the technical crisis and establish a direct linkage with the consumer,
providing assured income. In this context, the Centre's initiative e-NAM (National Agriculture
Market), launched in 2016, is very significant. It is a pan India electronic trading portal which
networks the existing Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) mandis to create
a unified national market for agricultural commodities.
Technology has been integral to military weapons and spy gear for millennia, and the field
of military technology is advancing at breakneck speed. From drones that maneuver without
a pilot and "death ray" weaponized lasers that unleash killer zaps to invisibility cloaks that
obfuscate tanks and X-ray vision for soldiers, military tech abounds these days. As India is
sandwiched between two hostile neighbors, which we can witness from the recent incidents
like Dokhlam issue, although the possibility of an India-China armed conflict cannot be ruled
out, any kind of military conflict is not in the interest of any country.
Q.) Critically evaluate India’s achievement in the social consolidation in independent India?
India inherited the society which was suffering from many age-old practices such as sati, poor
state of women, economic inequality, poor educational standards, casteism, untouchability
etc. The big task after the India’s independence is to consolidate the Indian society and
remove these discriminations. Nationalist leaders wanted to have socialist pattern of society
with welfare of all the sections of the society. Minimum wages act and untouchability law was
passed.
Many other steps taken in the form of Hindu code bill which were as follows:
1. Abolition of caste specific marriages
2. Making monogamy mandatory
3. Allowing divorce
4. Allowing equal share of property to daughter and widows.
However, these steps faced sharp criticism by the conservative society, it was criticized saying
that it was the interference in private life of Indians and also urged to include all non-Hindus
as well. But this bill was passed successfully after some years. With four separate acts: Hindu
marriage act, Hindu succession act, Hindu minority guardianship act, Hindu adaption and
maintenance act. Along with that India has worked for the consolidation of tribals and for
their development through- Tribal Panchsheel, Tribal Sub Plan, constitutional safeguards are
being provided for the development and protection of tribals and many more.
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Consolidation of nation and communal harmony has been nearly achieved, special right to
minorities, freedom to scheduled areas for tribes, linguistic reorganization of states, still we
are lagging in doing so but we are on the way. Economic prosperity being achieved per capita
is being improved, but industrial setting is compromised due to certain compulsions.
There has been tremendous progress in the field of education. More than 100 million
children receive education at the primary level. The increase in numbers at the secondary
stage is also impressive. Education at college and university levels has also increased
enormously. Today, there are about 789 universities in India; diversification of education at
senior school, college and university levels has also been taken up by the Government of India.
An independent voice on international forum has been achieved through NAM, foreign policy
is carefully carved out achieved an independent image soon. Quality of life and the principles
like freedom, equality and liberty were injected into our society rule of law is being
implemented, life expectancy has improved.
Democracy and maturity in politics have achieved even draconian and unchecked
emergency provisions (checked only in 1977 by Janata govt) could not affect us there is a
peaceful transition of power from time to time. Matured polity along with mature
constitution delivered the concept of separation of powers, principle of subsidiarity.
However, rational decentralization of power is still to be achieved.
Still India needs to achieve the following

• Colonial mind set from our institutions is yet to be sent out.
• There is concentration of power in higher authorities.
• Communal disharmony is emerging.
• The poor rich divide is expanding
• Social conscious is still lacking
Q.) J L Nehru and Vallabhai Patel, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, both
of them had a vision for the socio-political and economic reconstruction of the country.
Elucidate.
On the one hand, Nehru was a nationalist leader, he was a strong freedom fighter and he
borrowed many of the leadership skills from his father Motilal Nehru. Due to his charismatic
nature and his popularity and ability, he was made the first prime minister of India. He was
highly influenced by the socialist ideology and he tried to suit it to Indian context.
On the other hand, Vallabhbhai Patel, India’s first deputy prime minister and the minister of
home affairs, would not just handle these problems with dexterity but would go on to truly
become in the words of Shashi Tharoor “the man who saved India”. By integrating more than
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572 princely states, Patel and his secretary of the ministry of states V.P. Menon imparted
geographic coherence to India and prevented its Balkanization, a fate which many predicted
would befall the newborn state sooner than later.
Nehru and Patel approaches and strategies:

• Nehru used the democratic and secular principles to sideline the disruptive forces.
He carefully nurtured democracy and parliamentary form of government. He gave
importance to his critics and took the criticism regarding any law or his policy in
positive way. If he found them to be good advises then he incorporated them into the
laws without any ego problem.
• For Patel, personal disappointments did not come in the way of higher duty. Patel
would use all the tricks in the bag including the use of force, as Hyderabad and
Junagadh show to integrate the princely states with the Indian dominion. An
administrator by instinct, Patel sought to protect the privileges of the Indian Civil
Service officers who were deemed to be compromised on account of their previous
services to the Raj.
Policies of economic and socio-political development:

• Nehru never took any extreme step regarding any policy. He gave lot of scope for
opposition parties as well thus followed the inclusive process. He gave respected
judiciary, press and parliament with great force. He laid the foundation for the
supremacy of civil government over armed forces. He emphasized planned economic
development, started the five-year plans. He laid importance to agriculture,
industries, public sector development and mixed economy.
• Patel argued against nationalization of industries and was for letting “those who have
the knowledge and experience manage the industries and increase the country’s
wealth”. He was a major driving force behind the liberal industrial policy resolution of
1948.
With this it can be safely concluded that even though they have divergent approaches and
strategies, both Nehru and Sardar Patel’s contribution to the Integration of India, both of
them acknowledged each other’s vision and methods and worked together for their vision of
a newly born state was unmatched and none of the contemporaries could have lived up to
the requirements of the time better than them as they are the great leaders and consolidators
who laid strong foundation for the Indian future.
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Q.) Period of emergency was a blot on Indian democracy. Discuss the events which led to
proclamation of emergency and discuss its impact on Indian constitution.
Thinking line:
• National Emergency in India was imposed during the period of 1975-77, when was the
Prime Minister of India. She declared the state of emergency on June 25, 1975, which
professed the elections suspended and major curbs in civil liberties were announced.
• Emergency was imposed under Article 352 (1) of the Constitution by the then
President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, giving “internal disturbance” the reason to impose it
over the country.
Reasons:
• During the period of 1973-75, political unrest against the Indira Gandhi led
government was on its peak. During this period many of the party leaders within
congress, demanded a system which works more like a presidential one, where there
would be directly elected executives in the party. NavNirman movement in Gujarat,
between December 1973 and March 1974 was one of the first movements which
begun the strife in the nation. During this movement the central government was
forced to dissolve the state legislature in Gujarat and chief minister Chimanbhai Patel
had to resign, which resulted in President’s rule over Gujarat.
• There were other such activities and revolts against the government that were taking
place during the period which included students, peasants, labour organizations,
employees, unions and opposition parties.
• Indira Gandhi was found guilty by the Allahabad High Court on several accounts and
was charged for malpractice during the previous campaigns during her Lok Sabha seat
election. Even within the parliament the government was undergoing much criticism
from the opposition parties.
• The government led by Indira Gandhi claimed that the recent war between India and
Pakistan along with the oil crisis in 1973 has drastically affected the economy of the
country that has resulted into price rise of consumer goods. Apart from these, there
were challenges to fight with the effects of drought in the country and consequently
there was a rise of internal threats from various parts of the country against the
government due to elevation of starvation and debt issues.
• Unemployment and increasing labouring population generated fume and outrage all
over the nation. The government claimed that the regular strikes and protests by the
citizens have paralyzed the government and its economy and there was anomaly on
streets as well as political opposition prevailing in many part of the country.
The Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India, officially known as The

