The indigenous peoples of the Philippines are ethnolinguistic groups or subgroups that maintain partial isolation

or independence throughout the colonial era, and have retained much of their traditional pre-colonial culture and
practices.[1]
The Philippines has 110 enthnolinguistic groups comprising the Philippines' indigenous peoples; as of 2010, these
groups numbered at around 14–17 million persons.[2] Austronesians make up the overwhelming majority, while full or
partial Negritos scattered throughout the archipelago. The highland Austronesians and Negrito have co-existed with
their lowland Austronesian kin and neighbor groups for thousands of years in the Philippine archipelago.
Culturally-indigenous peoples of northern Philippine highlands can be grouped into the Igorot (comprising many
different groups) and singular Bugkalot groups, while the non-Muslim culturally-indigenous groups of mainland
Mindanao are collectively called Lumad. Australo-Melanesian groups throughout the archipelago are
termed Aeta, Ita, Ati, Dumagat, among others. Numerous culturally-indigenous groups also live outside these two
indigenous corridors.[3] In addition to these labels, groups and individuals sometimes identify with the Tagalog
term katutubo, which denotes any person of indigenous origin.[4][5][6]
According to the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino, there are 135 recognized local indigenous Austronesian languages
in the Philippines, of which one (Tagalog) is vehicular and each of the remaining 134 is vernacular

Ethnic groups
Northern Luzon
Further information: Igorot people and Aeta people
Traditional Kalinga dancers
Indigenous peoples in Northern Luzon are found mostly in the Cordillera Administrative Region, where
various Igorot groups such as Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankanaey, Tinguian, Karao,
and Kalanguya exist. Other indigenous groups living in the Cordillera's adjacent regions are the Gaddang of Nueva
Vizcaya and Isabela; Ilongot of Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija; Isinay, primarily of Nueva
Vizcaya; Aeta of Zambales, Tarlac, Pampanga, Bataan, Nueva Ecija; and the Ivatan of Batanes.[7] Many of these
indigenous groups cover a wide spectrum in terms of their integration and acculturation with lowland Christian
Filipinos. Native groups such as the Bukidnon in Mindanao, had intermarried with lowlanders for almost a century.
Other groups such as the Kalinga in Luzon have remained isolated from lowland influence.
There were several upland groups living in the Cordillera Central of Luzon in 1990. At one time it was employed by
lowland Filipinos in a pejorative sense, but in recent years it came to be used with pride by native groups in the
mountain region as a positive expression of their ethnic identity. The Ifugao of Ifugao province, the Bontoc, Kalinga,
Tinguian, Kankanaey and Ibaloi were all farmers who constructed the rice terraces for many centuries.
Other mountain peoples of Luzon such as the Isnag of Apayao, the Gaddang of the border between Kalinga and
Isabela provinces, and the Ilongot Nueva Vizcaya and Caraballo Mountains all developed hunting and gathering,
farming cultivation and headhunting. Other groups such as the Negritos formerly dominated the highlands
throughout the islands for thousands of years, but have been reduced to a small population, living in widely
scattered locations, primarily along the eastern ranges of the mountains.

The Bontoc (or Bontok) ethnolinguistic group can be found in the central and eastern portions of Mountain
Province, in the Philippines. Although some Bontocs of Natonin and Paracelis identify themselves
as Balangaos, Gaddangs or Kalingas, the term "Bontoc" is used by linguists and anthropologists to distinguish
speakers of the Bontoc language from neighboring ethnolinguistic groups.[2] They formerly practiced head-hunting
and had distinctive body tattoos.

