Time Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)

Ultrasonics for the detection of Weld

Corrosion
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD)

1 - Technique description
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) is a specialised NDT technique for detection, sizing and monitoring
of weld flaws. It was originally developed for the through-wall sizing of crack-like defects by analysis
of diffracted signal arrival times (see e.g. Silk, 1984). For weld corrosion inspection, the technique
name is not fully appropriate as diffracted signals are not generally involved (although diffraction
does provide an important mechanism for detection and sizing of the tip of knife-edge corrosion
found only in stainless and other corrosion resistant materials).

TOFD is based on two probes (separate transmitter and receiver), placed on either side of the
weld, as illustrated in Figure 1. Probes giving short (high bandwidth) pulses are used, to allow good
resolution and accuracy of time measurement. The technique generally uses 60º to 70º
compression wave transducers and frequencies between 5 and 15 MHz.

A number of signals are typically obtained, three of which are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Schematic of weld corrosion inspection using TOFD

The first signal to arrive is the lateral wave, which is a compression wave taking the shortest path
between the transmitter and receiver probes. For the case of weld inspection, as illustrated in
Figure 1, the shortest path between the two probes is along the component surfaces, and directly
through the weld cap. The second signal is a compression wave signal scattered, reflected or
diffracted from the point on the weld corrosion closest to the inspection surface.

The third signal shown in Figure 1 is a reflected compression wave signal from the backwall. Note
that for moderate or severe examples of weld corrosion, the backwall signal may be absent or very
weak since it is masked by the presence of the weld corrosion.

The arrival time of the weld corrosion signal can be used to derive, using Pythagoras, the minimum
ligament (depth) between the uppermost point on the weld corrosion and the inspection surfaces on
either side of the weld cap, given the probe separation, probe delay and material velocity.

The beamwidths of the probes used in TOFD are generally large, so that coverage of almost the full
weld volume can often be achieved with a single pair of probes, as illustrated schematically in
Figure 2.
Figure 2 Schematic of compression wave coverage achieved for weld corrosion
inspection using TOFD. The coloured region represents the area of optimum
flaw response.

The standard formula used to derive depth from signal arrival time assumes that the scattering point
on the weld corrosion is midway between the two probes, i.e. on the weld centre line (assuming the
probes are symmetrically placed either side of the weld). If the weld corrosion is substantially offset
from the weld centre line, there can be significant errors in the derived flaw depths, unless
additional measurements are taken.

In TOFD, signals arriving later than the compression wave backwall signal are often observed.
These are generally mode-converted signals, in which one path from probe to flaw is a shear-wave
and the other path is a compression wave. These signals generally involve asymmetric paths, as
illustrated in Figure 3, with a mode conversion occurring at the flaw. These signals arise because,
due to their very wide beamwidths, TOFD probes both generate and receive shear waves in the
component, via a mode conversion at the inspection surface. Mode-converted back-wall signals are
also generally observed, unless they are obstructed by the weld corrosion.

Figure 3 TOFD inspection of offset weld corrosion, showing a mode converted signal, in
which the path Tx to weld corrosion is a compression wave (P) and the path
weld corrosion to Rx is a vertically polarised shear wave (SV).

Figure 4 shows an example of the typical coverage achieved using the mode converted signals
(P-SV and SV-P), with good sensitivity to flaws in the coloured regions, either side of the weld
centre line. As can be seen, the use of the mode converted signals extends the coverage achieved
for weld corrosion which may be substantially offset from the weld centre line.
Figure 4 Schematic of the coverage achieved using mode converted signals (P-SV and
SV-P) for weld corrosion inspection using TOFD. The red lines show the SV
beams and the blue lines the P-wave beams. The coloured regions represent
the coverage areas for mode converted signals (P-SV and SV-P).

The use of mode converted signals in the interpretation and analysis of TOFD data from weld
corrosion inspections is critical in identifying corrosion off-set from the probe focal point.

