Chapter 1

Basic Trigonometric Functions of

Acute Angles

INTRODUCTION

In the world of Mathematics, the subjects Trigonometry and

Geometry cannot be separated. In all aspects of geometry there is the
presence of trigonometry. It is in this regard that basic trigonometry is
included in this workbook to satisfy the need of geometry

This chapter is focus on the basic concepts of trigonometry which is

very vital in solving problems in geometry. The idea is to acquaint the
students with the use of basic trigonometric functions and to show them how
these functions can be useful in plane and solid geometry. Moreover, this
chapter discussed primarily the triangle in detailed illustrations in relation to
the basic fundamentals of trigonometry.

The chapter also deals on some important methods and techniques in

solving problems of geometry that can be instrumental to the students in
doing the exercises and the classroom activities. Illustrative problems were
solved in a step by step manner so that students themselves can immediately
absorb the solution’s process.
 Moreover, the students can expect some challenging problems in both
exercises and classroom activities. All problems were already solved and
some of them have their answers at the back of the workbook.

General Objectives:
After working on this Chapter, the student may:
1. Get familiar with the six (6) basic parts of the triangle.
2. Grow on their skills in using scientific calculators.
3. Develop their talents in choosing strategies in solving basic
trigonometric problems.
4. Stimulate their interest and appreciate trigonometry.
5. Relate their skills and knowledge about trigonometry in real life.

Lessons and Topics:

In this chapter, the students are challenged to:
1. Define any basic trigonometric functions.
2. Memorize the basic formulas.
3. Measure angles and sides of right triangle.
4. Calculate interior and exterior angles of any triangle.
5. Familiarize the use of calculators involving trigonometry.
6. Use Pythagorean Theorem.
The Right Triangle:
B

c a

A b C (Figure 1)

Definition of Terms:
1. A right triangle is a triangle having one its angles measures
exactly 90 degrees or right angle.
2. An angle is the figure formed by the two sides of the triangle.
3. A side of a triangle is the measurement of the distance
between the two vertices of the triangle.
4. The vertex of a triangle is the intersection of the two sides of
the triangle.

Let us consider the right triangle ABC in the Fig.1 composed of six (6)
parts. The right angle is angle C and the two acute angles are angles A & B.
The sides opposite the angles as the usual approached will be denoted by
their corresponding small letters, a, b, and c respectively. We can now define
three basic trigonometric functions for the acute angles A & B as follows:

Basic trigonometric functions:

For angle A, we have

a ¿
sin A= =Opposite side ¿ angle A (1)
c Hypotenuse
 b ¿
cos A= = Adjacent side ¿ angle A (2)
c Hypotenuse

a ¿
tan A= =Opposite side¿ angle A angle A ¿(3)
b Adjacent side ¿

For angle B. we have

b ¿
sin B= =Opposite side ¿ angle B (4)
c Hypotenuse

a ¿
cos B= =Adjacent side¿ angle B (5)
c Hypotenuse

b ¿
tan B= =Opposite side ¿ angle B angle B ¿(6)
a Adjacent side ¿

Students must not worry about the assignment of letters on the two (2)
acute angles if ever they forgotten the illustrations in Figure 1. Since the
vertical side is the altitude ( a as in altitude ) and the horizontal side is the
base of the triangle ( b as in base ), and so their opposite angles should be A
and B respectively. Upon knowing these, students can now apply the basic
functions of trigonometry.

These functions of acute angles of right triangle are very instrumental

in solving problems of plane geometry since triangle is consist of angles that
can be solved by way of these functions. The use of trigonometry is essential
in many problems of geometry. Therefore, the basic trigonometric functions
are very important in solving processes.

The Pythagorean Theorem is always attached in the solutions in

solving problems involving right triangle. The analyses of right triangles
cannot be completed without Pythagorean theorem. The theorem is always
the way of checking the correctness of the values or dimensions of the sides
of any right triangles.

Pythagorean Theorem: “The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the

sum of the squares of the two legs of a right triangle”.
2 2 2
c =a + b
Examples 1: Find the remaining parts of a right triangle whose legs are 7
units and 10 units respectively.

Solution: Draw the triangle

7 units c

C 10 units A

General Note: The first thing to do in making a solution process

is to identify the given data and at the same time the unknown data.

