Atomic Structure

Fundamental Particle
ANODE RAY
Anode ray is fast

reania
China hasin
->

Electron moving tvely charged ion

-> Direction is From

Anode to Cathode

I ftecimen
atthe
In Case ofhydrogen, Anode rays
Consists
*
of tyely charged ions
are termed as PROTONS
-

moving electrons
They travel in
straight line

Anode mass, energy and peneration power

-> Direction From Cathode *
ray posseses
to
Anode When electric
*
Field is applied, they are deflected towards
-
ve side ofField.
ratio conic

in
specific
Large [En7 potentiaat
CATHODE RAYS 02 or

-Consist of
vely charged particles calledelectrons.
is
.
They travel in
straight line. not
depends on
gas inside
discharge
tube.
Cathode ray
*

posseses mass
energy and penetration
power
In
When
* electric Field is applied, then
they are
2 I
0

deflected towards the side of Field.

neutron

They produce X-ways

*

I
when
they
nucleus like ofElement
Representation
strike
heavy tungsten,
Mass Number Mass Number (A) No. oF Proton No. oF Neutron
molybdenum. elm -
= +

specific charge or charge/mass or Ionic potential

*
E Atomic Number Atomic Number (2) No. oF Proton
=

of all cathode way is same irrespective No ofNeutron A-2

=

of gas present inside discharge tube.

Me

in xors*"70x10"clkg Catonsa
Ray

3rd ES=
·

a
8
 Thermodynamics Reversible
process Irreversible process Cyclic process AU -0
:g= w Work W=
/ PDV
:
-
-
-

beoeiieised cannot beoeveosed Initial state Final state Area under

Reactant Changes can
Changes p Kwok P-11
graph
__

Product
changes
>
- -

energy
-
.
.

force is much instate Function

Driving force should be infinite Driving greater change 0
__

Bond Endothermic
Breaking Bond formation Exothermic
.

-
-

a) Irreversible process P →
constant
simally greater than opposing than
opposing force .

Adiabatic AU=w
process 9=0
:

Some
important teams Win PAY
=

force
:
-

System of universe which is under observation

specific part Place in small steps and takes finite time and
usually Isobaric :P is constant AP=0
-

very process Reversible process P→ Variable

b) .

surrounding Rest part of universe excluding the system takes infinite time to
complete a
single step process Change in
enthalpy is heat released or absorbed
-

. .

at constant
Boundary Anything which separates system and surrounding the W= -2.303hr
-110g #
process pressure AH=qp nRTlnV¥=
-
-
.
.

Ideal All natural V1

of process process .

Types system :

Enthalpy :

is in virtual
system system is in
equilibrium nRTln
Open system which exchange energy well matey UTAIPV )
W= 11=-2.303 NRT /
og Pi
-

1) -

can as as . H=U+PV AH __

at
Closed but not matter
equilibrium any state .

only at initial and final state Pz Pz

exchange
.

2)
system can
energy If Pis constant AH=AUtPAV
-

Pextis variable text is constant

3) Isolated work done in W=0
.

system cannot
exchange energy and matter VACCUM
-

If His constant AH=AU+Vp

-

Heat / flow due to temperature different

which define state of
g) Energy
:

AH=AU+PAV AH AU Reversible adiabatic

process
:
State of
properties any system Ang O
.

system
-

-
- -
-

^ Units :
work AU=W W=nCv / 1-2-71
Pressure temperature volume etc w=+ve w= ve
AH=AU+AngRT Ang
> 0 AH > AU
-
-

> ,
.
,

1cal 4.2 Joule 25=10

>
egg
=

System
gp=qv+AngRT Angelo AH< AU
-

Variable which W= MR / 1-2-17 ) W= 102112 17111

state Function depend upon initial and final state
-

1Latm= 101.3 Joule

^
.

q=+×e q= of the moles of product

ve
sum
Ang
-

gaseous
-_
-

,
Y -

l Y 1
Volume temperature Internal
-

Pressure , .
.
energy Entropy , .
1L Bat =
100 Joule
sum of the moles of reactant
Gibbs free gaseous .
-

some important points :

energy .

Internal too V1
energy :( Heat
capacity Id
c=9_
a) Reversible adiabatic process :
Path Function -

Variable which depends on the

path followed
by sum of different
energies associated with its atoms and AT

system Wook and Heat molecules like P E. KE electronic

energy nuclear
pyY=
energy specific Heat
capacity 1st "'
TYP " '
-

5=1 Constant
-
.

TV K
.

K
, .
= =

Intensive properties -

which are independent of mass Extensive

property MAT

Density temperature pressure specific heat molar specific Heat state Function Molar Heat
capacity 1cm ) Cm=q- b) Graphs :
More slope More steep Adiabatic
-

, , . , , .

and
Boiling point melting point Vapour pressure viscosity we cannot find the absolute value of internal
NAT
energy
,
.

Adiabatic

µ
.

'fy
P 7
Extensive properties dependent AE
Ef Ei AE + Ve
Ef >
Ei Constant P
Cp=9p- AH=9p=nCpAT
-

of
-
which
-

>
are mass
-

p
> someone
.