Geography[edit]
The Bontoc live in a mountainous territory, particularly close to the Chico River and its tributaries. Mineral resources
(gold, copper, limestone, gypsum) can be found in the mountain areas. Gold, in particular, has been traditionally
extracted from the Bontoc municipality. The Chico River provides sand, gravel, and white clay, while the forests of
Barlig and Sadanga within the area have rattan, bamboo and pine trees.[2] They are the second largest group in
the Mountain Province.[2]
he Bontoc social structure used to be centered around village wards containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally,
young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed with the advent
of Christianity.[citation needed] Bontocs have three different indigenous housing structures: the residence place of the family
(katyufong), the dormitories for females (olog), and the dormitories for males (ato/ator). Different structures are
mostly associated with agricultural needs, such as rice granaries (akhamang) and pigpens (khongo). Traditionally,
all structures have inatep, cogon grass roofs. Bontoc houses also have numerous utensils, tools, and weapons: like
cooking tools; agricultural tools like bolos, trowels, and plows, bamboo or rattan fish traps.[2]
The Bontoc take pride in their kinship ties and oneness as a group (sinpangili) based on affiliations, history together
against intruders, and community rituals for agriculture and matters which affect the entire province, like natural
disasters. Kinship groups have two main functions: controlling property and regulating marriage. However, they are
also important for the mutual cooperation of the group's members.[2]
There are generally three social classes in Bontoc society, the kakachangyan (rich), the wad-ay ngachanna (middle-
class), and the lawa (poor). The rich sponsor feasts, and assist those in distress, as a demonstration of their wealth.
The poor usually work as sharecroppers or as laborers for the rich.[2] The Bontoc people had a caste called
the kadangyan whose members had specialised leadership roles, married only within the same caste, and wore
specialised clothing.[3]

Language[edit]
Main article: Bontoc language

The Bontoc speak Bontoc and Ilocano.

Culture
A Bontoc woman with a snake skeleton in her hair. Skeletons serve as a charm against
lightning.
In the past, the Bontoc engaged in none of the usual pastimes or games of
chance practiced in other areas of the country but did perform a circular rhythmic
dance acting out certain aspects of the hunt, always accompanied by the gangsa or
bronze gong. There was no singing or talking during the dance drama, but the
women took part, usually outside the circumference. It was a serious but pleasurable
event for all concerned, including the children.[4] Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful
agricultural people who have, by choice, retained most of their traditional culture
despite frequent contacts with other groups. Music is also important to Bontoc life,
and is usually played during ceremonies. Songs and chants are accompanied by
nose flutes (kalaleng), gongs (gangsa), bamboo mouth organ (affiliao), and Jew's
harp (ab-a-fiw). Wealthy families make use of jewelry, which are commonly made of
gold, glass beads, agate beads (appong), or shells, to show their status.[2]
Men wear g-strings (wanes) and a rattan cap (suklong). Women wear skirts (tapis).[2]
Bontoc people use weapons such as battleaxes (}pin-nang/pinangas), knives and spears (falfeg, fangkao,
sinalawitan), and shields (kalasag).[2]
The ritual pasiking of the Bontoc is called the takba, and represents an ancestor figure, and active participant
in begnas rituals.[5]
A traditional Bontoc ritual during a wake with a death chair.
The Ibaloi (also spelled Ibaloy; Ibaloi: ivadoy, /ivaˈdoj/) are an indigenous ethnic group found
in Benguet province of the northern Philippines.[2] Ibaloi is derived from i-, a prefix signifying "pertaining to"
and badoy or house, together then meaning "people who live in houses". The Ibaloi are one of the
indigenous peoples collectively known as Igorot (igudut, "hill-dwellers"), who live in the cordillera
central of Luzon.[3]

Distribution[edit]
The Ibaloi inhabit the southeastern part of Benguet Province. The area is rich in mineral resources
like copper, gold, pyrite, and limestone. Plants and animals are also abundant in the forests and mountain areas,
and there is an extensive water system that includes the Bued River, Agno River, and Amburayan River. Mount
Pulag, the third highest mountain of the Philippines, is found in their territory and is a culturally important area as
well, considered the place where spirits join their ancestors.[2]
The Ibaloi are distributed in the mountain valleys and settlements. Their ancestors are likely to have originated from
the Lingayen and Ilocos coasts, who then migrated into the Southern Cordillera range before settling. Ancestral
land claims by Ibaloi communities include parts of Baguio.[4]

Language[edit]
The native language of the Ibaloi people is Ibaloi, also known as Inibaloi or Nabaloi.[2] It has three dialects: Bokod,
Daklan and Kabayan.[5] The Ibaloi often also speak Ilocano and Tagalog as a second language.