Given: C = 90º, a = 7 units, b = 10 units

c=? A=? B=?

Method & Technique:

The given parts of the triangle are the two (2) sides. The first
step is to determine the third side by using the Pythagorean
Theorem. Please notice that all the functions of the Two (2)
acute angles are being described by the two (2) sides of the
triangle. Hence,

By Pythagorean Theorem: The hypotenuse can be determined with the

help of a scientific calculator.
 2 2 2
c =a + b
2 2 2
c =7 +10
2 2
c =49+100 , c =149

Take the square root of both sides, we have:

c= √ 149 , c=12.20655 units∨¿

c=12.21 units Answer

Since the three (3) sides of the right triangle are known already,
Angles A and B can be determined by basic trigonometric functions.
Students may choose among the three (3) sets of functions they will
use.

Finding angle A:
a ¿
The Sine Function: sin A= =Opposite side ¿ angle A
c Hypotenuse

7
sin A= =0.573462344
√ 149
−1
A=sin 0.573462344=34.9920202⁰
0 '
A=34 59 31.27 Answe

b ¿
The Cosine Function: cos A= = Adjacent side ¿ angle A
c Hypotenuse

10
cos A= =0.81923192
√149
−1
A=cos 0.81923192=34.9920202⁰
0 '
A=34 59 31.27 Answe

a ¿
The Tangent Function: tan A= =Opposite side¿ angle A angle A ¿
b Adjacent side ¿

7
tan A= =0.70
10
 −1
A=tan 0.70=34.9920202⁰
0 '
A=34 59 31.27 Answe

Note: The measurements of angle A using the three functions

are one and the same or equal. Angle B, the other
angle of the right triangle can be obtained in the same
manner how angle A is determined.

Finding angle B:
b ¿
The Sine Function: sin B= =Opposite side ¿ angle A
c Hypotenuse

10
sin B= =0.81923192
√ 149
−1
B=sin 0.81923192=55.0079797 °
'
B=55 ° 0 28.73 Answe

a ¿
The Cosine Function: cos B= =Adjac ent side ¿ angle A
c Hypotenuse

7
cos B= =0.573462344
√ 149
−1
B=cos 0.573462344=55.0079797⁰
'
B=55 ° 0 28.73 Answe

b ¿
The Tangent Function: tan B= =Opposite side ¿ angle A angle A ¿
a Adjacent side ¿

10
tan B= =1.42857143
7
−1
B=tan 1.42857143=55.0079797⁰
 '
B=55 ° 0 28.73 Answe

Note: The values of angle B using the three functions are one
and the same or equal. Other books suggested a very
simple way of finding the third angle of a right triangle
by subtracting the given or known acute angle to 90
degrees. I agree with it if it is already given. But if the
two (2) acute angles are unknown, I insist to do it this
way to find out if the two angles are complimentary
using the trigonometric functions. Anyway, we can check
the results by adding the three (3) angles equal to 180
degrees.

Checking: It is known that the sum of angles of a triangle is 180 degrees.

The students can check their answers by adding the three (3) angles.
A+ B+C=180 ,
0 ' '
52 59 31.27 +55⁰ 0 28.73+90⁰ =180⁰

The students may choose on what trigonometric function they are apt
to use. It is their personal choice to pick just one of the three
functions. The workbook does not recommend doing the three
functions. It only illustrates the parallelism of the three (3) functions
in relation to their outcomes.

Example 2: Find the remaining parts of a right triangle having one leg and
opposite angle of 15 units and 40⁰ respectively.

Solution: Draw the triangle

15 units c
 40⁰

C b A

Identification of given and unknown data:

Given: C = 90º, a = 15 units, b=?

c=? A = 40⁰ B=?

Method & Technique:

The given parts of the triangle are length of side a and the
value of the opposite angle A. The first step is to determine the
third angle B by summing up the angles equal to 180.

Finding angle B: A+ B+C=180

0
40 ° + B+90 °=180

B=180 °−90° −40 °

B=50 ° Answer

The students may choose on what trigonometric function they are

appropriate to use. This workbook suggest the tangent and sine
functions to determine sides b and c, then afterwards use Pythagorean
theorem to check the answers.

