NETWORK REFERENCE MODELS

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts

for implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex,
unstructured program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very
difficult to test and modify. To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered
approach. In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers, and each
layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon
the layers.

Layered Architecture
 The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
 Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services
to manage communications and run the applications.
 It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
 It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to
higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any
modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
 The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to
a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
 The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and
order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer
to another layer.
 In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the
layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-
n protocol.
 In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to
layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer
immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes
place.
 In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
 The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared
among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be
easily replaced by another implementation.
 A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.
Reasons for Layered architecture?
 Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design
process in such a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and
manageable tasks. In short, we can say that this approach reduces the complexity of
the design.
 Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the
independence of layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
 Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one
layer can be changed without affecting other layers.
 Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested
individually.

Two major layering approaches:

 The seven-layer OSI/ISO model – Open Systems Interconnection, currently
maintained by the International Organization for Standards.
 TCP/IP model – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Open System Interconnection/International Standards Organization (OSI/ISO)

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization
(ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various
layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day, 1995). The model is called
the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are
open for communication with other systems.

OSI is a reference model that describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer.

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
The fundamental reason for the seven layers OSI model is to comprehend the data
transmission and communication system steps.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.

The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and
the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
1. Physical layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received
by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
It controls electrical and mechanical aspects of data transmission; it controls the
transmission of bits between two nodes.

Functions of the physical layer

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

2. Data-link layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data frames
(typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially. If
the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an
acknowledgement frame.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
Data link layer is responsible for controlling the error between adjacent nodes and transfer
the frames to other computer via physical layer. Data link layer is used by hubs and switches
for their operation.

The functions of the Data Link layer are:

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Takes bits received by physical layer and makes sure there are no errors.
If errors, request peer to retransmit data until it is correctly received: error control.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.

3. Network layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining
how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that
are ''wired into'' the network and rarely changed. They can also be determined at the start
of each conversation, for example, a terminal session (e.g., a login to a remote machine).
Finally, they can be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet, to reflect the
current network load.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one another's
way, forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also belongs to the network layer.
More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a
network layer issue.
When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from the
first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols
may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem
is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even non-existent establishes paths for data
between computers and determines switching among routes between computers,
determines how to disaggregate messages into individual packets.
1. Data is received error free by network layer.
2. Main function: routing and forwarding;
 3. Also, congestion control.
This layer is responsible for translating the logical network address and names into their
physical address (MAC address). This layer is also responsible for addressing, determining
routes for sending and managing network problems such as packet switching, data
congestion and routines.

The functions of the Network layer are:

1. Packetizing - If the message to be is large to be transmitted, it is split into several
fragments and then delivered independently and reassembled at the destination
node.
2. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
3. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.

4. Transport layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller
units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that
isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network.

The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the destination.
In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar
program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. In
the lower layers, the protocols are between each machine and its immediate neighbors, and
not between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by many
routers.

It deals with data transfer between end systems and determines flow control.
This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivers of messages between the networked hosts.
It first divides the streams of data into chunks or packets before transmission and then the
receiving computer re-assembles the packets. It also guarantee error free data delivery
without loss or duplications.
1. E2E communication.
2. Error-, flow- and congestion control end-to-end.
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error
is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards
the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port
number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications
have default ports assigned.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the
Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are as follows:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has
a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles
the message.
2. Port Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
3. Connection control
The services provided by the transport layer:
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination / disconnection

In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.

5. Session layer
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication, and also ensures security.
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to
transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time), and synchronization (check pointing long transmissions to
allow them to continue from where they were after a crash).
Creates and manages sessions when one application process requests access to another
applications process, e.g., MSWord importing a spread sheet from Excel.
This layer is responsible for establishing and ending the sessions across the network. The
interactive login is an example of services provided by this layer in which the connective are
re-connected in care of any interruption.

The functions of the session layer are:

1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered synchronization points into the data. These synchronization points help
to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication
with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.
In order to make it possible for computers with different data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along
with a standard encoding to be used ''on the wire.'' The presentation layer manages these
abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records), to be
defined and exchanged.
Determines syntactic representation of data, e.g., agreement on character code like
The functions of the presentation layer are:
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known
as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.

7. Application layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has
to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One
widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which is the basis
for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page
it wants to the server using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other application
protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
Establishes interface between a user and a host computer, e.g., searching in a database
application.
This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component.
Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer
functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource
availability, and synchronizing communication.

Functions of the application layer

1. Provides users with access to the underlying communication infrastructure.
2. E-mail, video conferencing, files transfer, distributed information systems (e.g.,
the Web)
3. Network Virtual Terminal
4. FTAM-File transfer access and management
5. Mail Services
6. Directory Services
TCP/IP
It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a
concise version of the OSI model
The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to OSI model. The major design goals of
this Model were,
1. To connect multiple networks together so that they appear as a single network.
2. To survive after partial subnet hardware failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

Process/application layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is
an application layer protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework
used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used
to send the data to another e-mail address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local
terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

Host-to-host/ transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the
error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in
bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for
the duration of the transmission.
 o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and
acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a
virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known
as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required
for reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based
on sequence numbers.

Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP
addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the
device and to provide internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to
be transmitted.
 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received
securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram
by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size
of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram
into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can
be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments
are reassembled to form an original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the
IP address.
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the
device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
 o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol
 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or
not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not
of the router that it is passed to.

Network access/ Link layer

 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.