Constitution (Forty-second amendment) Act, 1976, was enacted during the Emergency by the
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Indian National Congress government headed by Indira Gandhi. The 42nd Amendment is
regarded as the most controversial constitutional amendment in Indian history.
It attempted to reduce the power of the Supreme Court and High Courts to pronounce upon
the constitutional validity of laws. It laid down the Fundamental Duties of Indian citizens to
the nation. This amendment brought about the most widespread changes to the Constitution
in its history, and is sometimes called a "mini-Constitution" or the "Constitution of Indira".
Q.) With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states with the
Indian Union. Discuss.
British India was divided in into British India Provinces and Princely State Small & Large state
ruled by Princes under control of British Supremacy. In India Independence Act, 1947 it was
described that Princely State were free to join India or Pakistan dominion and it was
dependent on these states’ rulers not upon peoples.
It was a big challenge for India to integrate these states. Sardhar Vallabhbhai Patel (Home
Minister) and V P Menon played a historic role in it.
• Sardar Patel inspired them at the name of patriotism towards motherland and gave
them assurance for security, communication & external affairs. Many princely state
signed "Instrument of accession".
• Junagadh, Manipur, Hyderabad, Kashmir accession was difficult one but Sardar Patel
diplomacy made it possible in easy way.
o The Junagadh issue was resolved after plebiscite.
o The Hyderabad was integrated with help of army.
o Manipur king signed "Instrument of accession" with assurance that internal
autonomy of Manipur will be maintained.
o Kashmir joined India with some conditions which are mentioned in Article 370.
Due to visionary idea & masterful diplomacy of Sardar Patel, Princely state became part of
India and for his strong role in accession of princely state, He is known as Iron Man of India.
Q.) Examine the circumstances in which integration of Foreign Enclaves into the Union of
India carried out.
After the formation of Union of India, the major foreign enclaves were French and
Portuguese. On gaining independence India opened negotiations with them for the transfer
of territories.
French enclaves:
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• Integration of French territories was done peacefully. After the formation Of Union of
India, the rising nationalism in the people and shift of French India socialist party to
pro merger nationalism forced French government to sign a referendum with India.
On November 1, 1954, the four enclaves karakal, mahi, yanam and puthucherry were
transferred to the Indian Union and became the Union territory of Pondicherry.
Portuguese enclaves: Portugal resisted diplomatic solutions and refused to transfer power to
Union of India.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli: Volunteers of United Front of Goans and Azad Gomantak Dal
occupied Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954 and displaced Portuguese rule. The territories were
subsequently merged into the Indian Union in 1961.
Goa, Daman and Diu:

• Satyagrahas and revolts by Indian nationalists were suppressed by Portuguese
government. From 1955-1961 Indian government tried to raise the issue before the
international community. But Portugal resisted all overtures from India. On December
18, 1961, in Operation Vijay the Indian Army liberated Goa, Daman and Diu by force.
Portugal recognized the integration of territories into the Indian union only in 1974.
Q.) What were the basic goals that India set to achieve soon after its independence from
the British? Critically evaluate India’s achievement in fulfilling these goals.
The immediate basic goals for India were to create a strong nation-State and to ensure its
progress.
Economic Goals:
• Achieve self-sufficiency in Agriculture.
• Boost Industrial sector as its prime moving force.
Evaluation - Achieved agricultural sufficiency due to green revolution albeit a little late than
desired. The manufacturing sector of India still limps and hence India failed miserably to
achieve that goal.
Social Goals and Cultural Goals:

• To ensure equality among the citizens.
• To develop a sense of nationalism and pride for India's culture and heritage.
Evaluation - These goals were ideologically achieved but a lot needs to be done to achieve
them practically in a holistic sense.
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Sovereign goals:
• To curb segregationist tendencies and achieve a strong unification of its territories.
• To develop a self-identity on Global platform and achieve non-aligned and a peaceful
state with friendly international relations.
Evaluation: Barring a few incidents, these goals were achieved spectacularly.
Political Goals:
• To create a fair and just nation.
• To create a robust but flexible Constitution and ensure fundamental rights of its
citizen.
To create an institutional setup that was progressive.
Evaluation - Successfully achieved.
Q.) Jawaharlal Nehru was the architect of India’s Policy of Non-Alignment. In light of the
statement analyze India’s relations with the two “Power Blocs” between 1947-1964.
India’s relations with two power blocs during 1947-64 can be analysed on the basis of
following factors –
Strategic autonomy of Indian foreign policy

• This was maintained through neutrality towards both the groups despite the immense
pressure to join.
• India resisted temptation of joining any military alliance despite Pakistan joining the
western bloc.
Role of India as mediator and bulwark of peace between two blocs
• Due to India’s neutral stance and high moral ground, both blocs looked up to it
whenever tensions ran high.
• India mediated in Korean War.
Opposition to colonialism
• India strongly supported freedom movements in Asia and Africa against the formerly
colonial powers UK, France which were part of western bloc.
• India opposed the British policy of Suez intervention, USA’s Phillipines policy, France’s
Vietnam policy.
• However, Hungary fiasco blemished India’s record.
Policy of cooperation
• Being newly independent country, India maintained cooperation with both the blocs
as it was imperative to solve the challenges before the nation.
• It received aid from both the blocs.
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Respect for international law and UN

• Despite unfavourable resolution of Kashmir in 1949 due to the hegemony of western
bloc, India decided to respect it. It was a delicate balancing act template which is
relevant even today.
Q.) Write a critical note on the evolution and significance of the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”.
This slogan rightly demonstrates the importance of armed forces and agriculture to the
national security of our nation.
Evolution: This slogan was first coined by our 2nd PM Lal Bahadur Shashtri during 1965.
Reasons were two-fold.

• After suffering debacle from China in 1962, their morale had suffered. PM’s slogan
motivated them to prepare for 1965 war against Pakistan.
• The country was suffering from prolonged droughts and severe foodgrain shortage.
This created dependence on foreign nation (e.g. US food aid PL480) which
compromised strategic autonomy in our foreign policy. Green revolution had been
launched and Farmers were needed to be motivated.
• Since then this slogan has become popular.
Significance
• Indian defence forces not only could successfully repel Pakistani attack but also
showed extraordinary valour to capture territories inside Pakistan
• Green revolution succeeded and country soon became sufficient in food production.
• This slogan also motivated armed forces during subsequent wars of 1971, 1999
Current significance:
• Amid the tussle over OROP, this slogan will go a long way to assure jawans of nation’s
commitment to their cause.
• Amid the drought and farmer suicides in Marathwada, North Karnataka, etc. slogan
can at least provide psychological support to the distressed farmers
Q.) The early neglect towards becoming agriculturally self-sufficient and over dependence
on food aid resulted into christening of the country as a ‘ship to mouth’ economy. Discuss.
How the crisis was addressed? Who were the drivers of the transformation that followed?
Provide reasons for the early neglect – (should include these points)
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• Land tenure system at the time of independence and how the intermediaries did not
contribute towards improvements on the farm.
• Concentration of land ownership in a few hands (Vast inequality in landholding).
• The big landlords challenging the land ceiling legislation in the courts, delaying its
implementation.
• Loopholes in development policies and legislation. Failure of land reforms.
Successive droughts, famine and wars fought between India and China, and India and
Pakistan.
How the crisis was addressed?
• The Indian government, which had neglected agriculture in its early development
plans, partly based on the old Soviet belief that the future was in steel plants rather
than rice farms, saw its mistake.
• India became self- sufficient in food production thanks to the green revolution.
• Land reforms resulted in abolition of the hated zamindari system.
• New hybrid seeds were imported from Mexico, banks were forced to lend to farmers
and price incentives were put in place. India’s farmers responded magnificently, and
the country became self-sufficient in food grains within five years.
Q.) What were the key features of the Shimla Agreement signed by India and Pakistan post
1971 war? Critics say that the agreement was a lost opportunity for India. What do you
think? Critically Comment.
The Shimla agreement was the result of the Bangladesh liberation war of 1971 fought
between India and Pakistan.
Following are the major features of this agreement:

• It mandated sending about 93,000 Prisoner of Wars (PoWs) taken in captivity by the
Indian forces; back home.
• That in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations they will refrain from the
threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of each
other.
• The two countries agreed to solve all differences peacefully at the bilateral levels.
• The two sides also agreed to convert UN ceasefire line in Kashmir into Line of Control
and that no side would transgress the line and use force to provoke the other.
• The two sides would take steps to promote people to people contact and also
cooperation in science and technology, culture and trade.
• Both governments also agreed to take all steps within their power to prevent hostile
propaganda directed against each other.
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It was a lost opportunity because:

• India failed to get a permanent solution for its border problems including the Kashmir
issue, even after being in a decisive position with 90,000 Pakistani PoWs
• The agreement did not prevent Pakistan from going back on the terms of the
agreement, which it did soon after signing the agreement.
It was not a lost opportunity because:
• Feeding and providing for 90,000 Pows was economically not possible and would have
been counterproductive, if India had overplayed this card.
• It helped in strengthening India’s image as a peace-loving nation in the world
community.
• India could not have imposed harsher conditions, as world powers like USA, China,
Russia were leaning more towards Pakistan than India
Q.) The economic reforms introduced in 1991 were compelled by circumstances and
propelled by crisis. Elucidate.
Circumstances:
• Closed economy based on imports. Exports were minimal. Since crude oil was a major
imported product, two successive oil shocks had a very adverse impact on the
economy taking inflation to a new high.
• To increase revenues, government raised the taxes which in turn raised the public
distress.
• Disintegration of USSR also proved to be disastrous as it was India’s strong ally and in
the event of crisis, it couldn’t come for India’s aid.
• Public Sector Units (PSU), which were started as welfare industries, were facing too
much loss and Government couldn’t afford them anymore.
The culmination of all the above factors led to a severe financial crisis when Indian treasury
became empty.
India faced BOP crisis and FOREX reserves were left only for 15 days. India turned towards
IMF to get loan. IMF made economic reforms of Globalisation, Liberalisation and Privatisation,
as a precondition to provide loan. And in this crisis situation, India had to accept that.
However, reforms gave impetus to rapid economic growth of the country and helped India in
becoming one of the major economic powers of the world.
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Q.) The Nehruvian vision of large dams as temples and mosques for a new borne country
did bear fruits but it created many rifts in the socio-economic landscape. Critically examine.
Nehru envisioned India which was not only culturally rich but was also technologically
advanced and economically prosperous, to achieve this end he placed lot of focus on
infrastructure especially the Multi-purpose projects.
Positive effects of the dams:

• The dams helped in producing the much-needed electricity for the Capital goods
industries formed under the Five-Year Plans
• Lead to cleaner energy minimizing our carbon emission to have sustainable
development.
• Irrigation facilities to agriculture to achieve food self-sufficiency in independent India
by ensuring the availability of water in lean seasons.
• Checked floods by regulating the flow of run-off and diverting it into the channels.
Due to improper utilization it had some drawbacks too:

• River disputes due to not clearly demarcated boundaries between states like ongoing
Cauvery and Mahanadi water disputes which severed agricultural crisis in low stream
states.
• Biodiversity loss due to artificial linkages of rivers and canals leading environmental
movements like Tawang hydro power project.
• Tribal distress caused by rehabilitation and resettlement as most of the land acquired
was inhabited by the tribal communities. – Narmada Bachao Andolan.
• Pending projects which adds to governmental deficiency and droughts as in
Maharashtra and Karnataka last year
• Changed cropping pattern-growing of water guzzling crops in drier areas along with
heightened risk of natural disasters.
Q.) What is your assessment of the linguistic basis of creating states in India? Has it
succeeded? Examine.
The States Reorganization Act, 1956 was a major reform of the boundaries of Indian states
and territories, organizing them along linguistic lines.
Positives of the creation on linguistic basis:

• It has encouraged healthy competition among the states for improving their economic
and social indicators and vying for investments.
• People become able to address their concerns related to their region in their own
language
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• Strengthening of local culture due to efforts of local political parties and the state
government.
• Formation of regional parties like AIADMK, DMK, Trinamool congress etc. gave voice
to regional concerns in parliamentary domain.
• Creation of states, homogeneous in nature improved functioning of states like
separation of Gujarat from Maharashtra
However, there are certain concerns like:

• Creation of linguistic enclaves where small area dominated by one language is
surrounded by other language state.
• Regional disparities, rich states have exploited the poor states by exploiting their
natural and mineral resources.
• Discriminatory attitude against non-regional people who cannot speak the regional
language like the Sons of soil policy and the exodus of students of N.E states from
Bangalore.
• Unchecked promotion of linguistic feelings threatens national integrity because of
growth of regionalism.
Q.) India had to enter into wars with its neighbours at three different occasions by the year
1971. However, all these wars had different implications for India. Do you agree? Analyse.
The question is asking about three wars by 1971, i.e. up to 1971. This means that you had to
talk about India – Pak war of 1948, Indo – China of 1962 and Indo – Pak of 1965. The war of
1971 was the 4th war that India fought. (Refer to Wars Section from above)
Q.) The late 1970s and the 1980s were a period of political crisis. Do you agree? Discuss.
The decades of 1970 and 1980 are considered as the dark period in the political history of
modern India.
• Imposition of emergency on the grounds of internal disturbance brought about huge
political crisis.
• Several constitutional amendments passed during Mrs. Gandhi’s regime shook the
base of constitution.
• Janata government led by Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime Minister
of India. Tribunals were established to investigate Emergency-era abuses, and Indira
and Sanjay Gandhi were arrested after a report from the Shah Commission.
• The infighting in the Janata government led to its dissolution and the coming of Charan
Singh government with congress support from outside.
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• Even before the confidence motion was tabled in the Parliament the congress
withdrew its support, so the Charan Singh government remained in power without
facing the parliament for several months.
• Various insurgencies erupted. In state of Punjab demand of Khalistan and launch of
operation Blue star created havoc in the nation. In 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots erupted in
Delhi and parts of Punjab causing the deaths of thousands.
• North East India was paralyzed owing to the ULFA’s clash with Government forces.
• Indira Gandhi the then prime minister was assassinated in 1984 again this led to lot of
political instability till finally Rajiv Gandhi was chosen as her successor.
• The Janata Government Dismissed the Non-Congress governments in the states and
imposed the Presidents Rule extending the instability to the states, the congress again
did the same thing with non-congress governments.
Q.) The triumph over Pakistan in 1971 was a watershed moment in post -independence
India. Elucidate.
The war of 1971 was not just a war between two countries but was a watershed moment in
the histories of three countries.
• Liberation of Bangladesh not proved the military might of India but also projected it
as the protector of Human rights and civil liberties against an exploitative state.
• 1971 war was the biggest military victories in the modern era. Realizing this Pakistan
changed its whole war strategy and followed a new kind of “bleed it through thousand
cuts” formula with the aid of terrorism.
• Cutting off Pakistan’s access to Indian Ocean and South Asia with the loss of
Bangladesh has been a huge strategic gain for India.
• To secure itself against a possible US-China intervention in case of war, a 20 year Indo-
Soviet treaty of peace, friendship and cooperation was signed. Shimla Declaration is a
landmark in which both sides decided to resolve Kashmir issue bilaterally.
• India was able to fend off the external pressure from USA as to the independent
conducting of its diplomatic policy and friendship with Russia.
• India didn’t ask help from neither Russia nor USA as upholding the NAM principles.
• Indian nuclear tests of 1974 to boost its defenses led to its entry in the “Nuclear club”.
Q.) The politics of reservation reached its zenith with the recommendations of the Mandal
Commission. What were the long term repurcussions of the recommendations? Examine.
The Mandal Commission was established in India in 1979 by the Janata Party government
under Prime Minister Morarji Desai with a mandate to “identify the socially or educationally
backward.” It was headed by Indian parliamentarian B.P. Mandal to consider the question of
seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination, and used eleven
social, economic, and educational indicators to determine backwardness.
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The Commission suggested the following steps:

• The reservation of 27 per cent jobs be made for those who do not qualify on the basis
of merit.
• The reservation of 27 per cent be made for promotions at all levels.
• The reserved quota, if unfilled, should be carried forward for a period of three years
and de-reserved thereafter.
• Age relaxation for the backward classes should be the same as it is in the case of the
SCs and the STs
• A roster system should be prepared for the backward classes on the pattern of the
one done for the SCs and the STs.
• The principle of reservation should be made applicable to all the public sector
undertakings, banks, private undertakings receiving grants from the central and state
governments, universities and colleges.
• The government should make the necessary legal provisions for implementing these
recommendations. The Commission recommended the implementation of an
intensive and time-bound programme for adult education, particularly for the
backward classes, and the setting up of residential schools for the backward class
students.
The principle of reservation of 27 per cent was suggested for seats in educational institutions
as well as in jobs. Suggestions for the economic upliftment of the backward classes were also
made by the Commission with a view to bring about structural changes in Indian society.
Once 27% reservation was announced in 1990, there were broadly three types of after effects.
Firstly, it is said that in India people don’t cast their vote, they vote their caste. The political
parties for their political gains made it a burning issue to get more votes. Political parties
started behaving as the Messiahs of the lower castes and OBCs and tried to win their votes
by talking about caste-based issues.
The other type of Political parties which now claimed that proclaimed that now upper caste
is threatened by the lower castes and they will not support the reservation.
The third type of effect is the socio – political effect where different regional castes, which
were not included in the original list of OBCs, started agitations for their inclusion in the list
so that they can also avail the benefits of reservation. Some of the most recent examples are
– Jat agitation in Haryana and Rajasthan and Patel agitation in Gujarat.
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NOTE: Reservation has got both positive and negative effects. While writing an answer on
such an issue be more objective and take a balanced informed stand rather than an
emotional.
Q.) The constitution of the State Reorganization Commission and its recommendations
were testimony to the growing realization that regional and linguistic identities were a
contemporary social reality and the best way to tackle it was to accept it. Discuss.
For a newly Independent India emerging from the pathos of partition The grouping of the
States at Independence was done more on the basis of historical and political principles than
social, cultural or linguistic divisions. There was not enough time to undertake a proper
reorganization of the units at the time of making the Constitution.
The Government appointed a commission under S.K. Dhar to examine the feasibility of
reorganization of states on a linguistic basis. The S.K Dhar Commission preferred
reorganization for administrative convenience rather than on linguistic basis. A Congress
Committee under Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya (the JVP
Committee) too did not favour a linguistic base.
However, in 1953, the first linguistic State came into being as Andhra Pradesh, created by
separating the Telugu speaking areas from the State of Madras. This followed a prolonged
agitation and the death of Potti Sriramulu after a 56-day hunger strike. As there were several
more demands for states on a linguistic basis, a commission was set up under Justice F. Fazl
Ali with H.N. Kunzru and KM. Panikkar as members to study the demand. The efforts of this
commission were overseen by Govind Ballabh Pant, who served as the Home Minister from
December 1954.
The Commission submitted its report on 30 September 1955, with the following
recommendations:
• The three-tier (Part-A/B/C) state system should be abolished
• The institution of Rajapramukh and special agreement with former princely states
should be abolished.
• The general control vested in Government of India by Article 371 should be abolished
• Only the following 3 states should be the Union Territories: Andaman & Nicobar, Delhi
and Manipur. The other Part-C/D territories should be merged with the adjoining
states
In Part II of Report of the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) 1955, titled “Factors
Bearing on Reorganization”, the Commission clearly said that “it is neither possible nor
desirable to reorganise States on the basis of the single test of either language or culture, but
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that a balanced approach to the whole problem is necessary in the interest of our national
unity. “
Though sceptical of the recommendations the Congress government at the centre passed the
State reorganisation committee act 1956 facilitating creation of newer states and 14 states
and six union territories were formed via the 7th amendment.
Language was decided as the basis on which India’s states were to be reorganised for the
following reasons:
• Linguistic basis would ensure larger participation of the local people in the
administration.
• Linguistic regions were, naturally, geographically contiguous also, and this made them
easily governable.
• The vernacular languages neglected by the British can now flourish
• Volatile situation which occurred in various parts of the country has to be brought
under control for which recognition of Language as a social reality has to not only be
recognised but also has to be realised as the most suitable way forward for newly
Independent India by the leadership even though the move was fraught with negative
consequences of regionalism, lack of economic cooperation and a feeling of
antagonism towards neighbouring states.
Thus, the linguistic organisation of states emerged as the most suitable solution at the time
to ensure the internal unity and acceptance of diversity amidst the various territories of India.
Q.) The controversy surrounding the Hindu Code Bill immediately after India became a
republic and the political acumen shown by the contemporary leaders to tackle the crisis
exemplifies the importance of political will in pushing difficult reforms. What clues can be
taken from history in the context of the debates over the uniform civil code? Discuss.
On the lines of Article 44 of Indian constitution Jawaharlal Nehru, post-independence,