The Tangent Function: To determine side b.

a a
tan A= ,b=
b tan A

15 15
b= = =17.87630389
tan 40 0.839099631
0

b=17.88 units Answer

The Sine Function: To determine side c.

 a
sin A=
c

a 15
c= = =23.3358574
sin A sin 40 °

c=23.34 Answer

The Pythagorean Theorem: To check the answers.

2 2 2
c =15 +17.87630389 =544.5622407

c=23.3358574∨c=23.34 units

15 15 15
Checking: sin 40= , c= =
c sin 40 0.642787609

c=23.3358574

Exercises 1: Evaluate the following right triangles using basic trigonometric

functions
1. A = 52 degrees a = 72 units
B=? b=? c=?
2. A = 40 degrees a=?
B=? b = 65 units c=?
3. A=? a=?
B = 25 degrees b = 100 units c=?
4. A=? a = 12 units
B=? b = 17 units c=?
5. A=? a=?
B=? b = 27 units c = 28 units
6. A = 25 degrees a = 35 units
B=? b=? c=?
7. A = 70 degrees a=?
B=? b = 70 units c=?
8. A=? a=?
 B = 75 degrees b = 36 units c = ?
9. A = ? a = 18 units
B=? b = 54 units c=?
10.A = ? a=?
B=? b = 32 units c = 34 units
11.A = 72 degrees a = 52 units
B=? b=? c=?
12.A = 65 degrees a=?
B=? b = 40 units c=?
13.A = 25 degrees a = 27 units
B=? b=? c=?
14.A = 47 degrees a=?
B=? b = 56 units c=?
15.A = ? a=?
B = 53 degrees b = 10 units c=?
16.A = ? a = 19 units
B=? b = 73 units c=?
17.A = ? a=?
B=? b = 77 units c = 83 units
18.A = 59 degrees a = 56 units
B=? b=? c=?
19.A = 35 degrees a=?
B=? b = 65 units c=?
20.A = ? a=?
B=? b = 93 units c = 108 units
Name: ________________________ Course: _________
Classroom Activity No. 1 Section: _________

Determine the unknown parts of the following right triangles using basic
trigonometric functions.

1. A = 25 degrees a=?
B=? b = 27 units c=?
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2. A = ? a = 6 units
B=? b=? c = 16 units
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3. A = ? a=?
B = 75 degrees b=? c = 45 units
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4. A = 16.45 degrees a=?

B=? b=? c = 52 units
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5. A = ? a=?
B = 23.35 degrees b = 38 units c=?
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6. A = ? a=?
B=? b = 3 units c = 25 units
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 7. A = 10 deg 15 min a=?
B=? b = 30 units c=?
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8. A = 76.2 degrees a=?

B=? b=? c = 252 units
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9. A = 18 degrees a = 18 units
B=? b=? c=?
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 10.A = ? a = 26 units
B = 62 degrees b=? c=?
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Law of Sine:
B

c h a

Figure 1.1:

A b C

Derivation of Formula:
Draw a line from the vertex B perpendicular to side b (Figure
2).The line is the altitude of the triangle. Applying the basic
trigonometric function of sine on angles A and C, we have:

h
sin A= , h=c sin A , while
c
 h
sin C= ,h=a sin C
a

Since we the same value of h on both equations, we can equate the

two equations.
c sin A=¿ a sinC ¿

Dividing both sides of the equation by ac, we have:

c sin A a sin C
= , therefore
ac ac

sin A sinC sin B

= =
a c b

Dividing both sides of the equation by sin A sin C, we have:

c sin A a sin C
= ,therefore
sin A sinC sin A sinC

The Sine Law: In any triangle, the value of the sine of an angle
divided by its opposite side is equal to the value of the
sine of any other angle divided by its corresponding
opposite side.
This can be written in the form of:
a b c
= = (1)
sin A sin B sin C
Illustrative Problem:

1. Determine the missing parts of the triangle shown below:

B=96º

c=12 ft a=?

A=? C=?

b=18 ft

Solution:

Since the given data are side b and its opposite angle, and side c; we
can find first the opposite angle of side c which is angle C and
afterwards the third angle by summing them equal to 180⁰.

The Sine Law:

sin B sin C
=
b c

c sin B 12sin 96 °
sin C= = =0.663014596
b 18
'
C=41 ° 31 49 Answe

We can now measure the third angle which is angle A.

