COMPUTER NETWORKS COMPONENTS

A network consists of hardware (devices and media) and software (services) and protocols
to facilitate communication

Network Hardware
Network hardware refers to the collection of end devices, intermediary devices and
c o mmu nica t ion media that are used to build a network.

End devices
An end device, also known as a host, refers to a piece of equipment that is either the source
or the destination of a message on a network. It is the interface between the human user
and the network. Each host on a network is identified by an address
They include
 Computers
 Printers
 Servers
 Mobile phones
 PDAs
 etc.

End devices on a typical networks setup

Intermediary devices
Provide connectivity and ensures data flows across the network
Connect individual hosts to the network and can connect multiple individual networks
to form an internetwork
Use the destination host address to determine the path the messages take through the
network.
They include
 Hubs
 Switches
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Router
  Gateway
 Transceivers
 Transponders

NIC
 NIC stands for network interface card.
 NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer
onto a network
 It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
 The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is
assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored
in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are
used with wired NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices.
When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to
the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices
will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A
Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table
that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct
destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does
not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to
whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct
connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.

Router
 A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet
connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another
network.
 A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
 A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
 It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the
packet.

Advantages Of Router:
 Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the
entire cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
 Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no
other networks are affected that are served by the router.
 Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose
there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This
increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single network into two
networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load by half.
 Network range

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Network media are the channels that provide pathways for messages to move around a
network. Modern networks primarily use three types of media
Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software
technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as
electrical cable optical fiber, and radio waves (wireless LAN).
A well-known family of communication media is collectively known as Ethernet. It is defined
by IEEE 802 and utilizes various standards and media that enable communication between
devices. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These
devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.
a) Guided media (Wired technologies)
b) Unguided media (Wireless technologies)

Wired technologies
The order of the following wired technologies is, roughly, from slowest to fastest
transmission speed.
1. Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-
pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone
wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking
cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling
that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted
 together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The
transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms:
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP).
Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair cable. UTP cable is a 100 ohm copper cable that
consists of 2 to 1800 unshielded twisted pairs surrounded by an outer jacket. They have no
metallic shield. This makes the cable small in diameter but unprotected against electrical
interference. The twist helps to improve its immunity to electrical noise and EMI.
For horizontal cables, the number of pairs is typically 4 pair as shown below.

Shielded Twisted Pair cable (STP)

This is type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper wires that are
twisted together are coated with an insulating coating that functions as a ground for the
wires. The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring protects the transmission line from
electromagnetic interference leaking into or out of the cable. STP cabling often is used in
Ethernet networks, especially fast data rate Ethernets

2. Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-
sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by
an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself
is surrounded by a conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and
distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500
million bits per second.
Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that
of twisted pair cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross
talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet),
and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate
the wire at the far ends.

3. An optical fiber
Fiber optics is a glass fiber. Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits
at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic.
The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light
is emitted, it travels through it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and
converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode
fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.
Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are
 less transmission loss,
 immunity from electromagnetic radiation, and
 Very fast transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second.
One can use different colors of lights to increase the number of messages being sent over a
fiber optic cable.
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and access
fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC),
Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.
Wireless Technologies
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts
the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The
receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Wireless technologies include

 Radio transmission
 Microwave Transmission
 Infrared Transmission
 Light Transmission
 Terrestrial microwave
 Communications satellites
 Cellular and PCS systems
 Radio and spread spectrum technologies
 A global area network

Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000
km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz
(Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular
and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to
enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a
common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers,
over the earth’s surface.
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They
use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands
are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them
can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves
travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-
sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from
300 MHz to 300 GHz.

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and
do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it
is using.

Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of
700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and
it’s remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or
optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line. Hence the sender
and receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both
ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is
generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing
to lasers source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).

Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam
is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.
Terrestrial microwave
Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers
resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km
(30 mi) apart.