Culture[edit]
Ibaloi society is composed of the rich (baknang) and three poor classes, the cowhands (pastol), farmhands (silbi),
and non-Ibaloi slaves (bagaen).[2]
The Ibaloi have a rich material culture, most notably their mummification process, which makes use of saltwater to
prevent organ decomposition.[6] Pounded guava and patani leaves are applied to the corpse to prevent maggot or
worm infestation while the body dries, the process taking anywhere from two months to even a year until the body is
hardened.[2]
The Ibaloi build their houses (balai or baeng) near their farms. These are usually built on five foot posts (tokod) and
contain only one room with no windows. Pine trees are usually used to build the houses, especially for wealthy
families, while bark bamboo for floors and walls, and cogon grass for roofs (atup), are used by the poor. For
cooking, they use pots are made of copper (kambung), and food compartments (shuyu) and utensils made of wood.
Baskets and coconut shells are also used as containers. A wooden box filled with soil serves as the cooking place
(Shapolan), and three stones as the stove (shakilan). Traditional weapons of the Ibalois are the spear (kayang),
shield (kalasai), bow and arrow (bekang and pana), and war club (papa), though they are rarely used in present
times. The Ibaloi also employ cutting tools like knives, farm tools, and complete pounding implements for rice:
mortars (dohsung), which are round or rectangular for different purposes, and pestles (al-o or bayu)of various sizes,
carved from sturdy tree trunks and pine branches. Their rice winnower (dega-o or kiyag) are made of bamboo or
rattan.[2]
Music is also important among the Ibaloi, with the Jew's harp (kodeng), nose flute (kulesheng), native guitar
(kalsheng or Kambitong), bamboo striking instruments, drums (solibao), gongs (kalsa), and many others. They are
considered sacred, and must always be played for a reason, such as a cañao feast.[2]
Men wear a g-string (kuval), and the wealthy include a dark blue blanket (kulabaw or alashang) while the rest use a
white one (kolebao dja oles). Women wear a blouse (kambal) and a skirt (aten or divet). Gold-plated teeth covers
(shikang), copper leglets (batding), copper bracelets (karing), and ear pendants (tabing) reflect the benefits of
mining for gold and copper. Lode or placer mining is followed by ore crushing using a large flat stone (gai-dan) and
a small one (alidan). The gold in the resultant fine sand is then separated (sabak) in a water trough (dayasan). The
gold is then melted into cakes.[2]
Older Ibaloi people may have tattooed arms as a sign of prestige.[2]
Because of fertile soils and climate of Benguet, the Ibaloi are predominantly farmers. There are two varieties of rice.
These are the kintoman and talon. The kintoman is the red variety of rice that is long grained, tastier and comes in
various forms; the balatin-naw which is soft and sticky when cooked, the shaya-ut which is also soft, and the putaw
which is slightly rough on the palate when eaten. This variety of rice is also used to make the native rice wine called
tafey. The second variety of rice, the talon, on the other hand, is the white lowland type that is planted during the
rainy season. Ibalois also plant root crops like camote, gabi, cassava and potatoes. Vegetation includes cabbage,
celery and pechay. There are also several kinds of wild mushrooms in addition to fruits like avocados, bananas and
mangoes grown in many areas. Meat consumed includes pigs, cows, goats and chickens as well as wild deer (olsa),
wild pigs (alimanok) and big lizard (tilay). Lastly, the Ibaloi consume fish from the few rivers in their area.[2] lo

Religion[edit]
Main article: List of Philippine mythological figures

Many Ibalois are now Christians of various denominations, though many of them still practice traditional Ibaloi faith.
The Ibaloi believe in two kinds of spirits (anitos). The nature spirits are associated with calamities, while the
ancestral ones (ka-apuan) make their presence known in dreams or by making a family member sick.[2]

Tattoos[edit]
Main article: Batok

A Bontoc man with tattoos

Among the Bontoc people, tattoos are known as fatek.[6] The Bontoc describe three types of tattoos: The chaklag,
the tattooed chest of the head taker; pongo, the tattooed arms of men and women; and fatĕk, for all other tattoos of
both sexes. Women were tattooed on the arms only, which they did to enhance their beauty or to signify their
readiness for marriage. The arms were the most visible parts of the body during traditional dances. It is believed that
men would not court women who are not tattooed.[7] Tattoos indicated that the man was a warrior who had taken
heads during battle.[6] One method of tattooing used was the ‘puncture/cut and smear’ method.
The bumafatek (tattooist) would first draw the pattern on the skin with ink of soot and water, and then prick the skin
with a chakayyum, and lastly, scatter soot into the open skin and manually work the pigment into the skin with their
hands.[8]

Cuisine[edit]
Rice is considered as the main produce of the Bontocs but during the dry periods from February to March when rain
is scarce, they usually consume camote, corn and millet as alternative for rice. The Bontoc also catch and gather
fish, snails and crabs for consumption or for sale. In the earlier days, Bontoc men usually brought tobacco and
matches when hunting for wild deer and wild pigs. In the forests, they also gather rattan, edible fruits, beeswax and
honey, and wild edible or ornamental plants.[9]