'
A=180° −96 °−41° 31 49= 42° 28' 11

The three angles are known already, finally we can compute for the
third side a.
a b b sin A '
= , a= =18 sin 42 ° 28 11} over {sin {96°} ¿
sin A sin B sin B

a=12.22 ft Answer

Checking: To check the value of side a, use angle C and side c:

a c c sin A '
= , a= =12 sin 42 ° 28 11}} over {sin {41° {31} ^ {'} 49
sin A sinC sin C
 a=12.22 ft Correct

Cosine Law:
B

c h a

Figure 1.2 x b-x

A b C

Derivation of Formula:
Draw a line from the vertex B perpendicular to side b
(Figure 1.2). The line is the altitude h of the triangle. Divide
the base into two (2) parts x and y and applying the basic
trigonometric function of cosine on angles A and C, we
have:

x
cos A= , x =c cos A
c

By Pythagorean Theorem:
2 2 2
c =h + x
2 2 2
h =c −x eq .1
2 2 2 2 2 2
a =h + ( b−x ) =h +b −2 bx+ x
2 2 2 2
h =a −b −x + 2 bx eq .2

Equating eq. 1 and Eq. 2:

2 2 2 2 2
c −x =a −b −x +2 bx
2 2 2
c −a + b =2 bx , but x=c cos A , hence
 2 2 2
c −a + b =2 bc cosA

Re-arranging the equation, we have:

2 2 2
b +c −a
cos A=
2 bc

The Cosine Law: The cosine of an angle of a triangle is equal to the

sum of the square of the adjacent sides minus the square
of the opposite side all over twice the product of the
adjacent sides.
2 2 2
b +c −a
cos A= (1)
2 bc
2 2 2
a + c −b
cos B= (2)
2 ac
2 2 2
a +b −c
cos C= (3)
2 ab

Illustrative Problem:

2. Determine the angles of a triangle if the sides are 6, 7 and 8 ft respectively.

Solution: Since the given data are the three (3) sides while the unknowns
are the angles, the appropriate process to be used is the cosine
law:

Given: Let: a = 6 ft, b = 7 ft, c = 8 ft

2 2 2 2 2 2
b +c −a 7 + 8 −6
cos A= , cos A= =0.6875
2 bc 2(7)(8)
'
A=46 ° 34 3 Answe
2 2 2 2 2 2
a + c −b 6 + 8 −7
cos B= ,cos B= =0.53125
2 ac 2(6)(8)
'
B=57 ° 54 36 Answe
 2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b −c 6 +7 −8
cos C= , cos C= =0.25
2 ab 2(6)(7)

C=75 °31 21 Answer

Check: A+ B+C=180 ° ,
'
46 ° 34 3 +57 °+54 ' 36 +75° 31' 21 = 180° Correct

In solving problems regarding basic trigonometry, the students may choose

among the six basic functions depending on the given parts of the triangle and
what function for them is easy to use. The students must remember that the six
functions are inter-related with one another and the outcome of one function is the
same with the other related functions.

Exercises 2: Determine the unknown parts of the following triangles.

1. A = 75º B=? C=?

a=? b = 12 ft c = 10 ft
 2. A = ? B=? C = 36º
a = 8 ft b = 14 ft c=?
3. A = ? B=? C = 45º
a = 18 ft b = 15 ft c=?
4. A = ? B=? C=?
a = 8 ft b = 11 ft c = 14 ft
5. A = 55º B = 25º C=?
a=? b=? c = 15 ft
6. A = ? B = 52º C = 40º
a = 26 ft b=? c=?
7. A = 50º B = 58º C=?
a=? b=? c = 20 ft
8. A = 40º B=? C = 36º
a=? b = 28 ft c=?
9. A = 55º B=? C=?
a=? b = 18 ft c = 15 ft
10.A = ? B=? C = 63º
a = 18 ft b = 34 ft c=?
11.A = ? B=? C = 75º
a = 28 ft b = 35 ft c=?
12.A = ? B=? C=?
a = 28 ft b = 41 ft c = 54 ft
13.A = 85º B = 35º C=?
a=? b=? c = 45 ft
14.A = ? B = 72º C = 48º
a = 46 ft b=? c=?
15.A = 58º B = 98º C=?
a=? b=? c = 30 ft

