This presentation can be regarded as a refreshment and does not have the endeavor of a university class lesson.

© OMICRON Academy Page 1 Dubai, 2016

The breakdown theory can be divided into three parts.
The most common one is the breakdown in air.
The other two are only of theoretical interest, often referring to the first one.

© OMICRON Academy Page 2 Dubai, 2016

The breakdowns in air can be divided into two different mechanisms, depending on the type of the electric field.
A homogeneous field can be regarded as an ideal situation very rarely occurring under test conditions.

© OMICRON Academy Page 3 Dubai, 2016

In a homogenous field the generation of electrons starts at the cathode.
The start energy is delivered by photoionization or radiation.
In an electric field, the energy of the electron rises, thus the electron speeds up.
If the energy of the electron is high enough when hitting a neutral molecule, it splits up into a positive ion and an electron.

© OMICRON Academy Page 4 Dubai, 2016

This results in a chain reaction, starting at the cathode!
If hundreds of electrons reach the opponent electrode a channel is created.
Consecutive electrons heat the channel up.
Thermo ionization is the last state before the breakdown.

That is the mechanism in an homogenous fields or in a week inhomogeneous field.

© OMICRON Academy Page 5 Dubai, 2016

In an homogenous field the electric field is constant.
The product of the electric field times the distance is equal to the voltage.

© OMICRON Academy Page 6 Dubai, 2016

Any test set up with an inhomogeneous field will create an electric field shown in the lower right corner.
The area below is still equal to the voltage.
In order to lower the electric field on one side of the electrode, the surface has to be changed on the side of the counter
electrode, creating a inhomogeneous field.

© OMICRON Academy Page 7 Dubai, 2016

Any test set up with an inhomogeneous field will create an electric field shown in the lower right corner.
The area below is still equal to the voltage.
In order to lower the electric field on one side of the electrode, the surface has to be changed on the side of the counter
electrode, creating a inhomogeneous field.

© OMICRON Academy Page 8 Dubai, 2016

High electric field in front of the pin ( “preferential discharge”).
The ignition delay occurs due to the small area in front of the electrode (volume-time-law).
Convenient ionization condition => corona discharges, starting with glow discharges (electrons moving to anode).
A higher local electric field in front of the negative tip due to positive ions.
The area without discharges acts as ohmic-capacitive impedance.

© OMICRON Academy Page 9 Dubai, 2016

The avalanche starts in gas volume because of the positive pin.
The electric-field in front of the positive tip is too low.
We call it the „pushed forward electrode“
Reduction of electric field next to anode => rise of electric field in the area of the low electric field
Only the field of the heavy and slow moving positive ions is drawn (electric is flowing...).

© OMICRON Academy Page 10 Dubai, 2016

What is the information for PD measurement?
A comparison of the highest local electric field
Locally, the highest electric field is in front of the negative tip.
Thus the inception voltage for PD is lower at a negative tip.

© OMICRON Academy Page 11 Dubai, 2016

Breakdown voltage:
A positive tip leads to a higher global electric field, resulting in a lower breakdown voltage.
Thus breakdowns will occur first on a positive tip.

© OMICRON Academy Page 12 Dubai, 2016

© OMICRON Academy Page 13 Dubai, 2016
© OMICRON Academy Page 14 Dubai, 2016
© OMICRON Academy Page 15 Dubai, 2016
© OMICRON Academy Page 16 Dubai, 2016
Cone points, pikes or sharp edges on an insulator as well as a conductor with a minor diameter will lead to PD.
In practice, surface discharges often occur due to rabbles/scratches, rough surfaces, dirt disposal or conductive particles.

© OMICRON Academy Page 17 Dubai, 2016

The next topic is the breakdown in liquids.

© OMICRON Academy Page 18 Dubai, 2016

Aging also includes changes in the H2O and gas concentration.

© OMICRON Academy Page 19 Dubai, 2016

© OMICRON Academy Page 20 Dubai, 2016
Overview of breakdowns in liquid insulation materials.

© OMICRON Academy Page 21 Dubai, 2016

Tips and sharp wedges are less critical in liquids because of the higher electric strength (epsilon).
Gas bubbles and areas of gas should be avoided.
The same is true for moisture.
Tangential stress is critical for the insulation e.g. appears in pressboard.

© OMICRON Academy Page 22 Dubai, 2016

© OMICRON Academy Page 23 Dubai, 2016
Overview about breakdowns taking place in solid materials.

© OMICRON Academy Page 24 Dubai, 2016

The manufacturing process is important to guarantee an homogeneous insulation.

© OMICRON Academy Page 25 Dubai, 2016

Heating causes higher losses in most materials.
The tan ϑ measures the dissipation losses. The graph shows the rising losses over the temperature.
First the dipole losses lead to an increasing of the tan ϑ.

© OMICRON Academy Page 26 Dubai, 2016

In the middle of an insulation the heat conduction is worse in comparison to the surrounding areas.

© OMICRON Academy Page 27 Dubai, 2016

Unfortunately the conductivity rises with the temperature.
This increases the problem and leads to a growing hot spot in the direction of the electrodes.
The process is accompanied by an increasing of the electric field at the channel ends.

© OMICRON Academy Page 28 Dubai, 2016

The reasons for the existence of PD are listed on this slide.

© OMICRON Academy Page 29 Dubai, 2016

© OMICRON Academy Page 30 Dubai, 2016
In practice, due to a high electric strength of the insulation, PD starts at a fault.
Often diffusion processes cause voids, being the starting point for PD in the insulation
Not fully vented resin creates gas bubbles
Moisture due to reactions in the insulation
Advancing erosion of the insulation
Delamination of layers due to mechanic stress and creation of cracks and cleaving
Voids arise in not fully impregnated layers

© OMICRON Academy Page 31 Dubai, 2016

On the left side a PD treeing in a plexiglass sample is shown.
The treeing on the right side stopped because of a conductive (black) layer in the trees (caused by a needle electrode).
The starting condition for the electron varies with:
1. The type of hole for the pin
2. Position of the sample in the electric field
3. Air bubble in front of the pin (pressure in the bubble – Paschen’s Law)
4. Differences in the quality of the probe

© OMICRON Academy Page 32 Dubai, 2016

Depending on the test voltage, eletrical trees develop differently.
PDs create little tunnels inside of the plastic probe. The PD, a high energy discharge, burns plastic material. What is left behind is
gasous depris, resulting in a higher pressure inside the tunnel. Because of the law of Paschen, the next PD will extend the
tunnel, once the pressure is “back to normal”. Otherwise the next PD will happen somewhere else and might start a new tunnel.
The lower the frequency of the test voltage, the longer the time between the periods and the longer the time for the gasous debris
to expand and to lower the pressure again.
The result can be observed in the pictures above – an electrical tree with 0.1 Hz creates a small number of branches only.
An electrical tree created by a test voltage of 500Hz, shows much more branches – leaving a black spot on the photo.

© OMICRON Academy Page 33 Dubai, 2016

A small air gap is always in front of the needle.
PD does not grow as long as the channel has a high conductivity.
If the conductivity decreases, the PD growth continues.
Creation of space charges in the area of low conductivity.
The aging process is stopped or lowered due to the space charges lowering the electric field strength in front of a failure.
PD in void: Pressure rises by PD activity => breakdown voltage is lowered (Paschen’s curve) => Treeing stops

© OMICRON Academy Page 34 Dubai, 2016

© OMICRON Academy Page 35 Dubai, 2016