Indigenous religion[edit]
See also: Indigenous Philippine folk religions

The pre-Christian Bontoc belief system centers on a hierarchy of spirits, the highest being a supreme deity
called Intutungcho, whose son, Lumawig, descended from the sky (chayya), to marry a Bontoc girl. Lumawig taught
the Bontoc their arts and skills, including irrigation of their land. The Bontoc also believe in the anito, spirits of the
dead, who are omnipresent and must be constantly consoled. Anyone can invoke the anito, but a seer (insup-ok)
intercedes when someone is sick through evil spirits.[2]
The indigenous religion of the Bontoc has been preserved for centuries. The Bontoc believe in a unique pantheon of
deities, of which the supreme god is the cultural hero, Lumawig, son of Kabunian. There are many sacred sites
associated with Lumawig and a variety of Bontoc deities. Oral tradition tells that Lumawig instilled five great lessons
to the Bontoc people, namely: (1) a man must not steal; (2) one should not gossip; (3) men and women must not
commit adultery; (4) one must be temperate in eating and in drinking alcoholic drinks; and (5) all people must live
simple and industrious lives.[10]

Bontoc gods[edit]
Main article: List of Philippine mythological figures

 Intutungcho (Kabunian): the supreme deity living above;[11] also referred to as Kabunian;[12] father of Lumawig and
two other sons[13]
 Lumawig: also referred as the supreme deity and the second son of Kabunian; an epic hero who taught the
Bontoc their five core values for an egalitarian society[13] The Bontoc hero Lumawig instituted their ator, a
political institution identified with a ceremonial place adorned with headhunting skulls. Lumawig also gave the
Bontoc their irrigation skills, Taboos, rituals, and ceremonies after he descended from the sky (chayya) and
married a Bontoc girl. Each ator has a council of elders, called ingtugtukon, who are experts in custom laws
(adat). Decisions are by consensus.[2]
 First Son of Kabunian[13]
 Third Son of Kabunian[13]
 Chal-chal: the god of the sun whose son's head was cut off by Kabigat;[4] aided the god Lumawig in finding a
spouse
 Kabigat: the goddess of the moon who cut of the head of Chal-chal's son; her action is the origin of
headhunting[4]
 Son of Chal-chal: his head was cut off by Kabigat; revived by Chal-chal, who bear no ill will against Kabigat[4]
 Ob-Obanan: a deity whose white hair is inhabited by insects, ants, centipedes, and all the vermins that bother
mankind; punished a man for his rudeness by giving him a basket filled with all the insects and reptiles in the
world[14]
 Chacha’: the god of warriors[13]
 Ked-Yem: the god of blacksmiths who cut off the heads of the two sons of Chacha’ because they were
destroying his work; was later challenged by Chacha’, which eventually led into a pechen pact to stop the
fighting[13]
 Two Sons of Chacha’: beheaded by Ked-Yem, because they were destroying his work[13]
Other figures[edit]
 Fucan: younger of the two girls met by Lumawig in Lanao; married to Lumawig; later adopted the name
Cayapon; died after dancing in a taboo way, which led to death being the norm among mortals[13]
 Two Sons of Cayapon: the two children of Lumawig and Fucan; helped the people of Caneo, who afterwards
killed by the two brothers[13]
 Batanga: father of the two girls met by Lumawig in Lanao[13]
he Ifugao people are the ethnic group inhabiting Ifugao Province. They reside in the municipalities
of Lagawe (capital of Ifugao), Aguinaldo, Alfonso
Lista, Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan, Lamut, Mayoyao, and Tinoc. The province is one of the
smallest provinces in the Philippines with an area of only 251,778 hectares, or about 0.8% of the total Philippine
land area.[2] As of 1995, the population of the Ifugaos was counted to be 131,635. Although the majority of them are
still in Ifugao province, some of them have moved to Baguio, where they work as woodcarvers, and to other parts of
the Cordillera Region.[2]

he term Ifugao is derived from ipugo, which means "earth people", "mortals" or "humans", as distinguished from
spirits and deities. It also means "from the hill", as pugo means hill.[2] The term Igorot or Ygolote was the term used
by the Spanish for mountain people. The Ifugaos, however, prefer the name Ifugao.