The results from scanned TOFD inspections of welds are generally recorded as grey-scale
B-scans or D-scans, which show probe position horizontally and increased signal arrival time
vertically downwards. Grey-scale coding is used to show the different amplitudes of the unrectified
RF waveforms. A TOFD D-scan showing the presence of an isolated but substantial example of
weld corrosion is shown in Figure 5.

This example also shows the effects of mismatch or high/low (two backwalls evident, especially in
the mode-converted signals) and also evidence for offset of the weld corrosion to one side of the
weld (since only one of the two mode-converted backwall signals is affected by the presence of the
weld corrosion).

Figure 5 TOFD D-Scan of an isolated area of severe weld corrosion/erosion.

2 Application to weld corrosion detection and sizing
TOFD is the preferred method for weld corrosion inspection, provided the component falls within
the capabilities of the technique.

It is recommended that the technique is used in conjunction with the 0º pulse-echo technique to
measure the wall thickness of the component immediately adjacent to the weld, and also a Mimic
profile at four cardinal locations to plot the cap profile and misalignment of external surfaces.

2.1 Relevant standards and documents

TOFD should be applied in accordance with following documents:

 EN ISO 10863:2011 Welding – Use of time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD) for

examination of welds.

 ENV 583-6 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic examination – Part 6: Time-of-flight diffraction

technique as a method for detection and sizing of discontinuities.

2.2 Advantages

TOFD is recommended for weld corrosion inspection, wherever possible, because of the following
main advantages:

 The twin-probe inspection geometry and physical basis of TOFD is well suited to measurement
of the remaining ligament between the inspection surfaces, and the point on the weld corrosion
closest to that surface.

 The TOFD signals from weld corrosion are usually strong, and readily detectable since they are
primarily due to a reflection or strong forward scattering from the ‖top‖ of the weld corrosion (i.e.
the point nearest the inspection surface).

 In many cases, a single TOFD scan gives a direct profile on one image of the variations in depth
in the along weld direction of the point on the weld corrosion closest to the inspection surface.
This allows the location and value of the minimum remaining ligament to be measured reliably,
even for this variable form of degradation.

 The trial results given in Sarsfield, Collett and Burch (2009) show excellent agreement with the
mechanical measurements of the weld corrosion, to within typically ±0.5 mm, provided the
recommended additional techniques for sizing of offset flaws are used. Other trials are also
understood to show similar levels of accuracy.

 A permanent record of the results is obtained.

 The technique is repeatable and can be used for monitoring the progression of the degradation
over a period of time, through repeat inspections.
 The technique can be applied to tapers and mismatched welds, although special measures are
then required.

 The use of TOFD in conjunction with the 0º wall thickness measurement technique allows
measurement of both remaining ligament and the through-wall extent of the wall loss.

2.3 Limitations

There are however some limitations which need to be considered when applying this technique:

 TOFD can significantly underestimate the remaining ligament for weld corrosion which is
substantially offset from the weld centre line. In the case of substantial offsets, additional
techniques should then be applied, such as 0º pulse-echo using probes adjacent to the weld
cap, performing additional offset circumferential (non parallel) scans or axial (parallel) scans
with increased PCS and/or analysis of the mode converted TOFD signals.

 The accuracy of sizing extensive weld corrosion that approaches the inspection surface is
limited. For small ligaments, the weld corrosion signal will merge with the lateral wave. Under
these circumstances, limited or no sizing will be possible, but the presence of a near surface
area of wall loss can be recognised by the absence of a backwall signal and potentially the
mode converted backwall signal. A through-wall flaw will give a loss of the lateral wave signal as
well. In practice however, lateral wave durations can generally be restricted to a depth of 3mm
or less, and in many situations a remaining ligament of <3mm would be cause for taking the
weld out of service.

 In practice, surface condition can be problematic for ultrasonic techniques, without prior surface
preparation.