Name: ________________________ Course: _________

Classroom Activity No. 2 Section: ________
Determine the unknown parts of the following triangles.
1. A = 25º 35’ B=? C=?
a=? b = 14.25 ft c = 16.50 ft
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2. A = ? B=? C=?
a = 22.25 ft b = 14.50 ft c = 8.75 ft
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3. A = 51º 16’ B = 35º 48’ C=?
 a=? b=? c = 35.60 ft
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4. A = ? B = 37º 7’ C = 46º 54’

a = 16.30 ft b=? c=?
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5. A ? B = 45º 18’ C=?
a = 15.30 ft b=? c = 35.60 ft
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6. A = 65⁰ B=? C = 46º 54’

a=? b = 37.50 ft. c=?
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7. A = 41º 12’ B = 75º 40’ C=?
a=? b=? c = 35.70 ft
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8. A = ? B = 77º 7’ C = 56º 04’

a = 66.30 ft b=? c=?
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9. A = ? B = 42º 40’ C=?
a = 62.30 ft b=? c = 55.70 ft
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10.A = ? B=? C = 36º 04’

a = 36.60 ft b = 57.35 ft c=?
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Chapter Review Problems and Application:

1. City A is located 35 degrees Northeast of city B and 57 degrees Southeast of

city C. If the distance between city A and city B is 150 miles, what would be
the distance of city B to city C if city A is 80 miles from city C?
2. The provincial capital of Province X is 200 kilometers from city M and 520
kilometers from city N. If the provincial capital X is 32 degrees Southwest
of city M and 54 degrees Northeast of N, what is the distance of city M to
city N?
3. A man has to walk from point A to point B on a level ground towards a
tower which is 250 meters high. The angles of depression from the tower to
point A and B are 12 degrees and 67 degrees respectively. How far is point
A to point B?
4. A railroad going east intersects a highway at point P at an angle of 40
degrees Northeast and another highway at point Q at an angle of 15 degrees
Northwest. If the railroad and highways are straight and the distance from
Point P to point Q is 5 kilometers, what would be the distance of Points P
and Q from the intersection of the two highways?
5. In a triangulation process, a lighthouse has been observed to be 2 degrees
Northeast and 3 degrees Northwest from points A and B on the level ground
respectively. If point A is 30 meters and 25 degrees Southwest of point B,
what is the distance of the lighthouse from points A and B?
6. Two buildings are 80 meters apart and they are within the line of sight of a
driver in the car. At one instant, the tips of the two building are align within
the line of sight of the driver at an angle of 30 degrees and 200 meters away
from the first building. How tall are the two buildings?
7. A tower was built on top of a 100 meter high building. The angles of
depression from top and bottom of the tower to a point on the level ground
are 32 degrees and 28 degrees respectively. How tall is the tower?
8. A triangular lot has a dimension of 24, 30 and 40 meters respectively. What
would be the measurement of the largest interior angle of the triangle? What
would be the smallest angle?
9. Solve problem 8 if the sides are 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
10.The longer leg of a right triangle is seven units longer than the shorter leg
while its hypotenuse is one unit longer than the longer leg. What is the
dimension of the right triangle?

Chapter 2
Lines, Planes and Angles

INTRODUCTION
 Figures of different shapes are being seen elsewhere. They are
surrounded by lines having their own projections along a plane area. It is in
this sense that everyone, not only students must know how to appreciate the
importance of this nature.

Lines, Planes, and Angles are three (3) things that go along together at
all times. They are usually recognized by their properties in two or three
dimensional figures. A student must have some knowledge about geometric
concepts on lines, planes and angles; their appearance and properties in
order to pursue his study about geometry. These three (3) things are the
starting point of in the study of geometry.

General Objective:
After this chapter, a student should be able to:
1. Recognize different types of lines.
2. Draw lines, diagrams, and the likes.
3. Identify different types of angles.
4. Quantify the measurement of angles
5. Familiar with the different types of plane figures.
6. Know the relationship of lines, planes, and angles.

Lessons and Topics:

In this chapter, the students are challenged to:
1. Define line, planes, and angle.
2. Memorize the different types of lines, planes, and angle.
3. Measure angles of intersecting lines.
4. Measure of interior and exterior angles of any plane figure.
5. Formulate some relationships of line, planes, and angle.
Lines:

A line is defined as a locus of a point whether in a straight or in

a curve form. It is a plane figure that represents division, boundary,
land mark, and the likes. A line is introduced to represent a straight or
curve object having negligible width and depth. Others defined it as a
figure having only one dimension, which is its length, and it is nothing
else but the flow of its points from its imaginary moving length,
exempted of any other dimensions like width and depth and equally
extended between its points.