Communications satellites
The satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the
Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit
35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

Cellular and PCS systems

They use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered
into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay
antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

Infrared communication
They can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than 10 meters. In most
cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of
communicating devices.
A global area network (GAN)
This is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs,
satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user
communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves
a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

Selecting a network media

When selecting which media to use, you need to consider the following factors:
 The distance the media can successfully carry a signal. Each media has a maximum
range (length) over which it can reliably carry data.
 The environment in which the media is installed
 The amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted. Different media
have different bandwidths hence carry data at different speeds
 The cost of the media and not cost of installation. Different media have different
purchase prices and requirements for installation

SOFTWARE
The main software used for network management is a (Network Operating System)
Network Operating System
Unlike operating systems, such as Windows, that are designed for single users to control one
computer, network operating systems (NOS) coordinate the activities of multiple computers
across a network. The network operating system acts as a director to keep the network
running smoothly.
The two major types of network operating systems are:
 Peer-to-Peer
 Client/Server
Nearly all modern networks are a combination of both. The networking design can be
considered independent of the servers and workstations that will share it.

Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on
their computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However, they
do not have a file server or a centralized management source. In a peer-to-peer network, all
computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the resources
available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium
local area networks. Nearly all modern desktop operating systems, such as Macintosh OSX,
Linux, and Windows, can function as peer-to-peer network operating systems.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.
 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to
be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.
  Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Client/Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the
system, providing access to resources and security. Individual workstations (clients) have
access to the resources available on the file servers. The network operating system provides
the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple users to
simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical location.

Advantages of a client/server network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network

Protocols and standards

Protocols
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot
simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to
occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to perform a communication function
is called a protocol suite.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address
of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is
a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of
the message?
  Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver
and some data will be lost.
In a data communications network, protocols play the following roles:
 Determine the format or structure of the message, such as how much data to put into
each segment.
 Establish the process by which intermediary devices share information about the
path to the destination.
 Establish the method to handle error and system messages between intermediary
devices.
 Establish the process to setup and terminate communications or data transfers
between hosts.

Internet protocols

TCP/IP
The standard protocol for the Internet is TCP/IP. TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet
Protocol) are the rules for communicating over the Internet. Protocols control how the
messages are broken down, sent and reassembled. With TCP/IP, a message is broken down
into small parts called packets before it is sent over the Internet. Each packet is sent
separately, possibly travelling through different routes to a common destination. The
packets are reassembled into correct order at the receiving computer.

Internet services
The four commonly used services on the Internet are:
 Telnet
 FTP
 Gopher
 The Web

Telnet
 Telnet allows you to connect to another computer (host) on the Internet.
 With Telnet you can log on to the computer as if you were a terminal connected to it.
 There are hundreds of computers on the Internet you can connect to.
 Some computers allow free access; some charge a fee for their use.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 FTP allows you to copy files on the Internet
 If you copy a file from an Internet computer to your computer, it is called
downloading.
 If you copy a file from your computer to an Internet computer, it is called uploading.

Gopher
  Gopher allows you to search and retrieve information at a particular computer site
called a gopher site.
 Gopher is a software application that provides menu-based functions for the site.
 It was originally developed at the University of Minnesota in 1991.
 Gopher sites are computers that provide direct links to available resources, which
may be on other computers.
 Gopher sites can also handle FTP and Telnet to complete their retrieval functions.

The Web
 The web is a multimedia interface to resources available on the Internet.
 It connects computers and resources throughout the world.
 It should not be confused with the term Internet.

Browser
 A browser is special software used on a computer to access the web.
 The software provides an uncomplicated interface to the Internet and web
documents.
 It can be used to connect you to remote computers using Telnet.
 It can be used to open and transfer files using FTP.
 It can be used to display text and images using the web.
 Two well-known browsers are:
o Netscape communicator
o Microsoft Internet Explorer

Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)

 URLs are addresses used by browsers to connect to other resources.
 URLs have at least two basic parts.
o Protocol – used to connect to the resource, HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol) is the most common
o Domain Name – the name of the server where the resource is located.
 Many URLs have additional parts specifying directory paths, file names and pointers.
 Connecting to a URL means that you are connecting to another location called a web
site.
 Moving from one web site to another is called surfing.