entrusted his first Law Minister Dr. Ambedkar with the task of codifying the Hindu personal
law as the first step towards a uniform civil code. The codification of the Hindu bill had 2 main
purposes. Firstly, to elevate the social status of Hindu women and secondly to abrogate social
disparities and inequality of caste.
Some of the prominent ideals proposed under this codification are as follows:
• The property of a dying man has to be shared equally among his widow, daughter and
son.
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• The right of any women over her inherited/self-obtained property should not be
limited.
• Allowing either partner to file for divorce on certain grounds such as domestic
violence, infidelity etc.
• The granting of maintenance to the wife if she decides to live separately due to
divorce.
• Making monogamy mandatory.
• Allowance of inter-caste marriage and adoption of children of any caste.
Hindu Code Bill controversy: Hindu code bill could not be passed during the provisional govt.
just after the independence. It was subjected to strong opposition from staunch Hindutva
supporters, RSS and Hindu Mahasabha etc. These conservative groups believed it to be a
derogatory and absurd appeal against the basic Hindu laws that were governed by
Dharmasastra (the textual authority on issues of marriage, adoption, inheritance). Even
women belonging to the Hindu Mahasabha came to the forefront to oppose the bill.
Political acumen shown by contemporary leaders: Dr. Ambedkar and his team, undaunted
by the opposition from inside as well outside of the parliament, continued with their efforts
with all seriousness and presented the draft bill to Nehru’s cabinet, which unanimously
approved it.
Finally, Nehru broke it down into 4 laws for the easy passing in the parliament. These four
laws were- Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Minority and Guardianship
Act and Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act.
They were passed one by one during 1955-56 leading to passing of what we call as Hindu code
bill.
Clues that can be taken from history: A stewardship is demanded when it comes to steps
which are good for society but conservatism comes in between. The Uniform Civil Code which
seeks to bring uniformity in all personal laws is being vehemently opposed by Muslim bodies
like AIMPLB as it the UCC bill proposes doing away with discriminatory practices of triple talaq,
nikah halah, polygamy etc. within Muslims.
However as learnt for the Hindu bill controversy the government of the day needs to adopt
a following approach:
• Involving all stakeholders- the religious law boards, intelligentsia from the religious
communities etc.
• Taking gradual steps.
• Making it an important issue so that a rational debate and discussion take place.
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• The government can also try to reform different segments of personal law like triple
talaq (reform done recently), polygamy etc. individually rather than at one go.
The UCC is the need of the hour to create an egalitarian society. Its passage will require
political acumen on the part of the leadership today. The lessons learnt from the past must
be utilized judiciously to resolve the conflict over UCC.
Q. The INA trials served as a plank for national unity and also a point from where it was
impossible for the British to ignore the Indian public opinion. Elucidate.
In the history of India’s freedom struggle, the INA occupies an important place. At the time
when there were all round divisions on the Indian national scene, the INA exhibited complete
national unity.
The Indian soldiers fought for a united India. This armed struggle of the INA forced the British
to realise that they could no longer depend upon the loyalty of the Indian Army for the
maintenance of their rule in the country. Besides, the countrywide support and sympathy of
the Indian masses for the INA and the opposition of the Indian section of the British Indian
Army to the INA trials led the British to transfer power through a negotiated settlement. Thus,
the INA revolt hastened the end of British rule of India.
INA trials served as a plank for national unity

• The selection of a Hindu, a Muslim and a Sikh — who hailed from the three principal
communities of India — for court martial was taken as a challenge to whole of India.
(Strengthened the secular sentiments)
• Almost all the political parties like Congress, Muslim League, Communist Party, Akalis,
RSS, Hindu Mahasbha, stood for the cause of INA prisoners which indicates the unity
of Indians against the British.
• Press coverage and other publicity – brought masses from different sections and
different part together.
• First time there were signs of demoralizing effect from both civil service and Indian
Army personnel. Growth of nationalist feeling generated by the trials affected the
Armed Forces and soldiers.
Why it became impossible for the British to ignore the Indian public opinion:
• Because of its wide geographical reach and the participation of diverse social groups
and political parties. INA trials made the masses conscious of their power to gain
political freedom.
• The agitation which surrounded the trial turned the issue of independence for India
into an instant, burning question once more. British realized that they were sitting on
the brink of a volcano which could erupt any time.
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• The release of INA prisoners made people attain a sense of pride, regained self-respect
• There was rebellion among masses and since the Army was also in favour of, there
was no suppression of rebellion
• Stirring deeds of the INA caught the imagination of all Indians and the fire of patriotism
burned brighter than ever before and found expression in the mutiny in the Indian
Navy in Bombay
• The INA and the trials gave a powerful and decisive message to the British that they
can’t ignore the Indian public opinion and it was time for them to leave.
Q. Discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and Gramdan movements initiated by Acharya

Vinobha Bhave. How far these movements could succeed?
Bhoodan and gramdan movement hold a significant place in the history of land reforms. These
were initiated by Acharya Vinobha Bhave based on the Gandhian principles of trusteeship.
The main objective of these movements:
• Land reforms through movement rather than legislation

• Social transformation by creating a sense of social responsibility.
The movement first began as bhoodan movement and later took the form of gramdan
movement. Initially the movement was highly successful and received land in considerable
numbers. However, very soon it lost its momentum. Moreover, the land which was received
was of poor quality unfit to be cultivated. Its usefulness was limited to those villages which
had not developed class differentiation.
Despite these shortcomings, following can be said to be the success of these movements:
• It was first movement which aimed at land reforms through social means than
legislation.
• Trusteeship model used was a creative idea in attempting land reforms.
• Rather than tangible outcomes, it was able to develop a positive
atmosphere/awareness towards this pressing issue of land.
Thus, these movements, despite failure in achieving actual land reforms, gave much
intangible benefits to India.
Q.) Critically examine the role played by Lord Mountbatten in consolidating post
Independent India.
Achievements of Mountbatten Role in consolidating post-Independent India:

• Credited with achieving transfer of power in a limited time and within limited
resources through formulation of Mountbatten Plan and its implementation.
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• Highlighted the geographic compulsions that meant most of them must choose India
and also religious compulsions (otherwise would be violation of 2 Nation theory) in
Jodhpurs and Junagarh case.
• He engaged in a personal dialogue with reluctant princes, such as the Nawab of
Bhopal, who he asked through a confidential letter to sign the Instrument of Accession
making Bhopal part of India.
• He pointed out that the Indian subcontinent was one economic entity, and that the
states would suffer most if the link were broken and difficulties that princes would
face maintaining law and order.
Criticism on his role:

• First to Draw a partition line by an unbiased man which he did through Radcliffe.
• Criticized for advising Nehru on Kashmir issue to UN which is still unresolved.
• Though he achieved transfer of power in record time but it happened because he was
granted more power (informally) than his predecessors like Wavell.
• Lord Mountbatten has been criticized for hastening the independence process unduly
and recklessly leading to vast disruption and loss of life.
• The formula for freedom with partition was already accepted before Mountbatten
took charge and the idea of immediate transfer of power on the basis of grant of
Dominion status was given by V.P. Menon.
Though the positive role of Mountbatten needs to be acknowledged, it must be remembered

that Lord Mountbatten was an officer of British Government and was serving their interests.
Q.) The INA trials embodied the new found spirit of India. Analyse.
After surrender of INA POWs in South East Asia, the British brought them back to India and
decided to hold public trail at red fort and court-marshal them. But a powerful movement
emerged in their defence.
The INA trails Embodied the new found spirit of India in following ways:
• Strong resolution was passed by congress to support INA cause.
• Defense was led by Bhulabai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Katju, Asaf ali and
Nehru.
• INA relief and Enquiry committee was set up. Food, money and employed was
arranged for affected.
• Extensive press coverage with daily editorials, Pamphlets, graffiti, public meetings
were organized which had participation from Women, Kisans, Students etc.
• Glorification of Martyrs, condemnation of officials and widespread celebration of INA
day and INA week.
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• Funds collection: From film starts, Indians living abroad, Gurudwaras, Tongawalas,
government employees all contributed.
• Wide geographical campaign: Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, UP, Punjab, Coorg,
Assam were the nerve centers.
• Diverse social and political groups participated: Muslim League, Communist party,
RSS, Hindu Maha sabha, Sikh league etc.
• Armed forces also supported their cause, attended meetings and received those
released and also contributed funds.
There was another around of violent confrontations with revolt of Naval ratings of HMIS
Talwar. The British seeing this atmosphere realized that with each passing day it assumed
more and more Indians versus Britishers color and their time to quit India was near
Q.) Was partition inevitable? Critically examine.