Below are some types of Line:

1. ---------------- Dotted line
2. Straight line
3. Parallel lines
4. Perpendicular lines
5. Curve line
6. Asymptotic lines

Euclid, a great Mathematician described a line as a breathless length

with a straight line that lies evenly with the points on it. He introduced many
axioms as basic properties of a Line from which he built geometry which is
now called Euclidean Geometry. Modern mathematics found a few flaws on
some Euclid’s original axioms, and they are now being corrected by modern
mathematicians.

A line segment is a part of a line which is bounded by two specific

end points. It contains all points along the line between its two end points.
The two end points sometimes are not considered a portion of the line
segment depending on how it is described.

Example:
 A B C

Given three points A, B and C, described two line segments of the

continuous line as shown. Between points A and B, all set of points along
the ray are included in the line segment AB, this may include points A and
B depending on how it is described.

Planes:

A Plane is a surface so that at any two points in it, a straight

line can be drawn in its surface. A plane could be vertical, horizontal,
and slanting or angled surface. A straight line drawn in any direction
in it is a concrete manifestation of a plane surface. It is indefinite in
its extent but normally represented by a polygon or any distinct
geometric plane figures.

In Euclidian plane, two lines which do not intersect are parallel lines.
But in modern mathematics, two lines which do not intersect can only be
parallel if they are contained in one plane or they are skewed or asymptotic
if they are not in one plane.

In modern times, the concept of a line is nearly tied to geometric

figures. A line in the plane is described as the set of points whose
coordinates satisfy a linear equation. When geometry is defined by several
postulates, the idea about a line is left and many times undefined. The
properties of line are found by its own axioms and postulates.

Angles:

In geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called

the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint which is called
the vertex of the angle. Angles are usually presumed to be in
a Euclidean plane or in the Euclidean space and are measured in
degrees, but are also defined in non-Euclidean geometries. In
particular, in spherical trigonometry, the angles are defined, using
arcs of great circles instead of rays. Angle is also used to designate
the measure of any angle or any rotation.
 Angulus is the Latin word for angle, which means “a corner”.
Angulus is a diminutive in its form of which angus is the primitive form.
But, it does not occur in Latin. (Ankylοs) is a Greek word for angle which
means "crooked or curved," and the English word is "ankle". Both are
connected with the root ank, which means "to bend" or "bow".

Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination of two lines which meet
each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. The first
concept was used by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation or
deflection from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who
regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines. The third
concept is adopted by Euclid although his definitions of right, acute, and
obtuse angles refer to numerical or quantitative.

A dihedral angle is the amount of deflection of two intersecting

planes. The edge of the dihedral angle is the line of intersection of the
planes. The faces of the dihedral angle are the planes. A plane angle of a
dihedral angle is the angle formed by two straight lines, one in each phase,
and perpendicular to the edge at the same point. The plane angle of the
dihedral angle is taken as the measure of the dihedral angle.

Types of Angle:
1. Acute Angle – is an angle that measures less than 90
degrees.
2. Right Angle – is an angle that measures exactly 90
degrees.
3. Obtuse Angle – is an angle that measures more than 90
Measuring Interior Angles of Polygons
The sum of interior angles of any polygon can be determined by the formula:
I A=180 °( N −2)

Where: IA = Sum of interior angles of polygon

N = Number of sides of polygon

Example: Find the sum of interior angles of: a) triangle, b) hexagon, c)

decagon

Solution:

Number of sides of polygons

a) Triangle - 3 sides
I A=180 ° ( 3−2 )=180 °

b) Hexagon - 6 sides
I A=180 ° ( 6−2 )=720 °

c) Decagon - 10 sides
 I A=180 ° ( 10−2 )=1,620 °

Axioms, or Postulates
These definitions will be often used in describing a particular figure.
In order to interpret the problems in plane and geometry, students must be
aware of these geometric terms and they should familiarize all of them.