Henry Otley Beyer thought that the Ifugaos originated from southern China 2,000 years ago and migrated
to Lingayen Gulf and the west coast of northern Luzon, upon which they migrated to the Agno and Kayapa river
valleys and into the Ifugao valleys.[3] A theory by Felix Keesing was based on old Spanish sources and proposed
that the ancestors of the Ifugao came from the Magat area only after the arrival of the Spanish in Magat. Hence the
rice terraces are only a few hundred years old.[4] The Ifugao popular epic The Hudhud of Dinulawan and Bugan of
Gonhadan supports this interpretation.[2] A more recent theory by Manuel Dulawan assumes that the Ifugaos came
from the western Mountain Province, due to striking similarities with Kankanaey language, architecture, clothing
manufacturing and design and the many names and places that originate from this region and feature in Ifugao
myths and songs.[5]
According to studies, the Ifugao succeeded multiple times resisting against the Spanish at conquest. The groups
that migrated to the Cordilleran highlands were believed to be those that resisted the Spanish colonial control, which
became prevalent in the lowlands. According to Acabado, the rugged nature of the highlands around the Ifugao
region did not out rightly provide a hindrance to the Spanish conquest. Other regions that had similar rugged
environment as found in Ifugao were subjected to colonial rule. Archeological research shows Ifugao practices of
successful resistance by strengthening their political and economic resources. The Spanish conquest and a
population increase was the cause of shifting to wet-rice agriculture.[6]
According to Queeny G. Lapeña and Stephen B. Acabado, in order to successfully resist against a colonizing power,
a constructive military organization within a complete polity is required. The Spanish took conquest of the Magat
Valley, which drove the Ifugao to strategically resettle in the interior of the Cordillera Mountains between 1600 CE
and 1700 CE. Wet-rice agriculture was adopted soon after, and extensive rice terraces were built. This was a
subsistence shift for the Ifugao because they cultivated taro before the start of the wet rice cultivation. The author
emphasizes that the Ifugao people kept their culture and identity alive by spending large amounts of time in rice
fields, since they treated them as ritual areas to “reinforce community solidarity."[7] Stephen Acabado states that
since the village was increasing in population, the shift to wet rice cultivation, increase of exotic goods procurement,
and finally increase in the distribution of ritual animals indicates “political elaboration as a response to Spanish
conquest.”[6]

Subgroups[edit]
The Ifugao are divided into subgroups based on the differences in dialects, traditions, and design/color of costumes.
The main subgroups are Ayangan, Kalanguya, and Tuwali.[2]

Language[edit]
The Ifugao language consists of four dialects. Due to being isolated by the terrain, Ifugaos usually speak in Ilocano,
Tagalog, and English as their alternative to their mother tongue.
Ifugao farming is characterized by wet rice terraces, supplemented with slash-and-burn farming of camote.[2] They
are famous for their Banaue Rice Terraces, which became one of the main tourist attractions in the country. The
Ifugaos host a number of similarities with the Bontocs in terms of agriculture, but the Ifugao tend to have more
scattered settlements, and recognize their affiliation mostly towards direct kin in households closer to their fields.[8]
The Spanish first described the Ifugao rice terraces in 1801. Though as William Scott notes, "These impressive
stone-walled fields, irrigated for both rice and taro, had been known from the time of the first expeditions in to
Kiangan in the 1750s..."[9][10]: 2
Ifugao culture revolves around rice, which is considered a prestige crop. There is an elaborate and complex array of
rice culture feasts inextricably linked with taboos and intricate agricultural rites, from rice cultivation to rice
consumption. Harvest season calls for grandiose thanksgiving feasts, while the concluding harvest
rites tungo or tungul (the day of rest) entail a strict taboo of any agricultural work. Partaking of the rice wine (bayah),
rice cakes, and moma (mixture of several herbs, powdered snail shell and betel nut/arecoline which is used as a
chewing gum to the Ifugaos) is an indelible practice during the festivities and ritual activities. Agricultural terracing
and farming are the principal means of livelihood. Their social status is measured by the number of rice field
granaries, family heirlooms, gold earrings, and carabaos (water buffaloes). Prestige is also conferred through time
and tradition.
A prayer is said by an elderly woman when harvest begins, directed towards Cabunian, the goddess of rice. Then, a
protective prayer is said before the rice is placed in the granary.[10]: 21
The Ifugao solar calendar included a 365-day year, broken down into 13 months of 28 days each, plus one extra
day.[10]: 37