The partition of India in 1947 is rightly considered as a blot in Indian history. Two streams of
arguments exist- as per one the partition could be avoided and as per another it was
unavoidable.
The Partition could not be avoided: The seeds of Partition were sown long ago.
• Divide and rule policy of Britishers: As early as 1940s, Winston Churchill hoped that
Hindu-Muslim antagonism would remain “a bulwark of British rule in India”.
• Failure of Congress to bring Muslims into mainstream. Participation of the community
was quite low in almost all the nationalist movements.
• In the 1946 elections, the Congress Party leaders refused to share power with Jinnah,
confident that they did not need Muslim support in order to win a majority vote in
elections. These attitudes stoked Muslim fears that the secular nationalism was a
cover for Hindu dominance.
• Insecurity in minds of Muslims due to steps taken by congress, formation of
communal groups like Hindu Mahasabha.
Immediate instances:
• Huge scale violence, massacre. Had the congress leaders not agreed to Partition, we
would have had a civil war (with violence in Punjab and Bengal escalating). We would
have had more ethnic strife.
• Hurry to exit- It seems the British saw partition along religious lines as the quickest
way to exit. The British were eager to divide and quit and the Indian politicians were
too eager to enjoy power.
Starting with Nehru other congress leaders like Patel and Rajaji, slowly accepted the idea of
Pakistan. Finally, even Gandhi has to relent despite his resistance to the idea of Pakistan.
The Partition could be avoided:
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• If both the religious communities would have understood the ill-intent of Britishers
while pleasing one community over the other.
• Communal groups like Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim league should have been dealt
with strictly.
As Ramachandra Guha beautifully puts it – the short sightedness of Congress, Jinnah’s

ambitions and Britain’s amorality and cynicism had made partition inevitable. In retrospect,
it could have been implemented better.
Q.) Do boundaries of Indian states represent regional consciousness? Critically examine.

Regional consciousness is awareness or knowledge where people identify themselves with a
geographical area, either on the basis of language or same ethnicity. Regional consciousness
leads to regionalism.
Following demand for creation of states on the basis of language, after independence, states
were reorganized in India on linguistic lines through state reorganization act 1956.
With state boundaries drawn on the basis of language, people speaking same language were
united under a region. People are emotionally attached to their language and this attachment
forms basis of social cohesion of the people of state. Thus, in a way division of state
boundaries on language resulted into regional consciousness which has manifested in various
forms like,
• Insider-outsider complex: a complex that nurtures nativism and son-of-the-soil
ideology. Ex: ‘Mumbaikar’ call of shiv sena for jobs.
• Regional pride rooted in language leading to hatred against people from other states.
Ex: Hindi speaking people being attacked in Karnataka, protest against usage of Hindi
posters in Metro stations in Karnataka.
• Regional pride is extended further in the event of border dispute and sharing of river
water. This is very much evident from recent conflict between Karnataka and
Tamilnadu over sharing of Cauvery water, or border dispute between Maharashtra
and Karnataka.
• Rise of regional parties.
However, language is just one factor. In today’s India, regional consciousness is also result of
various other factors like,
• Prevailing regional disparities. Ex: led to creation of new states- Uttarakhand,
Jharkhand, Telangana, regional consciousness of people of Vidharba region,
Bundelkhand region.
• Ethnicity as a major reason in North Eastern states. Ex: Anti migrant issue in Assam.
• Religion as a major factor in case of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Socio-economic and political reasons. Ex: Gorkhaland.
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Despite globalization, modernization (cosmopolitan nature), economic integration and

increased migration within country ‘Regional Consciousness’ still prevails.
Regionalism is an issue in both developed and developing world. India is no exception.

Regional consciousness is not antithetical to nationalism rather it contributes in the growth
of nation as it unites people of region, highlight their regional problems through their
demands which further helps in national integration.
Q.) How can linguistic diversity be a source of social strife? How can this be addressed?
Examine.
Language created a great problem in post-independent era and continues to be one of the
heavy weights on country’s political system. During the days of freedom struggle national
leaders always promised the masses that Indian languages will be fully developed in free India
and even states will be reorganized on the basis of languages, so that each language got full
opportunity to develop and grow.
Language has created problems that it has resulted in demonstrations in some parts of the
country and also stands on the way of emotional and national integration. B.N. Rau perhaps
rightly said that, “One of the most difficult problems in the framing of India’s new constitution
will be to satisfy the demand for linguistic provinces and other demands of a like nature.”
In independent India there are various commissions and committees to resolve the issue of
language in India to make a peaceful transition like Dhar commission, J.V.P. committee and
then state reorganization committees have been set up to study this.
Linguistic diversity as a source of social strife:
• India has a long history of linguistic unrest, for example creation of Andhra Pradesh
post-independence, separation of Maharashtra and Gujarat etc.
• There is a north-south divide on the basis of language and it will stir whenever
government thinks to promote official language as such. This causes the regionalism
feeling at large.
• Masses who speak their language feel discriminated when there is an official language
present in the state and they get imposed. For example: tribal languages in the
Jharkhand and any other states.
• Political issues as we have seen recently west Bengal when they imposed Bengali on
the gorkhaland people, they started agitation against the move and then the separate
state agitation got ignited.
• Discrimination of state government and central governments in the employments in
all the arenas also we can witness.
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• All the education is not in the native languages, especially in the tribal languages is the
biggest barrier for them to get alienated from the society and there spurns the social
strife.
• Exploitation of people by the politicians to linguistic diversity, as it not only a binder
with the masses but also it divides people on the name of it politically.
• Erosion of national feeling in long run if it continues.
Measures need to be taken:

• Government should be more sensitive towards the people’s aspiration and they
shouldn’t impose any language on them against their will. There should be having that
legislative back up to protect the minority languages.
• We need to follow the three-language formula and there is a need to develop
extensively all the languages.
• Need to use the technology and the new means to promote the language and the
tolerance among the citizens at large, like internet and government need to conduct
some of the awareness campaigns for the betterment of it.
• Government’s initiatives like Ek Bharath Shresth Bharath need to be promoted as
much as government can.
There is no country like India, quite as diverse, multi-lingual and multi-cultural, yet bound
together by the ancient bounds of shared traditions, culture and values. Such bonds need to
be strengthened through enhanced and continuous mutual interaction between people of
varied regions and ways of life so that it encourages reciprocity and secures an enriched value
system of unity amongst people of different States in a culturally special country like INDIA.
Q.) Trace the origin and evolution of the political left in India. Also examine its role in India’s
nationalist movement.
Leftist ideology in politics is concerned with communism and equality. Leftists do not support
capitalistic ventures and put forward the idea of socialism and communism that involves
egalitarianism and equality among citizens whether that is economic or social.
However, the leftist ideology results in positive effects only when it is towards the centre,
which essentially means that it is tolerant and would not use drastic means to put forward
their own ideology. Parties like the Communist Party of India (CPI) form the major leftist
segment on India. The Indian National Congress is also seen as a Centre left party due to their
approach towards polity.
The origin of leftism in India can be traced back to the pre-independence era. Leftism in India
started as a socialist ideology and later bifurcated into communism and socialism.
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• The most significant development took place during the time of famous Russian
Revolution (1917).
• It was during this period that leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal
openly praised Lenin and several prominent leaders even visited Russia.
• This period saw the 'natural graduation' of socialism in India into a revolutionary
ideology.
• Leftism movement soon became quite strong in India, mainly due to a vacuum in the
mainstream nationalist movement.
• A void created by non-representation or insufficient representation of a large section
of Indian society. The Indian struggle for freedom till then was mostly fuelled by the
bourgeoisie and ''intellectuals'.
Leftist role in India’s national movement:

• The most important personality in Left's story was Narendra Nath Bhattacharya or
M.N. Roy, after visiting Russia several times between 1919 and 1920, established the
Communist Party of India in Tashkent in October 1920.
• After that a number of parties and organizations cropped up throughout India based
on the communist ideology e.g. congress Labor party of Bombay, Kirti kisan Party in
Punjab, Labor Kisan party in Madras etc. which participated actively in India’s national
movement.
• A number of left-wing leaders joined congress and formed a strong left wing within
the congress.
• It won't be unfair to say that leftism influenced leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and
Subhash Chandra Bose. This is one of the major reasons why India's post-
independence polity was overtly socialist in nature.
• In 1928, in a CPI meet in Calcutta, congress was declared a party of the bourgeoisie
and all the ties with congress were broken.
• However, in 1934 Congress Socialist Party (CSP) was established. Nehru, GB Pant and
Bose supported CSP and slowly the congress was divided into two camps - "Leftist"
and “Rightist".
The Leftists played their own part in freedom struggle of the country, along with the Rightists,
who of course dominated the show with the result that the contribution of the Leftists was
not much appreciated.
Q.) India has faced the “refugee” problem time and again after independence. How did India
respond to the challenges thus posed? Discuss.
As per the protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, a crucial treaty in international refugee
law a refugee is defined as “a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted
for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
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opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is
unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality
and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is
unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it”.
It is intriguing that even though India is neither a signatory to the 1951 Refugees’ Convention
nor the 1967 protocol, which has 140 signatories; the country has still served as a home to
the largest refugee population in South Asia.
Over the years India has received wave after wave refugees from many of its neighbours. And
the government's statements during the Rohingya crisis notwithstanding, India has generally
followed the principle of non-refoulement, refusing to send refugees back to a place where
they face a threat to their life. For a country of India’s resources, this is an achievement of no
small magnitude.
The refugee of 1947.

• Though the people who migrated from Pakistan to india didn’t lose their nationalities,
they were still forced to live the lives of a refugee.
• Refugee camps across north India served as homes for those who had borne the brunt
of Partition. Since these refugees were automatically the citizens of newly
independent India, the question of a threat to national security due to their presence
was out of the question.
• India was struggling to provide these refugees with basic amenities like food, clothing
and shelter and then 1948 war with Pakistan broke out.
• The national capital of Delhi in particular saw a huge influx of refugees. The scale of
the problem was an unprecedented challenge for the young government, and it was
only through the efforts of many—including, notably, the social reformer and freedom
fighter Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay—that the rehabilitation of the Partition refugees
could be carried out.
The Tibetan refugee of 1959.

• In 1959, Dalai Lama, along with more than 100,000 followers, fled Tibet and came to
India seeking political asylum. Granting asylum to them on humanitarian grounds
proved costly to India, earning the ire of the Chinese government.
• As a result, Sino-Indian relations took a major hit. Border issues between the two
countries, and Chinese encroachment on Indian territory, began to crop up with
greater frequency.
• The 1962 war with China, in particular, proved very costly to India. There were many
reasons that led to the war, but the granting of political asylum to Tibetans was
certainly one of the triggers.
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• The Tibetan refugees settled across northern and north-eastern Indian states, and the
seat of the Dalai Lama, the spiritual as well as the political leader of the Tibetan
community, was established in Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh.The Tibetan
government in exile operates from there to this day.
• The Tibetan refugees continue to live harmoniously, largely, with other local Indian
groups and as a community they are perceived as ‘peaceful’.
The Bangladeshi refugee of 1971.

• The crisis happened during Bangladesh's war of independence in 1971, when millions
of refugees migrated from the country to India, fleeing the conflict between the
Pakistani army and Bangladeshi forces. This led to a sudden spike in population in
states bordering Bangladesh, and it became increasingly difficult for the government
of India to ensure food security. According to some estimates, more than 10 million
Bangladeshi refugees escaped in 1971 and took shelter in India.
• Even today, the issue of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants has become an issue as unlike
the Tibetan refugees, they are seen as a security threat.
• Furthermore, the constant tussle between the local communities and Bangladeshi
refugees today often sparks violence, resulting all too often in deaths. The conflict is
fiercest in a number of north-eastern states, such as Assam, Tripura and Manipur. The
local communities and tribal groups have alleged that refugees from Bangladesh and
the continuous flow of illegal immigrants have led to a change in the social
demography of that area, thereby making the locals a minority in their own homeland.
The Sri Lankan Tamil refugees

• Another sizeable group of refugees in India comprises Sri Lankan Tamils who
abandoned the island nation in the wake of active discriminatory policies by successive
Sri Lankan governments, events like the Black July Riots of 1983, and the bloody Sri
Lankan civil war.
• Mostly these refugees, who number over a million, settled in the state of Tamil Nadu
as it is nearest to Sri Lanka and since it was easier for them, as Tamils, to adjust to life
there.
• A large number of Sri Lankan Tamils still live in what began as makeshift refugee camps
decades earlier, despite the end of the civil war nearly nine years ago. The refugees
remain a sensitive issue, which has time and again strained India’s—and Tamil
Nadu's—relations with Sri Lanka.
The Afghan refugees

• While not one of the larger refugee groups in the country, a number of Afghans also
took shelter in India after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. These refugees
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are mostly concentrated in and around Delhi, and have largely established spaces for
themselves.
• Both the World Bank and UNHCR reports suggest that currently India has more than
200,000 Afghan refugees living in its territory.
The Rohingya refugees

• The debate over refugees gained national prominence yet again after 40,000 Rohingya
Muslims escaped Myanmar to take shelter in India.
• However, India has categorized the Rohingya as illegal immigrants and a security
threat, siding with the Burmese government. The Indian government has stated that
the principle of non-refoulement, or of not forcing refugees to return to their country
of origin, does not apply to India principally as it is not a signatory to the 1951 refugees
convention.
• The Indian government has, in fact, appealed to Myanmar to take back the Rohingya
refugees. However, a report in The Indian Express notes, “India’s claim to send the
Rohingyas back to Myanmar rests on the notion that the refugees are of Burmese
stock. However, the issue at hand is that the Burmese do not consider the Rohingyas
as their citizens and consider them to be immigrants who were brought in from
Bangladesh during the British colonial rule. Further, Bangladesh, which remains the
favourite destination for the Rohingyas facing atrocities in Myanmar, is of the opinion
that they are natives of the Burmese state and should be protected there.”
The Chakma and Hejong refugees