An axiom, or postulate, is a starting point of reasoning, A given

principle that is accepted to be true without any proof as the basis for
argument. The word axiom comes from the Greek (axioma) which means
clear or obvious evident. In mathematics, the term axiom refers to two
related but distinguishable senses: "logical axioms" and "non-logical
axioms".
a. Logical axioms are statements that are assumed to be true within the
system of logic.
b. Non-logical axioms are properties that described the domain of a
specific mathematical fundamental theory like arithmetic.
When used in non-logical sense, "axiom," "postulate", and
"assumption" may be used alternately having the same thought or meaning.
In general, it is not a self-evident truth, but rather a logical expression used
in constructing or erecting a fundamental theory in mathematics. Axioms are
specific to a particular system of logic that is being invoked. There are
basically different ways to develop or derive an axiom in a given
mathematical domain.
In other words, an axiom either logical or non-logical is a statement
that serves as a fundamental point from which other statements are logically
derived. In any logical presentation, axioms are the starting points and
therefore, they cannot be derived by principles or by any mathematical
demonstrations. they will be considered as theorems if they will be followed
logically. However, in a presentation, an axiom could be a theorem in
another presentation, or otherwise.

1. Parallel lines - are lines that lie in the same plane and will
never meet how far they are drawn. Two lines whether
straight or not are said to be asymptotic if they lie on the
same plane and cannot meet how far they produced.
Fig. (2.1a)

Parallel lines

Fig. (2.1b)

Asymptotic lines
2. Two straight lines or two planes are parallel if they don’t
intersect however far they are drawn or produced.

Figure 2.2: A

B C

3. A plane and a straight line are said to be parallel if they

cannot meet however far both are produced.

Figure 2.3: A

B C
D

4. When a plane is to be drawn through given points or lines,

we are passing the plane through the given points or lines.
5.

Figure 2.4:
1

4 2

3
 5. Foot of the line on a plane is the intersection of a line
drawn from a point to a plane.

Figure 2.5:

Foot

6. A straight line and a plane are perpendicular if the line

is perpendicular to every straight line drawn through its foot in
the plane and all the lines drawn perpendicular to the plane are
parallel to the straight line. A perpendicular also called a
normal to the plane.

Figure 2.6:

7. The foot of the perpendicular let fall from the point to the
plane is the projection of a point in the plane.

Figure 2.7:
Point P
 8. The Projection of a line on a plane is the locus of all the points
on the line. (See Figure 3.7)

9. The angle which it makes with its projection on the plane is the
angle which a line makes with the plane.

Figure 2.8:

10. A dihedral angle is the amount of divergence of two

intersecting planes

Figure 2.10:
θ

11. Two planes are perpendicular to each other if their dihedral

angle is a right angle. ( θ in Figure 2.10 is 90º)

12. Three or more planes meet at a point, they formed a

polyhedral angle.
Theorems on lines, planes, and angle:

1. The intersection of two planes is a straight line.

Figure 2.11:

Intersection Line

2. Any number of planes may be passed through a straight line.

Figure 2.12:
Straight Line

3. The intersections of a plane by two parallel planes are

parallel lines.

Figure 2.13: intersections

 4. If two straight lines are parallel, a plane containing one of
the lines is parallel to the other line

Figure 2.14: Line off the Plane

Line on the Plane

5. If a plane is parallel to a straight line, and another plane

containing this line intersects the given plane, the given line
is parallel to the line produced by the intersection of two
planes.
6.

Figure 2.15:

Given Line

Intersection
Name: ______________________ Course: __________
Class Activity No. 3 Section: __________

Illustrate the following Theorems

1. The corresponding intercepts of two straight lines are proportional if they

intersected parallel planes.
2. A straight line that is parallel to two parallel straight lines are parallel to
each other.

3. Two angles in two different planes having their sides parallel to each other,
and having the same directions from their vertices, their angles are equal and
their planes having them are parallel.

4. A straight line perpendicular to each of two intersecting straight lines on a

plane at their intersection is perpendicular to the plane.
5. If two intersecting planes are perpendicular to a third plane, their
intersection is perpendicular to that plane.

6. If a plane is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, the plane is also

perpendicular to the other line.

7. If a straight line is perpendicular to one of two parallel planes, the said line
is also perpendicular to the other plane.
8. Two straight lines are parallel if they are perpendicular to one and the same
plane.

9. Two planes are parallel if they are perpendicular to one and the same straight
line.