Web portals
Web portals are sites that offer a variety of services typically including e-mail, sports
updates, financial data, news and links to selected websites. They are designed to encourage
you to visit them each time you access the web. They act as your home base and as a gateway
to their resources.
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Web pages
A web page is a document file sent to your computer when the browser has connected to a
website. The document file may be located on a local computer or halfway around the world.
The document file is formatted and displayed on your screen as a web page through the
interpretation of special command codes embedded in the document called HTML (Hyper
Text Mark-up Language).
Typically, the first web page on a website is referred to as the home page. The home page
presents information about the site and may contain references and connections to other
documents or sites called hyperlinks. Hyperlink connections may contain text files, graphic
images, audio and video clips. Hyperlink connections can be accessed by clicking on the
hyperlink.

Applets and Java

 Web pages contain links to special programmes called applets written in a
programming language called Java.
 Java applets are widely used to add interest and activity to a website.
 Applets can provide animation, graphics, interactive games and more.
 Applets can be downloaded and run by most browsers.

Search tools
Search tools developed for the Internet help users locate precise information. To access a
search tool, you must visit a web site that has a search tool available. There are two basic
types of search tools available:
- Indexes
- Search engines

Indexes
 Indexes are also known as web directories.
 They are organized by major categories e.g. health, entertainment, education, etc.
 Each category is further organized into sub-categories
 Users can continue to search of subcategories until a list of relevant documents
appear
 The best known search index is Yahoo.

Search engines
 Search engines are also known as web crawlers or web spiders.
 They are organized like a database.
 Key words and phrases can be used to search through a database.
 Databases are maintained by special programmes called agents, spiders or bots.
 Widely used search engines are Google, HotBot and AltaVista.

Web utilities
Web utilities are programmes that work with a browser to increase your speed, productivity
and capabilities. These utilities can be included in a browser. Some utilities may be free on
the
Internet while others can be charged a nominal fee. There are two categories of web utilities:
 Plug-ins
  Helper applications

Plug-ins
 A plug-in is a programme that automatically loads and operates as part of your
browser.
 Many websites require plug-ins for users to fully experience web page contents
 Some widely used plug-ins are:
o Shockwave from macromedia – used for web-based games, live concerts and
dynamic animations.
o QuickTime from Apple – used to display video and play audio.
o Live-3D from Netscape – used to display three-dimensional graphics and
virtual reality.

Helper applications
Helper applications are also known as add-ons. They are independent programmes that can
be executed or launched from your browser. The four most common types of helper
applications are:
 Off-line browsers – also known as web-downloading utilities and pull
products. It is a programme that automatically connects you to selected websites.
They download HTML documents before saving them to your hard disk. The
document can be read latter without being connected to the Internet.
 Information pushers – also known as web broadcasters or push products. They
automatically gather information on topic areas called channels. The topics are then
sent to your hard disk. The information can be read later without being connected to
the Internet.
 Metasearch utilities–offline search utilities are also known as metasearch
programmes. They automatically submit search requests to several indices and
search engines. They receive the results, sort them, eliminate duplicates and create
an index.
 Filters– filters are programmes that allow parents or organizations to block out
selected sites e.g. adult sites. They can monitor the usage and generate reports
detailing time spent on activities.

Discussion groups
There are several types of discussion groups on the Internet:
 Mailing lists
 Newsgroups
 Chat groups

Mailing lists
In this type of discussion groups, members communicate by sending messages to a list
address.
To join, you send your e-mail request to the mailing list subscription address. To cancel, send
your email request to unsubscribe to the subscription address.
Newsgroups
Newsgroups are the most popular type of discussion group. They use a special type of
computers called UseNet. Each UseNet computer maintains the newsgroup listing. There are
over 10,000 different newsgroups organized into major topic areas. Newsgroup organization
hierarchy system is similar to the domain name system. Contributions to a particular
newsgroup are sent to one of the UseNet computers. UseNet computers save messages and
periodically share them with other UseNet computers. Interested individuals can read
contributions to a newsgroup.