• Many from the Chakma and Hajong communities—who once lived in the Chittagong
hill tracts, most of which are located in Bangladesh—have been living as refugees in
India for more than five decades, mostly in the North-East and West Bengal. According
to the 2011 census, 47,471 Chakmas live in Arunachal Pradesh alone.
• In 2015, the Supreme Court of India had directed the central government to give
citizenship to both Chakma and Hajong refugees. In September last year, the
government of India decided to provide citizenship to these groups, despite
opposition from many groups in Arunachal Pradesh, where these refugees are
concentrated.
Q.19) How was the Punjab crisis averted by the Indira Gandhi administration? Discuss. What
were the fallouts?
During the 1980s, Punjab was engulfed by a separatist movement (demand for Khalistan and
Punjabi Suba) which was transformed into a campaign of terror, leading to low-intensity war
and a dangerous crisis for the Indian nation.
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The genesis of the problem lay in the growth of communalism in Punjab in the course of the
twentieth century and, in particular, since 1947, and which erupted into extremism,
separatism and terrorism after 1980.
The fight for a separate Sikh state owes its origins to the Punjabi Suba Movement.
How Indira Gandhi administration averted this crisis?

1980s was a critical phase in the evolution of Mrs. Gandhi’s leadership.
• At earlier stage, instead of boldly confronting the communal and separatist challenge
to the Indian polity, Indira Gandhi led administration tried to use tactical manoeuvring
with policy of appeasement.
• Indira Gandhi’s government refused to take strong action against terrorist killings for
three long years, from 1981 to 1984, or to fight extreme communalism, ideologically
and politically, and to counter communal propaganda effectively. Rather they carried
on endless negotiations.
• However, hostage to its own past handling of the crisis, hostage to the whims of the
terrorists, hostage too to the absence of soft options, Indira Gandhi’s Government
faced a huge dilemma.
• However, Ms. Gandhi decided to impose President’s rule in 1983 and to go all out
taking hard actions.
• Operation Sundown involving Special Forces was planned to abduct Sikh e81xtremist
leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale from the Golden Temple complex. But, the
operation was never materialized due to the Indira Gandhi’s rejection, as it could have
caused numerous casualties.
• Finally, Operation Blue Star was launched in which the Indian Army invaded the
Golden Temple at Amritsar to flush out separatists lodged inside.
Fallouts:
• Some of the structures surrounding the temple were destroyed in the firing. The
temple complex was badly destroyed in the process. Many Sikh scriptures and books
were damaged and ruined.
• The unofficial death toll is much higher with some sources placing it at 20000. Many
civilians were also caught in the crossfire and killed.
• Many people have criticised the operation for its use of heavy artillery in the crowded
streets of Amritsar. There have also been allegations of human rights violation by the
army with eyewitnesses alleging that captured militants were shot dead.
• The storming of the holiest shrine of Sikhism also drew widespread condemnation and
protests by Sikhs across the world. Many Sikhs resigned from the army and
government posts in protest.
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• The operation also led to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 31
October 1984 by two of her Sikh bodyguards, triggering the 1984 anti-Sikh riots.
• The genocide and anti-sikh riots are an unmatched blot to the Indian democracy,
secularism and the very principles of our culture.
• General and Chief of Army Staff at the time of Operation Blue Star were also
assassinated later.
Q.) Pokhran II was a timely and inevitable step. Critically comment.
From the initial years following Independence till the 1990s, there was a great deal of public
debate about whether or not India should acquire nuclear weapons. Discussions revolved
around the morality of acquiring weapons and the potential strategic gains it could entail.
Factors that lead India to go for Pokhran II tests

• The main impetus for India going nuclear, however, was China, which tested a nuclear
weapon in 1964.
• India faced in adverse security environment in the early 1990s. The collapse of the
Soviet Union, India’s Cold War ally acted as one among the primary reason for the
Pokhran tests of 1998. India believed that it was right time for it to emerge as a self-
declared nuclear power.
• India also decided to go for next level of weaponisation after it was confirmed that
Pakistan had acquired centrifuge technology required to build the bomb and a secret
agreement between Pakistan and China for the necessary technical support.
• Especially after opening of the economy, Indian leaders felt that India and China were
both destined to be the leaders of Asia and for that it was time that India had to have
self-reliance with regard to Nuclear weapons.
The test opened floodgates of trouble for India which include economic and military and
interactional isolation. Pokhran tests attracted variety of sanctions especially from US and
Japan, cutting off all aid except humanitarian assistance. India’s action also drew world
condemnation. The challenge to mitigate international opposition with US and eventually
bridge the trust gap was a great concern.
• However, with those difficulties, Pokhran II has brought India to the nuclear
mainstream and opened up the global nuclear market for development of nuclear
power without signing the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)
or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) which further lead to The U.S.-
India Nuclear Deal.
• With the tests, India had demonstrated its might in the field of science and technology
and demonstration of its military power.
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• Indian diplomacy triumphed in turning a grave crisis into an opportunity by securing

legitimacy for its nuclear arsenal and removing obstacles in generating nuclear power.
• Despite not being a signatory to either the CTBT or NPT, India has managed to secure
civilian nuclear deals with the US, Japan and Australia, among countries.
• The Nuclear weapons doctrine and No First Use policy pertaining to nuclear weapons
has become the cornerstone of India’s diplomatic, military and political policy in the
international arena.
Regardless of the international reactions to the nuclear tests of May 1998, the general public
of India was happy and lauded the government’s undeterred stand regarding national
security. Twenty years after Pokhran-II, this demonstrated behaviour has given India the
moral, political and legal standing to convey to the world that it plays by the rules. Today, it
is certain that the action was timely and inevitable.
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All rights are reserved. No part of this document should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of IASbaba.
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IAS BABA Post Independence 2022

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IAS BABA Post Independence 2022

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IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Process of Unification ............................................................................................................ 2

Indian Tribal Issues ................................................................................................................ 8

Article 15(4): Promotion of Social, Economic and Educational interests ........................... 14

Refugee Crisis after Partition ............................................................................................... 16

Wars After Independence .................................................................................................... 21

Post 1947 Communalism ..................................................................................................... 32

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Three Views about Princely States

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Pondicherry and Goa:

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

INDIAN TRIBAL ISSUES

Condition of Tribals before the arrival of British:

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Condition of Tribals after arrival of British:

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Image Showing Santhal Rebellion

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Post Independent Debate

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Both the approaches were rejected by Jawaharlal Nehru

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

The Tribal Panchsheel:

Various Constitutional Provisions

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Article 15(4): Promotion of Social, Economic and Educational interests

Article 19(5): Safeguard of Tribal Interests

Article 23: Human Trafficking

Article 29: Cultural and Educational Rights

Articles 330, 332 and 334

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

REFUGEE CRISIS AFTER PARTITION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

After Partition thousands took shelter in Delhi’s Purana Qila

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

WARS AFTER INDEPENDENCE

Sino-India relations before war:

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

1. The border disputes

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Dalai Lama in India

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

After effects of war:

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Indo-Pak war 1965

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Indo – Pakistan war 1971: the liberation of Bangladesh

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

IASBABA ILP 2022 POST INDEPENDENCE CONSOLIDATION

Separatist Khalistan Flag