Social organization[edit]
Ifugao society is divided into three social classes: the kadangyan or the aristocrats, the tagu or the middle class, and
the nawotwot or the lower class. The class immediately below the wealthiest are called the inmuy-ya-uy.
The kadangyans sponsor the prestige rituals called hagabi and uyauy and this separates them from the tagus who
cannot sponsor feasts but are economically well off. The nawotwots are those who have limited land properties and
are usually hired by the upper classes to do work in the fields and other services.[2] The more affluent Ifugao, known
as kadangyan or baknang, were usually generous by nature, lending rice to poor neighbors in time of food
shortage(s) and/or hardship(s), in return for labor. Acting as village or spiritual leaders, creditors or commercial
managers, these rich families exhibited their wealth by providing for many feasts, or cañaos.[11][12]
Shifting to wet rice cultivation is one factor that intensified the social ranking that was already present among the
Ifugao society. Those who adopted wet rice cultivation were able to consolidate political resources. “In Ifugao, the
adoption of wet-rice agriculture is at the forefront in discussions regarding social ranking vis-à-vis prestige
economy.”[6] The Ifugao social status is based on their rice lands and ability to sponsor feasts. One reason being is
that an individual needs to be skilled in mobilizing rice terraces, and because rice terraces require labor-intensive
work.[6]

Culture[edit]
Ifugao culture values kinship, family ties, religious and cultural beliefs. Ifugao are unique among all ethnic groups in
the mountain province for their narrative literature such as the hudhud, an epic dealing with hero ancestors sung in
a poetic manner. Also unique to the Ifugao is their woodcarving art, most notably the carved granary
guardians bulul and the prestige bench of the upper class, the hagabi. Their textiles are renowned for their sheer
beauty, colorful blankets and clothing woven on looms.[2] The Ifuago are known for their rich oral literary traditions
of hudhud and the alim. In 2001, the Hudhud Chants of the Ifugao was chosen as one of the 11 Masterpieces of the
Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It was then formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
in 2008.
The Ifugaos’ highest prestige feasts are the hagabi, sponsored by the elite (kadangyan); and the uyauy, a marriage
feast sponsored by those immediately below the wealthiest (inmuy-ya-uy). Ifugao heirloom beads are prestigious
goods that were limited to the Ifugao community of wealth; moreover, such beads were solely utilized for ritualistic
occasions such as: funerals, weddings, and rice harvest festivals and signified respect.[13]
Rice granaries (alang) are protected by a wooden guardian called a bulul. The bulul sculptures are highly stylized
representations of the ancestors of the Ifugao and are thought to gain power and wealth from the presence of the
ancestral spirit.[14] The Ifugao are particularly noted for their skill in carving bulul.[15][2]
Furthermore, Ifugao culture is known for their legal system, based on the elders of the village, amama-a. Their
words had the effect of law, without appeal. The jury, agom, consisted of those articulate, mansapit, elders. If the
jury could not decide a case, trial by ordeal was invoked. The logic being that the gods and goddesses, Kabunian,
would not allow the innocent to suffer.[12]: 115–120 Criminal cases are tried by ordeal. They include duels (uggub/alao),
wrestling (bultong), hot bolo ordeal and boiling water ordeal (da-u).[2]
Bultong is the name for the Ifugao sport of traditional wrestling. It is often played during town and provincial fiestas.
Bultong falls under the international classification of "belt wrestling".[16]