Chat groups
Chat groups are becoming a very popular type of discussion group. They allow direct ‘live’
communication (real time communication). To participate in a chat group, you need to join
by selecting a channel or a topic. You communicate live with others by typing words on your
computer. Other members of your channel immediately see the words on their computers
and they can respond. The most popular chat service is called Internet Relay Chat (IRC),
which requires special chat client software.

Instant messaging
Instant messaging is a tool to communicate and collaborate with others. It allows one or
more people to communicate with direct ‘live’ communication. It is similar to chat groups,
but it provides greater control and flexibility. To use instant messaging, you specify a list of
friends (buddies) and register with an instant messaging server e.g. Yahoo Messenger.
Whenever you connect to the Internet, special software will notify your messaging server
that you are online. It will notify you if any of your friends are online and will also notify your
buddies that you are online.

E-mail (Electronic Mail)

E-mail is the most common Internet activity. It allows you to send messages to anyone in the
world who has an Internet e-mail account. You need access to the Internet and e-mail
programme to use this type of communication. Two widely used e-mail programmes are
Microsoft’s Outlook Express and Netscape’s Communicator.

E-mail has three basic elements:

i) Header – appears first in an e-mail message and contains the following
information
a) Address – the address of the person(s) that is to receive the e-mail.
b) Subject – a one line description of the message displayed when a person checks
their mail.
c) Attachment–files that can be sent by the e-mail programme.
ii) Message – the text of the e-mail communication.
iii) Signature – may include sender’s name, address and telephone number (optional).

E-mail addresses
The most important element of an e-mail message is the address of the person who is to
receive the letter. The Internet uses an addressing method known as the Domain Name
System (DNS).
The system divides an address into three parts:
i) User name – identifies a unique person or computer at the listed domain.
ii) Domain name – refers to a particular organization.
iii) Domain code – identifies the geographical or organizational area.
Almost all ISPs and online service providers offer e-mail service to their customers.
The main advantages of email are:
 It is normally much cheaper than using the telephone (although, as time equates
to money for most companies, this relates any savings or costs to a user’s
typing speed).
 Many different types of data can be transmitted, such as images, documents, speech,
etc.
 It is much faster than the postal service
 Users can filter incoming email easier than incoming telephone calls.
 It normally cuts out the need for work to be typed, edited and printed by a secretary.
 It reduces the burden on the mailroom.
 It is normally more secure than traditional methods.
 It is relatively easy to send to groups of people (traditionally, either a circulation
list was required or a copy to everyone in the group was required).
 It is usually possible to determine whether the recipient has actually read the
message (the electronic mail system sends back an acknowledgement).

The main disadvantages are:

 It stops people from using the telephone
 It cannot be used as a legal document
 Electronic mail messages can be sent on the spur of the moment and may be
regretted later on (sending by traditional methods normally allows for a rethink). In
extreme cases, messages can be sent to the wrong person (typically when replying to
an email message, where a message is sent to the mailing list rather than the
originator).
 It may be difficult to send to some remote sites. Many organizations have either no
electronic mail or merely an intranet. Large companies are particularly wary of
Internet connections and limit the amount of external traffic.
 Not everyone reads his or her electronic mail on a regular basis (although this is
changing as more organizations adopt email as the standard communication
medium).

The main standards that relate to the protocols of email transmission and reception are:
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – which is used with the TCP/IP suite? It has
traditionally been limited to the text-based electronic messages
• Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension – This allows the transmission and
reception of mail that contains various types of data, such as speech, images and
motion video.
It is a newer standard than SMTP and uses much of its basic protocol.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of
data and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories:
 de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and
 de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are
often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new
product or technology.

De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de
jure standards.