>
NIT Adiabatic
AE= Ef< Ei Cm
Mass Volume moles
entropy Gibbs free
energy enthalpy ve
-

g
. , , , , ,

Constant 11 Cv=qv AU=qv=nCvAT

>
Internal Heat
capacity Note Gravitational is not part of internal
energy energy energy
:
. .
.

NIT V1 V2 V1 V2

Types of
processes
:
First law of
thermodynamics AU
q -1W
: -

ratio Poison 's Ratio / V1

Meyer 's Cp Expansion
=
:

a) Isothermal Tis constant A-1=0 for 2 mole

%
Cp Cv=R
- -

Limitations of First law

-

Based conservation of :

b) Isobaric Pis constant AP=0

on
energy
Cp Cv=nR foon moles
- -

of
c) Isochoiic -

His constant -111=0 Energy neither be created noo be destroyed but can
Does not explain feasibility a
process under

Adiabatic
transformed from one form to another Gas Cv Cp V=Cp / Cv given conditions .

d) Heat
exchange is
9=0
.

zero
-
-

Total
energy
of universe is
always constant Reactants →
products .

Monoatomic 312 5- 1.67

.

5R
Cyclic process Initial state Final state
=
-
-_

spontaneous process
.

Isothermal process Tis constant

2- -2 }
in state Function
-

AT=0 IHe.net
A. > •
B
Change -_
0 Natural tendency to occur .

AE=0 As -_
0
For ideal
gas ,
internal
energy depends only on -1
Diatomic All natural
processes are irreversible and spontaneous
51=1-4
a r
512 TR
All =D w 2- 2- Flow of water from level to low
AH 0 IG =D q= Example High
-

--

102,11121
-

<
.

D- •
c

level to cold
Wook -

Area under P -

V
graph Isochoiic His constant AV=0
.
Flow of Heat from Hot
Body Body .

process
:
Triatomic 512 TR 1.4
f-
=

2- 2- Non
spontaneous process :

/ PDV
-

W=0
W= -

W= -

PAY 111=42-11 , AU=qv / Linear ,C02 )

Process which do not on its own
occur .

internal is to heat released Triatomic When from external

Expansion V2 > V1 w= ve work done
by system change in
energy equal or 312 412 1=1.33 energy some source is
-
-

3
compression 1121111 W -

_
+ ve -

work done on
system . absorbed at const Volume .

.
1 Non-linear ,
5021 applied Example .
-

Burning of Fuel .

Criteria for a to be spontaneous Entropy change in reversible process

process .

decrease As universe -0
a) Energy .

b)
Entropy increase As system -1 AS
surrounding 0
=

IS
system AS
surrounding
= -

Entropy :( 5)
Entropy change in irreversible
Degree of randomness oodisoodeoness of the
system process
More the randomness is
more
entropy
=

AS universe > 0
AS AS 5 s initial
grey
= =

final
-

AS system -1 AS
surrounding > O
T
5=+1/ e s 5 initial
thermodynamics
>
final second law of
-

AS universe =
AS system -1

AS S
Ve
final's
= - -

initial

☐ g. tota ,
AS
sutioundincf AS
total
=
AS
system
+ AS
surrounding
AS 5 Sieactants
products
= -

AS > 0
spontaneous
-

total
AS =
naan +
nR1nE
"'
AS
total
< 0 -

non -

spontaneous
case I :
Reversible isothermal case I -

Isochoiic process
AS 0
Equilibrium
= -

total

AS __nRln =
NRINPI AS =
ncvln -12
Gibbs free / G)
Fa TT energy

Sgas Stig 5 solid

> >
of to do useful work
atom
capacity system .

More is the
gaseous
=
more is entropy Predict spontaneity of a
process .

Ang
=
sum of the
gaseous moles of product Extensive
property
-

sum of the moles of reactant State Function

gaseous . .

> 0 AS
Ang
=
+ ve

>
Expansion wook / Not useful ) PV -

work
< 0 AS ve
Ang
= -

work
5=0
A.
ng =D '
Non
expansion work / Useful work ) AG
Reversible adiabatic Isoentoopic
-

15=0
9=0
:
.

process AG AH TAS AG TAS

system
.

= - = -

total

Entropy change during phase transition .

As -_

qoev
T AS > 0
AGSYS < 0
spontaneous
-
-

total
of fusion
a) Entropy / solid
liquid )
Melting point
→
.

As =
AH
fusion
AS
total
< 0 -

AGSYS > 0 -

non -

spontaneous
¥
AS 0 AGSYS 0
Equilibrium
=
-
-
=

total
b) Entropy of
vapour isation / liquid Gas )
Boiling point
→

AS AH AH AS AG
vap
=

TBP Case I -

ve + ve < 0
always spontaneous
of sublimation / Solid )
c) Entropy Gas
→

Case -11 + ve ve > 0

always non spontaneous
__¥{u
as
-

some
important points about entropy change : case TI -

Ve -

Ve < 0
spontaneous at low -1

Graphite of Diamond
1) Entropy of
graphite >

case # + ve + ve < 0
spontaneous at
High -1
2) Rusting of iron
, entropy increases .

Third law of
thermodynamics :

3) On
boiling of
egg ,
denaturation of protein occurs .

At Ok Randomness =D
entropy increases .
,

Exception 1110,11120 .CO CO2 Mixture of isotopes ice

-

of rubber
Streaming entropy decreases
.

,
41 -