Customs[edit]
From a person's birth to his death, the Ifugaos follow a lot of traditions. Pahang and palat di oban are performed to a
mother to ensure safe delivery. After delivery, no visitors are allowed to enter the house until among is performed
when the baby is given a name. Kolot and balihong are then performed to ensure the health and good
characteristics of the boy or the girl, respectively. As they grow older, they sleep in exclusive dormitories because it
is considered indecent for siblings of different genders to sleep in the same house. The men are the ones who hunt,
recite myths, and work in the fields. Women also work in the fields, aside from managing the homes and reciting
ballads. Lastly, the Ifugaos do not mourn for the elderly who died, nor for the baby or the mother who died in a
conception. This is to prevent the same event from happening again in the family. Also, the Ifugaos believe in life
after death so those who are murdered are given a ritual called opa to force their souls into the place where his
ancestors dwell.[2] The Ifugao may believe that an illegitimate child might have more than one physical father, and so
nominate more than one genitor.[17]
he Ifugao, like the other peoples of the Cordillera Central, are known for their past as headhunters. The two main
reasons for the Ifugao's headhunting were honor killings and prestige. After a murder or other serious crime, the
victim's family organized a punitive expedition. The perpetrator or someone close to him was tracked down,
murdered, and beheaded, in order to uphold the honor of the family. Such a punitive expedition usually also
provoked a counteraction and such feuds could thus continue for generations.[18]
In addition to such acts of revenge, attacks were also organized in which a successful outcome increased the
prestige of the mostly young participating men. Such attacks, often on a distant village, killed indiscriminately. In
some areas, such as the area around Kiangan, women and children were spared and sold into slavery, but other
headhunters did not spare them either.[18]
Besides the above reason, there were other reasons for an Ifugao to headhunt, such as the death of a wife during
childbirth, whereupon a husband felt compelled to take the head of a stranger so that the soul of the deceased
might find rest in the afterlife. Moreover, it was believed that if such an action were not carried out, the close relative
would also become ill and die.[18]
Headhunting, like all important events in the life of the Ifugao, was surrounded by all kinds of customs and rituals.
Beforehand, animals were sacrificed to the gods. Also, on the way to the target, they looked out for any bad omens,
such as a crossing snake. Such an omen could be a reason to postpone the headhunting expedition. After a
successful outcome, there was partying and dancing for five nights around the captured heads, the head of the
victim usually going to the leader of the expedition. A fighter's success was reflected in the number of earrings he
wore. Each earring represented a severed head. Afterward, the heads were buried in the ground around the
expedition leader's house, after which they were dug up and cleaned again after a few months. The skulls
eventually ended up hanging in prominent places in his house, such as by the door or the fire.[18]
All kinds of rituals were also performed on the side of the victim. The victim's family performed a war dance
(himong) and vowed revenge. Later, the victim was buried in a sitting position with a spear in his hand, as a sign
that revenge was about to be taken. Finally, a ritual was performed that determined who should lead the revenge
against the killers. The family of the deceased sat in a circle around a mortally injured chicken and the man where
the chicken would eventually fall dead became the expedition leader.[18]
The practice of headhunting has long been a thing of the past. The last incidents occurred in the early 20th century.

Cuisine
The basic meal of the Ifugao is composed of a staple starch, more commonly rice as it is their staple food, served
with dishes like vegetables, fish or snails, flavorings, and sometimes, cooked animal meat like chicken and pig.
During low levels of rice, the Ifugao consume grain or root crops like sweet potatoes. Fresh berries and other plant
products and plants are served as snacks. Rice wine (called baya or bubud) is a must in most rituals and special
occasions with homemade yeast and glutinous rice as the basic ingredients.[20] Wooden rice spoons with sacred
carved images of bulul representing deities or ancestral spirits (anito) are traditional among the Ifugao people.
Despite the animistic carvings, they are everyday utensils used for eating rice or soups or serving rice wine. Today,
they are commonly sold as souvenirs to tourists.[21]
Among Ifugao men, tattoos were strongly linked to the widespread practice of head-hunting raids. In head-hunting
societies, like the Ifugao, tattoos were records of how many heads the warriors had taken in battle, and were part of
the initiation rites into adulthood. The number, design, and location of tattoos, therefore, were indicative of a
warrior's status and prowess. They were also regarded as magical wards against various dangers like evil spirits
and illnesses.[22] Common Ifugao motifs include the kinabu (dog), usually placed on the chest; tinagu (human
figures); and ginawang or ginayaman (centipedes).[23]

The Isnag people (also referred to as Isneg and Apayao) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to Apayao
province in the Philippines' Cordillera Administrative Region.[2] Their native language is Isneg (also called Isnag),
although most Isnag also speak Ilocano.
Three major sub-groups among the ISNAG are known: the YMANDAYA mostly concentrated in the municipality
of Calanasan in the Province of Apayao and the municipality of Carasi in the Province of Ilocos Norte; the
IMALLOD, with populations distributed among the other towns of the province of Apayao and the
IAPAYAO/EAPAYAO, with populations distributed among the towns of Adams , Dumalneg in the province of Ilocos
Norte and Sta. Praxedez in the Province of Cagayan.

Social organization[edit]
Because there was no political or ward system, the kinship groups and family clans became the central social
organizations and were usually led by the husbands. Polygamy is allowed, but depends on the capacity of the
husband to support the family. Like other ethnic groups, they also follow a lot of taboos. These taboos vary from
place to place. A pregnant woman, for example, is discouraged to eat some kinds of sugarcane, banana, and the
soft meat of sprouting coconut to have a normal conception. In the past, twins were also believed to be unlucky, so
whenever twins were born, they would let the weaker twin die. Also, if the mother dies upon giving birth, the child is
also left to die and is usually buried with the mother. The Isnegs don’t follow rituals on the adolescence of the child.
They, however, have rituals on marriage, like the amoman (or the present-day pamamanhikan), and death, like
the mamanwa which is done by the widowers.[3]
Isneg houses (balay) are two-story, one-room structures built on 4 corner posts with an entrance reached by a
ladder. The open space below (linong or sidong) includes a small shed (abulor) for jars of basi. The bamboo
pigpen(dohom) is nearby. Rice granaries (alang) are also made on four posts that include a circular and flat rat
shield. Temporary buildings associated with upland and swidden farming are called sixay. Their bolo (badang) and
axe (aliwa) are important tools. They are also expert fishermen.[3]

Culture[edit]
Isneg, or Isnag, kinship is bilateral, meaning children are equally related to both the mother and the father.
Households consist of interrelated families living close to each other, and extended families of three generations
living together in their balay. The family is the key element in society, the larger the better, headed by the husband.
No other society structure exists, though brave men, mengals, lead in hunting and fishing. The bravest, Kamenglan,
is the overall leader. A young man entered their ranks after the first headhunting expedition. A mengal carries a red
kerchief on the head and has tattoos on his arms and shoulders. They are animistic and practice polygamy.[3]

Language[edit]
Isneg language is spoken by around 30,000 people mostly by the Isnag people, who are also bilingual in Ilokano.
[citation needed]

Religion[edit]
Approximately 9% of the population are Christians. As of 2006, the entire New Testament, along with the books
of Genesis and Exodus, had been translated into Isnag by SIL. Rest of the Isnags are mainly animists.

Clothing[edit]
An Isnag woman wearing traditional attire, having just performed a traditional dance.
The Isnegs are aesthetically-inclined. In ceremonies, women wear a lot of colourful ornaments and clothing, and
men wear G-strings (usually of blue color), abag, and bado (upper garment). Men don’t wear pendants but they
wear an ornament called sipattal, made of shells and beads, used only on special occasions. They also practice
tattooing which is done by rubbing soot on the wounds caused by the needles.[3]

Cuisine[edit]
The isnegs traditionally only consume two meals a day; one in the mid-morning and one in the late afternoon, or one
at noon and the other in the evening. Though most of their meals include rice, rice is always scarce because of the
limited womanpower. Hence, they resort to trade to satisfy demands. Meals also include vegetables and root crops
such as camote and occasionally, fish and wild pig or wild deer. Dogs, pigs and chickens are only eaten during
feasts and chicken eggs are seldom eaten because they are generally allowed to hatch. Sometimes, before or after
meals, the typical isneg families enjoy home-grown coffee while gathering around the hearth while rice wine is only
consumed during festive occasions.[3]
They were proud of using bamboo as cooking utensils. They have sinursur, a dish made of catfish or eel on bamboo
with chili, abraw, freshwater crabs with coconut and chili, sinapan, which looks like smoked meat. They used
anything they can find in nature as food, from brooks, rivers, lakes and streams, they catch fish and other creatures
in it. In forests, they use any edible leaves in there. They douse the harvest in cooking it with chili.

Funeral practices[edit]
The Isnag wrap the deceased person in a mat (ikamen), and is then carried on the shoulders of the immediate male
family members.[5] Items are placed inside the coffin in order to help the deceased person throughout his/her
journey. For example, a jar (basi) is placed in the coffin to quench the deceased one's thirst. Another example is a
spear and shield also being put inside in order to help him/her protect himself/herself from enemies during the
journey. The coffin is then lowered into either the kitchen area of their families home or in a burial site owned by
his/her family.[6]

Early accounts of the Isnag[edit]

The Isnag are distinguished from the other Cordillerans by the fine construction of their houses, resembling
that of the lowland Filipinos, and they are particularly conspicuous about cleanliness. Their houses are set
on four large and strong straight posts of incorruptible wood resistant to humidity, driven into the earth;
instead of being made of bamboo cut in long narrow strips joined by rattan, as the lowland Filipinos do. Their
houses are airy and bigger, and they do everything to decorate it the best way they can. They barter for
products from their mountains, such as beeswax, cacao, and tobacco.